1.
Tower Hotel (Niagara Falls)
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The Tower Hotel, opened in 1962, is located in the Fallsview district of Niagara Falls, Ontario and was the first of the modern observation towers built near the brink of the Falls. It features an observation deck, restaurant, wedding chapel. From street level, the tower is 99 metres tall, however it is situated 160 metres above the falls, for more than 100 years, there had been various, but much smaller, towers built throughout the area with most of them being wooden structures. The two most famous were probably the wood construction tower that was located at the top of Drummond Hill on Lundys Lane behind the historic Drummond Inn, Streets Pagoda was named for an early area settler, Thomas T. C. Street, who had ownership of Cedar Island, located between the Horseshoe Falls and Dufferin Islands and this tower was dismantled in 1887, and Cedar Island was eventually made part of the mainland with the construction of the Rankine Generating Station upriver by 1910. Construction began in 1961, and was reportedly the first using of the construction method in North America. One minor fire occurred on the roof on September 2,1961, due to spillage of hot-mix concrete igniting a tarp, damage was minimal, estimated at a few thousand dollars, and nine people suffered minor injuries battling the blaze. The tower opened for business on July 1,1962, when the tower and surrounding area was first designed prior to groundbreaking on March 15,1961, it was to be the centrepiece of a proposed hotel/convention centre. Due to finances, the hotel buildings were not built. During the 1970s and 1980s, the land was occupied by an aquarium to the north. The Waltzing Waters site was moved across the street in 1995 to allow for planning of the current Marriott hotel. The Waltzing Waters, a light and water show synchronized to music, the aquarium was dismantled in 1996 to allow for further site expansion. In contrast, the airspace around the Skylon Tower remains fairly open, thanks to its position further down Niagara River away from the American Falls, the Tower Hotel was originally called the Seagram Tower, named after the House of Seagram business in Montreal. The tower underwent renovations again in 2010, resulting in the painted white, the banner displaying Konica Minolta being replaced by the title Tower Hotel. Located on the 25th floor, this features a panoramic view of the falls. There are many photos and news articles about the construction of the tower mounted around the deck in addition to pay-per-use telescopes. The observation deck is now closed and only available for weddings, renovated in March 2005, the towers restaurant offers gourmet meals featuring steak and seafood. At the same elevation as the Observation Deck, the restaurant is open for three meals per day, group and à la carte menus are available, and the restaurant can be reserved for wedding receptions
2.
Office
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When used as an adjective, the term office may refer to business-related tasks. In legal writing, a company or organization has offices in any place that it has a presence, even if that presence consists of, for example. In modern terms an office usually refers to the location where white-collar workers are employed, as per James Stephenson, Office is that part of business enterprise which is devoted to the direction and co-ordination of its various activities. Offices in classical antiquity were often part of a complex or a large temple. The High Middle Ages saw the rise of the chancery, which was usually the place where most government letters were written. With the growth of large, complex organizations in the 18th century, the first purpose-built office spaces were constructed. The time and motion study, pioneered in manufacturing by F. W. Taylor led to the “Modern Efficiency Desk” with a top and drawers below. However, by the midpoint of the 20th century, it became apparent that an efficient office required discretion in the control of privacy, the main purpose of an office environment is to support its occupants in performing their job. Work spaces in an office are typically used for conventional office activities such as reading, writing, there are nine generic types of work space, each supporting different activities. In addition to individual cubicles, there are meeting rooms, lounges. Some offices also have an area where workers can make their lunches. There are many different ways of arranging the space in an office and whilst these vary according to function, managerial fashions and the culture of specific companies can be even more important. While offices can be built in almost any location and in almost any building, some modern requirements for offices make this difficult, such as requirements for light, networking. The primary purpose of a building is to provide a workplace and working environment primarily for administrative. These workers usually occupy set areas within the building, and usually are provided with desks, PCs. The structure and shape of the office is impacted by both management thought as well as materials and may or may not have walls or barriers. The word stems from the Latin officium, and its equivalents in various, mainly romance, languages. An officium was not necessarily a place, but rather an often mobile bureau in the sense of a staff or even the abstract notion of a formal position
3.
International Style (architecture)
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A visually weightless quality engendered by the use of cantilever construction. Glass and steel, in combination with usually less visible reinforced concrete, are the materials of the construction. Commissioned in 1931 by the director of the Museum of Modern Art, Alfred H. Barr Jr. The original exhibition catalogue was then followed up immediately by the book titled The International Style, the aesthetics-based definition of The International Style identified, categorized and expanded upon characteristics said to be common to Modernism across the world and its stylistic aspects. Hitchcock and Johnson identified three principles, the expression of volume rather than mass, the emphasis on rather than preconceived symmetry. The aim of Hitchcock and Johnson was to define a style that would encapsulate this modern architecture, all the works in the 1932 Museum of Modern Art exhibition were carefully selected, only displaying those that strictly followed these rules. Many Modernists disliked the term, believing that they had arrived at an approach to architecture that transcended style, the British architectural historian Sir Nikolaus Pevsner commented, To me what had been achieved in 1914 was the style of the century. It never occurred to me to look beyond, here was the one and only style which fitted all those aspects which mattered, aspects of economics and sociology, of materials and function. It seems folly to think anybody would wish to abandon it. The exhibition Modern Architecture, International Exhibition opened on February 9,1932, at the Museum of Modern Art, in the Heckscher Building at Fifth Avenue and 56th Street in New York. In the largest exhibition space, Room C, were works by Le Corbusier, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, Room B was a section titled Housing, presenting the need for a new domestic environment” as it had been identified by historian and critic Lewis Mumford. In Room D were works by Raymond Hood and Richard Neutra, among these works was shown Alvar Aaltos Turun Sanomat newspaper offices building in Turku, Finland. The exhibition is significant for its approach to the architectural exhibition. Highly curated in nature, the 1932 exhibition was driven by a desire to promote and consolidate the theory of international modernism, as such, the exhibition featured prominently the work of the core of the modernist group. With Van Der Rohe, Corbusier, Oud, and Gropius at the forefront, moMAs then director Alfred H. Barr hired art historians Philip Johnson and Henry-Russell Hitchcock to curate the museums first architectural exhibition. In 1929, Johnson attended the ceremony of his sister in Wellesley College, where he met Barr. In one month, Barr would be interviewed by Abby Aldrich Rockefeller for the position of the director of the MOMA, Barr added Johnson to MOMAs Junior Advisory Committee. Hitchcock graduated in 1924 after having completed his studies in three years and spending his senior year in architecture
4.
Park Avenue
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Park Avenue is a wide New York City boulevard which carries north and southbound traffic in the borough of Manhattan, and is also a wide one-way pair in the Bronx. For most of the length in Manhattan, it runs parallel to Madison Avenue to the west. Park Avenues entire length was formerly called Fourth Avenue, the title applies to the section between the Bowery and 14th Street. Meanwhile, the section between 14th and 17th Street is called Union Square East, and between 17th and 32nd Streets, the name Park Avenue South is used, in the Bronx, Park Avenue runs in several segments between the Major Deegan Expressway and Fordham Road. Park Avenue was originally known as Fourth Avenue and carried the tracks of the New York, the railroad originally ran through an open cut through Murray Hill, which was covered with grates and grass between 34th and 40th Street in the early 1850s. A section of park was later renamed Park Avenue in 1860. When Grand Central Depot was opened in the 1870s, the tracks between 56th and 93rd Streets were sunk out of sight and, in 1888, Park Avenue was extended to north of Grand Central. In 1936 the elevated Park Avenue Viaduct was built around the station to allow traffic to pass unimpeded. In October 1937, a part of the Murray Hill Tunnel was reopened for road traffic, efforts to promote a Grand Park Avenue Expressway to Grand Concourse in the Bronx were unavailing. A tradition was introduced in 1945 as a memorial to American soldiers killed in action, on May 5,1959, the New York City Council voted 20–1 to change the name of Fourth Avenue between 17th and 32nd Streets to Park Avenue South. In 1963, the Pan Am Building, straddling Park Avenue atop Grand Central Terminal, was built between the automotive viaducts, on March 12,2014, two apartment buildings near 116th Street,1644 and 1646 Park Avenue, were destroyed in a gas explosion. Eight people were killed and many others were injured, the road that becomes Park Avenue originates as the Bowery. From Cooper Square at 8th Street to Union Square at 14th Street, it is known as Fourth Avenue, at 14th Street, it turns slightly northeast to align with other avenues drawn up in the Commissioners Plan of 1811. From 17th Street to 32nd Street, it is known as Park Avenue South, above 32nd Street, for the remainder of its distance, it is known as Park Avenue, a 140-foot-wide boulevard. Between 33rd Street and 40th Street, the northbound lane descends into the Murray Hill Tunnel. The bridge, one of two structures in Manhattan known as the Park Avenue Viaduct, returns to level at 46th Street after going through the Helmsley Building. The IRT Lexington Avenue Line runs under this portion of the street, once the line reaches Grand Central – 42nd Street, it shifts east to Lexington Avenue. From 47th to 97th Streets, Metro-North Railroad tracks run in a tunnel underneath Park Avenue, in the 1920s the portion of Park Avenue from Grand Central Terminal to 96th Street saw extensive apartment building construction
5.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
6.
New York (state)
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New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is the most populous city in the United States, the New York Metropolitan Area is one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. New York City makes up over 40% of the population of New York State, two-thirds of the states population lives in the New York City Metropolitan Area, and nearly 40% lives on Long Island. Both the state and New York City were named for the 17th-century Duke of York, the next four most populous cities in the state are Buffalo, Rochester, Yonkers, and Syracuse, while the state capital is Albany. New York has a diverse geography and these more mountainous regions are bisected by two major river valleys—the north-south Hudson River Valley and the east-west Mohawk River Valley, which forms the core of the Erie Canal. Western New York is considered part of the Great Lakes Region and straddles Lake Ontario, between the two lakes lies Niagara Falls. The central part of the state is dominated by the Finger Lakes, New York had been inhabited by tribes of Algonquian and Iroquoian-speaking Native Americans for several hundred years by the time the earliest Europeans came to New York. The first Europeans to arrive were French colonists and Jesuit missionaries who arrived southward from settlements at Montreal for trade, the British annexed the colony from the Dutch in 1664. The borders of the British colony, the Province of New York, were similar to those of the present-day state, New York is home to the Statue of Liberty, a symbol of the United States and its ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. On April 17,1524 Verrazanno entered New York Bay, by way of the now called the Narrows into the northern bay which he named Santa Margherita. Verrazzano described it as a vast coastline with a delta in which every kind of ship could pass and he adds. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats and he landed on the tip of Manhattan and possibly on the furthest point of Long Island. Verrazannos stay was interrupted by a storm which pushed him north towards Marthas Vineyard, in 1540 French traders from New France built a chateau on Castle Island, within present-day Albany, due to flooding, it was abandoned the next year. In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Corstiaensen, rebuilt the French chateau, Fort Nassau was the first Dutch settlement in North America, and was located along the Hudson River, also within present-day Albany. The small fort served as a trading post and warehouse, located on the Hudson River flood plain, the rudimentary fort was washed away by flooding in 1617, and abandoned for good after Fort Orange was built nearby in 1623. Henry Hudsons 1609 voyage marked the beginning of European involvement with the area, sailing for the Dutch East India Company and looking for a passage to Asia, he entered the Upper New York Bay on September 11 of that year
7.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
8.
Aby Rosen
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Aby J. Rosen is a German-born real estate tycoon living in New York. He is the co-founder of RFR Holding, which owns a portfolio of 71 properties in cities including New York, Miami, Las Vegas, Rosen is also a member of, a founding investor in, and the landlord to the Core Club in New York. Aby is a collector of modern and contemporary art, owning over 800 postwar pieces including 100-plus works from Andy Warhol. His collection also houses works from Jean-Michel Basquiat, Alexander Calder, Damien Hirst, Richard Prince and he was born in Frankfurt, Germany in 1960, the son of Jewish Holocaust survivors. His mother Anni spent World War II hiding in a Belgian farmhouse while his father Isak was interned in camps in Germany. After the war, his became an painter and his father a real estate developer. In 1987, he moved to New York City where he apprenticed at a real estate brokerage firm selling properties to German investors, in 1991, he founded the partnership RFR Holding LLC with his childhood friend Michael Fuchs. Their strategy was to large, vacant office buildings in need of an upgrade. In the 15 years after RFR Holding was established in 1991, Rosen had acquired a vast portfolio of real estate including the landmark Seagram Building. In 2006, Rosen partnered with longtime friend and co-founder of Studio 54, in 2014, they put the hotel on the market for $260 million, after completing a 4-year $200 million renovation. In 2006, Rosen announced plans to develop the site at 610 Lexington Avenue in NYC into a glass hotel, the Lever House Art Collection is a collection of works commissioned for display at the Lever House by Aby Rosen. It is curated by Richard Marshall, an art historian as well as a curator for the Whitney Museum in New York City. The Lever House Art Collection was inaugurated in 2004 featuring a work by Jorge Pardo, other works have included, Bride Fight by E. V. Day, Hulks by Jeff Koons, and Hello Kitty by Tom Sachs, Rosen, with partner Fuchs holds a large real estate portfolio in Germany, especially in Frankfurt, his natal city. In early 2007, they bought the building of the European Central Bank. Furthermore, the company owns the Swift Haus on Jungfernstieg and the Kaufmannshaus on Große Bleichen in Hamburg, the portfolio is currently administrated by their office in Frankfurt. In 1991, he married Elizabeth Mina Wechsler in a Jewish ceremony at The Pierre in Manhattan. Before their separation in 2000 and divorce in 2004, they had two sons, Gabriel Gaby Rosen Charles Charlie Rosen In 2005, he married Dr. Samantha Boardman, together, they had two children, Alexander Rosen Vivian Rosen
9.
Ludwig Mies van der Rohe
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Ludwig Mies van der Rohe was a German-American architect. He is commonly referred to and was addressed as Mies, his surname, along with Le Corbusier, Walter Gropius and Frank Lloyd Wright, he is widely regarded as one of the pioneers of modernist architecture. Mies, like many of his post-World War I contemporaries, sought to establish a new style that could represent modern times just as Classical. He created an influential twentieth-century architectural style, stated with clarity and simplicity. His mature buildings made use of materials such as industrial steel. He strove toward an architecture with a framework of structural order balanced against the implied freedom of unobstructed free-flowing open space. He called his buildings skin and bones architecture and he sought an objective approach that would guide the creative process of architectural design, but he was always concerned with expressing the spirit of the modern era. He is often associated with his quotation of the aphorisms, less is more, Mies was born March 27,1886 in Aachen, Germany. He worked in his fathers stone carving shop and at several design firms before he moved to Berlin. Mies served as manager of the Embassy of the German Empire in Saint Petersburg under Behrens. His talent was recognized and he soon began independent commissions. He began his independent professional career designing upper-class homes, joining the movement seeking a return to the purity of early 19th-century Germanic domestic styles and he rejected the eclectic and cluttered classical styles so common at the turn of the 20th century as irrelevant to the modern times. In 1913, Mies married Adele Auguste Bruhn, the daughter of a wealthy industrialist, during his military service in 1917, Mies fathered a son out of wedlock. In 1925 Mies began a relationship with designer Lilly Reich that ended when he moved to the United States, from 1940 until his death, artist Lora Marx was his primary companion. Mies carried on a relationship with sculptor and art collector Mary Callery for whom he designed an artists studio in Huntington, Long Island. He also was rumored to have a relationship with Edith Farnsworth. Mariannes son Dirk Lohan studied under, and later worked for, after World War I, Mies began, while still designing traditional neoclassical homes, a parallel experimental effort. He joined his avant-garde peers in the search for a new style that would be suitable for the modern industrial age
10.
Philip Johnson
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In 1978 he was awarded an American Institute of Architects Gold Medal and in 1979 the first Pritzker Architecture Prize. Johnson was born in Cleveland, Ohio on July 8,1906 and he was descended from the Jansen family of New Amsterdam, and included among his ancestors the Huguenot Jacques Cortelyou, who laid out the first town plan of New Amsterdam for Peter Stuyvesant. In 1928 he met Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, who was at the time designing the German Pavilion for the 1929 Barcelona International Exposition. The meeting formed the basis for a relationship of both collaboration and competition In 1930, Johnson joined the architecture department of the Museum of Modern Art in New York. There he arranged for American visits by Gropius and Le Corbusier, in 1932, working with Hitchcock and Alfred H. Barr, Jr. and Henry-Russell Hitchcock, he organized the first exhibition on Modern architecture at the Museum of Modern Art in 1932. The show and their published book International Style, Modern Architecture Since 1922 played an important part in introducing modern architecture to the American public. When the rise of the Nazis in Germany forced the modernists Marcel Breuer and Mies van der Rohe to leave Germany, in 1936, in the depths of the Great Depression, he left the Museum of Modern Art for a brief venture into journalism and politics. In his 1994 biography of Johnson, Schultze wrote, In politics he proved to be a model of futility and he was never much of a political threat to anyone, still less an effective doer of either political good or political evil. In 1941, at the age of 35, Johnson abandoned politics and journalism and enrolled in the Harvard Graduate School of Design, in 1941, Johnson designed and actually built his first building, a house still existing at 9 Ash Street in Cambridge, Massachusetts. The house, strongly influenced by Mies van der Rohe, has a wall around the lot which merges with the structure, after the United States entered World War II in December 1941, Johnson enlisted in the Army. He spent his service during the war in the United States. In 1946, after he completed his service, Johnson returned to the Museum of Modern Art as a curator. At the same time, he began working to establish his architectural practice and he built a small house, in th style of Mies, in Saaponack, Long Island in 1946. This was followed by one of this most famous buildings, which he built for himself, the Glass House in New Canaan, Connecticut, completed in 1949, which has become a landmark of modern architecture. Johnson had curated an exhibit of Mies van der Rohes at the Museum of Modern Art in 1947, the house is a 56 foot by 32 foot glass rectangle, sited at the edge of a crest on Johnsons estate overlooking a pond. The buildings sides are glass and charcoal-painted steel, the floor, of brick, is not flush with the ground, the interior is an open space divided by low walnut cabinets, a brick cylinder contains the bathroom and is the only object to reach floor to ceiling. The New York Times described it in 2005 as one of the 20th centurys greatest residential structures, Johnson continued to add to the Glass House estate during each period of his career. After completing the Glass House, he completed two more houses in New Canaan in a similar to that of Mies, the Hodgson House
11.
Skyscraper
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A skyscraper is a tall, continuously habitable building having multiple floors. When the term was used in the 1880s it described a building of 10 to 20 floors. Mostly designed for office, commercial and residential uses, a skyscraper can also be called a high-rise, for buildings above a height of 300 m, the term supertall can be used, while skyscrapers reaching beyond 600 m are classified as megatall. One common feature of skyscrapers is having a steel framework that supports curtain walls and these curtain walls either bear on the framework below or are suspended from the framework above, rather than resting on load-bearing walls of conventional construction. Some early skyscrapers have a frame that enables the construction of load-bearing walls taller than of those made of reinforced concrete. Modern skyscrapers walls are not load-bearing, and most skyscrapers are characterized by surface areas of windows made possible by steel frames. However, skyscrapers can have curtain walls that mimic conventional walls with a surface area of windows. Modern skyscrapers often have a structure, and are designed to act like a hollow cylinder to resist wind, seismic. To appear more slender, allow less wind exposure, and transmit more daylight to the ground, many skyscrapers have a design with setbacks, a relatively big building may be considered a skyscraper if it protrudes well above its built environment and changes the overall skyline. The maximum height of structures has progressed historically with building methods and technologies, the Burj Khalifa is currently the tallest building in the world. High-rise buildings are considered shorter than skyscrapers, the first steel-frame skyscraper was the Home Insurance Building in Chicago, Illinois in 1885. Even the scholars making the argument find it to be purely academic and this definition was based on the steel skeleton—as opposed to constructions of load-bearing masonry, which passed their practical limit in 1891 with Chicagos Monadnock Building. What is the characteristic of the tall office building. The force and power of altitude must be in it, the glory and it must be every inch a proud and soaring thing, rising in sheer exaltation that from bottom to top it is a unit without a single dissenting line. Some structural engineers define a highrise as any vertical construction for which wind is a significant load factor than earthquake or weight. Note that this criterion fits not only high-rises but some other tall structures, the word skyscraper often carries a connotation of pride and achievement. A loose convention of some in the United States and Europe draws the limit of a skyscraper at 150 m or 490 ft. The tallest building in ancient times was the 146 m Great Pyramid of Giza in ancient Egypt and it was not surpassed in height for thousands of years, the 14th century AD Lincoln Cathedral being conjectured by many to have exceeded it
12.
52nd Street (Manhattan)
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52nd Street is a 1. 9-mile long one-way street traveling west to east across Midtown Manhattan, New York City. It was known as the center of jazz performance from the 1930s to the 1950s. Following the repeal of Prohibition in 1933, 52nd Street replaced 133rd street as Swing Street of the city, the blocks of 52nd Street between Fifth Avenue and Seventh Avenue became renowned for the abundance of jazz clubs and lively street life. The street was convenient to musicians playing on Broadway and the nightclubs and was also the site of a CBS studio. Musicians who played for others in the evening played for themselves on 52nd Street. Although musicians from all schools performed there, after Mintons Playhouse in uptown Harlem, in fact, a tune called 52nd Street Theme by Thelonious Monk became a bebop anthem and jazz standard. By the late 1940s the jazz scene began moving elsewhere around the city, by the 1960s, most of the legendary clubs were razed or fell into disrepair. The last club there closed its doors in 1968, today, the street is full of banks, shops, and department stores and shows little trace of its jazz history. The block from 5th to 6th Avenues is formally co-named Swing Street, the 21 Club is the sole surviving club on 52nd Street that also existed during the 1940s. The venue for the original Birdland at 1674 Broadway, which came into existence in 1949, is now a gentlemens club, the current Birdland is on 44th Street, between 8th and 9th Avenues. This is a list of places within one block of 52nd Street. The route begins at the West Side Highway, Duncan Center on the block after moving from its original location. The Duncan Center is named for a patrolman who was shot while chasing a car in the neighborhood on May 17,1930. Closed Midtown Branch of Saint Vincents Catholic Medical Center The Manhattan School – Public School 35, radio City Station Post Office The Link, 43–story, 215–unit, glass tower condominium, opened in 2007 on site of the S. I. R. Building at 310 W 52nd, known as the Palm Gardens Building, occupied the building from 1974 until 2004. Cheetah, the club that had once been at 53rd and Broadway. Cheetah became a popular Latin-American dance club that helped popularize Salsa to mainstream America. C, sixth Avenue to Fifth Avenue is signed Swing Street AXA Financial Center 43-story 174 m 571 ft completed in 1963. It has a large Thomas Hart Benton mural in lobby, CBS Building, headquarters of the network and popularly referred to as Black Rock 31 West 52nd Street 30-floor 125 m 411 ft completed in 1986 originally for the E. F. Hutton headquarters
13.
53rd Street (Manhattan)
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53rd Street is a midtown cross street in the New York City borough of Manhattan, that runs adjacent to buildings such as the Citigroup building. The street runs westbound from Sutton Place across most of the islands width, ending at DeWitt Clinton Park at Eleventh Avenue. The Lexington Avenue – 53rd Street/ 51st Street station complex, one of the busiest in the New York City Subway system, is accessible from this street, the Seventh Avenue station, serviced by the, is a similarly busy transfer station. The 53rd Street Tunnel carries the IND Queens Boulevard Line of the New York City Subway under the East River between Manhattan and Queens, the Lipstick Building stands at Third Avenue. Citigroup Center is a 59-story skyscraper located at 601 Lexington Avenue, lever House is a 21-story skyscraper located at 390 Park Avenue, between 54th Street and 53rd Street, designed by Gordon Bunshaft of Skidmore, Owings and Merrill, and completed in 1952. The Stork Club was one of the famous nightclubs in New York City during the 1930s–1950s. It was located at 3 East 53rd Street, just off Fifth Avenue, paley Park, on the former site of the Stork Club, is a 4, 200-square-foot pocket park that has been recognized as one of the finest urban spaces in the United States. Saint Thomas Church is located at Fifth Avenue, a skyscraper has been proposed at 53 West 53rd Street. The block between Sixth and Seventh Avenues has the Calyon Building and the hotels Hilton New York and Sheraton New York, at the middle of this block, there is a crosswalk as part of a north-south pedestrian avenue named Sixth and a Half Avenue. A section of 53rd at Eighth Avenue was named Jerry Orbach Way in 2007 in honor of the actor, the Ed Sullivan Theater is at Broadway, across the street from the back door of the Roseland Ballroom and next to another subway powerhouse. The theater is the location for the Late Show with Stephen Colbert, colberts predecessor, David Letterman, sometimes used the street for segments of the show. The Wendy Williams Show was taped at 433 West 53rd, a building at 811 Tenth Avenue, between 53rd & 54th Streets, houses the largest New York City exchange of AT&T Long Lines. The street ends at DeWitt Clinton Park at Eleventh Avenue, notes 53rd Street, A New York Songline – virtual walking tour 53 Skiddoo – Forgotten NY
14.
Midtown Manhattan
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Midtown Manhattan, or Midtown, represents the central lengthwise portion of the borough and island of Manhattan in New York City. Along Manhattans north-south long axis, Midtown Manhattan separates Lower Manhattan from Upper Manhattan, the majority of New York Citys skyscrapers, including its tallest hotels and apartment towers, lie within Midtown. Midtown spans the island of Manhattan along an east-west axis, being bounded by the East River on its east. The Encyclopedia of New York City defines Midtown as being from 34th Street to 59th Street and it is sometimes broken into Midtown East and Midtown West, or north and south as in the New York City Police Departments Midtown North and Midtown South precincts. Midtown South can refer to the part of Midtown between 23rd Street and around 42nd Street, Midtown West can refer to the area between 34th and 59th Streets, and between 5th and 12th Avenues. Midtown East can refer to the area between 42nd and 59th Streets, and between 5th Avenue and the East River, in other sources these districts are referred to as separate central business districts. Midtown Manhattan, along with Lower Manhattan, is one of the leading financial centers. Midtown Manhattan is the countrys largest central business district and it has the headquarters of major companies, including 4Kids Entertainment, Barnes & Noble, Bloomberg L. P. The New York Institute of Finance is located in Midtown Manhattan, Haier operates its United States offices in the Haier Building at 1356 Broadway, the building used to be a building of the Greenwich Savings Bank. Haier held the ceremony on March 4,2002. Sumitomo Corporation operates its New York Office, the headquarters of the corporations United States operations, el Als North American headquarters are in Midtown. The Air France USA regional headquarters are in 125 West 55th Street in Midtown Manhattan, hachette Book Group USA has its headquarters in 237 Park Avenue. In 1994 Alitalia considered moving its USA headquarters from Midtown to Lower Manhattan, global Infrastructure Partners has an office in Midtown Manhattan. Biotechnology is emerging in Midtown Manhattan, bolstered by the strength in academic scientific research and public. Aer Lingus had its United States offices in Midtown, in 1997, Aer Lingus announced that it was moving its North American headquarters to Melville, New York, in Suffolk County. New York City Department of Education public schools in Midtown Manhattan include Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis High School, private schools include The Beekman School, Rebecca School, and a number of private language and music centers. The La Scuola dItalia Guglielmo Marconi Italian international school will move to West Midtown in 2016, in addition to its well-known Main Branch research library—now known as the Stephen A. Pennsylvania Station and Grand Central Terminal are major railroad stations located in Midtown Manhattan, the Port Authority Bus Terminal is also in Midtown
15.
The Four Seasons Restaurant
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The Four Seasons was a New American cuisine restaurant in New York City located at 99 East 52nd Street, in the Seagram Building in Midtown Manhattan. The restaurant is owned by the Bronfman family, Alex von Bidder, opened in 1959, the Four Seasons is associated with a number of milestone firsts in the hospitality industry. The Four Seasons is credited with introducing the idea of seasonally-changing menus to America and it was the first destination restaurant to print its menus in English. The Four Seasons was also the first restaurant in the US to cook using fresh, in June 2015, Aby Rosen, owner of the Seagram Building, announced that the restaurants lease would not be extended. A new location at 280 Park Avenue was selected and a lease was signed, the Seagram Building location closed after dinner service on July 16,2016, and the Four Seasons will move to Park Avenue. The restaurant itself has been praised, winning the James Beard Award in 1999. The restaurant is known as much for its clientele as its food, the restaurants interior, which was designed by the buildings architects Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and Philip Johnson, has remained almost unchanged since construction in 1959. The restaurant was designated by the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission as a landmark in 1989. Over a hundred items of serviceware were designed by L. Garth Huxtable and Ada Louise Huxtable, today they and all of the Four Seasons Restaurants furniture are part of the permanent collection of the Museum of Modern Art. For the celebration of the restaurants 50th anniversary, The Four Seasons hired Manhattan Architect Belmont Freeman FAIA for a restoration of the ladies lounge. In July 2016, the furnishings of the restaurant were sold at auction in New York, in 2009, The Four Seasons was the subject of a mockumentary and a childrens book published in August 2009. The artist Mark Rothko was engaged to paint a series of works for the restaurant in 1958, accepting the commission, he secretly resolved to create something that will ruin the appetite of every son-of-a-bitch who ever eats in that room. Observing the restaurants pretentious atmosphere upon his return from a trip to Europe, Rothko abandoned the project altogether, returned his advance and kept the paintings for himself. The final series was dispersed and now hangs in three locations, London’s Tate Gallery, Japan’s Kawamura Memorial Museum and the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D. C. During the period in which Rothko worked on his murals, the Four Seasons rented Jackson Pollocks masterpiece Blue Poles from its then-owner, john Logans Tony Award-winning 2010 play Red dramatizes Rothkos time working on the Seagram Murals. From 1975 until 1985 four paintings by Ronnie Landfield from the collection of Philip Johnson were installed on the wall that had initially planned for the Mark Rothko commission. In 1985 the artist James Rosenquist was commissioned to install a permanent mural on the wall, a major Richard Lippold sculpture is installed in the Front Bar, which hangs from the ceiling. The large curtain designed by Pablo Picasso for the Ballets Russes ballet Le Tricorne has been hung between the Grill Room and the Pool Room since the restaurant opened, in 2014, the curtain was removed permanently from that location, and is currently in the New-York Historical Society
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Functionalism (architecture)
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In architecture, functionalism is the principle that architects should design a building based on the purpose of that building. This statement is less self-evident than it first appears, and is a matter of confusion and controversy within the profession, Functionalism had the strongest influence in Germany, Czechoslovakia, the USSR and the Netherlands. The place of functionalism in building can be traced back to the Vitruvian triad, Functionalist views were typical of some gothic revival architects. The implication is that if the functional aspects are satisfied, architectural beauty would naturally and necessarily follow, sullivans credo is often viewed as being ironic in light of his extensive use of intricate ornament, since a common belief among functionalist architects is that ornament serves no function. The credo also does not address whose function he means, nevertheless, form follows function expresses a significant and enduring idea. Sullivans protégé Frank Lloyd Wright is also cited as an exemplar of functional design, in the mid-1930s, functionalism began to be discussed as an aesthetic approach rather than a matter of design integrity. The idea of functionalism was conflated with lack of ornamentation, which is a different matter, for 70 years the preeminent and influential American architect Philip Johnson held that the profession has no functional responsibility whatsoever, and this is one of the many views today. Johnson said, Where form comes from I don’t know, the position of postmodern architect Peter Eisenman is based on a user-hostile theoretical basis and even more extreme, I dont do function. Popular notions of modern architecture are influenced by the work of the Franco-Swiss architect Le Corbusier. Both were functionalists at least to the extent that their buildings were radical simplifications of previous styles, Functionalism was a dominant architectonic style in former Czechoslovakia in the period of 1928-1970. It was a result of fascination first by industrial development and later by an effort to create a new man and its program was formulated by the Club of architects in Prague in 1924. In 1930s and then in 1960s and 1970s the position of functionalism was dominant, the term Danish Functionalism is sometimes used to describe the Danish branch of functionalistic architecture which had its heyday in the 1960s. A fine example of the Danish Functionalist style is Aarhus University designed by the architect C. F. Møller, Danish architects such as Kaare Klint and Arne Jacobsen extended their approach to the furniture now known as Danish modern. Zlín is a city in Czech republic which was in 1930s completely reconstructed on principles of functionalism, in that time the city was a headquarters of Bata Shoes company and Tomáš Baťa initiated a complex reconstruction of the city which was inspired by functionalism and the Garden city movement. Zlíns distinctive architecture was guided by principles that were observed during its whole inter-war development. Its central theme was the derivation of all elements from the factory buildings. The central position of the production in the life of all Zlín inhabitants was to be highlighted. Hence the same building materials were used for the construction of all public edifices, the common structural element of Zlín architecture is a square bay of 20x20 feet
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Modern architecture
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Modern architecture or modernist architecture is a term applied to a group of styles of architecture which emerged in the first half of the 20th century and became dominant after World War II. The revolution in materials came first, with the use of cast iron, plate glass, the cast plate glass process was invented in 1848, allowing the manufacture of very large windows. The Crystal Palace by Joseph Paxton at the Great Exhibition of 1851 was an example of iron and plate glass construction, followed in 1864 by the first glass. These developments together led to the first steel-framed skyscraper, the ten-story Home Insurance Building in Chicago, the iron frame construction of the Eiffel Tower, then the tallest structure in the world, captured the imagination of millions of visitors to the 1889 Paris Universal Exposition. French industrialist François Coignet was the first to use iron-reinforced concrete, in 1853 Coignet built the first iron reinforced concrete structure, a four story house in the suburbs of Paris. Another important technology for the new architecture was electric light, which reduced the inherent danger of fires caused by gas in the 19th century. This break with the past was particularly urged by the architectural theorist, for each function its material, for each material its form and its ornament. This book influenced a generation of architects, including Louis Sullivan, Victor Horta, Hector Guimard, at the end of the 19th century, a few architects began to challenge the traditional Beaux Arts and Neoclassical styles that dominated architecture in Europe and the United States. The Glasgow School of Art 1896-99) designed by Charles Rennie MacIntosh, had a facade dominated by large bays of windows. The Art Nouveau style was launched in the 1890s by Victor Horta in Belgium and Hector Guimard in France, it introduced new styles of decoration, based on vegetal and floral forms. In 1903-1904 in Paris Auguste Perret and Henri Sauvage began to use reinforced concrete, previously used for industrial structures. Between 1910 and 1913, Auguste Perret built the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées, because of the concrete construction, no columns blocked the spectators view of the stage. Otto Wagner, in Vienna, was another pioneer of the new style, in his book Moderne Arkchtekture he had called for a more rationalist style of architecture, based on modern life. Wagner declared his intention to express the function of the building in its exterior, the reinforced concrete exterior was covered with plaques of marble attached with bolts of polished aluminum. The interior was purely functional and spare, an open space of steel, glass. The Viennese architect Adolf Loos also began removing any ornament from his buildings and his Steiner House, in Vienna, was an example of what he called rationalist architecture, it had a simple stucco rectangual facade with square windows and no ornament. The fame of the new movement, which known as the Vienna Secession spread beyond Austria. Josef Hoffmann, a student of Wagner, constructed a landmark of early modernist architecture and this residence, built of brick covered with Norwegian marble, was composed of geometric blocks, wings and a tower
18.
Seagram
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Seagrams was a large historical corporation headquartered in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, that was the largest distiller of alcoholic beverages in the world. Toward the end of its independent existence it also controlled various entertainment, the Seagram assets have since been acquired by other companies, notably The Coca-Cola Company, Diageo, and Pernod Ricard. The Seagram Building, the companys American headquarters office tower at 375 Park Avenue in New York City, was designed by architect Ludwig Mies van der Rohe with Philip Johnson, the former Seagram headquarters in Montreal now belongs to McGill University, under the name Martlet House. In 1857, a distillery was founded in Waterloo, Ontario, Seagram became a partner in 1869 and sole owner in 1883, and the company became known as Joseph E. In 1923, the Bronfmans purchased the Greenbrier Distillery in the United States, dismantled it, shipped it to Canada, in 1928, a few years after the death of Joseph E. Seagram, the Distillers Corporation acquired Joseph E. Seagram & Sons from heir and President Edward F. Seagram, the company was well prepared for the end of Prohibition in 1933 with an ample stock of aged whiskeys ready to sell to the newly opened American market, and it prospered accordingly. Although the Seagram brand is most closely associated with the Bronfman family the Seagram name itself pre-dated the company Bronfman founded. After the death of Samuel Bronfman in 1971, Edgar M. Bronfman was named Chairman and Chief Executive Officer until June 1994 when his son, Edgar Bronfman Jr. was appointed CEO. From the 1950s, most of the holdings of Distillers-Seagram was held through holding company Cemp Investments. The three most popular Seagram distilled products in the 60s-90s were Seven Crown, VO, and Crown Royal. In 1981, cash-rich and wanting to diversify, the U. S. -based subsidiary Seagram Company Ltd. engineered a takeover of Conoco Inc. a major American oil and gas producing company. Although Seagram acquired a 32. 2% stake in Conoco, DuPont was brought in as a knight by the oil company. In the end, Seagram lost out in the Conoco bidding war, by 1995, Seagram was DuPonts largest single shareholder with four seats on the board of directors. In 1986, the started a memorable TV commercial campaign advertising its Golden wine cooler products. With rising star Bruce Willis as pitchman, Seagram rose from fifth place among distillers to first in just two years, in 1987, Seagram engineered a $1.2 billion takeover of French cognac maker Martell & Cie. In 1995, Edgar Bronfman Jr. was eager to get into the film, on April 6,1995, after being approached by Bronfman, Jr. DuPont announced a deal whereby the company would buy back its shares from the Seagram company for $9 billion. Seagram was heavily criticized by the investment community—the 24. 3% stake in DuPont accounted for 70% of Seagrams earnings. Standard & Poors took the step of stating that the sale of the DuPont interest could result in a downgrade of Seagrams more than $4.2 billion of long-term debt
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Samuel Bronfman
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Samuel Bronfman, CC was a Canadian businessman and philanthropist. He founded Distillers Corporation Limited, and is a member of the Canadian Jewish Bronfman family, Samuel Bronfman was born in Soroki, Bessarabia, then part of Imperial Russia, one of eight children of Mindel and Yechiel Bronfman. He and his parents were Jewish refugees of Czarist Russias anti-Semitic pogroms and they soon moved to Brandon, Manitoba. A wealthy family, they were accompanied by their rabbi and two servants, soon Yechiel learned that tobacco farming, which had made him a wealthy man in his homeland, was incompatible with the cold Canadian climate of that region. Yechiel was forced to work as a laborer for the Canadian Northern Railway, Yechiel and his sons then started making a good living selling firewood and began a trade in frozen whitefish to earn a winter income. Eventually they turned to trading horses, a venture through which they involved in the hotel. In 1903, the family bought a business, and Samuel, noting that much of the profit was in alcoholic beverages. He founded the Distillers Corporation in Montreal in 1924, specializing in cheap whiskey, on June 21,1922, Bronfman married Saidye Rosner, with whom he had four children, Aileen Mindel Minda Bronfman de Gunzburg, Phyllis Lambert, Edgar Miles Bronfman, Charles Rosner Bronfman. Bronfmans Distillers Corporation acquired Joseph E, Seagram & Sons of Waterloo, Ontario, from the heirs of Joseph Seagram in 1928. Bronfman eventually built an empire based on the appeal of brand names developed previously by Seagram—including Calvert, Dewars and his renamed company, Seagram Co. Ltd. became an international distributor of alcoholic beverages, and a diversified conglomerate which included an entertainment branch. In 1980, the Bronfman heirs sold the Texas Pacific Oil holdings to Sun Oil Co. for $2.3 billion, the Seagram assets have since been acquired by other companies, notably The Coca-Cola Company, Diageo, and Pernod Ricard. In 1952, he established the Samuel and Sadie Bronfman Family Foundation, Bronfman was President of the Canadian Jewish Congress from 1939 to 1962, and he was made a Companion of the Order of Canada in 1967. In 1971, he helped to establish the Bronfman Building at McGill University, the building was named in his honour as appreciation for his donation to the university. The Bronfman Archaeology Wing of the Israel Museum in Jerusalem, Israel, is named for Bronfman, mordecai Richlers 1989 novel Solomon Gursky Was Here is largely based on the life of Samuel Bronfman
20.
Architecture
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Architecture is both the process and the product of planning, designing, and constructing buildings and other physical structures. Architectural works, in the form of buildings, are often perceived as cultural symbols. Historical civilizations are often identified with their surviving architectural achievements, Architecture can mean, A general term to describe buildings and other physical structures. The art and science of designing buildings and nonbuilding structures, the style of design and method of construction of buildings and other physical structures. A unifying or coherent form or structure Knowledge of art, science, technology, the design activity of the architect, from the macro-level to the micro-level. The practice of the architect, where architecture means offering or rendering services in connection with the design and construction of buildings. The earliest surviving work on the subject of architecture is De architectura. According to Vitruvius, a building should satisfy the three principles of firmitas, utilitas, venustas, commonly known by the original translation – firmness, commodity. An equivalent in modern English would be, Durability – a building should stand up robustly, utility – it should be suitable for the purposes for which it is used. Beauty – it should be aesthetically pleasing, according to Vitruvius, the architect should strive to fulfill each of these three attributes as well as possible. Leon Battista Alberti, who elaborates on the ideas of Vitruvius in his treatise, De Re Aedificatoria, saw beauty primarily as a matter of proportion, for Alberti, the rules of proportion were those that governed the idealised human figure, the Golden mean. The most important aspect of beauty was, therefore, an inherent part of an object, rather than something applied superficially, Gothic architecture, Pugin believed, was the only true Christian form of architecture. The 19th-century English art critic, John Ruskin, in his Seven Lamps of Architecture, Architecture was the art which so disposes and adorns the edifices raised by men. That the sight of them contributes to his health, power. For Ruskin, the aesthetic was of overriding significance and his work goes on to state that a building is not truly a work of architecture unless it is in some way adorned. For Ruskin, a well-constructed, well-proportioned, functional building needed string courses or rustication, but suddenly you touch my heart, you do me good. I am happy and I say, This is beautiful, le Corbusiers contemporary Ludwig Mies van der Rohe said Architecture starts when you carefully put two bricks together. The notable 19th-century architect of skyscrapers, Louis Sullivan, promoted an overriding precept to architectural design, function came to be seen as encompassing all criteria of the use, perception and enjoyment of a building, not only practical but also aesthetic, psychological and cultural
21.
Articulation (architecture)
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Articulation, in art and architecture, is a method of styling the joints in the formal elements of architectural design. In highly articulated works, each part is defined precisely and stands out clearly, the articulation of a building reveals how the parts fit into the whole by emphasizing each part separately. The opposite of distinct articulation is continuity and fusion which reduces the separateness of the parts, distinct articulation emphasizes the strategic break while the articulation of continuity concentrates on smooth transitions. Continuity reduces the independence of the elements and focuses on the largest element of the whole, while reducing focus on the other independent elements, architecture is said to be the art of the articulation of spaces. And geometry is the basic tool, but it is not the architects system of communication. That system is the defining of object in the surrounding space, articulation is the geometry of form and space. Vertical wall articulation set Romanesque churches apart from their predecessors, dividing the church height into bays using pilasters gave the interior space a new vertical unity. It also added a new three-dimensional vision by using the line of the arcade. The use of the compound pier allowed the wall columns to rise together with other shafts supporting walls such those supporting arches and this structure is a combination of both articulation and fusion styles. The smooth covering creates in the other, larger symbolic forms in rhythmic succession on the roof. The result here is sensuous, related to earth and sky, as the fused forms are more natural in form than are sharp angles with strong definition. The sharper forms, the result of the smooth surface fusion, the design of Casa da Música in Portugal produced a building in which the formal intellectual underpinning is equaled by the continuity, the fusion of forms, in its attempt to achieve sensual beauty. Its emotionality comes through in its exuberant external design where articulation in structure has been overwhelmed by continuity, in this structure, fusion and continuity dominate over articulation. The organically shaped curves on the building have been designed to appear random, according to the architect, the randomness of the curves are designed to catch the light. Thus there is an interaction between space and form, the articulated form emphasizes the buildings distinct parts. Articulation accentuates the visible aspect of the different parts of a building, sometimes the effect completely obscures the sense of the whole, breaking it down into too many pieces, but in most cases the articulation expresses a balance between the two. The result is often a potential sensuality, as the forms are closer to the form of the human body than are sharp angles with strong definition. A highly articulated art form expresses its cultures sense of it place in the world, the distinct elements synchronise so beautifully to form a rigid looking structure
22.
Steel frame
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The development of this technique made the construction of the skyscraper possible. The rolled steel profile or cross section of steel columns takes the shape of the letter I, the two wide flanges of a column are thicker and wider than the flanges on a beam, to better withstand compressive stress in the structure. Square and round tubular sections of steel can also be used, Steel beams are connected to the columns with bolts and threaded fasteners, and historically connected by rivets. The central web of the steel I-beams is often wider than a web to resist the higher bending moments that occur in beams. Wide sheets of steel deck can be used to cover the top of the frame as a form or corrugated mold, below a thick layer of concrete. Another popular alternative is a floor of precast concrete flooring units with some form of concrete topping, the frame needs to be protected from fire because steel softens at high temperature and this can cause the building to partially collapse. In the case of the columns this is usually done by encasing it in form of fire resistant structure such as masonry. The beams may be cased in concrete, plasterboard or sprayed with a coating to insulate it from the heat of the fire or it can be protected by a fire-resistant ceiling construction. Asbestos was a material for fireproofing steel structures up until the early 1970s. The exterior skin of the building is anchored to the using a variety of construction techniques. Bricks, stone, reinforced concrete, architectural glass, sheet metal, the dimension of the room is established with horizontal track that is anchored to the floor and ceiling to outline each room. The vertical studs are arranged in the tracks, usually spaced 16 apart, the typical profiles used in residential construction are the C-shape stud and the U-shaped track, and a variety of other profiles. Framing members are produced in a thickness of 12 to 25 gauge. The wall finish is anchored to the two sides of the stud, which varies from 1-1/4 to 3 thick, and the width of web ranges from 1-5/8 to 14. Rectangular sections are removed from the web to provide access for electrical wiring, Steel mills produce galvanized sheet steel, the base material for the manufacture of cold formed steel profiles. Sheet steel is then roll-formed into the final profiles used for framing, the sheets are zinc coated to prevent oxidation and corrosion. Steel framing provides excellent design flexibility due to the strength to weight ratio of steel, which allows it to span over a long distances. Thermal bridging can be protected against by installing a layer of externally fixed insulation along the steel framing - typically referred to as a thermal break, the spacing between studs is typically 16 inches on center for homes exterior and interior walls depending on designed loading requirements
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Curtain wall (architecture)
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A curtain wall system is an outer covering of a building in which the outer walls are non-structural, but merely keep the weather out and the occupants in. As the curtain wall is non-structural it can be made of a lightweight material, when glass is used as the curtain wall, a great advantage is that natural light can penetrate deeper within the building. The curtain wall façade does not carry any dead load weight from the other than its own dead load weight. The wall transfers horizontal wind loads that are incident upon it to the building structure through connections at floors or columns of the building. A curtain wall is designed to resist air and water infiltration, sway induced by wind and seismic forces acting on the building, curtain-wall systems are typically designed with extruded aluminum members, although the first curtain walls were made of steel. The aluminium frame is infilled with glass, which provides an architecturally pleasing building. However, parameters related to solar gain control such as thermal comfort, other common infills include, stone veneer, metal panels, louvres, and operable windows or vents. Buildings were constructed with the walls of the building supporting the load of the entire structure. The exterior walls could be non-load-bearing and thus much lighter and more open than the masonry load-bearing walls of the past and this gave way to increased use of glass as an exterior façade, and the modern-day curtain wall was born. Oriel Chambers and 16 Cook Street, both built in Liverpool, England, by architect and civil engineer Peter Ellis, are characterised by their extensive use of glass in their facades. Towards the courtyards they even boasted metal-framed glass curtain walls, which makes two of the worlds first buildings to include this structural feature. The extensive glass walls allowed light to penetrate further into the building, utilizing more floor space, oriel Chambers comprises 43,000 sq ft set over five floors without an elevator which had only recently been invented and was not yet widespread. An early example of a curtain wall used in the classical style is the Kaufhaus Tietz department store on Leipziger Straße, Berlin. Some of the first curtain walls were made with steel mullions, eventually silicone sealants or glazing tape were substituted, using a glass mullion system. Some designs included a cap to hold the glass in place. The first curtain wall installed in New York City, in the Lever House building, was this type of construction, earlier modernist examples are the Bauhaus in Dessau and the Hallidie Building in San Francisco. During the 1970s began the use of aluminium extrusions for mullions. Aluminum offers the advantage of being able to be easily extruded into nearly any shape required for design
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Structural steel
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Structural steel is a category of steel used as a construction material for making structural steel shapes. A structural steel shape is a profile, formed with a cross section and following certain standards for chemical composition. Structural steel shapes, sizes, composition, strengths, storage practices, Structural steel members, such as I-beams, have high second moments of area, which allow them to be very stiff in respect to their cross-sectional area. The shapes available are described in many published standards worldwide, rod, a round or square and long piece of metal, see also rebar and dowel. Plate, metal sheets thicker than 6 mm or 1⁄4 in, open web steel joist While many sections are made by hot or cold rolling, others are made by welding together flat or bent plates. Most steels used throughout Europe are specified to comply with the European standard EN10025, however, many national standards also remain in force. Typical grades are described as S275J2 or S355K2W, further letters can be used to designate fine grain steel, quenched and tempered steel, and thermomechanically rolled steel. S275JOH Specification S275JOH is steel grade in EN10219 specification, EN10210 standard, and the most widely used specification is EN10219 standard, which is Cold formed welded structural hollow sections of non-alloy and fine grain steels. Requirements for S275JOH pipe tolerances, dimensions and sectional s275 pipe properties are contained in EN 10219-2, S275JOH Steel Pipes manufacture Process The steel manufacturing process shall be at the discretion of the steel producer. S275JOH carbon steel pipes can be made in ERW, SAW or seamless process, all S275JOH steel material and S275JOH pipes should conform to EN10219 standards. Higher grades are available in quenched and tempered material and these steels have an alloy identification beginning with A and then two, three, or four numbers. The four-number AISI steel grades commonly used for engineering, machines. The standard commonly used structural steels are, A36 - structural shapes, a53 - structural pipe and tubing. A500 - structural pipe and tubing, a501 - structural pipe and tubing. A529 - structural shapes and plate, a441 - structural shapes and plates. A572 - structural shapes and plates, a618 - structural pipe and tubing. A992 - Possible applications are W or S I-Beams, a913 - Quenched and Self Tempered W shapes. A270 - structural shapes and plates, a521 - structural plates and shapes∞ A243 - structural shapes and plates
25.
Concrete
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Concrete is a composite material composed of coarse aggregate bonded together with a fluid cement that hardens over time. Most concretes used are lime-based concretes such as Portland cement concrete or concretes made with other hydraulic cements, when aggregate is mixed together with dry Portland cement and water, the mixture forms a fluid slurry that is easily poured and molded into shape. The cement reacts chemically with the water and other ingredients to form a matrix that binds the materials together into a durable stone-like material that has many uses. Often, additives are included in the mixture to improve the properties of the wet mix or the finished material. Most concrete is poured with reinforcing materials embedded to provide tensile strength, famous concrete structures include the Hoover Dam, the Panama Canal, and the Roman Pantheon. The earliest large-scale users of technology were the ancient Romans. The Colosseum in Rome was built largely of concrete, and the dome of the Pantheon is the worlds largest unreinforced concrete dome. Today, large concrete structures are made with reinforced concrete. After the Roman Empire collapsed, use of concrete became rare until the technology was redeveloped in the mid-18th century, today, concrete is the most widely used man-made material. The word concrete comes from the Latin word concretus, the passive participle of concrescere, from con-. Perhaps the earliest known occurrence of cement was twelve years ago. A deposit of cement was formed after an occurrence of oil shale located adjacent to a bed of limestone burned due to natural causes and these ancient deposits were investigated in the 1960s and 1970s. On a human timescale, small usages of concrete go back for thousands of years and they discovered the advantages of hydraulic lime, with some self-cementing properties, by 700 BC. They built kilns to supply mortar for the construction of houses, concrete floors. The cisterns were kept secret and were one of the reasons the Nabataea were able to thrive in the desert, some of these structures survive to this day. In the Ancient Egyptian and later Roman eras, it was re-discovered that adding volcanic ash to the mix allowed it to set underwater, similarly, the Romans knew that adding horse hair made concrete less liable to crack while it hardened, and adding blood made it more frost-resistant. Crystallization of strätlingite and the introduction of pyroclastic clays creates further fracture resistance, german archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann found concrete floors, which were made of lime and pebbles, in the royal palace of Tiryns, Greece, which dates roughly to 1400–1200 BC. Lime mortars were used in Greece, Crete, and Cyprus in 800 BC, the Assyrian Jerwan Aqueduct made use of waterproof concrete
26.
I-beam
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An I-beam, also known as H-beam, W-beam, Universal Beam, Rolled Steel Joist, or double-T, is a beam with an I or H-shaped cross-section. The horizontal elements of the I are known as flanges, while the element is termed the web. I-beams are usually made of steel and are used in construction. The web resists shear forces, while the flanges resist most of the bending moment experienced by the beam, Beam theory shows that the I-shaped section is a very efficient form for carrying both bending and shear loads in the plane of the web. On the other hand, the cross-section has a capacity in the transverse direction. The method of producing an I-beam, as rolled from a piece of steel, was patented by Alphonse Halbou of the company Forges de la Providence in 1849. Bethlehem Steel was a supplier of rolled structural steel of various cross-sections in American bridge. Today, rolled cross-sections have been displaced in such work by fabricated cross-sections. There are two standard I-beam forms, Rolled I-beam, formed by hot rolling, cold rolling or extrusion, plate girder, formed by welding plates. I-beams are commonly made of steel but may also be formed from aluminium or other materials. A common type of I-beam is the rolled steel joist —sometimes incorrectly rendered as reinforced steel joist, british and European standards also specify Universal Beams and Universal Columns. These sections have parallel flanges, as opposed to the thickness of RSJ flanges which are seldom now rolled in the UK. Parallel flanges are easier to connect to and do away with the need for tapering washers, however, there has been some concern as to their rapid loss of strength in a fire if unprotected. I-beams are widely used in the industry and are available in a variety of standard sizes. Tables are available to allow selection of a suitable steel I-beam size for a given applied load. I-beams may be used both as beams and as columns, I-beams may be used both on their own, or acting compositely with another material, typically concrete. A beam under bending sees high stresses along the fibers that are farthest from the neutral axis. To prevent failure, most of the material in the beam must be located in these regions, comparatively little material is needed in the area close to the neutral axis
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Mullions
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A mullion is a vertical element that forms a division between units of a window, door, or screen, or is used decoratively. When dividing adjacent window units, its purpose is to provide structural support to an arch or lintel above the window opening. Its secondary purpose may be as a support to the glazing of the window. When used to support glazing, they are teamed with horizontal elements called transoms which divide an openings upper part into one or more additional lights. In the commercial industry, the term floating mullion is also applied to an interlock profile which is fitted in between a pair of double swing doors. Stone mullions were used in Armenian, Saxon and Islamic architecture prior to the 10th century and they became common across Europe in the Romanesque architecture, with paired windows divided by a mullion, set beneath a single arch becoming a fashionable architectural form. The same structural form was used for open arcades as well as windows, in Gothic architecture windows became larger and arrangements of multiple mullions and openings were used, both for structure and ornament. This is particularly the case in Gothic churches where stained glass is set in lead, mullioned windows of a simpler form continued to be used into the Renaissance and various Revival styles. Italian windows with a mullion, dividing the window into two equal elements are said to be biforate, or to parallel the Italian, bifore windows. Mullions may be made of any material, but wood and aluminum are most common, I. M. Pei used all-glass mullions in his design of JFK Airports Terminal 6, unprecedented at the time. Mullions are vertical elements and are confused with transoms, which lie horizontally. The word is also confused with the muntin which is the word for the very small strips of wood or metal that divide a sash into smaller glass panes or lights. A mullion acts as a member, in most applications the mullion transfers wind loads and weight of the glazing. Although in the instance of a wall screen, the mullions only support the weight of the transoms, glass. Also in the case of a wall screen the weight of glazing can be supported from above this puts the mullions under tension rather than compression. In traditional designs today, mullions and transoms are normally used in combination with divided-light windows, came Glass mullion system Mullion wall Muntin Stained glass Transom Müller, W. G. Vogel. Examples of houses with mullioned windows in the UK
28.
Reinforced concrete
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The reinforcement is usually, though not necessarily, steel reinforcing bars and is usually embedded passively in the concrete before the concrete sets. Reinforcing schemes are designed to resist tensile stresses in particular regions of the concrete that might cause unacceptable cracking and/or structural failure. Modern reinforced concrete can contain varied reinforcing materials made of steel, Reinforced concrete may also be permanently stressed, so as to improve the behaviour of the final structure under working loads. In the United States, the most common methods of doing this are known as pre-tensioning and post-tensioning, durability in the concrete environment, irrespective of corrosion or sustained stress for example. François Coignet was a French industrialist of the century, a pioneer in the development of structural. Coignet was the first to use iron-reinforced concrete as a technique for constructing building structures, in 1853 Coignet built the first iron reinforced concrete structure, a four story house at 72 rue Charles Michels in the suburbs of Paris. Coignets descriptions of reinforcing concrete suggests that he did not do it for means of adding strength to the concrete, in 1854, English builder William B. Wilkinson reinforced the concrete roof and floors in the two-storey house he was constructing. His positioning of the reinforcement demonstrated that, unlike his predecessors, in 1877, Monier was granted another patent for a more advanced technique of reinforcing concrete columns and girders with iron rods placed in a grid pattern. Though Monier undoubtedly knew reinforcing concrete would improve its inner cohesion, before 1877 the use of concrete construction, though dating back to the Roman Empire and reintroduced in the mid to late 1800s, was not yet a proven scientific technology. His work played a role in the evolution of concrete construction as a proven. Without Hyatts work, more dangerous trial and error methods would have largely depended on for the advancement in the technology. G. A. Wayss was a German civil engineer and a pioneer of the iron, in 1879 Wayss bought the German rights to Moniers patents and in 1884 started the first commercial use for reinforced concrete in his firm Wayss & Freytag. Up until the 1890s Wayss and his firm greatly contributed to the advancement of Moniers system of reinforcing, ernest L. Ransome was an English-born engineer and early innovator of the reinforced concrete techniques in the end of the 19th century. With the knowledge of reinforced concrete developed during the previous 50 years, ransomes key innovation was to twist the reinforcing steel bar improving bonding with the concrete. Gaining increasing fame from his concrete constructed buildings Ransome was able to build two of the first reinforced concrete bridges in North America, one of the first concrete buildings constructed in the United States, was a private home, designed by William Ward in 1871. The home was designed to be fireproof for his wife, one of the first skyscrapers made with reinforced concrete was the 16-storey Ingalls Building in Cincinnati, constructed in 1904. Many different types of structures and components of structures can be built using reinforced concrete including slabs, walls, beams, columns, foundations, frames, Reinforced concrete can be classified as precast or cast-in-place concrete. Designing and implementing the most efficient floor system is key to creating optimal building structures, small changes in the design of a floor system can have significant impact on material costs, construction schedule, ultimate strength, operating costs, occupancy levels and end use of a building
29.
Travertine
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Travertine is a form of limestone deposited by mineral springs, especially hot springs. Travertine often has a fibrous or concentric appearance and exists in white, tan, cream-colored and it is formed by a process of rapid precipitation of calcium carbonate, often at the mouth of a hot spring or in a limestone cave. In the latter, it can form stalactites, stalagmites, and it is frequently used in Italy and elsewhere as a building material. Travertine is a sedimentary rock, formed by the precipitation of carbonate minerals from solution in ground and surface waters. Similar deposits formed from water are known as tufa. The word travertine is derived from the Italian travertino, itself a derivation of the Latin tiburtinus ‘of Tibur’ and its namesake is also the origin of Tivoli, a district near Rome. Modern travertine is formed from geothermally heated supersaturated alkaline waters, with raised pCO2, on emergence, waters degas CO2 due to the lower atmospheric pCO2, resulting in an increase in pH. Since carbonate solubility decreases with increased pH, precipitation is induced, precipitation may be enhanced by factors leading to a reduction in pCO2, for example increased air-water interactions at waterfalls may be important, as may photosynthesis. Precipitation may also be enhanced by evaporation in some springs, both calcite and aragonite are found in hot spring travertines, aragonite is preferentially precipitated when temperatures are hot, while calcite dominates when temperatures are cooler. When pure and fine, travertine is white, but often it is brown to yellow due to impurities, travertine may precipitate out directly onto rock and other inert materials as in Pamukkale or Yellowstone for example. The latter has a historic value, because it was one of the quarries that Gian Lorenzo Bernini selected material from to build the famous Colonnade of St. Peters Square in Rome in 1656-1667. Michaelangelo also chose travertine as the material for the ribs of the dome of St Peters Basilica. Travertine derives its name from the town, known as Tibur in ancient Roman times. The ancient name for the stone was lapis tiburtinus, meaning tibur stone, detailed studies of the Tivoli and Guidonia travertine deposits revealed diurnal and annual rhythmic banding and laminae, which have potential use in geochronology. Cascades of natural lakes formed behind travertine dams can be seen in Pamukkale, Turkey, in Central Europes last post-glacial palaeoclimatic optimum, huge deposits of tufa formed from karst springs. On a smaller scale, these karst processes are still working, travertine has been an important building material since the Middle Ages. Travertine has formed sixteen huge, natural dams in a valley in Croatia known as Plitvice Lakes National Park, clinging to moss and rocks in the water, the travertine has built up over several millennia to form waterfalls up to 70 m in height. In the U. S. the most well-known place for travertine formation is Yellowstone National Park, Oklahoma has two parks dedicated to this natural wonder
30.
Marble
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Marble is a metamorphic rock composed of recrystallized carbonate minerals, most commonly calcite or dolomite. Geologists use the marble to refer to metamorphosed limestone, however. Marble is commonly used for sculpture and as a building material and this stem is also the basis for the English word marmoreal, meaning marble-like. In Hungarian it is called márvány, Marble is a rock resulting from metamorphism of sedimentary carbonate rocks, most commonly limestone or dolomite rock. Metamorphism causes variable recrystallization of the carbonate mineral grains. The resulting marble rock is composed of an interlocking mosaic of carbonate crystals. Primary sedimentary textures and structures of the carbonate rock have typically been modified or destroyed. Pure white marble is the result of metamorphism of a very pure limestone or dolomite protolith, green coloration is often due to serpentine resulting from originally magnesium-rich limestone or dolostone with silica impurities. These various impurities have been mobilized and recrystallized by the intense pressure, examples of historically notable marble varieties and locations, White marble has been prized for its use in sculptures since classical times. This preference has to do with its softness, which made it easier to carve, relative isotropy and homogeneity, construction marble is a stone which is composed of calcite, dolomite or serpentine which is capable of taking a polish. More generally in construction, specifically the dimension stone trade, the marble is used for any crystalline calcitic rock useful as building stone. For example, Tennessee marble is really a dense granular fossiliferous gray to pink to maroon Ordovician limestone that geologists call the Holston Formation. Ashgabat, the city of Turkmenistan, was recorded in the 2013 Guinness Book of Records as having the worlds highest concentration of white marble buildings. According to the United States Geological Survey, U. S. domestic marble production in 2006 was 46,400 tons valued at about $18.1 million, compared to 72,300 tons valued at $18.9 million in 2005. Crushed marble production in 2006 was 11.8 million tons valued at $116 million, of which 6.5 million tons was finely ground calcium carbonate and the rest was construction aggregate. For comparison,2005 crushed marble production was 7.76 million tons valued at $58.7 million, of which 4.8 million tons was finely ground calcium carbonate, U. S. dimension marble demand is about 1.3 million tons. The DSAN World Demand for Marble Index has shown a growth of 12% annually for the 2000–2006 period, the largest dimension marble application is tile. In 1998, marble production was dominated by 4 countries that accounted for almost half of production of marble
31.
Window blind
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A window blind is a type of window covering. There are many different kinds of window blinds which use a variety of control systems, there are also several types of window coverings, called shades, that use a single piece of soft material instead of slats. In the United Kingdom, awnings are sometimes called blinds or shades, the two overall types of window blinds are ready-made blinds and made to measure. Made-to-measure blinds are made to fit a given or measured window size, ready-made blinds are manufactured in set sizes that can be cut down to fit any window. These blinds can be classified broadly into five different categories, roller blinds, Roman blinds, pleated blinds, Venetian blinds, and vertical blinds. Many window blinds are made with slats of fabric, metal, plastic, a lift cord allows the blind to be pulled up and stack tightly to top of the window when desired. One of the earliest patents for a window shade was filed in 1888, Vertical blinds use a generally wider slat and one can pull a cord to stack the slats together, to one side, or to separate them in the centre and stack them on each end. The original vertical blinds were invented in Kansas City, Missouri by Edward Bopp and Fredrick Bopp, the company name at the time was Sun Vertical. In the 1960s, the patent and company were sold. g, plantation Shutters/Jigsaw Shutters, Roman blinds, roller blinds, and of course, vertical and horizontal blinds. In Britain, awnings and window shutters are often categorized under blinds, the main types are slat blinds which can be opened in two ways, and solid blinds, which can only be raised or lowered, and are sometimes called shades. Some types of blinds, such as Holland blinds and woven-wood blinds, have spaces between the slats. Others, such as pleated shades, have no spaces, because the slats are sewn inside fabric, Window blinds reduce the heat from sunlight. Ancient Egyptian pharaohs had blinds made of reeds, the most inexpensive blinds in the 19th century were home-made roller blinds, made of cloth. Window blinds can be drawn using a cord, or automated through motorization. Controls for motorized blinds can be from a switch or keypad, remote control, or computer, eliminating the need for cords. A number of homes are integrating blind control with central C-Bus solutions. This control provides ease-of-use and is effective for controlling blind operation to reduce heat loss during winter or minimize heat from the sun during summer. Vertical blinds are very good at controlling how much natural or exterior light comes into a room, a Venetian blind has horizontal slats, one above another
32.
Facade
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A façade is generally one exterior side of a building, usually, but not always, the front. It is a loan word from the French façade, which means frontage or face. In architecture, the façade of a building is often the most important aspect from a design standpoint, from the engineering perspective of a building, the façade is also of great importance due to its impact on energy efficiency. For historical façades, many local zoning regulations or other laws restrict or even forbid their alteration. The word comes from the French foreign loan word façade, which in turn comes from the Italian facciata, from faccia meaning face, the earliest usage recorded by the Oxford English Dictionary is 1656. It was quite common in the Georgian period for existing houses in English towns to be given a fashionable new façade, in modern highrise building, the exterior walls are often suspended from the concrete floor slabs. Examples include curtain walls and precast concrete walls, the façade can at times be required to have a fire-resistance rating, for instance, if two buildings are very close together, to lower the likelihood of fire spreading from one building to another. In general, the systems that are suspended or attached to the precast concrete slabs will be made from aluminium or stainless steel. In recent years more lavish materials such as titanium have sometimes been used, whether rated or not, fire protection is always a design consideration. The melting point of aluminium,660 °C, is reached within minutes of the start of a fire. Firestops for such building joints can be qualified, too, putting fire sprinkler systems on each floor has a profoundly positive effect on the fire safety of buildings with curtain walls. Some building codes also limit the percentage of area in exterior walls. When the exterior wall is not rated, the slab edge becomes a junction where rated slabs are abutting an unrated wall. For rated walls, one may also choose rated windows and fire doors, on a film set and within most themed attractions, many of the buildings are only façades, which are far cheaper than actual buildings, and not subject to building codes. In film sets, they are held up with supports from behind. Within theme parks, they are usually decoration for the interior ride/attraction/restaurant, by Ulrich Knaack, Tillmann Klein, Marcel Bilow and Thomas Auer. ISBN 978-3-7643-7961-2 ISBN 978-3-7643-7962-9 Giving buildings an illusion of grandeur Poole, the article outlines the development of the façade in ecclesiastical architecture from the early Christian period to the Renaissance
33.
Structural engineering
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They can also be involved in the design of machinery, medical equipment, and vehicles where structural integrity affects functioning and safety. Structural engineering theory is based upon applied physical laws and empirical knowledge of the performance of different materials. Structural engineering design utilizes a number of relatively simple structural elements to build complex structural systems, Structural engineers are responsible for making creative and efficient use of funds, structural elements and materials to achieve these goals. Structural engineers are responsible for engineering design and analysis, entry-level structural engineers may design the individual structural elements of a structure, for example the beams, columns, and floors of a building. More experienced engineers may be responsible for the design and integrity of an entire system. Structural engineering has existed since humans first started to construct their own structures and it became a more defined and formalized profession with the emergence of the architecture as distinct profession from the engineering during the industrial revolution in the late 19th century. Until then, the architect and the engineer were usually one. Only with the development of specialized knowledge of theories that emerged during the 19th and early 20th centuries. The role of a structural engineer today involves a significant understanding of both static and dynamic loading, and the structures that are available to resist them. The complexity of modern structures often requires a great deal of creativity from the engineer in order to ensure the structures support and resist the loads they are subjected to. A structural engineer will typically have a four or five year undergraduate degree, Structural engineers are licensed or accredited by different learned societies and regulatory bodies around the world. The aim of that association is to exchange knowledge and to advance the practice of engineering worldwide in the service of the profession. Structural engineering dates back to 2700 B. C. E, when the step pyramid for Pharaoh Djoser was built by Imhotep, the first engineer in history known by name. Pyramids were the most common major structures built by ancient civilizations because the form of a pyramid is inherently stable. The limestone blocks were taken from a quarry near the build site, since the compressive strength of limestone is anywhere from 30 to 250 MPa, the blocks will not fail under compression. Therefore, the strength of the pyramid stems from the material properties of the stones from which it was built rather than the pyramids geometry. Throughout ancient and medieval history most architectural design and construction was carried out by artisans, such as masons and carpenters. No theory of structures existed, and understanding of how structures stood up was extremely limited, knowledge was retained by guilds and seldom supplanted by advances
34.
Lever House
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Completed in 1952, it was the second curtain wall skyscraper in New York City after the United Nations Secretariat Building. The 307-foot-tall building features a courtyard and public space. In 1959, the design was copied as the Emek Business Center in Ankara, in 1961 as the Terminal Sud of Paris-Orly. The building was designated a New York City landmark in 1982 and was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1983, the Lever House was built in 1950–1952 to be the American headquarters of the British soap company Lever Brothers. It was the pet project of Lever Brothers president Charles Luckman, in 1916, New York City had passed zoning laws designed to prevent new skyscrapers from overwhelming the streets with their sheer bulk. It required buildings to have setbacks as they rose, creating a sense of space, the building featured a glimmering 24-story blue-green heat-resistant glass and stainless steel curtain-wall. The curtain-wall was designed to reduce the cost of operating and maintaining the property and its curtain-wall is completely sealed with no operating windows. This meant that much less dirt from the city would get into the building, the heat resistant nature of the glass also helped to keep air conditioning costs down. Additionally, the property featured a roof-top window-washing gondola that moved about the wall on tracks. The curtain wall was fabricated and installed by General Bronze Corp, the ground floor contained no tenants. Instead, it featured an open plaza with garden and pedestrian walkways, only a small portion of the ground floor was enclosed in glass and marble. The ground floor featured space for displays and waiting visitors, a demonstration kitchen, the second and largest floor contained the employees lounge, medical suite, and general office facilities. On the third floor was the cafeteria and terrace. The offices of Lever Brothers and its subsidiaries occupied the remaining floors with the penthouse on the 21st floor. The top three stories contained most of the mechanical space. In 1982, the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission designated Lever House as an official landmark, by that time, however, much of Lever Houses original brilliance had been dimmed by time. The buildings blue-green glass facade deteriorated due to weather conditions. Water seeped behind the stainless steel mullions causing the steel within the glazing pockets to rust
35.
Bronze
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These additions produce a range of alloys that may be harder than copper alone, or have other useful properties, such as stiffness, ductility, or machinability. The archeological period where bronze was the hardest metal in use is known as the Bronze Age. In the ancient Near East this began with the rise of Sumer in the 4th millennium BC, with India and China starting to use bronze around the same time, everywhere it gradually spread across regions. The Bronze Age was followed by the Iron Age starting from about 1300 BC and reaching most of Eurasia by about 500 BC, the discovery of bronze enabled people to create metal objects which were harder and more durable than previously possible. Bronze tools, weapons, armor, and building such as decorative tiles were harder and more durable than their stone. It was only later that tin was used, becoming the major ingredient of bronze in the late 3rd millennium BC. Tin bronze was superior to arsenic bronze in that the process could be more easily controlled. Also, unlike arsenic, metallic tin and fumes from tin refining are not toxic, the earliest tin-alloy bronze dates to 4500 BCE in a Vinča culture site in Pločnik. Other early examples date to the late 4th millennium BC in Africa, Susa and some ancient sites in China, Luristan, ores of copper and the far rarer tin are not often found together, so serious bronze work has always involved trade. Tin sources and trade in ancient times had a influence on the development of cultures. In Europe, a source of tin was the British deposits of ore in Cornwall. In many parts of the world, large hoards of bronze artefacts are found, suggesting that bronze also represented a store of value, in Europe, large hoards of bronze tools, typically socketed axes, are found, which mostly show no signs of wear. With Chinese ritual bronzes, which are documented in the inscriptions they carry and from other sources and these were made in enormous quantities for elite burials, and also used by the living for ritual offerings. Pure iron is soft, and the process of beating and folding sponge iron to wrought iron removes from the metal carbon. Careful control of the alloying and tempering eventually allowed for wrought iron with properties comparable to modern steel, Bronze was still used during the Iron Age, and has continued in use for many purposes to the modern day. Among other advantages, it does not rust, the weaker wrought iron was found to be sufficiently strong for many uses. Archaeologists suspect that a disruption of the tin trade precipitated the transition. The population migrations around 1200–1100 BC reduced the shipping of tin around the Mediterranean, limiting supplies, there are many different bronze alloys, but typically modern bronze is 88% copper and 12% tin
36.
Granite
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Granite is a common type of felsic intrusive igneous rock that is granular and phaneritic in texture. Granites can be white, pink, or gray in color. The word granite comes from the Latin granum, a grain, in reference to the structure of such a holocrystalline rock. By definition, granite is a rock with at least 20% quartz. The term granitic means granite-like and is applied to granite and a group of igneous rocks with similar textures and slight variations in composition. Occasionally some individual crystals are larger than the groundmass, in case the texture is known as porphyritic. A granitic rock with a texture is known as a granite porphyry. Granitoid is a general, descriptive field term for lighter-colored, coarse-grained igneous rocks, petrographic examination is required for identification of specific types of granitoids. The extrusive igneous rock equivalent of granite is rhyolite, Granite is nearly always massive, hard and tough, and therefore it has gained widespread use throughout human history, and more recently as a construction stone. The average density of granite is between 2.65 and 2.75 g/cm3, its compressive strength usually lies above 200 MPa, and its viscosity near STP is 3–6 •1019 Pa·s. The melting temperature of dry granite at ambient pressure is 1215–1260 °C, it is reduced in the presence of water. Granite has poor primary permeability, but strong secondary permeability, true granite according to modern petrologic convention contains both plagioclase and alkali feldspars. When a granitoid is devoid or nearly devoid of plagioclase, the rock is referred to as alkali feldspar granite, when a granitoid contains less than 10% orthoclase, it is called tonalite, pyroxene and amphibole are common in tonalite. A granite containing both muscovite and biotite micas is called a binary or two-mica granite, two-mica granites are typically high in potassium and low in plagioclase, and are usually S-type granites or A-type granites. A worldwide average of the composition of granite, by weight percent, based on 2485 analyses. Much of it was intruded during the Precambrian age, it is the most abundant basement rock that underlies the relatively thin veneer of the continents. Outcrops of granite tend to form tors and rounded massifs, granites sometimes occur in circular depressions surrounded by a range of hills, formed by the metamorphic aureole or hornfels. Granite often occurs as small, less than 100 km² stock masses
37.
Plaza
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A plaza /ˈplɑːzə/ is an open urban public space, such as a city square. The plaza might be enough to serve as a military parade ground. At times of crisis or fiesta, it was the space where a large crowd might gather, like the Italian piazza, the plaza remains a center of community life that is only equaled by the market-place. A plaza de toros is a bullring, in modern usage, a plaza can be any gathering place on a street or between buildings, a street intersection with a statue, etc. Todays metropolitan landscapes often incorporate the plaza as an element, or as an outcome of zoning regulations, building budgetary constraints. Sociologist William H. Plaza is a Spanish word, cognate to Italian piazza, Portuguese praça, Galician praza, Catalan plaça, Romanian piața, German Platz, the origin of all these words is, via Latin platea, from Greek πλατεῖα plateia, meaning broad. The first purpose-built shopping center in the United States, opened in Kansas City, Missouri in 1922, knowingly took the name of Country Club Plaza and adopted Spanish architectural details. More recently plaza has been used to describe a complex, similar to a shopping mall. Examples, Pantip Plaza, Bintang Plaza, Kuching Plaza, Plaza Las Américas, Plaza de las Estrellas, Central Plaza, Schiphol Plaza, Plazas del Centro Comercial Santafé, The Plaza, and Cityplaza. Central Plaza, in Hong Kong, was for four years the tallest building in Asia, at 78 storeys,374 m
38.
1916 Zoning Resolution
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The New York City 1916 Zoning Resolution was a measure adopted primarily to stop massive buildings such as the Equitable Building from preventing light and air from reaching the streets below. It established limits in building massing at certain heights, usually interpreted as a series of setbacks and, while not imposing height limits, the chief architects of this resolution were George McAneny and Edward M. Bassett. Architectural delineator Hugh Ferriss popularized these new regulations in 1922 through a series of massing studies, clearly depicting the possible forms, the tiered Art Deco skyscrapers of the 1920s and 1930s are a direct result of this resolution. By mid-century most new International Style buildings had met the requirements by adopting the use of plazas or low-rise buildings surrounding a monolithic tower centered on the site. This approach has been criticized for its hostility and, among other issues, the Standard State Zoning Enabling Act Notes Further reading Ferriss, Hugh. The Metropolis of Tomorrow, with essay by Carol Willis, New York, Princeton Architectural Press,1986. Http, //www. nyc. gov/html/dcp/html/zone/zonehis. shtml NYC Zoning History in-arch. net New York Skyscrapers zoning
39.
Privately owned public space
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The acronym POPOS is preferentially used over POPS on the west coast of the US. POPS and POPOS can each be used to represent both the singular and plural for space or spaces, privately owned public spaces commonly include plazas, arcades, through block arcades, small parks, and atriums. Many cities worldwide, including Auckland, New York City, San Francisco, Seattle, Seoul, some cities and advocacy groups have created websites about these spaces. Although the term privately owned public space was popularized by Harvard professor Jerold S, more spaces have been added since then. Fourth and Madison Building List of privately owned public spaces in London List of privately owned public spaces in New York City Private protected area
40.
William H. Whyte
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William Hollingsworth Holly Whyte was an American urbanist, organizational analyst, journalist and people-watcher. After his book about corporate culture The Organization Man which sold two million copies, Whyte turned his attention to the study of human behaviour in urban settings. He published several books on the topic, including The Social Life of Small Urban Spaces, Whyte was born in West Chester, Pennsylvania in 1917. An early graduate of St. Andrews School in Middletown, Delaware, he graduated from Princeton University in 1939, in 1946 he joined Fortune magazine where he remained until 1958. In 1952, Whyte coined the term Groupthink, Groupthink being a coinage - and, admittedly and we are not talking about mere instinctive conformity - it is, after all, a perennial failing of mankind. What we are talking about is a rationalized conformity - an open, articulate philosophy which holds that group values are not only expedient but right and good as well. Whyte wrote a 1956 bestseller titled The Organization Man after Fortune Magazine sponsored him to do interviews on the CEOs of corporations such as General Electric. While working with the New York City Planning Commission in 1969, with research assistants wielding still cameras, movie cameras, and notebooks, Whyte described the substance of urban public life in an objective and measurable way. These observations developed into the Street Life Project, a study of pedestrian behavior and city dynamics. City presents Whytes conclusions about jaywalking, schmoozing patterns, the use of urban plazas, appropriate sidewalk width. Whyte along with Project for Public Spaces worked closely on the renovation of Bryant Park in New York City and his other books include, Is Anybody Listening. Securing Open Spaces for Urban America, Cluster Development, The Last Landscape, The Social Life of Small Urban Spaces, Whyte married fashion designer Jenny Bell Bechtel in 1964. They had one daughter, Alexandra Whyte, jan Gehl Placemaking Whyte biography from Project for Public Spaces site The Social Life of Small Urban Spaces | a documentary by William Whyte
41.
Municipal Art Society
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On January 20,2010, MAS relocated from its longtime home in the historic Villard Houses on 457 Madison Avenue to the equally famed Steinway Hall on West 57th Street. The MAS website currently lists their address as 488 Madison Avenue, mAS’s advocacy efforts have shaped the city a great deal since its inception in 1893. Some of their accomplishments include passing the citys first zoning laws, contributing input to the planning of the city’s subway line. By the 1950s, scores of notable Manhattan buildings were lost to redevelopment around the city, and the mission of MAS broadened to include historical preservation. In 1956, the Society successfully lobbied for the passage of the Bard Law, which for the first time allowed cities to take aesthetics, history, and cultural associations into account for zoning laws. The law, named after longtime MAS board member and chief advocate, Albert S. Bard, provided a foundation for the New York City Landmarks Law. In 1965, public outrage over the destruction of Pennsylvania Station, with like-minded groups, they finally succeeded in establishing New Yorks Landmarks Preservation Commission, and New Yorks Landmarks Law. In 2001, after the demise of Trans World Airlines, the original Trans World Flight Center, completed in 1962 and designed by Eero Saarinen, fell into disuse. During this period, the Municipal Art Society succeeded in 2004 in nominating the facility to the National Trust for Historic Preservation’s list of the 11 Most Endangered Places. In June 2007, MAS released with the Metropolitan Waterfront Alliance a new documentary about the future of the New York waterfront titled City of Water, in September 2007, the Society opened a major exhibition about Jane Jacobs sponsored by the Rockefeller Foundation. In May 2008, MAS released a series of showing what the unfinished Atlantic Yards project might look like titled Atlantic Lots. In October 2008, MAS launched a new initiative to develop new ideas for Coney Island titled ImagineConey
42.
Diller Scofidio + Renfro
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Diller Scofidio + Renfro is an interdisciplinary design studio that integrates architecture, the visual arts, and the performing arts. Based in New York City, Diller Scofidio + Renfro is led by three partners – Elizabeth Diller, Ricardo Scofidio, and Charles Renfro – who work with a staff of architects, artists, and administrators. The studio was founded by Elizabeth Diller and Ricardo Scofidio in 1979, Charles Renfro joined in 1997, Elizabeth Diller attended The Cooper Union School of Art and received a Bachelor of Architecture from the Cooper Union School of Architecture. She is a Professor of Architecture at Princeton University, Ricardo Scofidio attended The Cooper Union School of Architecture and received a Master of Architecture from Columbia University. Mr. Scofidio is Professor Emeritus of Architecture at Cooper Union, Charles Renfro attended Rice University and received a Master of Architecture from Columbia University Graduate School of Architecture, Planning and Preservation. Mr. Renfro has served as visiting professor at Rice University and Columbia University and their work explores how space functions in our culture and illustrates that architecture, when understood as the physical manifestation of social relationships, is everywhere, not just in buildings. Diller Scofidio + Renfro completed the Perry and Marty Granoff Creative Arts Center for Brown University in Providence, the Institute of Contemporary Art, the first new museum to be built in Boston in 100 years, opened in 2006. Slither, a complex in Gifu, Japan was completed in 2003, and Blur. Diller Scofidio + Renfro recently won the design competition for Zaryadye Park. For the Fondazione Sandretto Re Rebaudengo Turin, and Action Painting for the Beyeler Museum in Basel, in 1999, the MacArthur Foundation presented Elizabeth Diller and Ricardo Scofidio with Fellowships for their commitment to integrating architecture with issues of contemporary culture. They were recently made fellows of the Royal Institute of British Architects and were inducted into the American Academy of Arts, in 2012, Elizabeth Diller was elected into the American Academy of Arts and Letters and selected as an Aspen Institute Harman-Eisner Artist in Residence. In 2013, she was honored with the Barnard Medal of Distinction, in 2003, the Whitney Museum of American Art held a retrospective of the studio’s work, recognizing the firm’s unorthodox practice. In 2009, Elizabeth Diller and Ricardo Scofidio were named among Time Magazines 100 Most Influential People in the World, in 2010, Fast Company named Diller Scofidio + Renfro the most innovative design practice in the profession and among the 50 most innovative companies in the world. Books by Diller Scofidio + Renfro include Back to the Front, Tourisms of War, Flesh, architectural probes, and Blur, the studios most recent book, Lincoln Center Inside Out, An Architectural Account, chronicles a decade of work redesigning a New York City icon. From Designers Pen to the Plaza at Lincoln Center, “Diller Scofidio + Renfro, Masters of Space, Viewed through the Rear View Mirror. ”With Hirshhorn Bubble, Smithsonian Could Break D. C. from Stagnation. “Liz Diller, ‘We thought we would have fired a long time ago’. ”“New York’s High Line
43.
Centerbridge Partners
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Centerbridge Partners is a multi-strategy private investment firm focused on leveraged buyouts and distressed securities. The firm manages over $25 billion of assets and is based in New York City, the firm invests in both control and non-control opportunities. The firm was founded in 2005 by Jeffrey Aronson and Mark Gallogly, Aronson had previously been the head of distressed securities and had founded the leveraged loan business at Angelo, Gordon & Co. which he had joined in 1989 from L. F. Rothschild & Co. Gallogly was formerly a managing director and head of private equity investments at the Blackstone Group from 2003 until his departure. In September 2006, the firm raised its debut fund with $3.2 billion of commitments to focus on control investments in distressed securities as well as leveraged buyout transactions. The firm also raised a $2 billion noncontrol, activist-oriented credit trading fund known as Centerbridge Special Credit Partners through 2009 and 2010, in 2010, the firm announced plans to begin marketing a second investment fund with a target of $3.75 billion of investor commitments. In 2011, the firm closed its flagship fund, Centerbridge Partners II, on $4.4 billion. This was followed by a closing of its $2bn second Special Credit Partners fund in March 2012, in 2010, Centerbridge won control of Extended Stay Hotels, a company that Gallogly had been involved with at Blackstone. On 24 September 2010, Centerbridge Capital Partners announced acquisition of GMAC Commercial Finance, in 2012, Centerbridge acquired P. F. Changs China Bistro, a chain of Chinese casual dining restaurants. On 22 January 2015, Centerbridge Partners announced its agreement to buy Senvion SE from Indian wind turbine manufacturer Suzlon. On 24 March 2015, Centerbridge Partners announced that they reached an agreement to acquire Great Wolf Resorts, the worlds largest chain of indoor water park resorts for $1.35 billion
44.
Clayton, Dubilier & Rice
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Clayton, Dubilier & Rice is one of the oldest private equity investment firms in the world. Approximately sixty percent of CD&Rs transactions have involved corporate divestitures, CD&R has ownership stakes in Emergency Medical Services Corporation, The Hertz Corporation, Rexel and US Foods, amongst other companies. CD&R formerly owned or had ownership in companies as Sally Beauty, Diversey. VWR International, Brake Bros, Kinkos, Uniroyal Goodrich Tire Company, a wholly owned company specializing in insurance belonging to Cheryl Womack 2003 Sold part of Remington Arms 2003-2004 Sold most of SIRVA in public equity offering. 2004 Sold Kinkos to FedEx 2004 Invested in VWR International 2004 Sold Jafra Cosmetics to Vorwerk 2004 Acquired Culligan 2005 Acquired Hertz 2005 Acquired Rexel 2006 Acquired 47, jim Berges, a CD&R operating partner, became chairman of Sally Beauty. Home Depot sold their wholesale construction supply business to fund a stock repurchase estimated at $40 billion,2013 October acquired 60% interest in John Deere Landscapes – purchased Lesco in 2007. 2014 February acquisition of Ashland Incs water treatment business announced, $1. 8bn 2014 July acquired Healogics in a $910m transaction. A/o June 1,2012 Founder—Joseph L. Rice, III Chairman & CEO—Donald J. Gogel Managing Partner—Kevin J. Conway Clayton, Dubilier, and Rice website Interview with Don Gogel, Charlie Rose, May 24,2012. Regarding role of equity in US economy and specifically President Obamas attacks on Republican challenger Mitt Romneys record at Bain Capital in the 2012 campaign
45.
Quadrangle Group
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Quadrangle Group is a private investment firm focused on private equity. The firm invests in companies within the media, communications. Quadrangles private equity business, Quadrangle Capital Partners, raised a $1.1 billion fund in 2000, citing a not-further-identified investor letter, a Feb. No 2008 fund was referenced in the report, in February,2009, Steven Rattner left Quadrangle when he was named as lead auto industry adviser to United States Treasury Department Secretary Timothy Geithner. A report at the said that Michael Huber, who joined the firm in 2000. Bloomberg was reported to be a friend of Rattner, Bloomberg would continue to have control of and access to certain investment decisions. In February,2009, when Rattner left, a report said Quadrangle would continue with its responsibilities for Bloomberg. Moving to the new unit would be Alice Ruth, who had recruited to Quadrangle for the Bloomberg job. Mr. Rattner and Quadrangle were linked to a New York pension fund investigation within months of his departure from Quadrangle, and stepped down from his government role summer 2009. In April,2010, the agreed to pay fines of $7 million to Mr. Cuomo’s office and $5 million to the Securities. Rattner was not included in the agreement, according to a report, The allegations against Quadrangle involved a movie deal that a company owned by one of the firm’s funds agreed to distribute. That film called “Chooch” was a project involving a brother of David J. Loglisci, the chief investment officer of the state pension fund
46.
Wells Fargo
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Wells Fargo & Company is an American international banking and financial services holding company headquartered in San Francisco, California, with hubquarters throughout the country. It is the worlds second-largest bank by market capitalization and the third largest bank in the U. S. by assets, Wells Fargo surpassed Citigroup Inc. to become the third-largest U. S. bank by assets at the end of 2015. Wells Fargo is the second-largest bank in deposits, home mortgage servicing, the firms primary U. S. operating subsidiary is national bank Wells Fargo Bank, N. A. which designates its main office as Sioux Falls, South Dakota. In 2016, Wells Fargo ranked 7th on the Forbes Magazine Global 2000 list of largest public companies in the world, in 2015, the company was ranked the 22nd most admired company in the world, and the 7th most respected company in the world. As of October 2015, the company had a rating of AA−. However, for a period in 2007, the company was the only AAA-rated bank. Along with JPMorgan Chase, Bank of America, and Citigroup, as of December 31,2015, it had 8,700 retail branches and 13,000 automated teller machines. The company operates across 35 countries and has over 70 million customers globally, in February 2014, Wells Fargo was named the worlds most valuable bank brand for the second year running in The Banker and Brand Finance study of the top 500 banking brands. In December 2016, following the scandal, the company amended its by-laws to separate the roles of chairman, in January 2017, it emerged that Wells Fargo had kept its talks with the U. S. Consumer Financial Protection Bureau about the fake account investigation silent from shareholders for up to six months beginning as early as March 2016. A regulatory filing by Wells Fargo revealed in November 2016 that it was under investigation by the U. S. Securities and Exchange Commission in relation to its accounts sales practices. Also in November 2016, three U. S. senators alleged that Wells Fargos sales scandal had extended from retail bankers to its employees. Wells Fargo delineates three different business segments when reporting results, Community Banking, Wholesale Banking, and Wealth, Brokerage, the Community Banking segment includes Regional Banking, Diversified Products, and the Consumer Deposits groups, as well as Wells Fargo Customer Connection. Wells Fargo also has around 2,000 stand-alone mortgage branches throughout the country, in March 2017, Wells Fargo announced a plan to offer smartphone-based transactions with mobile wallets including Wells Fargo Wallet, Android Pay and Samsung Pay. Wells Fargo Home Mortgage is the largest retail mortgage lender in the United States, as of Q32011, originating one out of every four home loans. Wells Fargo services $1.8 trillion in home mortgages, the 2nd largest servicing portfolio in the U. S. Now, in 2013 its share is closer to 22%, of which eight percentage points is aggregation. Wells Fargo private student loans are available to students to pay for college expenses, such as, tuition, books, computers. Loans are available for undergraduate, career and community colleges, graduate school, law school, Wells Fargo also provides private student loan consolidation and student loans for parents
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Trilantic Capital Partners
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The firm specializes in management buyouts, recapitalizations, growth equity, middle market investments and corporate divestitures investments. Trilantic invests through equity and equity-linked securities transactions, the firm currently manages four institutional private equity funds with aggregate capital commitments of approximately $6.0 billion, as of December 2013. Trilantic was formed in 2009 by five founding partners, all of whom had worked together at Lehman Brothers Merchant Banking, LBMB was founded in 1986 during the 1980s leveraged buyout boom as the private equity arm of Lehman Brothers. Lehman Brothers Venture Partners Reinet Investments Addison Group Trilantic Capital Partners
Smarthistory - Ludwig Mies van der Rohe's Seagram Building[12]
Media related to Seagram Building at Wikimedia Commons
