1.
Communist International
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The Communist International, abbreviated as Comintern and also known as the Third International, was an international communist organization that advocated world communism. The Comintern had seven World Congresses between 1919 and 1935 and it also had thirteen Enlarged Plenums of its governing Executive Committee, which had much the same function as the somewhat larger and more grandiose Congresses. The Comintern was officially dissolved by Joseph Stalin in 1943, while the differences had been evident for decades, World War I proved the issue that finally divided the revolutionary and reformist wings of the workers movement. The socialist movement had been historically antimilitarist and internationalist, and therefore opposed workers serving as fodder for the bourgeois governments at war. This especially since the Triple Alliance comprised two empires, while the Triple Entente gathered France and Britain into an alliance with Russia, karl Marxs The Communist Manifesto had stated that the working class has no country and exclaimed Proletarians of all countries, unite. Massive majorities voted in favor of resolutions for the Second International to call upon the working class to resist war if it were declared. Nevertheless, within hours of the declarations of war, almost all the socialist parties of the combatant states announced their support for the war, the only exceptions were the socialist parties of the Balkans. To Lenins surprise, even the Social Democratic Party of Germany voted in favor of war credits, Socialist parties in neutral countries mostly supported neutrality rather than total opposition to the war. The International divided into a left and a reformist right. Lenin condemned much of the center as social-pacifists for several reasons, Lenins term social-pacifist aimed in particular at Ramsay MacDonald, leader of the Independent Labour Party in Britain, who opposed the war on grounds of pacifism, but did not actively resist it. Discredited by its passivity towards world events, the Second International dissolved in the middle of the war in 1916, the victory of the Russian Communist Party in the Bolshevik Revolution of November 1917 was felt throughout the world. An alternative path to power to parliamentary politics was demonstrated, with much of Europe on the verge of economic and political collapse in the aftermath of the carnage of the Great War, revolutionary sentiments were widespread. The Bolsheviks believed that required a new international to ferment revolution in Europe. The Comintern was founded at a Congress held in Moscow March 2–6,1919, there were 52 delegates present from 34 parties. They decided to form an Executive Committee with representatives of the most important sections, the Congress decided that the Executive Committee would elect a five-member bureau to run the daily affairs of the International. However, such a bureau was not formed and Lenin, Trotsky, Zinoviev was assisted by Angelica Balabanoff, acting as the secretary of the International, Victor L. Kibaltchitch and Vladmir Ossipovich Mazin. Lenin, Trotsky and Alexandra Kollontai presented material, the main topic of discussion was the difference between bourgeois democracy and the dictatorship of the proletariat. The central policy of the Comintern under Lenins leadership was that Communist parties should be established across the world to aid the international proletarian revolution, in this period, the Comintern was promoted as the General Staff of the World Revolution
2.
Socialism
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Social ownership may refer to forms of public, collective, or cooperative ownership, to citizen ownership of equity, or to any combination of these. Although there are varieties of socialism and there is no single definition encapsulating all of them. Socialist economic systems can be divided into both non-market and market forms, non-market socialism aims to circumvent the inefficiencies and crises traditionally associated with capital accumulation and the profit system. Profits generated by these firms would be controlled directly by the workforce of each firm or accrue to society at large in the form of a social dividend, the feasibility and exact methods of resource allocation and calculation for a socialist system are the subjects of the socialist calculation debate. Core dichotomies associated with these concerns include reformism versus revolutionary socialism, the term is frequently used to draw contrast to the political system of the Soviet Union, which critics argue operated in an authoritarian fashion. By the 1920s, social democracy and communism became the two dominant political tendencies within the international socialist movement, by this time, Socialism emerged as the most influential secular movement of the twentieth century, worldwide. Socialist parties and ideas remain a force with varying degrees of power and influence in all continents. Today, some socialists have also adopted the causes of social movements. The origin of the term socialism may be traced back and attributed to a number of originators, in addition to significant historical shifts in the usage, for Andrew Vincent, The word ‘socialism’ finds its root in the Latin sociare, which means to combine or to share. The related, more technical term in Roman and then medieval law was societas and this latter word could mean companionship and fellowship as well as the more legalistic idea of a consensual contract between freemen. The term socialism was created by Henri de Saint-Simon, one of the founders of what would later be labelled utopian socialism. Simon coined socialism as a contrast to the doctrine of individualism. They presented socialism as an alternative to liberal individualism based on the ownership of resources. The term socialism is attributed to Pierre Leroux, and to Marie Roch Louis Reybaud in France, the term communism also fell out of use during this period, despite earlier distinctions between socialism and communism from the 1840s. An early distinction between socialism and communism was that the former aimed to only socialise production while the latter aimed to socialise both production and consumption. However, by 1888 Marxists employed the term socialism in place of communism, linguistically, the contemporary connotation of the words socialism and communism accorded with the adherents and opponents cultural attitude towards religion. In Christian Europe, of the two, communism was believed to be the atheist way of life, in Protestant England, the word communism was too culturally and aurally close to the Roman Catholic communion rite, hence English atheists denoted themselves socialists. Friedrich Engels argued that in 1848, at the time when the Communist Manifesto was published, socialism was respectable on the continent and this latter branch of socialism produced the communist work of Étienne Cabet in France and Wilhelm Weitling in Germany
3.
Red
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Red is the color at the longer-wavelengths end of the spectrum of visible light next to orange, at the opposite end from violet. Red color has a predominant light wavelength of roughly 620–740 nanometers, light with a longer wavelength than red but shorter than terahertz radiation and microwave is called infrared. Red is one of the secondary colors, resulting from the combination of yellow. Traditionally, it was viewed as a primary colour, along with yellow and blue, in the RYB color space and traditional color wheel formerly used by painters. Reds can vary in shade from light pink to very dark maroon or burgundy. Red is the color of cyan. In nature, the red color of blood comes from hemoglobin, the red color of the Grand Canyon and other geological features is caused by hematite or red ochre, both forms of iron oxide. It also causes the red color of the planet Mars, the color of autumn leaves is caused by pigments called anthocyanins, which are produced towards the end of summer, when the green chlorophyll is no longer produced. One to two percent of the population has red hair, the color is produced by high levels of the reddish pigment pheomelanin. Since red is the color of blood, it has historically been associated with sacrifice, danger, modern surveys in the United States and Europe show red is also the color most commonly associated with heat, activity, passion, sexuality, anger, love and joy. In China, India and many other Asian countries it is the color of symbolizing happiness, since the 19th century, red has also been associated with socialism and communism. The word red is derived from the Old English rēad, the word can be further traced to the Proto-Germanic rauthaz and the Proto-Indo European root rewdʰ-. In Sanskrit, the word means red or blood. In the Akkadian language of Ancient Mesopotamia and in the modern Inuit language of Inuit, the words for colored in Latin and Spanish both also mean red. In Portuguese the word for red is vermelho, which comes from Latin vermiculus, in the Russian language, the word for red, Кра́сный, comes from the same old Slavic root as the words for beautiful—красивый and excellent—прекрасный. Thus Red Square in Moscow, named long before the Russian Revolution, in heraldry, the word gules is used for red. Red can vary in hue from orange-red to violet-red, and for each hue there is a variety of shades and tints. Red hematite powder was found scattered around the remains at a grave site in a Zhoukoudian cave complex near Beijing
4.
History of socialism
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The history of socialism has its origins in the French Revolution of 1789 and the changes which it wrought, although it has precedents in earlier movements and ideas. The Communist Manifesto was written by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in 1848 just before the Revolutions of 1848 swept Europe, in the last third of the 19th century in Europe social democratic parties arose in Europe, drawing mainly from Marxism. The Australian Labor Party was the worlds first elected socialist party when the party won the 1899 Queensland state election, some argued that capitalism had been abolished. Socialist governments established the mixed economy with partial nationalisations and social welfare, by 1968, the prolonged Vietnam War, gave rise to the New Left, socialists who tended to be critical of the Soviet Union and social democracy. Anarcho-syndicalists and some elements of the New Left and others favored decentralized collective ownership in the form of cooperatives or workers councils, mazdak preached and instituted a religion-based socialist or proto-socialist system in the Zoroastrian context of Sassanian Persia. The English word socialist in its modern sense dates from at least 1822, prominent leaders in the movement also called for a more equitable distribution of income and better living conditions for the working classes. The very first trade unions and consumers’ cooperative societies also emerged in the hinterland of the Chartist movement, by 1842 socialism had become the topic of a major academic analysis by a German scholar, Lorenz von Stein, in his Socialism and Social Movement. According to an 1888 volume of A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles, the word socialism first appeared on 13 February 1832 in Le Globe, a liberal French newspaper of Pierre Leroux. Leroux returned to the theme of socialism in 1834, and Louis Reybaud published Études sur les réformateurs contemporains ou socialistes modernes in 1842 in France, in England Robert Owen was also using the term socialism independently around the same time. Owen is considered the father of the cooperative movement, the first modern socialists were early 19th-century Western European social critics. Early-19th-century followers of the theories of such thinkers as Robert Owen, Claude Henri de Saint-Simon. Outlining principles for the reorganization of society along collectivist lines, Saint-Simon and Owen sought to build socialism on the foundations of planned, continental Europeans considered communism more atheistic then socialism. In England, however, communism sounded too close to communion - with Catholic overtones and this latter trend was powerful enough to produce the communism of Étienne Cabet in France and of Wilhelm Weitling in Germany. Josiah Warren is widely regarded as the first American anarchist, Anarchist Peter Sabatini reports that in the United States of early to mid-19th century, there appeared an array of communal and utopian counterculture groups. William Godwins anarchism exerted an influence on some of this. After success of his British venture, Owen himself established a community within the United States at New Harmony. One member of this commune was Josiah Warren, considered to be the first individualist anarchist, for American anarchist historian Eunice Minette Schuster t is apparent. William B. Greene presented this Proudhonian Mutualism in its purest and most systematic form, Henri de Saint-Simon, who is called the founder of French socialism, argued that a brotherhood of man must accompany the scientific organization of industry and society
5.
Cooperative
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Cooperatives frequently have social goals which they aim to accomplish by investing a proportion of trading profits back into their communities. As an example of this, in 2013, retail co-operatives in the UK invested 6. 9% of their profits in the communities in which they trade as compared with 2. 4% for other rival supermarkets. The International Co-operative Alliance was the first international association formed by the cooperative movement and it includes the World Council of Credit Unions. A second organization was formed later in Germany, the International Raiffeisen Union, in the United States, the National Cooperative Business Association serves as the sectors oldest national membership association. It is dedicated to ensuring that cooperative businesses have the same opportunities as other businesses operating in the country, a U. S. National Cooperative Bank was formed in the 1970s. By 2004, a new association focused on worker co-ops was founded, since 2002 cooperatives and credit unions could be distinguished on the Internet by use of a. coop domain. Since 2014, following International Cooperative Alliances introduction of the Cooperative Marque, ICA cooperatives, cooperation dates back as far as human beings have been organizing for mutual benefit. Tribes were organized as cooperative structures, allocating jobs and resources among each other, in alpine environments, trade could only be maintained in organized cooperatives to achieve a useful condition of artificial roads such as Viamala in 1472. Pre-industrial Europe is home to the first cooperatives from an industrial context, in 1761, the Fenwick Weavers Society was formed in Fenwick, East Ayrshire, Scotland to sell discounted oatmeal to local workers. Its services expanded to include assistance with savings and loans, emigration and education, owen left New Lanark to pursue other forms of cooperative organization and develop coop ideas through writing and lecture. Cooperative communities were set up in Glasgow, Indiana and Hampshire, in 1828, William King set up a newspaper, The Cooperator, to promote Owens thinking, having already set up a cooperative store in Brighton. The Rochdale Society of Equitable Pioneers, founded in 1844, is considered the first successful cooperative enterprise, used as a model for modern coops. A group of 28 weavers and other artisans in Rochdale, England set up the society to open their own store selling food items they could not otherwise afford, within ten years there were over a thousand cooperative societies in the United Kingdom. Other events such as the founding of a society by the Tolpuddle Martyrs in 1832 were key occasions in the creation of organized labor. Cooperatives traditionally combine social benefit interests with capitalistic property-right interests, Cooperatives achieve a mix of social and capital purposes by democratically governing distribution questions by and between equal by not controlling members. Democratic oversight of decisions to equitably distribute assets and other benefits means capital ownership is arranged in a way for social benefit inside the organization, external societal benefit is also encouraged by incorporating the operating-principle of cooperation between co-operatives. In the final year of the 20th century, cooperatives banded together to establish a number of social enterprise agencies which have moved to adopt the cooperative model. In the years 1994–2009 the EU and its member nations gradually revised national accounting systems to make visible the increasing contribution of social economy organizations, the roots of the cooperative movement can be traced to multiple influences and extend worldwide
6.
Equal opportunity
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Chances for advancement should be open to everybody interested such that they have an equal chance to compete within the framework of goals and the structure of rules established. Individuals should succeed or fail based on their own efforts and not extraneous circumstances such as having well-connected parents and it is opposed to nepotism and plays a role in whether a social structure is seen as legitimate. The concept is applicable in areas of life in which benefits are earned and received such as employment and education. People with differing political viewpoints often view the concept differently, the meaning of equal opportunity is debated in fields such as political philosophy, sociology and psychology. It is being applied to wider areas beyond employment including lending, housing, college admissions, voting rights. In the classical sense, equality of opportunity is closely aligned with the concept of equality before the law, Equal opportunity provisions have been written into regulations and have been debated in courtrooms. It is sometimes conceived as a right against discrimination. The actual President is a peasants son and his predecessor again began life in a humble way in the shipping business. There is surely equality of opportunity under the new order in the old nation, according to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, the concept assumes that society is stratified with a diverse range of roles, some of which are more desirable than others. And the benefit of equality of opportunity is to bring fairness to the process for coveted roles in corporations, associations, nonprofits, universities. It can apply to a hiring decision, or to all hiring decisions by a specific company. The term is interrelated with and often contrasted with other conceptions of equality such as equality of outcome, further, it is seen as unfair if external factors, that are viewed as being beyond the control of a person, significantly influence what happens to him or her. Equal opportunity, then, emphasizes a fair process, in contrast, in sociological analysis, equal opportunity is seen as a factor correlating positively with social mobility, in the sense that it can benefit society overall by maximizing well-being. There are differing senses of what equality of opportunity is and related notions, with slight variations and it is characterized by, Open call. Positions bringing superior advantages should be open to all applicants, job openings should be publicized in advance giving applicants a reasonable opportunity to apply, further, all applications should be accepted. Applications should be judged on their merits with procedures designed to identify those best-qualified, the applicant judged as most qualified is offered the position while others are not. There is agreement that the result of the process is again unequal, in the sense that one person has the position while another does not, what is considered fair and unfair is spelled out in advance. An expression of this appeared in The New York Times
7.
Social anarchism
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Social anarchism is a non-state form of socialism and is considered to be the branch of anarchism which sees individual freedom as being dependent upon mutual aid. Social anarchist thought emphasizes community and social equality as complementary to autonomy, social anarchists advocate the conversion of present-day private property into social property or the commons, while retaining respect for personal property. The term social anarchism is used interchangeably with libertarian socialism, left-libertarianism. It emerged in the late 19th century as a distinction from individualist anarchism, mutualists typically accept property rights, but with brief abandonment time periods. A mutualist property regime is described as one rooted in possession, occupancy-and-use. Collectivist anarchism is a form of anarchism, commonly associated with Mikhail Bakunin. It is a tendency, not to be confused with the broad category sometimes called collectivist or communitarian anarchism. Unlike mutualists, collectivist anarchists oppose all private ownership of the means of production and this position was criticised by later anarcho-communists as effectively uphold the wages system. Collectivist anarchism arose contemporaneously with Marxism but opposed the Marxist dictatorship of the proletariat, anarchist communism is a theory of anarchism which advocates the abolition of the state, markets, money, capitalism and private property. Economically, anarchist communists believe in converting private property into the commons or public goods, Most anarcho-communists view anarcho-communism as a way of reconciling the opposition between the individual and society. Anarcho-communism developed out of radical socialist currents after the French revolution, the theoretical work of Peter Kropotkin took importance later as it expanded and developed pro-organizationalist and insurrectionary anti-organizationalist sections. To date, the best known examples of an anarchist communist society, are the anarchist territories during the Spanish Revolution, in the early 20th century, anarcho-syndicalism arose as a distinct strategic school of thought within anarchism. Like anarchist-communists, anarcho-syndicalists seek to abolish the system and private ownership of the means of production. Important principles include workers solidarity, direct action, and workers self-management of enterprises, in terms of post-capitalist vision, anarcho-syndicalists most often subscribe to communist or collectivist anarchist economic systems on the issue of distributing goods. However, anarcho-syndicalists differ from anarcho-communists on wanting federations of workers syndicates as the locus of organising the economy and its advocates propose labour organization as a means to create the foundations of a trade union centered anarchist society within the current system and bring about social revolution. An early leading anarcho-syndicalist thinker was Rudolf Rocker, whose 1938 pamphlet Anarchosyndicalism outlined a view of the origin, aims. Platformism is a tendency within the anarchist movement and it stresses the need for tightly organized anarchist organizations, that are able to influence working class and peasant movements. It is in many ways identical to especifismo, and has an antecedent in the work of Mikhail Bakunin, Platformist groups reject the model of Leninist vanguardism
8.
Authoritarian socialism
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Several countries, including the Soviet Union and Maoist China have been described by journalists and scholars as Authoritarian Socialist states. However, neither state used the term authoritarian socialist to describe themselves — these states declared themselves to be Proletarian or Peoples Democracies, Authoritarian socialism also encompassed ideologies like Arab and African Socialism. Authoritarian socialism is derived from the concept of socialism-from-above, Hal Draper defined socialism-from-above as the philosophy which employs an elite administration to run the socialist state. The other side of socialism is a more democratic socialism-from-below, Draper viewed socialism-from-below as being the purer, more Marxist, version of socialism. Marx and Engels were devoutly opposed to any socialist institution that was “conducive to superstitious authoritarianism. ”The idea of socialism-from-above is much more frequently discussed in elite circles than socialism-from-below, even if that is the Marxist ideal, because it is more practical. The first major work that proposed an authoritarian socialist state was Edward Bellamy’s novel Looking Backward. Bellamy distances himself from radical socialist values, and in ways his ideal society still imitates many of the systems in late 19th century America. However, his served as the inspiration for a mass political movement, called Nationalism. These Nationalist Clubs, so called because of their desire to nationalize industry, were supporters of the Populists. Workers were rewarded and recognized via a system based on the army. Most importantly, the government is the most powerful and respected institution, arthur Lipow identifies the bureaucratic ruling of this ideal society as a quasi-military organization of both economic and social relations. Bellamy elevates the modern military as a catalyst for national interest, the biggest critique of Bellamy’s society is that it is based on the idea of socialism-from-above. The regime is imposed on the people by an expert elite and there is no democratic control or individual liberty. The new institutions would not be created and shaped from below but would, of necessity, correspond to the laid down in advance by the utopian planner. ”Friedrich von Hayek. He recognized, and was critical of, the trends of socialism-from-above in collectivism. Democracy is an obstacle to this suppression of freedom which the direction of economic activity requires. Hence arises the class between planning and democracy. ”He also argues that socialism and fascism both are based in central planning and valuing the state over the individual. In this way, as happened in the years following World War I, often, as authoritarian powers enforce socialist economics, the process goes hand in hand with supporting the growth of heavy industry as a means of reaching industrialization
9.
Liberal socialism
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Liberal socialism is a socialist political philosophy that includes liberal principles within it. Although liberal socialism unequivocally favors a mixed economy, it identifies legalistic and artificial monopolies to be the fault of capitalism. It considers both liberty and equality to be compatible and mutually dependent on each other, Principles that can be described as liberal socialist are based on the works of philosophers such as Mill, Bernstein, Dewey, Rosselli, Bobbio, Mouffe and Polanyi. Other important liberal socialist figures include Calogero, Gobetti, Hobhouse, Keynes, liberal socialism has been particularly prominent in British and Italian politics. Liberal socialists seminal ideas can be traced to John Stuart Mill, Mill theorised that capitalist societies should experience a gradual process of socialisation through work-controlled enterprises, coexisting with private enterprises. The main liberal English thinker John Stuart Mills early economic philosophy was one of free markets, however, he accepted interventions in the economy, such as a tax on alcohol, if there were sufficient utilitarian grounds. He also accepted the principle of intervention for the purpose of animal welfare. Mill originally believed that equality of taxation meant equality of sacrifice, given an equal tax rate regardless of income, Mill agreed that inheritance should be taxed. A utilitarian society would agree that everyone should be one way or another. Therefore, receiving inheritance would put one ahead of society unless taxed on the inheritance and those who donate should consider and choose carefully where their money goes—some charities are more deserving than others. Considering public charities boards such as a government will disburse the money equally, however, a private charity board like a church would disburse the monies fairly to those who are in more need than others. Later he altered his views toward a more socialist bent, adding chapters to his Principles of Political Economy in defence of a socialist outlook, within this revised work he also made the radical proposal that the whole wage system be abolished in favour of a co-operative wage system. Mills Principles, first published in 1848, was one of the most widely read of all books on economics in the period, as Adam Smiths Wealth of Nations had during an earlier period, Mills Principles dominated economics teaching. In the case of Oxford University it was the text until 1919. Mill also at some point promoted substituting capitalist businesses with worker cooperatives, liberal socialism has exercised influence in British politics, especially in the variant known as ethical socialism. Ethical socialists advocated an economy that involves an acceptance of a role of both public enterprise as well as socially-responsible private enterprise. Ethical socialism was founded by the R. H. Tawney, a Christian socialist and it emphasizes the need for a morally-conscious economy based upon the principles of service, cooperation, and social justice while opposing possessive individualism. Ethical socialism is distinct in its focus on criticism of the ethics of capitalism and its founder, Tawney, denounced the self-seeking amoral and immoral behaviour that he claimed is supported by capitalism
10.
Webster's Dictionary
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The term Websters has become a generic trademark in the U. S. for dictionaries of the English language. For this reason the term may refer to any dictionary at all that chooses to use the name. Also, Websters is often used to refer to a generic dictionary, Noah Webster, the author of the readers and spelling books that dominated the American market at the time, spent decades of research in compiling his dictionaries. His first dictionary, A Compendious Dictionary of the English Language, Webster was a proponent of English spelling reform for reasons both philological and nationalistic. In A Companion to the American Revolution, John Algeo notes and he was very influential in popularizing certain spellings in America, but he did not originate them. Rather he chose already existing options such as center, color and check on such grounds as simplicity, in William Shakespeares first folios, for example, spellings such as center and color are the most common. He spent the two decades working to expand his dictionary. In 1828, at the age of 70, Noah Webster published his American Dictionary of the English Language in two volumes containing 70,000 entries, as against the 58,000 of any previous dictionary. There were 2,500 copies printed, at $20 for the two volumes, at first the set sold poorly. When he lowered the price to $15, its sales improved, not all copies were bound at the same time, the book also appeared in publishers boards, other original bindings of a later date are not unknown. In 1841, 82-year-old Noah Webster published an edition of his lexicographical masterpiece with the help of his son. Its title page does not claim the status of second edition, B. L. Hamlen of New Haven, Connecticut, prepared the 1841 printing of the second edition. When Webster died, his heirs sold unbound sheets of his 1841 revision American Dictionary of the English Language to the firm of J. S. & C. Adams of Amherst, Massachusetts. This firm bound and published a number of copies in 1844 – the same edition that Emily Dickinson used as a tool for her poetic composition. However, a $15 price tag on the book made it too expensive to sell easily, Merriam acquired rights from Adams, as well as signing a contract with Webster’s heirs for sole rights. The third printing of the edition was by George and Charles Merriam of Springfield, Massachusetts. This was the first Websters Dictionary with a Merriam imprint, lepore demonstrates Websters innovative ideas about language and politics and shows why Websters endeavours were at first so poorly received. Culturally conservative Federalists denounced the work as radical—too inclusive in its lexicon, meanwhile, Websters old foes, the Jeffersonian Republicans, attacked the man, labelling him mad for such an undertaking
Dutt, R. Palme (1922). "International, The". Encyclopædia Britannica (12th ed.).