1.
Colony of Jamaica
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Jamaica was an English colony from 1655 or 1670, and a British Colony from 1707 until 1962, when it became independent. Jamaica became a Crown colony in 1866, in late 1654, English leader Oliver Cromwell launched the Western Design armada against Spains colonies in the Caribbean. In April 1655, General Robert Venables led the armada in an attack on Spains fort at Santo Domingo, however, the Spanish repulsed this poorly-executed attack, known as the Siege of Santo Domingo, and the English troops were soon decimated by disease. In May 1655, around 7,000 English soldiers landed near Jamaicas Spanish Town capital, the English invasion force soon overwhelmed the small number of Spanish troops. Spain never recaptured Jamaica, losing the Battle of Ocho Rios in 1657, for England, Jamaica was to be the dagger pointed at the heart of the Spanish Empire, although in fact it was a possession of little economic value then. Cromwell increased the islands white population by sending indentured servants and prisoners captured in battles with the Irish and Scots, as well as some common criminals. This practice was continued under Charles II, and the population was also augmented by immigrants from the North American mainland and other islands. But tropical diseases kept the number of well under 10,000 until about 1740. At the beginning of the century, the number of slaves in Jamaica did not exceed 45,000. Beginning with the Stuart monarchys appointment of a governor to Jamaica in 1661. The second governor, Lord Windsor, brought him in 1662 a proclamation from the king giving Jamaicas non-slave populace the rights of English citizens. The legislature consisted of the governor and an elected but highly unrepresentative House of Assembly, England gained formal possession of Jamaica from Spain in 1670 through the Treaty of Madrid. Removing the pressing need for constant defense against Spanish attack, this served as an incentive to planting. For much of the 1670s and 1680s, Charles II and James II, the last Stuart governor, the Duke of Albemarle, who was more interested in treasure hunting than in planting, turned the planter oligarchy out of office. This settlement also improved the supply of slaves and resulted in more protection, including military support and this was of particular importance during the Anglo-French War in the Caribbean from 1689 to 1713. The sugar monoculture and slave-worked plantation society spread across Jamaica throughout the eighteenth century, when the British captured Jamaica in 1655, the Spanish colonists fled, leaving a large number of African slaves. These former Spanish slaves created three Palenques, or settlements, the third chose to join those who had previously escaped from the Spanish to live and intermarry with the Arawak people. Each group of Maroons established distinct independent communities in the interior of Jamaica
2.
Kingdom of Great Britain
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The Kingdom of Great Britain, officially Great Britain, was a sovereign state in western Europe from 1 May 1707 to 31 December 1800. It did not include Ireland, which remained a separate realm, the unitary state was governed by a single parliament and government that was based in Westminster. Also after the accession of George I to the throne of Great Britain in 1714, the early years of the unified kingdom were marked by Jacobite risings which ended in defeat for the Stuart cause at Culloden in 1746. On 1 January 1801, the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland were merged to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922, five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the United Kingdom, the name Britain descends from the Latin name for the island of Great Britain, Britannia or Brittānia, the land of the Britons via the Old French Bretaigne and Middle English Bretayne, Breteyne. The term Great Britain was first used officially in 1474, in the instrument drawing up the proposal for a marriage between Edward IV of Englands daughter Cecily and James III of Scotlands son James. The Treaty of Union and the subsequent Acts of Union state that England and Scotland were to be United into one Kingdom by the Name of Great Britain. However, both the Acts and the Treaty also refer numerous times to the United Kingdom and the longer form, other publications refer to the country as the United Kingdom after 1707 as well. The websites of the UK parliament, the Scottish Parliament, the BBC, additionally, the term United Kingdom was found in informal use during the 18th century to describe the state. The new state created in 1707 included the island of Great Britain, the kingdoms of England and Scotland, both in existence from the 9th century, were separate states until 1707. However, they had come into a union in 1603. Each of the three kingdoms maintained its own parliament and laws and this disposition changed dramatically when the Acts of Union 1707 came into force, with a single unified Crown of Great Britain and a single unified parliament. Ireland remained formally separate, with its own parliament, until the Acts of Union 1800, legislative power was vested in the Parliament of Great Britain, which replaced both the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland. In practice it was a continuation of the English parliament, sitting at the location in Westminster. Newly created peers in the Peerage of Great Britain were given the right to sit in the Lords. Despite the end of a parliament for Scotland, it retained its own laws. As a result of Poynings Law of 1495, the Parliament of Ireland was subordinate to the Parliament of England, the Act was repealed by the Repeal of Act for Securing Dependence of Ireland Act 1782. The same year, the Irish constitution of 1782 produced a period of legislative freedom, the 18th century saw England, and after 1707 Great Britain, rise to become the worlds dominant colonial power, with France its main rival on the imperial stage
3.
Jamaican Maroons
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African slaves imported during the Spanish period likely were the first to develop such refugee communities. The English expanded the importation of slaves to support their development of sugar cane plantations. Africans in Jamaica continually fought and revolted, with many who escaped becoming Maroon, the revolts had the effect of disrupting the sugar economy in Jamaica and making it less profitable. The revolts simmered down only after the British government promised to free the slaves if they stopped revolting, tensions between British colonial Governor and the residents of Trelawny town resulted in the Second Maroon War from 1795-1796. Although the governor promised leniency if men surrendered, the Assembly insisted on deportation of 600 Maroons to British settlements at Nova Scotia, after Freetown was established in West Africa as a British colony in 1792, the British deported additional Maroons fearing slave rebellion on Jamaica. In all likelihood, the words Maroon and Seminole share the origin in the Spanish word cimarrón. This word usually referred to runaways or castaways and is derived from the word for thicket in Old Spanish. When the British captured Jamaica in 1655, the Spanish colonists fled, many of their slaves escaped and, together with free blacks and mulattoes, former slaves, and some native Taíno coalesced into several heterogenous groups in the Jamaican interior. Some created palenques, or stockaded mountain farms at Lluidas Vale in modern-day St Catharine Parish under Juan de Bolas, during the first decade of British rule, these groups were active on behalf of the Spanish. But, as it became obvious that the British would hold their conquest. Faced with discovery and defeat in 1659, Juan de Bolas allied with the British, in exchange, in 1663, Governor Lyttleton signed the first maroon treaty, granting de Bolas and his people land on the same terms as British settlers. The other maroon groups remained independent in the interior of Jamaica, surviving by subsistence farming. These initial maroon groups dwindled, migrating or merging with settlers, others may have coalesced to form the nucleus of what would later be called the Windward Maroons. Over time, runaway slaves increased the Maroon population, which came to control large areas of the Jamaican mountainous interior. Between 1673 and 1690 there were several major uprisings, mainly prompted by newly arrived. On 31 July 1690, a rebellion involving 500 slaves from the Sutton estate in Clarendon Parish led to the formation of Jamaica’s most stable and best organized Maroon group. Although some were killed, recaptured or surrendered, more than 200, including women and children and they established an Ashanti-style polity based in the eastern Cockpit Country, notably Trelawny Town, their most famous ruler was Cudjoe. They incorporated outsiders only after newcomers had satisfied a strict probationary period, another Jamaican maroon leader was Major Jarrett
4.
Edward John Trelawny
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Edward John Trelawny was a biographer, novelist and adventurer who is best known for his friendship with the Romantic poets Percy Bysshe Shelley and Lord Byron. Trelawny was born in England to a family of modest income, though his father became wealthy while he was a child, Edward had an antagonistic relationship with him. After an unhappy childhood, he was sent away to a school and he was assigned as a volunteer in the Royal Navy shortly before he turned thirteen. Trelawny served on ships as a naval volunteer while in his teen years. He traveled to India and saw combat during engagements with the French Navy and he did not care for the naval lifestyle, however, and left at nineteen years of age without becoming a commissioned officer. After retiring from the navy, he had a brief and unhappy marriage in England and he then moved to Switzerland and later Italy where he met Shelley and Byron. He became friends with the two poets, and helped teach them about sailing and he enjoyed inventing elaborate stories about his time in the navy, and in one he claimed to have deserted and become a pirate in India. After Shelleys death, Trelawny identified his body and arranged the funeral and burial, Trelawny then travelled to Greece with Lord Byron in order to fight in the Greek War of Independence. Byron and Trelawny split up near Greece and Trelawny travelled into Greece to act as the agent of Lord Byron, after Byron died, Trelawny oversaw the preparations for the funeral and the return of his body to England. Trelawny joined the cause of the Greek Warlord Odysseas Androutsos and helped to provide him with additional arms and he also married Odysseas sister Teritza. After Odysseas fell out of favour with the Greek government and was arrested, during this time, Trelawny survived an assassination attempt. After leaving Greece, he divorced Teritza and returned to England, in England he was well received by members of London society. He then wrote a memoir titled Adventures of a Younger Son, after the book was published he travelled to America for two years before returning to England. He then became politically active but soon remarried and moved to the English countryside and he then lived the life of a country squire for 12 years and raised a family with his third wife. They eventually separated and he moved back to London with a mistress and he then wrote a well received book about Shelley and Byron. He soon became friends with prominent artists and writers in London. He was able to share his experience with Romantic Era writers with the leading Victorian writers of the day. He later retired to Sompting, where he led an ascetic lifestyle and he died in Sompting at the age of 88, having outlived almost all of his friends from the Romantic era
5.
Trelawny Parish
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Trelawny is a parish in Cornwall County in northwest Jamaica. It is bordered by the parishes of Saint Ann in the east, Saint James in the west, in 1770, the wealthy planters in St James and St Ann succeeded in having sections of those parishes become the parish of Trelawny as they were too far from administrative centres. Trelawny was named after William Trelawny, the then Governor of Jamaica, the first capital was Martha Brae, located 3 kilometres inland from Rock Bay. Trelawny is best known for its estates and sugar cane mills. It had more sugar estates than any other parish, so there was need for a sea coast town to export it, Falmouth became a thriving seaport and social centre. The town had two of its own newspapers, The Falmouth Post and The Falmouth Gazette, Trelawny was also home to the largest group of Maroons in the island. A1739 treaty between the Maroons and the English gave the Maroons freedom and land, which put a stop to their raids on the plantations. However, a second Maroon uprising in 1795 led to over 600 Maroons being exiled to Nova Scotia, Canada, in 2007, the opening ceremony for the ICC Cricket World Cup was held in Trelawny Parish. Trelawny is located at latitude 18°15N, longitude 77°46W and it has an area of 874 km², making it the fifth largest parish on the island. It has a population of 75,558 as of 2012, most of the parish is flat, with wide plains such as Queen of Spains Valley,230 metres above sea level, and Windsor,180 metres above sea level. Most of southern Trelawny is around 230 metres above sea level, the highest point in the parish is Mount Ayr which is 910 metres above sea level. The southern section of Trelawny is part of the Cockpit Country, most of the parish has the typical limestone features of cockpits, sinkholes, caves, and underground passages. There are about 48 caves, most with phosphate gatherings and these include the Windsor Cave and Carambi Cave. There are several caves which have Taino carvings on the walls. There are also several underground conduits, with the longest running for 24 kilometres, the main rivers are the Martha Brae, Rio Bueno, Cane and Quashie Rivers. Trelawnys sources of employment are based on agriculture, manufacturing, rum and sugar are Trelawnys principal products. Other crops include bananas, yams, strawberries, vegetables, pimento, coffee, ginger, though the fishing industry is declining, Trelawny still produces a large amount of fish. There are ten beaches along the coast, with more than 30 boats each, there are 25 factories in the parish
6.
Accompong
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Accompong is a historical Maroon village located in the hills of St. Elizabeth Parish on the Island of Jamaica. It is located in Cockpit Country, where the local terrain enabled Maroons and they defended it to maintain independence from the Spanish and then later against British forces, after the colony changed hands. The people named their community Accompong after an early Maroon leader and their autonomy with certain rights for limited self government was established by a peace treaty with the British in 1739. Since independence in 1962, the government of Jamaica has continued to recognize Maroon indigenous rights in this area, in the 18th century, Maroon leader Cudjoe is said to have united his people under the Kindah Tree in their fight for autonomy. This was the site for signing the 1739 treaty with the British and this legendary, ancient mango tree is still standing. The tree symbolizes the common kinship of the community on its common land, Accompong was founded in 1739 after rebel slaves and their descendants fought a protracted war with the British that was finally settled by a treaty between the two groups. The treaty signed under British governor Edward Trelawny granted Cudjoe’s Maroons 1500 acres of land between their strongholds of Trelawny Town and Accompong in the Cockpits and this last clause in the treaty caused tension between the Maroons and the enslaved black population. From time to time refugees from the plantations still found their way into maroon settlements and were allowed to stay, the community was granted certain rights and autonomy by treaty with the British colonial authorities in 1739. It set up a form of village government drawn from its Akan and Asante culture. It has an executive now called Colonel-in-Chief, who leads the Maroon Council and these men who share executive responsibilities for the community. Since Jamaica gained independence in 1962, it has recognised the political and cultural rights of Maroons and it also acknowledges the right for self-government in matters relating to local affairs, as well as ways and means for financing autonomous functions. In 2009 Ferron Williams was elected as Colonel-in-Chief of Accompong, Ferron was elected to a second term in 2015. The inhabitants of Accompong share practices and traditions drawn from the cultures Akan and Asante ancestors of 200–300 years ago and these practices have evolved as the Maroons adapted to local conditions. Descendants of the Maroons and friends celebrate annually on January 6 both the birthday of Cudjoe, leader in 1739, and the treaty which granted their autonomy, in 2007, attendees at the festival protested increased bauxite mining, in an effort to protect the environment of their region
7.
Pig
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A pig is any of the animals in the genus Sus, within the Suidae family of even-toed ungulates. Pigs include the domestic pig and its ancestor, the common Eurasian wild boar, along with species, related creatures outside the genus include the peccary, the babirusa. Pigs, like all suids, are native to the Eurasian and African continents, juvenile pigs are known as piglets. Pigs are highly social and intelligent animals, with around 1 billion individuals alive at any time, the domesticated pig is one of the most numerous large mammals on the planet. Pigs are omnivores and can consume a range of food. Pigs can harbour a range of parasites and diseases that can be transmitted to humans, because of the similarities between pigs and humans, pigs are used for human medical research. The Online Etymology Dictionary provides anecdotal evidence as well as linguistic, saying that the term derives probably from Old English *picg, found in compounds, apparently related to Low German bigge, Dutch big. Another Old English word for pig was fearh, related to furh furrow, from PIE *perk- dig and this reflects a widespread IE tendency to name animals from typical attributes or activities. Synonyms grunter, porker are from sailors and fishermens euphemistic avoidance of uttering the word pig at sea, a superstition perhaps based on the fate of the Gadarene swine and it is entirely likely that the word to call pigs, soo-ie, is similarly derived. A typical pig has a head with a long snout which is strengthened by a special prenasal bone. The snout is used to dig into the soil to find food and is an acute sense organ. There are four hoofed toes on each trotter, with the two larger central toes bearing most of the weight, but the two also being used in soft ground. The dental formula of adult pigs is 3.1.4.33.1.4.3, the rear teeth are adapted for crushing. In the male, the teeth form tusks, which grow continuously and are sharpened by constantly being ground against each other. Occasionally, captive mother pigs may savage their own piglets, often if they become severely stressed, some attacks on newborn piglets are non-fatal. Others may cause the death of the piglets and sometimes, the mother may eat the piglets and it is estimated that 50% of piglet fatalities are due to the mother attacking, or unintentionally crushing, the newborn pre-weaned animals. Scientists have recently discovered that pigs can exhibit a bias and are optimists or pessimests. In a study by the University of Lincoln,36 pigs were tested and they were placed in a room with two food bowls at each end of the room
8.
Alexander Lindsay, 6th Earl of Balcarres
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Alexander Lindsay, 6th Earl of Balcarres and de jure 23rd Earl of Crawford was the son of James Lindsay, 5th Earl of Balcarres. He was a general in the British Army and he entered the army at the age of fifteen as an ensign, in the 53rd Regiment of Foot. After attending Eton College, he studied at the University of Göttingen for two years, and subsequently purchased a captaincy in the 42nd Highland Regiment in 1771. In 1777, he was appointed a major of the 53rd, and he commanded the infantry companies at the Battle of Saratoga. He was released from captivity in 1779, around this time he founded the famous Haigh Ironworks with his partners, his brother Robert and James Corbett. On 1 June 1780, he married his first cousin, Elizabeth Bradshaigh Dalrymple and he was chosen a representative peer for Scotland in 1784, and was re-elected through 1807, inclusive. On 27 August 1789 he was appointed colonel of the 63rd Regiment of Foot, commander of the forces in Jersey from 1793 to 1794, he was then appointed Governor of Jamaica. He was promoted lieutenant-general in 1798, and resigned the governorship in 1801, on 25 September 1803 he was promoted to general. After his return from the American Revolution, he was introduced to Benedict Arnold, Balcarres snubbed Arnold as a traitor, and a duel ensued, neither party being injured. After being maimed in an accident he retired to the second home at Haigh Hall. On his death he was succeeded by his eldest son James, after James had successfully pressed his claim to the title of Earl of Crawford in 1848, the title was conferred posthumously on Alexander, even though he had not claimed it himself. His younger son, Edwin Lindsay, an Indian army officer, was declared insane after refusing to fight in a duel and was sent to Papa Stour in the Shetland islands. He spent 26 years there as a prisoner before the Quaker preacher Catherine Watson arranged for his release in 1835
9.
Bloodhound
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The Bloodhound is a large scent hound, originally bred for hunting deer, wild boar, and since the Middle Ages for tracking people. Believed to be descended from hounds once kept at the Abbey of Saint-Hubert, Belgium and this breed is famed for its ability to discern human scent over great distances, even days later. Bloodhounds weigh from 36 to 72 kg. They are 58 to 69 cm tall at the withers, according to the AKC standard for the breed, larger dogs are preferred by conformation judges. Acceptable colors for bloodhounds are black, liver, tan, Bloodhounds possess an unusually large skeletal structure with most of their weight concentrated in their bones, which are very thick for their length. The coat typical for a scenthound is hard and composed of fur alone and this breed is gentle, and is tireless when following a scent. Because of its strong tracking instinct, it can be willful and somewhat difficult to obedience train, Bloodhounds have an affectionate and even-tempered nature with humans, making excellent family pets. However, like any pet, they require supervision when around small children, up to at least the seventeenth century bloodhounds were of all colours, but in modern times the colour range has become more restricted. The colours are listed as black and tan, liver and tan. White is not uncommon on the chest, and sometimes appears on the feet, genetically, the main types are determined by the action of two genes, found in many species. One produces an alternation between black and brown, if a hound inherits the black allele from either parent, it has a black nose, eye rims and paw-pads, and if it has a saddle, it is black. The other allele suppresses black pigment and is recessive, so it must be inherited from both parents and it produces liver noses, eye rims, paw-pads, and saddles. The second gene determines coat pattern and it can produce animals with no saddle, ones with saddle-marking, or ones largely covered with darker pigment, except for tan lips, eyebrows, forechest and lower legs. These last are sometimes referred to as ‘blanket’ or ‘full-coat’ types, however, more modern study attributes the variation to 3 different alleles of the Agouti gene. Ay produces the non saddle-marked red hound, As produces saddle-marking, of these Ay is dominant, and at is recessive to the others. The interaction of these variants of the two produces the six basic types shown below. It is likely that a third gene determines whether or not there is a melanistic mask, em, the allele for a mask, is dominant over E, the allele for no mask. Compared to other purebred dogs, Bloodhounds suffer a high rate of gastrointestinal ailments. The breed also suffers a high incidence of eye, skin
10.
Nova Scotia
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Nova Scotia is one of Canadas three Maritime provinces, and one of the four provinces which form Atlantic Canada. Nova Scotia is Canadas second-smallest province, with an area of 55,284 square kilometres, including Cape Breton, as of 2016, the population was 923,598. Nova Scotia is the second most-densely populated province in Canada with 17.4 inhabitants per square kilometre, Nova Scotia means New Scotland in Latin and is the recognized English language name for the province. In Scottish Gaelic, the province is called Alba Nuadh, which simply means New Scotland. Nova Scotia is Canadas second-smallest province in area after Prince Edward Island, the provinces mainland is the Nova Scotia peninsula surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, including numerous bays and estuaries. Nowhere in Nova Scotia is more than 67 km from the ocean, Nova Scotia has many ancient fossil-bearing rock formations. These formations are rich on the Bay of Fundys shores. Blue Beach near Hantsport, Joggins Fossil Cliffs, on the Bay of Fundys shores, has yielded an abundance of Carboniferous age fossils, wassons Bluff, near the town of Parrsboro, has yielded both Triassic and Jurassic age fossils. Nova Scotia lies in the mid-temperate zone, since the province is almost surrounded by the sea, the climate is closer to maritime than to continental climate. The winter and summer temperature extremes of the climate are moderated by the ocean. However, winters are cold enough to be classified as continental – still being nearer the freezing point than inland areas to the west. The Nova Scotia climate is in ways similar to the central Baltic Sea coast in Northern Europe. This is in spite of Nova Scotia being some fifteen parallels south, areas not on the Atlantic coast experience warmer summers more typical of inland areas, and winter lows a little colder. The province includes regions of the Mikmaq nation of Mikmaki, the Mikmaq people inhabited Nova Scotia at the time the first European colonists arrived. In 1605, French colonists established the first permanent European settlement in the future Canada at Port Royal, the British conquest of Acadia took place in 1710. The Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 formally recognized this and returned Cape Breton Island to the French, present-day New Brunswick then still formed a part of the French colony of Acadia. The British changed the name of the capital from Port Royal to Annapolis Royal, in 1749, the capital of Nova Scotia moved from Annapolis Royal to the newly established Halifax. In 1755 the vast majority of the French population were removed in the Expulsion of the Acadians
11.
Sierra Leone
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Sierra Leone, officially the Republic of Sierra Leone, is a country in West Africa. It is bordered by Guinea to the north-east, Liberia to the south-east, Sierra Leone has a tropical climate, with a diverse environment ranging from savannah to rainforests. Sierra Leone has an area of 71,740 km2. Sierra Leone is divided into four regions, the Northern Province, Eastern Province, Southern Province and the Western Area. Freetown is the capital, largest city and its economic and political centre, Bo is the second largest city. The other major cities are Kenema, Makeni and Koidu Town, Sierra Leone is a constitutional republic with a directly elected president and a unicameral legislature. Sir Milton Margai built his government based on democratic principles. Throughout his time in power, Sir Milton Margai was very popular across Sierra Leone, the main opposition APC, led by its leader Siaka Stevens, narowly defeated the ruling SLPP under the leadership of Albert Margai in the 1964 general elections. Stevens ruled for eighteen years in a government, in which his critics. Soldiers and politicians convicted of plotting a coup to topple Stevens were executed, under president Stevens, the APC was made the only legal political party in Sierra Leone, and all other political parties were banned, including the main opposition. Stevens handpicked successor, retired major general Joseph Saidu Momoh, lacked the political dominance of Stevens, Momoh reestablished the country as a multi party democracy in 1991. The current constitution of Sierra Leone was adopted in 1991 during the presidency of Joseph Saidu Momoh, the rebels started the civil war in 1991 in the eastern part of the country during Momohs presidency. Momoh was very unpopular, and Public anger against the Momoh government increasingly grew due to corruption, poor economy. In 1992 a group of officers in the army led by a 25-year-old captain, Valentine Strasser. In 1996 during the war, another military coup of soldiers within Strassers inner circle, led by a 32 year old Brigadier General Julius Maada Bio, toppled Strasser. Since independent to present, Sierra Leones politics has been dominated by two political parties, the Sierra Leone Peoples Party and the All Peoples congress. From 1991 to 2002, the Sierra Leone civil war was fought and this proxy war left more than 50,000 people dead, much of the countrys infrastructure destroyed, and over two million people displaced as refugees in neighbouring countries. In January 2002, then Sierra Leones president Ahmad Tejan Kabbah, fulfilled his promise by ending the civil war, with help by the British Government, ECOWAS
12.
West Africa
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West Africa, also called Western Africa and the West of Africa, is the westernmost subregion of Africa. Early human settlers from northern Holocene societies arrived in West Africa around 12,000 B. C, sedentary farming began in, or around the fifth millennium B. C, as well as the domestication of cattle. By 1500 B. C, ironworking technology allowed an expansion of productivity. Northern tribes developed walled settlements and non-walled settlements that numbered at 400, in the forest region, Iron Age cultures began to flourish, and an inter-region trade began to appear. The desertification of the Sahara and the change of the coast cause trade with upper Mediterranean peoples to be seen. Local leather, cloth, and gold also contributed to the abundance of prosperity for many of the following empires. Also, based on the archaeology of city of Kumbi Saleh in modern-day Mauritania, three great kingdoms were identified in Bilad al-Sudan by the ninth century. They included Ghana, Gao and Kanem, the Sosso Empire sought to fill the void, but was defeated by the Mandinka forces of Sundiata Keita, founder of the new Mali Empire. In the 15th century, the Songhai would form a new dominant state based on Gao, in the Songhai Empire, under the leadership of Sonni Ali, further east, Oyo arose as the dominant Yoruba state and the Aro Confederacy as a dominant Igbo state in modern-day Nigeria. The Kingdom of Nri was a West African medieval state in the present-day southeastern Nigeria, the Kingdom of Nri was unusual in the history of world government in that its leader exercised no military power over his subjects. The kingdom existed as a sphere of religious and political influence over a third of Igboland, the Eze Nri managed trade and diplomacy on behalf of the Nri people, and possessed divine authority in religious matters. The Oyo Empire was a Yoruba empire of what is today Western, established in the 15th century, the Oyo Empire grew to become one of the largest West African states. It rose through the organizational skills of the Yoruba, wealth gained from trade. The Benin Empire was an empire located in what is now southern Nigeria. Its capital was Edo, now known as Benin City, Edo and it should not be confused with the modern-day country called Benin, formerly called Dahomey. The Benin Empire was one of the oldest and most highly developed states in the hinterland of West Africa. Olfert Dapper, a Dutch writer, describing Benin in his book Description of Africa and its craft was the most adored and treasured bronze casting in the history of Africa. It was annexed by the British Empire in 1897 during the invasion, in the early 19th century, a series of Fulani reformist jihads swept across Western Africa
13.
Bryan Edwards (politician)
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Bryan Edwards, FRS was an English politician and historian born in Westbury, Wiltshire. Edwards supported the trade, and was described by abolitionist William Wilberforce as a powerful opponent. Edwards father died in 1758/8, and his maintenance and education were undertaken by his uncle, Zacchary Bayly. About 1759 Edwards joined his uncle there and Bayly engaged a tutor to complete the boys education. In 1782 he tried and failed to secure a seat in parliament as member for Chichester and he was in Jamaica again from 1787 to 1792. He then settled in England as a West India merchant, making another attempt to enter Parliament in 1795. In 1796, however, he became Member of Parliament for Grampound, Edwards retained this seat until his death. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1794 and he died in Southampton in 1800. He had married Martha, the daughter of Thomas Phipps of Brook House, Westbury and had one surviving son and he left the bulk of his estates to the son, Zacchary Hume Edwards. The latter two titles were republished, with some additional material, as the History of the British Colonies in the West Indies. This has been translated into German and, in part, into French, a fifth edition was issued in 1819. When Mungo Park returned in 1796 from his journey in Africa. Edwards was secretary of the Association for Promoting the Discovery of the Interior Parts of Africa, when Park wrote his own account of his journeys he availed himself of Edwards assistance. Edwards also wrote poems and some other works relating to the history of the West Indies. The History, Civil and Commercial, of the British Colonies in the West Indies by Bryan Edwards
14.
Morant Bay rebellion
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The Morant Bay rebellion began with a protest march to the courthouse by hundreds of peasants led by preacher Paul Bogle in Morant Bay, Jamaica. Some were armed with sticks and stones, after seven men were shot and killed by the volunteer militia, the protesters attacked and burned the court house and nearby buildings. A total of 25 people died, over the next two days, peasants rose up across St. Thomas-in-the-East parish and controlled most of the area. The Jamaicans were protesting injustice and widespread poverty, most freedmen were prevented from voting by high poll taxes, and their living conditions had worsened following crop damage by floods, cholera and smallpox epidemics, and a long drought. A few days before, when tried to arrest a man for disrupting a trial. Officials had issued a warrant for the arrest of preacher Bogle, Governor Edward John Eyre declared martial law in the area, ordering in troops to hunt down the rebels. They killed many innocent blacks, including women and children, with a death toll of more than 400. Troops arrested more than 300 persons, including Bogle, many of these were also innocent but were quickly tried and executed under martial law, both men and women were punished by whipping and long sentences. This was the most severe suppression of unrest in the history of the British West Indies. The governor had George William Gordon, a representative of the parish in the Assembly, arrested in Kingston and brought back to Morant Bay. Gordon was quickly convicted and executed, the rebellion and its suppression remain controversial, and it is frequently debated by specialists in black and colonial studies. Slavery ended in Jamaica on 1 August 1834, with the passing of the British Emancipation Act which, after four years of apprenticeship and this was the date on which former slaves became free to choose their employment and employer. On paper, former slaves gained the right to vote, however, most blacks remained desperately poor, and requirements to pay a high poll tax effectively excluded them from enfranchisement. During the election of 1864, fewer than 2,000 black Jamaican men were eligible to vote out of a population of more than 436,000. Prior to the rebellion, conditions in Jamaica had been worsening for freedmen, in 1864 there were several floods which ruined many crops, whilst 1865 marked the end of a decade in which the island had been overwhelmed by plagues of cholera and smallpox. A two-year drought preceding 1865 made economic conditions worse for much of the population of former slaves, several bankruptcies were declared in the sugar industry, causing a loss of jobs and widening the economic void. Consequently tensions between white farmers and ex-slaves increased, and rumours circulating among the freedmen that white planters intended to restore slavery. This letter was shown to Jamaicas Governor John Eyre, who immediately tried to deny the truth of its statements
15.
English overseas possessions
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In 1639, a series of English fortresses on the Indian coast was initiated with Fort St George. In North America, Newfoundland and Virginia were the first centres of English colonization, as the 17th century wore on, Maine, Plymouth, New Hampshire, Salem, Massachusetts Bay, New Scotland, Connecticut, New Haven, Maryland, and Rhode Island and Providence were settled. In 1664, New Netherland and New Sweden were taken from the Dutch, becoming New York, New Jersey, the Kingdom of England is generally dated from the rule of Æthelstan from 927. During the rule of the House of Knýtlinga, from 1013 to 1014 and 1016 to 1042, in 1066, William the Conqueror, Duke of Normandy, conquered England, making the Duchy a Crown land of the English throne. Through the remainder of the Middle Ages the kings of England held extensive territories in France, under the Angevin Empire, England formed part of a collection of lands in the British Isles and France held by the Plantagenet dynasty. The collapse of this dynasty led to the Hundred Years War between England and France, at the outset of the war the Kings of England ruled almost all of France, but by the end of it in 1453 only the Pale of Calais remained to them. Calais was eventually lost to the French in 1558, the Channel Islands, as the remnants of the Duchy of Normandy, retain their link to the Crown to the present day, Other early English expansion occurred within the British Isles. As early as 1169, the Norman invasion of Ireland began to establish English possessions in Ireland, as a result of this the Lordship of Ireland was held for centuries by the English monarch, although it was not until the early 17th century that the Plantation of Ulster began. English control of Ireland fluctuated for centuries until Ireland was incorporated into the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the voyages of Christopher Columbus began in 1492, and he sighted land in the West Indies on 12 October that year. Cabot sailed in 1497, successfully making landfall on the coast of Newfoundland, there, he believed he had reached Asia and made no attempt to found a permanent colony. He led another voyage to the Americas the following year, the Reformation had made enemies of England and Spain, and in 1562 Elizabeth sanctioned the privateers Hawkins and Drake to attack Spanish ships off the coast of West Africa. Later, as the Anglo-Spanish Wars intensified, Elizabeth approved further raids against Spanish ports in the Americas, meanwhile, the influential writers Richard Hakluyt and John Dee were beginning to press for the establishment of Englands own overseas empire. The first serious attempts to establish English colonies overseas were made in the last quarter of the 16th century, the 1580s saw the first attempt at permanent English settlements in North America, a generation before the Plantation of Ulster. Soon there was an explosion of English colonial activity, driven by men seeking new land, by the pursuit of trade, in the 17th century, the destination of most English people making a new life overseas was in the West Indies rather than in North America. Financed by the Muscovy Company, Martin Frobisher set sail on 7 June 1576, from Blackwall, London, in August 1576 he landed at Frobisher Bay on Baffin Island and this was marked by the first Church of England service recorded on North American soil. Frobisher returned to Frobisher Bay in 1577, solemnly taking possession of the side of it in Queen Elizabeths name. In a third voyage, in 1578, he reached the shores of Greenland, while on the coast of Greenland, he also claimed that for England. At the same time, between 1577 and 1580, Sir Francis Drake was circumnavigating the globe and he claimed Elizabeth Island off Cape Horn for his queen, and on 24 August 1578 claimed another Elizabeth Island, in the Straits of Magellan
16.
British Empire
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The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states. It originated with the possessions and trading posts established by England between the late 16th and early 18th centuries. At its height, it was the largest empire in history and, for over a century, was the foremost global power. By 1913, the British Empire held sway over 412 million people, 23% of the population at the time. As a result, its political, legal, linguistic and cultural legacy is widespread, during the Age of Discovery in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal and Spain pioneered European exploration of the globe, and in the process established large overseas empires. Envious of the great wealth these empires generated, England, France, the independence of the Thirteen Colonies in North America in 1783 after the American War of Independence caused Britain to lose some of its oldest and most populous colonies. British attention soon turned towards Asia, Africa, and the Pacific, after the defeat of France in the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, Britain emerged as the principal naval and imperial power of the 19th century. In the early 19th century, the Industrial Revolution began to transform Britain, the British Empire expanded to include India, large parts of Africa and many other territories throughout the world. In Britain, political attitudes favoured free trade and laissez-faire policies, during the 19th Century, Britains population increased at a dramatic rate, accompanied by rapid urbanisation, which caused significant social and economic stresses. To seek new markets and sources of raw materials, the Conservative Party under Benjamin Disraeli launched a period of imperialist expansion in Egypt, South Africa, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand became self-governing dominions. By the start of the 20th century, Germany and the United States had begun to challenge Britains economic lead, subsequent military and economic tensions between Britain and Germany were major causes of the First World War, during which Britain relied heavily upon its empire. The conflict placed enormous strain on the military, financial and manpower resources of Britain, although the British Empire achieved its largest territorial extent immediately after World War I, Britain was no longer the worlds pre-eminent industrial or military power. In the Second World War, Britains colonies in Southeast Asia were occupied by Imperial Japan, despite the final victory of Britain and its allies, the damage to British prestige helped to accelerate the decline of the empire. India, Britains most valuable and populous possession, achieved independence as part of a larger movement in which Britain granted independence to most territories of the empire. The transfer of Hong Kong to China in 1997 marked for many the end of the British Empire, fourteen overseas territories remain under British sovereignty. After independence, many former British colonies joined the Commonwealth of Nations, the United Kingdom is now one of 16 Commonwealth nations, a grouping known informally as the Commonwealth realms, that share a monarch, Queen Elizabeth II. The foundations of the British Empire were laid when England and Scotland were separate kingdoms. In 1496, King Henry VII of England, following the successes of Spain and Portugal in overseas exploration, Cabot led another voyage to the Americas the following year but nothing was ever heard of his ships again
17.
Anglo-Powhatan Wars
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The Anglo-Powhatan Wars were three wars fought between English settlers of the Virginia Colony, and Indians of the Powhatan Confederacy in the early seventeenth century. The First War started in 1610, and ended in a settlement in 1614. Another war between the two powers lasted from 1622 to 1626, the third war lasted from 1644 until 1646, and ended when Opechancanough was captured and killed. That war resulted in a boundary being defined between the Indians and English lands that could only be crossed for official business with a special pass and this situation would last until 1677 and the Treaty of Middle Plantation, which established Indian reservations following Bacons Rebellion. Complications with natives typically resulted at most of the settlements the English tried to establish from the beginning, the failed Roanoke colony marked the first contact between English settlers and Algonquian coastal tribes in North Carolina. The first permanent English settlement, Jamestown, Virginia, was within the territory of the powerful yet still expanding chiefdom of Wahunsunacawh, Jamestown, and the other colonies to be established in the New World were dependent on natives for a successful settlement. However, Smith underestimated the power of the Virginia Indians and what they were capable of, smiths capture represented just an example of the diplomatic strategies employed by Wahunsunacawh to make the English cooperate with and contribute to his expanding control in this region. Smith was released in time for New Years 1608, when he promised to move the colony to Capahosick, Smith had convinced the grand chief that he was the son of Captain Newport, and that Newport was their head weroance. Relations between the two peoples began deteriorating again in late 1608, when the colonists began to strong-arm some supplies of corn from the natives. Smiths contacts with rival tribes around the Chesapeake Bay in the summer, by spring 1609, the local Paspahegh tribe had resumed raiding the English fort at Jamestown. However, their weroance, Wowinchopunk, declared a truce after he was captured and escaped. Then Smith, who had become president of the colony the preceding fall, antagonized the Powhatan further in summer 1609, First he sent a party with Captain John Martin to settle in Nansemond territory. When they could not purchase the island with their temple, Martin ransacked it and the platforms of their weroances, and occupied it by force. Later he abandoned the position after 17 of his men, disobeying orders, were wiped out while trying to buy corn at the Kecoughtan village. Smith was then injured in a gunpowder explosion, deposed as president, and sailed to England on October 4,1609. Soon afterward, the settlers succeeded in establishing a fortification, Fort Algernon at Old Point Comfort. In November, the Powhatan ambushed and killed Captain John Ratcliffe, francis West sailed to the Patawomecks, a fringe group among Powhatans subjects, for corn, but beheaded two of them, then absconded directly to England. Unable to trade with the natives, the English began to starve to death, to the point that when Sir Thomas Gates arrived in late May 1610, he decided to evacuate Jamestown
18.
Capture of Ormuz (1622)
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The capture of Ormuz by an Anglo-Persian force in 1622 entirely changed the balance of power and trade. The English side consisted of a force supplied by the English East India Company consisting of five warships, the Persians had recently gone to war with the Portuguese, and a Persian army was besieging the Portuguese fort in Kishm, but English help was needed to capture Ormuz. The English fleet first went to Kishm, some 24 kilometres away, the Portuguese quickly surrendered, and the English casualties were few, but included the famous explorer William Baffin. The Anglo-Persian fleet then sailed to Ormuz and the Persians disembarked to capture the town, the English bombarded the castle and sank the Portuguese fleet, and Ormuz was finally captured on 22 April 1622. The Portuguese were forced to retreat to base at Maskat. James I also received the sum when he complained, Did I deliver you from the complaint of the Spaniards. The capture of Ormuz gave the opportunity to the Company to develop trade with Persia, attempting to exchange English cloth and other artifacts for silk, the English adventurer Robert Shirley also took an interest in developing this trade
19.
Pequot War
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The war concluded with the Pequots losing. At the end, about seven hundred Pequots had been killed or taken into captivity, hundreds of prisoners were sold into slavery to the West Indies, other survivors were dispersed. The result was the elimination of the Pequot tribe as a polity in present-day Southern New England. The colonial authorities classified the tribe as extinct, however, survivors remained in the area and did regain recognition and land along the Thames, the name Pequot is a Mohegan term, the meaning of which is in dispute among Algonquian-language specialists. He had doubts about this etymology, believing that another term seemed more plausible, the Pequots and their traditional enemies the Mohegans were a single sociopolitical entity at one time. Anthropologists and historians contend that they split into the two competing groups sometime before contact with the Puritan English, the earliest historians of the Pequot War speculated that the Pequots migrated from the upper Hudson River Valley toward central and eastern Connecticut sometime around 1500. These claims are disputed by the evidence of archaeology and anthropology finds. In the 1630s, the Connecticut River Valley was in turmoil, the tribes contended for political dominance and control of the European fur trade. A series of smallpox epidemics over the course of the three decades had severely reduced the Native American populations due to their lack of immunity to the disease. As a result, there was a vacuum in the area. The Dutch and the English from Western Europe were also striving to extend the reach of their trade into the interior to achieve dominance in the lush, the colonies were new at the time, the original settlements having been founded in the 1620s. By 1636, the Dutch had fortified their trading post, political divisions widened between the Pequots and Mohegans as they aligned with different trade sources, the Mohegans with the English and the Pequots with the Dutch. The Pequots assaulted a tribe of Indians who had tried to trade in the area of Hartford, tensions grew as the Massachusetts Bay Colony became a stronghold for wampum, which the Narragansetts and Pequots had controlled up until 1633. John Stone and about seven of his crew were murdered by the Niantics, in the earlier incident, Tatobem had boarded a Dutch vessel to trade. Instead of conducting trade, the Dutch seized the sachem and appealed for a amount of ransom for his safe return. The Pequots quickly sent bushels of wampum, but received only Tatobems dead body in return, Stone was from the West Indies and had been banished from Boston for malfeasance, including drunkenness, adultery, and piracy. He was known to have connections in other colonies, as well as in London. Setting sail from Boston, Stone abducted two Western Niantic men, forcing them to him the way up the Connecticut River
20.
History of the Acadians
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The history of the Acadians was significantly influenced by the six colonial wars that took place in Acadia during the 17th and 18th century. Eventually, the last of the colonial wars—the French and Indian War—resulted in the British Expulsion of the Acadians from the region, after the war, many Acadians came out of hiding or returned to Acadia from the British Colonies. Others remained in France and some migrated from there to Louisiana, where they became known as Cajuns, the nineteenth century saw the beginning of the Acadian Renaissance and the publication of Evangeline, which helped galvanize Acadian identity. In the last century Acadians have made achievements in the areas of equal language, Pierre Dugua, Sieur de Monts built the Habitation at Port-Royal in 1605 as a replacement for his initial attempt at colonizing Saint Croix Island. The trading monopoly of de Monts was cancelled in 1607, and most of the French settlers returned to France, jean de Biencourt de Poutrincourt et de Saint-Just led a second expedition to Port Royal in 1610. These settlers made families with the natives, which resulted in many Acadians being Métis. There were a number of sailings from the French Atlantic Coast to Acadia between 1632 and 1636, but this is the one for which a detailed passenger list has survived. Nicolas Denys, who was stationed across the LaHave River at Port Rossingol, after a 35-day crossing of the Atlantic, the Saint Jehan arrived on 6 May 1636 at LaHave, Nova Scotia. There were seventy-eight passengers and eighteen crew members, with this ship, Acadia began a slow shift from being primarily a matter of explorers and traders, of men, to a colony of permanent settlers, including women and children. By the end of the year, the migrants were moved from LaHave, at Port Royal in 1636, Pierre Martin and Catherine Vigneau, who had arrived on the Saint Jehan, were the first European parents to have a child in Acadia. The first-born child was Mathieu Martin, in part because of this distinction, Mathieu Martin later became the Seigneury of Cobequid. Kennedy argues that the emigrants from the Vienne region of France carried to Acadia their customs and they were frontier people, who dispersed their settlements based on kinship. They optimized use of farmland and emphasized trading for a profit and they were hierarchical and politically active. The French and the Acadian villages were similar in terms of prosperity, egalitarianism, with the death of Isaac de Razilly, Acadia was plunged into what some historians have described as a civil war. Acadia had two legitimate Lieutenant Governors, in the war, there were four major battles. La Tour attacked dAulnay at Port Royal in 1640, in response to the attack, DAulnay sailed out of Port Royal to establish a five-month blockade of La Tours fort at Saint John, which La Tour eventually defeated. La Tour attacked dAulnay again at Port Royal in 1643, DAulnay and Port Royal ultimately won the war against La Tour with the 1645 siege of Saint John. After dAulnay died, La Tour re-established himself in Acadia, in 1654, war between France and England broke out
21.
King Philip's War
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King Philips War was an armed conflict between American Indian inhabitants of present-day New England and English colonists and their Indian allies in 1675–78. The war is named for Metacomet, the Wampanoag chief who adopted the English name Philip due to the relations between his father and the Mayflower Pilgrims. The war continued in the most northern reaches of New England until the signing of the Treaty of Casco Bay in April 1678, Metacom was the second son of Wampanoag chief Massasoit, who had coexisted peacefully with the Pilgrims. Metacom succeeded his brother in 1662 and reacted against the European settlers continued encroaching onto Wampanoag lands, at Taunton in 1671, he was humiliated when colonists forced him to sign a new peace agreement that included the surrender of Indian guns. Officials in Plymouth Colony hanged three Wampanoags in 1675 for the murder of an Indian, and Metacoms followers and allies launched an assault on colonial towns throughout the region. Metacoms forces gained initial victories in the first year, but then the Indian alliance began to unravel, by the end of the conflict, the Wampanoags and their Narragansett allies were almost completely destroyed. Metacom anticipated their defeat and returned to his home at Mt. Hope. More than half of New Englands towns were attacked by Indians, King Philips War began the development of a greater European-American identity. The colonists trials, without significant English government support, gave them an identity separate. The Pilgrims who arrived on the Mayflower and founded Plymouth Plantation expended great effort in forging friendship and they traveled long distances to make peace with Chief Massasoit, and Governor William Bradford made a gift of his magnificent and prized red horse coat upon seeing that the chief admired it. By 1675, the efforts at friendship failed. Plymouth, Massachusetts was established in 1620 with significant early help from local Indians, particularly Squanto and Massasoit, the colonists progressively expanded throughout the territories of the several Algonquian-speaking tribes in the region. Prior to King Philips War, tensions fluctuated between Indian tribes and the colonists, but relations were generally peaceful, many of the neighboring tribes had been traditional competitors and enemies. As the colonial population increased, the New Englanders expanded their settlements along the coastal plain. By 1675, they had established a few towns in the interior between Boston and the Connecticut River settlements. The Wampanoag tribe under Metacomets leadership had entered into an agreement with the Plymouth Colony, however, in the decades preceding the war it, became clear to them that the treaty did not mean that the Colonists were not allowed to settle in new territories. Metacomet became sachem of the Pokanoket and Grand Sachem of the Wampanoag Confederacy after the death in 1662 of his older brother, the latter had succeeded their father Massasoit as chief. Well known to the English before his ascension as paramount chief to the Wampanoag, the Plymouth colonists had put in place laws making it illegal to do commerce with the Wampanoags
22.
King William's War
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King Williams War was the North American theater of the Nine Years War. For King Williams War, neither England nor France thought of weakening their position in Europe to support the war effort in North America. New France and the Wabanaki Confederacy were able to thwart New England expansion into Acadia, according to the terms of the Treaty of Ryswick, the boundaries and outposts of New France, New England, and New York remained substantially unchanged. The English settlers were more than 154,000 at the beginning of the war, in addition, the English lacked military leadership and had a difficult relationship with their Iroquois allies. The French population amounted to 14,000 in 1689, although the French were vastly outnumbered, they were more politically unified and contained a disproportionate number of adult males with military backgrounds. Realizing their numerical inferiority, they developed good relationships with the Indigenous people in order to multiply their forces, englands Catholic King James II was deposed at the end of 1688 in the Glorious Revolution, after which Protestants William and Mary took the throne. William joined the League of Augsburg in its war against France, in North America, there was significant tension between New France and the northern English colonies, which had in 1686 been united in the Dominion of New England. New England and the Iroquois Confederacy fought New France and the Wabanaki Confederacy, the Iroquois dominated the economically important Great Lakes fur trade and had been in conflict with New France since 1680. At the urging of New England, the Iroquois interrupted the trade between New France and the western tribes, in retaliation, New France raided Seneca lands of western New York. In turn, New England supported the Iroquois in attacking New France, there were similar tensions on the border between New England and Acadia, which New France defined as the Kennebec River in southern Maine. English settlers from Massachusetts had expanded their settlements into Acadia, the New England, Acadia and Newfoundland Theatre of the war is also known as Castins War and Father Jean Baudoins War. In April 1688, Governor Andros plundered Castines home and village on Penobscot Bay, later in August, the English raided the French village of Chedabouctou. In response, Castin and the Wabanaki Confederacy engaged in the Northeast Coast Campaign of 1688 along the New England/Acadia border and they began August 13,1688 at New Dartmouth, killing a few settlers. A few days later killed two people at Yarmouth in the first battle. At Kennebunk, in the fall of 1688, members of the Confederacy killed two families, in June, they killed four men at Saco. In response to raids, a company of 24 men were raised to search for the bodies. They were forced to return after they lost a quarter of their men in conflicts with the natives, in August 1689, Jean-Vincent dAbbadie de Saint-Castin and Father Louis-Pierre Thury led an Abenaki war party that captured and destroyed the fort at Pemaquid. The fall of Pemaquid was a significant set back to the English and it pushed the frontier back to Casco, Maine
23.
Komenda Wars
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The Dutch were trying to keep the British out of the region to maintain a trade monopoly while the British were attempting to re-establish a fort in the city of Komenda. There were four periods of warfare, including a civil war in the Eguafo Kingdom. The Dutch West India Company and the Eguafo Kingdom engaged in a set of hostilities in 1688. The Dutch and the British had both established factories in the city of Komenda. In 1687, the French negotiated with the king of Eguafo to open a factory in Komenda, the Dutch tried to induce neighboring states to attack Eguafo at the same time, while the French provided gold to the King to pay the neighboring states to remain out of fighting. In the end, the Twifo did join the Dutch and secured trade concessions in Komenda as a result, the violence resulted in the killing of the King of Eguafo and a prince who allied with the Dutch was placed on the throne named Takyi. Komenda then became largely controlled by the Dutch and their allies Twifo and this situation gradually resulted in tensions between Takyi and both actors. As a result, Takyi repeatedly tried to balance British interests in the port of Komenda, the Komenda wars was a series of four different military engagements defined by shifting alliances and the involvement of military forces from multiple kingdoms in the region. The wars ended with the enthronement by the British of Takyi Kuma as the King of Eguafo, Willem Bosman was the primary chronicler of the Komenda Wars, being an active participant with the Dutch West India Company and publishing his journals in 1703. In general, the war included the Dutch West India Company. The forces of John Cabess, a prominent merchant in the city of Komenda, was allied to the British. The war started with John Cabess attacking the Dutch Fort Vredenburgh in Komenda, eventually, sides switched and the British began supporting a challenger to the Eguafo throne, Takyi Kuma. The fighting brought a number of other Akan polities in the region into the fighting, including, Adom, Akani, Akrons, Asebu, Cabess Terra, Denkyira, Fante, and Twifo. The first war began as a result of disputes between a prominent African merchant, John Cabess who had armed forces loyal to him, in Eguafo, Cabess was a formal and loyal ally to the British Royal African Company and assisted their operations in the region. The Dutch, in competition with the Royal African Company, had a series of disputes with Cabess including an instance in 1684 with the Dutch panyarring Cabess and taking his goods. The disputes intensified in November 1694 when Cabess invited the British Royal African Company to return to Komenda, with the British reoccupying the former British fort in Komenda they were fired upon by the Dutch fort. As a result of hostilities, the British, Dutch. Cabess Terra and Twifo initially joined the Dutch, but this alliance was stopped when Denkyira threatened to attack Twifo if war should break out, the Adoms took money from Eguafo to remain neutral in any fighting
24.
Queen Anne's War
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The War of the Spanish Succession was primarily fought in Europe. In addition to the two combatants, the war also involved numerous Native American tribes allied with each nation, and Spain. It was also known as the Third Indian War or in French as the Second Intercolonial War, the English colonies of New England fought with French and Native American forces based in Acadia and Canada. Quebec City was repeatedly targeted by British expeditions, and the Acadian capital Port Royal was taken in 1710, the French and Wabanaki Confederacy sought to thwart New England expansion into Acadia, whose border New France defined as the Kennebec River in southern Maine. Toward this end, they executed raids against targets in Massachusetts, on Newfoundland, English colonists based at St. Johns disputed control of the island with the French based at Plaisance. Most of the conflict consisted of destructive raids against the other sides settlements. The French successfully captured St. Johns in 1709, but the British quickly reoccupied it after the French abandoned it, following a preliminary peace in 1712, the Treaty of Utrecht ended the war in 1713. It resulted in the French cession of claims to the territories of Hudson Bay, Acadia, some of its terms were ambiguous, and concerns of various Native American tribes were not included in the treaty, setting the stage for future conflicts. In 1701, following the death in late 1700 of King Charles II, although the war was at first restricted to a few powers in Europe, in May 1702 it widened when England declared war on Spain and France. The hostilities in North America were further encouraged by existing frictions along the frontier areas separating the colonies of these powers, the total population of the English colonies at the time has been estimated at 250,000, with Virginia and New England dominating. The population centers of these colonies were concentrated along the coast, with small settlements inland, most European colonists knew very little of the interior of the continent, to the west of the Appalachians and south of the Great Lakes. This area was dominated by tribes, although French and English traders had penetrated the area. Spanish missionaries in La Florida had established a network of missions to convert the inhabitants to Roman Catholicism. The Spanish population was small, and the native population they ministered to has been estimated to number 20,000. French explorers had located the mouth of the Mississippi River, near which they established a colonial presence in 1699 at Fort Maurepas. From there they began to trade routes into the interior, establishing friendly relations with the Choctaw. All of these populations had suffered to some degree from the introduction of Eurasian infectious diseases like smallpox by early explorers and traders, France and Spain, allies in this conflict, had been on opposite sides of the recently ended Nine Years War. To the north, the conflict held a strong component in addition to territorial disputes
25.
Yamasee War
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Some of the Native American Indian groups played a minor role while others launched attacks throughout South Carolina in an attempt to destroy the colony. Native Americans killed hundreds of colonists and destroyed many settlements, traders in the field were killed throughout what is now southeastern United States. Abandoning settled frontiers, people fled to Charles Town, where starvation set in as supplies ran low, the survival of the South Carolina colony was in question during 1715. The tide turned in early 1716 when the Cherokee sided with the colonists against the Creek, the last of South Carolinas major Native American foes withdrew from the conflict in 1717, bringing a fragile peace to the colony. The Yamasee War was one of the most disruptive and transformational conflicts of colonial America and it was one of the American Indians most serious challenges to European dominance. For over a year the colony faced the possibility of annihilation, about 7% of South Carolinas white citizenry was killed, making the war bloodier than King Philips War, which is often cited as North Americas bloodiest war involving Native Americans. The geopolitical situation for British, Spanish, and French colonies, the war marks the end of the early colonial era of the American South. The Yamasee War and its aftermath contributed to the emergence of new Indian confederated nations, such as the Muscogee Creek, the origin of the war was complex. Reasons for fighting differed among the many Indian groups who participated, the Tuscarora War and its lengthy aftermath played a major role in the outbreak of the Yamasee War. The Tuscarora, an Iroquoian-speaking tribe of the interior, began attacking colonial settlements of North Carolina in 1711, South Carolina settlers mustered armies and campaigned twice against the Tuscarora, in 1712 and 1713. These armies were made up mainly of allied Indian troops, the Yamasee had been strong military allies of South Carolina colonists for many years. Yamasee warriors made up the core of both Carolina armies, other Indians were recruited over a large area from diverse tribes that in some cases were traditional enemies of one another. This military collaboration brought Indians of the region into closer contact with one another. The Indians saw the disagreements and weaknesses of the British colonies, as South Carolina, North Carolina, essentially all of the tribes that helped South Carolina during the Tuscarora War joined in attacking settlers in the colony during the Yamasee War, just two or three years later. The Yamasee emerged during the 17th century in the frontier between South Carolina and Spanish Florida. At first allied with the Spanish, the Yamasee moved north in the late 17th century and they lived near the mouth of the Savannah River and around Port Royal Sound. For years, the Yamasee profited from their relation with the British, by 1715, they found it difficult to obtain the two trade items most desired by the British—deerskins and Indian slaves. Some historians have suggested that when the British took a census of their people that year, with demand for deerskins rising over an ever-larger region, deer had become rare in Yamasee territory
26.
Dummer's War
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The root cause of the conflict on the Maine frontier was over the border between Acadia and New England, which New France defined as the Kennebec River in southern Maine. Complicating matters further, on the Nova Scotia frontier, the Treaty of Utrecht that ended Queen Annes War had been signed in Europe and had not involved any member of the Wabanaki Confederacy. While the Abenaki signed the Treaty of Portsmouth, none had been consulted about British ownership of Nova Scotia, the war began on two fronts as a result of the expansion of New England settlements along the coast of Maine, and at Canso, Nova Scotia. The New Englanders were led primarily by Lt, Governor of Massachusetts William Dummer, Lt. Governor of Nova Scotia John Doucett and Captain John Lovewell, the Wabanaki Confederacy and other native tribes were led primarily by Father Sébastien Rale, Chief Gray Lock and Chief Paugus. In present-day New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, the treaty that ended Father Rales war marked a significant shift in European relations with the Mikmaq and Maliseet. For the first time a European power, in this case Britain, French Acadia was ceded to Great Britain, although its borders were disputed. The area disputed by the European powers consisted of land between the Kennebec River and the Isthmus of Chignecto, Joseph Dudley, governor of Massachusetts and New Hampshire, organized a major peace conference at Portsmouth, New Hampshire. Over the next year other Abenaki tribal leaders signed the treaty. Following the peace, New England settlements expanded eastward of the Kennebec River, the establishment of a permanent British fishing settlement at Canso was a particular sore spot with the local Mikmaq, and they protested through raids on British fishermen and settlements. In response to Wabanaki hostilities toward the expansion, the governor of Nova Scotia, Richard Philipps, Georges Fort at Thomaston, and Fort Richmond at Richmond. The Kennebec sachem Wiwurna objected not only to the establishment of settlements on their lands, Shute, who often rudely interrupted Wiwurna, bluntly reasserted British claims to the territory. This ambiguous response, and the treaty that was ultimately agreed, over the next several years settlers continued to encroach on Wabanaki lands east of the Kennebec River, the Wabanakis responded by raiding livestock. Shute protested the presence of the French Jesuit priest Sebastian Rale, the Wabanaki responded in July 1721 with a refusal, and a demand that hostages be released in exchange for a delivery of furs made in restitution for their raiding. Shute dismissed the letter as insolent and menacing, and sent militia forces to Arrowsic and he also asserted, based on Rales influence, that the Wabanaki claims were part of a French intrigue to further French claims to the disputed areas. Following up on his belief that the French were behind Wabanaki claims, under the command of Colonel Thomas Westbrook of Thomaston, the New England militia were unsuccessful in capturing Father Rale, but they plundered the church and Rales cabin. While most of the tribe was hunting, Westbrooks 300 soldiers surrounded Norridgewock to capture Rale. Found among the possessions, however, was his strongbox
27.
War of Jenkins' Ear
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The War of Jenkins Ear was a conflict between Britain and Spain that lasted from 1739 to 1748, with major operations largely ended by 1742. Its unusual name, coined by Thomas Carlyle in 1858, refers to an ear severed from Robert Jenkins, despite stories to that effect, there is no evidence that the severed ear was exhibited before the British Parliament. The seeds of conflict began with the separation of an ear from Jenkins following the boarding of his vessel by Spanish coast guards in 1731, the war resulted in heavy British casualties in North America. After 1742, the war was subsumed by the wider War of the Austrian Succession, peace arrived with the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748. This provided British traders and smugglers potential inroads into the closed markets in Spanish America. But Britain and Spain were often at war during this period, fighting one another in the War of the Quadruple Alliance, the Blockade of Porto Bello and the Anglo-Spanish War. In the Treaty of Seville, following the Anglo-Spanish War, Britain had accorded Spanish warships the right to stop British traders, over time, the Spanish became suspicious that British traders were abusing the contract and began to board ships and confiscate their cargoes. After very strained relations between 1727 and 1732, the situation improved between 1732 and 1737, when Sir Robert Walpole supported Spain during the War of the Polish Succession. But the causes of the problems remained and, when the opposition against Walpole grew, Walpole gave in to the pressure and approved the sending of troops to the West Indies and a squadron to Gibraltar under Admiral Nicholas Haddock, provoking an immediate Spanish reaction. In response, King Philip V of Spain annulled the right and had all British ships in Spanish harbours confiscated. The Convention of Pardo, an attempt to mediate the dispute, on 14 August, Britain recalled its ambassador to Spain and officially declared war on 23 October 1739. Despite the Pacte de Famille, France remained neutral, Walpole was deeply reluctant to declare war and reportedly remarked of the jubilation in Britain they are ringing their bells, soon they will be wringing their hands. After boarding, Fandiño cut off the ear of the Rebeccas captain, Robert Jenkins. Fandiño told Jenkins, Go, and tell your King that I will do the same, in March 1738, Jenkins was ordered to testify before Parliament, presumably to repeat his story before a committee of the House of Commons. According to some accounts, he produced the severed ear as part of his presentation, the incident was considered alongside various other cases of Spanish Depredations upon the British Subjects, and was perceived as an insult to Britains honour and a clear casus belli. The conflict was named by essayist and historian Thomas Carlyle, in 1858, one hundred, Carlyle mentioned the ear in several passages of his History of Friedrich II, most notably in Book XI, chap VI, where he refers specifically to the War of Jenkinss Ear. More than one year later, all diplomatic means having been exhausted, on 20 July, Vice Admiral Edward Vernon and a fleet of warships departed Britain, bound for the West Indies, to attack Spanish ships and possessions. Waterhouse spotted several small vessels in the port of La Guaira and decided to attack, the governor of the Province of Venezuela, Brigadier Don Gabriel de Zuloaga had prepared the port defences, and Spanish troops were well-commanded by Captain Don Francisco Saucedo
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King George's War
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King Georges War is the name given to the military operations in North America that formed part of the War of the Austrian Succession. It was the third of the four French and Indian Wars and it took place primarily in the British provinces of New York, Massachusetts Bay, New Hampshire, and Nova Scotia. In French, it is known as the Third Intercolonial War, the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle ended the war in 1748 and restored Louisbourg to France, but failed to resolve any outstanding territorial issues. The War of Jenkins Ear broke out in 1739 between Spain and Great Britain, but was confined to the Caribbean Sea and conflict between Spanish Florida and the neighboring British Province of Georgia, Massachusetts did not declare war until June 2. News of war reached the French fortress at Louisbourg first, on May 3,1744. Concerned about their overland supply lines to Quebec, they first raided the British fishing port of Canso on May 23, and then organized an attack on Annapolis Royal, then the capital of Nova Scotia. However, French forces were delayed in departing Louisbourg, and their Mikmaq and Maliseet allies in conjunction with Father Jean-Louis Le Loutre, Annapolis had received news of the war declaration, and was somewhat prepared when the Indians began besieging Fort Anne. Lacking heavy weapons, the Indians withdrew after a few days, in 1745, British colonial forces captured Fortress Louisbourg after a siege of six weeks. In retaliation, the Wabanaki Confederacy of Acadia launched the Northeast Coast Campaign against the British settlements on the border of Acadia in Maine, France launched a major expedition to recover Louisbourg in 1746. Beset by storms, disease, and finally the death of its commander, the war was also fought on the frontiers between the northern British colonies and New France. On November 28,1745, the French with their Indian allies raided and destroyed the village of Saratoga, New York, all of the British settlements north of Albany were accordingly abandoned. In July 1746 an Iroquois and intercolonial force assembled in northern New York for an attack against Canada. British regulars expected to participate never arrived, and the attack was called off, in 1748, Indian allies of the French attacked Schenectady, New York. The war took a toll, especially in the northern British colonies. The losses of Massachusetts men alone in 1745–46 have been estimated as 8% of that colonys adult male population. According to the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, Louisbourg was returned to France three years later, in exchange for the city of Madras in India, captured by the French from the British and this decision outraged New Englanders, particularly Massachusetts colonists who had contributed the most to the expedition. The British government eventually acknowledged their effort with a payment of £180,000 after the war, in Acadia and Nova Scotia, the fighting continued in Father Le Loutres War. The Enduring Vision, A History of the American People Drake, a Particular History of the Five Years French and Indian War in New England Kingsford, William
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Carnatic Wars
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The Carnatic Wars were a series of military conflicts in the middle of the 18th century in India. They were mainly fought on the territories in India which were dominated by the Nizam of Hyderabad up to the Godavari delta, as a result of these military contests, the British East India Company established its dominance among the European trading companies within India. The French company was pushed to a corner and was confined primarily to Pondichéry, the East India companys dominance eventually led to control by the British Company over most of India and eventually to the establishment of the British Raj. In the 18th century, the coastal Carnatic region was a dependency of Hyderabad, three Carnatic Wars were fought between 1746 and 1763. The Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb died in 1707 and he was succeeded by Bahadur Shah I, but there was a general decline in central control over the empire during the tenure of Jahandar Shah and later emperors. Nizam-ul-Mulk established Hyderabad as an independent kingdom, a power struggle ensued after his death between his son, Nasir Jung, and his grandson, Muzaffar Jung, which was the opportunity France and England needed to interfere in Indian politics. France aided Muzaffar Jung while England aided Nasir Jung, several erstwhile Mughal territories were autonomous such as the Carnatic, ruled by Nawab Dost Ali Khan, despite being under the legal purview of the Nizam of Hyderabad. French and English interference included those of the affairs of the Nawab, Dost Alis death sparked a power struggle between his son-in-law Chanda Sahib, supported by the French, and Muhammad Ali, supported by the English. One major instigator of the Carnatic Wars was the Frenchman Joseph François Dupleix, Dupleix sought to expand French influence in India, which was limited to a few trading outposts, the chief one being Pondicherry on the Coromandel Coast. Immediately upon his arrival in India, he organized Indian recruits under French officers for the first time, however, he was met by the equally challenging and determined young officer from the British Army, Robert Clive. The Austrian War of Succession in 1740 and later the war in 1756 automatically led to a conflict in India. in 1740 the War of the Austrian Succession broke out in Europe. Great Britain was only drawn into the war in 1744, when it entered the war opposed to France, the trading companies of both countries maintained cordial relations among themselves in India while their parent countries were bitter enemies on the European continent. Dodwell writes, Such were the relations between the English and the French that the French sent their goods and merchandise from Pondicherry to Madras for safe custody. Although French company officials were ordered to avoid conflict, British officials were not, after the British initially captured a few French merchant ships, the French called for backup from as far afield as Isle de France, beginning an escalation in naval forces in the area. In July 1746 French commander La Bourdonnais and British Admiral Edward Peyton fought an action off Negapatam. On 21 September 1746, the French captured the British outpost at Madras, La Bourdonnais had promised to return Madras to the English, but Dupleix withdrew that promise, and one to give Madras to Anwar-ud-din after the capture. The Nawab then sent a 10, 000-man army to take Madras from the French, the French then made several attempts to capture the British Fort St. David at Cuddalore, but the timely arrivals of reinforcements halted these, and eventually turned the tables on the French. British Admiral Edward Boscawen besieged Pondicherry in the months of 1748
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Father Le Loutre's War
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Father Le Loutres War, also known as the Indian War, the Micmac War and the Anglo-Micmac War, took place between King Georges War and the French and Indian War in Acadia and Nova Scotia. On one side of the conflict, the British and New England colonists were led by British Officer Charles Lawrence, on the other side, Father Jean-Louis Le Loutre led the Mikmaq and the Acadia militia in guerrilla warfare against settlers and British forces. While the British captured Port Royal in 1710, the Mikmaq and Acadians continued to contain the British to settlements at Port Royal, the rest of the colony was in the control of the Catholic Mikmaq and Acadians. The British settled 3,229 people in Halifax during the first years and this exceeded the number of Mikmaq in the entire region and was seen as a threat to the traditional occupiers of the land. The Mikmaq and some Acadians resisted the arrival of these Protestant settlers, the war caused unprecedented upheaval in the area. Atlantic Canada witnessed more population movements, more construction. Twenty-four conflicts were recorded during the war,13 of which were Mikmaq, as typical of frontier warfare, many additional conflicts were unrecorded. The British also wanted to establish Protestant communities in Nova Scotia, during the war, the Acadians and Mikmaq left Nova Scotia for the French colonies of Ile St. Jean and Ile Royale. The French also tried to control of the disputed territory of present-day New Brunswick. Throughout the war, the Mi’kmaq and Acadians attacked the British forts in Nova Scotia and they wanted to retard British settlement and buy time for France to implement its Acadian resettlement scheme. The war began with the British unilaterally establishing Halifax, which was a violation of a treaty with the Mikmaq. In response, the Acadians and Mikmaq orchestrated attacks at Chignecto, Grand Pré, Dartmouth, Canso, Halifax, the French erected forts at present-day Saint John, Chignecto and Port Elgin, New Brunswick. The British responded by attacking the Mikmaq and Acadians at Mirligueche, Chignecto, the British unilaterally established communities in Lunenburg and Lawrencetown. Finally, the British erected forts in Acadian communities located at Windsor, Grand Pre, the war ended after six years with the defeat of the Mikmaq, Acadians and French in the Battle of Fort Beausejour. The Mikmaq and Acadians were united in their commitment to Catholicism, intermarriage, despite the British Conquest of Acadia in 1710, the dominant population in Acadia remained Catholic Acadians, who would not sign an unconditional oath to become British subjects. As a result, Acadians and Mi’kmaq resisted the British occupation of Acadia, by the time Cornwallis had arrived in Halifax, there was a long history of the Wabanaki Confederacy protecting their land by killing British civilians along the New England/ Acadia border in Maine. Before the founding of Halifax, there was also a history of Acadian resistance to the British through three French and Indian Wars as well as Father Rales War. Acadians joined French privateer Pierre Maisonnat dit Baptiste as crew members in his victories over many British vessels during King Williams War, after the Siege of Pemaquid, dIberville led a force of 124 Canadians, Acadians, Mikmaq and Abanaki in the Avalon Peninsula Campaign
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French and Indian War
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The French and Indian War comprised the North American theater of the worldwide Seven Years War of 1754–1763. At the start of the war, the French North American colonies had a population of roughly 60,000 European settlers, the outnumbered French particularly depended on the Indians. Following months of localised conflict, the nations declared war on each other in 1756. The name French and Indian War, used mainly in the United States, British and European historians use the term the Seven Years War, as do English speaking Canadians. French Canadians call it La guerre de la Conquête or the Fourth Intercolonial War, fighting took place primarily along the frontiers between New France and the British colonies, from Virginia in the south to Newfoundland in the north. It began with a dispute over control of the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers, called the Forks of the Ohio, and the site of the French Fort Duquesne. The dispute erupted into violence in the Battle of Jumonville Glen in May 1754, in 1755, six colonial governors in North America met with General Edward Braddock, the newly arrived British Army commander, and planned a four-way attack on the French. None succeeded, and the effort by Braddock proved a disaster, he lost the Battle of the Monongahela on July 9,1755. In 1755, the British captured Fort Beauséjour on the border separating Nova Scotia from Acadia, orders for the deportation were given by William Shirley, Commander-in-Chief, North America, without direction from Great Britain. The Acadians, both captured in arms and those who had sworn the loyalty oath to His Britannic Majesty, were expelled. Native Americans were likewise driven off their land to make way for settlers from New England, after the disastrous 1757 British campaigns, the British government fell. France concentrated its forces against Prussia and its allies in the European theatre of the war, between 1758 and 1760, the British military launched a campaign to capture the Colony of Canada. They succeeded in capturing territory in surrounding colonies and ultimately the city of Quebec, though the British later lost the Battle of Sainte-Foy west of Quebec, the French ceded Canada in accordance with the Treaty of Paris. The outcome was one of the most significant developments in a century of Anglo-French conflict, France ceded its territory east of the Mississippi to Great Britain. It ceded French Louisiana west of the Mississippi River to its ally Spain, in compensation for Spains loss to Britain of Florida. Frances colonial presence north of the Caribbean was reduced to the islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, the conflict is known by multiple names. In British America, wars were often named after the sitting British monarch, such as King Williams War or Queen Annes War. As there had already been a King Georges War in the 1740s, British colonists named the war in King Georges reign after their opponents
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Great Britain in the Seven Years' War
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Great Britain was one of the major participants in the Seven Years War which lasted between 1756 and 1763. The war started poorly for Britain, which suffered many deaths from the plague and scurvy, and at the hands of France in North America during 1754–55, and in the loss of Minorca in 1756. The same year Britains major ally Austria switched sides and aligned itself with France, for the next seven years these two nations were ranged against a growing number of enemy powers led by France. In 1759 Britain enjoyed an Annus Mirabilis with success over the French on the continent, in North America, in 1761 Britain also came into conflict with Spain. The following year British forces captured Havana and Manila, the western and eastern capitals of the Spanish Empire, by this time the Pitt-Newcastle ministry had collapsed, Britain was short of credit and the generous peace terms offered by France and its allies were accepted. Through the crown, Britain was allied to the Electorate of Hanover and Kingdom of Ireland and it also directed the military strategy of its various colonies around the world including British America. In India British possessions were administered by the East India Company, by the early 1750s many saw another major war as imminent, and Austria was preparing its forces for an attempt to retake Silesia from Prussia. The British Prime Minister, the Duke of Newcastle, had acceded to the premiership in 1754 following the death of his brother Henry Pelham. Newcastle had thirty years experience as a Secretary of State and was a figure on the diplomatic scene. Despite enjoying a majority in the House of Commons he was extremely cautious and vulnerable to attacks led by men such as William Pitt. Newcastle fervently believed that peace in Europe was possible so long as the Old System, one of the major concerns for the British government of the era was colonial expansion. During the eighteenth century the British colonies in North America had become more populous, the territory most prized by the new settlers was the Ohio Country, which was also claimed by France. As well as having potential, it was considered strategically key. French control of territory would block British expansion westwards and eventually French territory would surround the British colonies. A number of delegations to London urged the government to take more decisive action in the Ohio dispute. The Ohio country located between Britains Thirteen Colonies and Frances New France saw France and Britain clash, in 1753 the French sent an expedition south from Montreal that began constructing forts in the upper reaches of the Ohio River. Washington and some native allies ambushed a company of French scouts at the Battle of Jumonville Glen in late May 1754, in the skirmish the French envoy Joseph Coulon de Villiers de Jumonville was left dead, leading to a diplomatic incident. The French responded in force from Fort Duquesne, and in July Washington was forced to surrender at the Battle of Fort Necessity, despite the conflict between them, the two nations were not yet formally at war
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Anglo-Cherokee War
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The Anglo–Cherokee War, was also known from the Anglo-European perspective as the Cherokee War, the Cherokee Uprising, or the Cherokee Rebellion. The war was a conflict between British forces in North America and Cherokee Indian tribes during the French and Indian War, the British and the Cherokee had been allies at the start of the war, but each party had suspected the other of betrayals. Tensions between British-American settlers and the Cherokee increased during the 1750s, culminating in open hostilities in 1758 and this action ensured the defeat of the Yamasee. The Cherokee then remained allies of the British until the French, at the 1754 outbreak of the war, the Cherokee were allies of the British, taking part in campaigns against Fort Duquesne and the Shawnee of the Ohio Country. In 1755, a band of Cherokee 130-strong under Ostenaco of Tamali took up residence in a town at the mouth of the Ohio River at the behest of the Iroquois. For several years, French agents from Fort Toulouse had been visiting the Overhill Cherokee on the Hiwassee and Tellico Rivers, the strongest pro-French Cherokee leaders were Mankiller of Talikwa, Old Caesar of Chatuga, and Raven of Ayuhwasi. The First Beloved Man of the nation, Kanagatoga, was very pro-French, as was his nephew, Kunagadoga, who succeeded him at his death in 1760. The former site of the Coosa Chiefdom was reoccupied in 1759 by a Muscogee contingent under Big Mortar in support of the pro-French Cherokee then residing in Great Tellico and this was a step toward his planned alliance of Muscogee, Cherokee, Shawnee, Chickasaw, and Catawba. Although such an alliance did not come into being until the days of Dragging Canoe, Big Mortar still rose to leading chief of the Muscogee after the French and Indian War. The Anglo–Cherokee War broke out in 1758 when Virginia militia attacked Moytoy of Citico in retaliation for the theft of horses by the Cherokee. These events ushered in a war which didnt end until 1761, the Cherokee were led by Aganstata of Chota, Attakullakulla of Tanasi, Ostenaco of Tomotley, Wauhatchie of the Lower Towns, and Round O of the Middle Towns. During the second year of the French and Indian War, the British had sought Cherokee assistance against the French, once the forts were built, the Cherokee raised close to 700 warriors to fight in western Virginia Colony under Ostenaco. Oconostota and Attakullakulla led another group to attack Fort Toulouse. In 1758, the Cherokee participated in the taking of Fort Duquesne However, while traveling through Virginia, on their way home, several Cherokee were murdered by Virginians. The Cherokee had been promised supplies, but misunderstood where they were to get them from, after taking some horses they believed were rightly theirs, several Virginians killed and scalped between 30 and 40 of them. Later, the Virginians claimed the scalps as those of Shawnees, while some Cherokee leaders still called for peace, others led retaliatory raids on outlying pioneer settlements. The Cherokee finally declared war against the British in 1759. A number of Muskogee under Big Mortar moved up to Coosawatie and these people had long been French allies in support of the Cherokee pro-French faction centered in Great Tellico
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Pontiac's War
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Warriors from numerous tribes joined the uprising in an effort to drive British soldiers and settlers out of the region. The war is named after the Odawa leader Pontiac, the most prominent of many leaders in the conflict. The war began in May 1763 when Native Americans, offended by the policies of British General Jeffrey Amherst, eight forts were destroyed, and hundreds of colonists were killed or captured, with many more fleeing the region. Hostilities came to an end after British Army expeditions in 1764 led to negotiations over the next two years. Native Americans were unable to drive away the British, but the uprising prompted the British government to modify the policies that had provoked the conflict. Warfare on the North American frontier was brutal, and the killing of prisoners, the targeting of civilians, the ruthlessness and treachery of the conflict was a reflection of a growing divide between the separate populations of the British colonists and Native Americans. This proved unpopular with British colonists, and may have one of the early contributing factors to the American Revolution. The conflict is named after its most famous participant, the Ottawa leader Pontiac, variations include Pontiacs War, Pontiacs Rebellion, an early name for the war was the Kiyasuta and Pontiac War, Kiyasuta being an alternate spelling for Guyasuta, an influential Seneca/Mingo leader. The war became known as Pontiacs Conspiracy after the publication in 1851 of Francis Parkmans The Conspiracy of Pontiac. Parkmans influential book, the account of the war for nearly a century, is still in print. In the 20th century, some argued that Parkman exaggerated the extent of Pontiacs influence in the conflict. Alternate titles for the war have been proposed, but historians continue to refer to the war by the familiar names. Pontiacs Conspiracy is now used by scholars. In the decades before Pontiacs Rebellion, France and Great Britain participated in a series of wars in Europe that also involved the French, the largest of these wars was the worldwide Seven Years War, in which France lost New France in North America to Great Britain. British troops proceeded to occupy the forts in the Ohio Country. Even before the war ended with the Treaty of Paris. While the French had long cultivated alliances among certain of the Native Americans, before long, Native Americans who had been allies of the defeated French found themselves increasingly dissatisfied with the British occupation and the new policies imposed by the victors. Native Americans involved in Pontiacs Rebellion lived in a defined region of New France known as the pays den haut
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Lord Dunmore's War
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Lord Dunmores War — or Dunmores War — was a 1774 conflict between the Colony of Virginia and the Shawnee and Mingo American Indian nations. The Governor of Virginia during the conflict was John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore — Lord Dunmore and he asked the Virginia House of Burgesses to declare a state of war with the hostile Indian nations and order up an elite volunteer militia force for the campaign. As a result of attacks by Indian hunting and war bands upon the settlers. The war ended soon after Virginias victory in the Battle of Point Pleasant on October 10,1774. As a result of victory, the Indians lost the right to hunt in the area. Although the Indian national chieftains signed the treaty, conflict within the Indian nations soon broke out, some tribesmen felt the treaty sold out their claims and opposed it, and others believed that another war would mean only further losses of territory to the more powerful British colonists. When war broke out between the colonials and the British government in 1776, the war parties of the Indian nations quickly gained power and they mobilized the various Indian nations to attack the colonists during the Revolutionary War. The area south of the Ohio River had long claimed by the Iroquois Confederacy. Although they were the most powerful Indian nation in the Northern Colonies, other tribes also made claims to the area, at the forefront of this resistance were the Shawnee. They were the most powerful among the anti-Iroquois Indian nations and they soon organized a large confederacy of Shawnee-Ohio Confederated Indians who were opposed to the British and the Iroquois in order to enforce their claims. British and Iroquois officials worked to isolate the Shawnee diplomatically from other Indian nations, when full-blown hostilities broke out within a few years, the Shawnee would find that they faced the Virginia militia with few allies. Following the 1768 treaty, British explorers, surveyors, and settlers began pouring into the region and this immediately brought them into direct contact with Native Americans. Of the upper Ohio Valley, especially the Allegheny River, George Washington wrote in his journal for Saturday, Nov. In September 1773, an obscure hunter named Daniel Boone led a group of about 50 emigrants in the first attempt by British colonists to establish a settlement in Kentucky County. On October 9,1773, Boones oldest son James, age 16, and a group of men and boys who were retrieving supplies were attacked by a band of Delawares, Shawnees. The brutality of the killings shocked the erstwhile settlers along the frontier, by December, the incident had been reported in Baltimore and Philadelphia newspapers. The deaths among Boones party were among the first events in Lord Dunmores War, Mr. Spotswood Dandridge who left the Surveyors on the Ohio after Hog Parted with them, wrote me that Mr. Hog and two other Men with him had never since been heard of. I have had no Opportunity of writing to Mr. Floyd Since, tho I suppose he will send me the Courses by the first Person that comes up, if so I shall make out the Certificate and send it down
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American Revolutionary War
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From about 1765 the American Revolution had led to increasing philosophical and political differences between Great Britain and its American colonies. The war represented a culmination of these differences in armed conflict between Patriots and the authority which they increasingly resisted. This resistance became particularly widespread in the New England Colonies, especially in the Province of Massachusetts Bay. On December 16,1773, Massachusetts members of the Patriot group Sons of Liberty destroyed a shipment of tea in Boston Harbor in an event that became known as the Boston Tea Party. Named the Coercive Acts by Parliament, these became known as the Intolerable Acts in America. The Massachusetts colonists responded with the Suffolk Resolves, establishing a government that removed control of the province from the Crown outside of Boston. Twelve colonies formed a Continental Congress to coordinate their resistance, and established committees, British attempts to seize the munitions of Massachusetts colonists in April 1775 led to the first open combat between Crown forces and Massachusetts militia, the Battles of Lexington and Concord. Militia forces proceeded to besiege the British forces in Boston, forcing them to evacuate the city in March 1776, the Continental Congress appointed George Washington to take command of the militia. Concurrent to the Boston campaign, an American attempt to invade Quebec, on July 2,1776, the Continental Congress formally voted for independence, issuing its Declaration on July 4. Sir William Howe began a British counterattack, focussing on recapturing New York City, Howe outmaneuvered and defeated Washington, leaving American confidence at a low ebb. Washington captured a Hessian force at Trenton and drove the British out of New Jersey, in 1777 the British sent a new army under John Burgoyne to move south from Canada and to isolate the New England colonies. However, instead of assisting Burgoyne, Howe took his army on a campaign against the revolutionary capital of Philadelphia. Burgoyne outran his supplies, was surrounded and surrendered at Saratoga in October 1777, the British defeat in the Saratoga Campaign had drastic consequences. Giving up on the North, the British decided to salvage their former colonies in the South, British forces under Lieutenant-General Charles Cornwallis seized Georgia and South Carolina, capturing an American army at Charleston, South Carolina. British strategy depended upon an uprising of large numbers of armed Loyalists, in 1779 Spain joined the war as an ally of France under the Pacte de Famille, intending to capture Gibraltar and British colonies in the Caribbean. Britain declared war on the Dutch Republic in December 1780, in 1781, after the British and their allies had suffered two decisive defeats at Kings Mountain and Cowpens, Cornwallis retreated to Virginia, intending on evacuation. A decisive French naval victory in September deprived the British of an escape route, a joint Franco-American army led by Count Rochambeau and Washington, laid siege to the British forces at Yorktown. With no sign of relief and the situation untenable, Cornwallis surrendered in October 1781, Whigs in Britain had long opposed the pro-war Tory majority in Parliament, but the defeat at Yorktown gave the Whigs the upper hand
Great Britain