1.
Filipino language
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Filipino /ˌfɪlɪˈpiːnoʊ/, in this usage, refers to the national language of the Philippines. Filipino is also designated, along with English, as a language of the country. It is the register of the Tagalog language, an Austronesian. As of 2007, Tagalog is the first language of 28 million people, or about one-third of the Philippine population, Filipino is among the 185 languages of the Philippines identified in the Ethnologue. Filipino is ideally a pluricentric language, in reality, however, Filipino has been variously described as simply Tagalog in syntax and grammar, with no grammatical element or lexicon coming from. Other major Philippine languages, and as essentially a version of Tagalog. In most contexts, Filipino is understood to be a name for Tagalog. There was no language in the Philippine archipelago when the Spanish arrived in the 16th century. The four major trade languages were Visayan, Kapampangan, Pangasinan, as the Philippine languages are all closely related and therefore easy for Filipinos to learn, most speakers of smaller languages spoke two or more of such regional languages. The first dictionary of Tagalog was written by the Franciscan Pedro de San Buenaventura, a latter book of the same name was written by Czech Jesuit missionary Paul Klein at the beginning of the 18th century. Klein spoke Tagalog and used it actively in several of his books and he wrote the first dictionary, which he later passed over to Francisco Jansens and José Hernandez. On November 13,1936, Commonwealth act No, on November 12,1937, the First National Assembly of the Philippine Commonwealth approved the law for the establishment of the Surián ng Wikang Pambansâ. This institute would be responsible for surveying and researching existing native languages in order to determine among them the basis for a national language of the Philippines. Then-president Manuel L. Quezon later appointed representatives for each major regional language to form NLI, sales Rodriguez, Hadji Butu, and Cecilio Lopez. On December 13,1937, Presisis of the new national language, Spanish was the language of the 1896 Revolution and the Katipunan, but the revolution was led by people who also spoke Tagalog. In 1959, the became known as Pilipino in an effort to dissociate it from the Tagalog ethnic group. However, neither the nor the amended version specified either Tagalog or Pilipino as the basis for Filipino. Instead they tasked the National Assembly to, take steps toward the development and this move has drawn much criticism from the nations other ethnic groups
2.
Japanese language
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Japanese is an East Asian language spoken by about 125 million speakers, primarily in Japan, where it is the national language. It is a member of the Japonic language family, whose relation to language groups, particularly to Korean. Little is known of the prehistory, or when it first appeared in Japan. Chinese documents from the 3rd century recorded a few Japanese words, during the Heian period, Chinese had considerable influence on the vocabulary and phonology of Old Japanese. Late Middle Japanese saw changes in features that brought it closer to the modern language, the standard dialect moved from the Kansai region to the Edo region in the Early Modern Japanese period. Following the end in 1853 of Japans self-imposed isolation, the flow of loanwords from European languages increased significantly, English loanwords in particular have become frequent, and Japanese words from English roots have proliferated. Japanese is an agglutinative, mora-timed language with simple phonotactics, a vowel system, phonemic vowel and consonant length. Word order is normally subject–object–verb with particles marking the grammatical function of words, sentence-final particles are used to add emotional or emphatic impact, or make questions. Nouns have no number or gender, and there are no articles. Verbs are conjugated, primarily for tense and voice, but not person, Japanese equivalents of adjectives are also conjugated. Japanese has a system of honorifics with verb forms and vocabulary to indicate the relative status of the speaker, the listener. Japanese has no relationship with Chinese, but it makes extensive use of Chinese characters, or kanji, in its writing system. Along with kanji, the Japanese writing system uses two syllabic scripts, hiragana and katakana. Latin script is used in a fashion, such as for imported acronyms. Very little is known about the Japanese of this period, Old Japanese is the oldest attested stage of the Japanese language. Through the spread of Buddhism, the Chinese writing system was imported to Japan, the earliest texts found in Japan are written in Classical Chinese, but they may have been meant to be read as Japanese by the kanbun method. Some of these Chinese texts show the influences of Japanese grammar, in these hybrid texts, Chinese characters are also occasionally used phonetically to represent Japanese particles. The earliest text, the Kojiki, dates to the early 8th century, the end of Old Japanese coincides with the end of the Nara period in 794
3.
Spanish language
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Spanish —also called Castilian —is a Romance language that originated in the Castile region of Spain, with hundreds of millions of native speakers around the world. It is usually considered the worlds second-most spoken native language after Mandarin Chinese and it is one of the few languages to use inverted question and exclamation marks. Spanish is a part of the Ibero-Romance group of languages, which evolved from several dialects of Vulgar Latin in Iberia after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century. Beginning in the early 16th century, Spanish was taken to the colonies of the Spanish Empire, most notably to the Americas, as well as territories in Africa, Oceania, around 75% of modern Spanish is derived from Latin. Greek has also contributed substantially to Spanish vocabulary, especially through Latin, Spanish vocabulary has been in contact from an early date with Arabic, having developed during the Al-Andalus era in the Iberian Peninsula. With around 8% of its vocabulary being Arabic in origin, this language is the second most important influence after Latin and it has also been influenced by Basque as well as by neighboring Ibero-Romance languages. It also adopted words from languages such as Gothic language from the Visigoths in which many Spanish names and surnames have a Visigothic origin. Spanish is one of the six languages of the United Nations. It is the language in the world by the number of people who speak it as a mother tongue, after Mandarin Chinese. It is estimated more than 437 million people speak Spanish as a native language. Spanish is the official or national language in Spain, Equatorial Guinea, speakers in the Americas total some 418 million. In the European Union, Spanish is the tongue of 8% of the population. Spanish is the most popular second language learned in the United States, in 2011 it was estimated by the American Community Survey that of the 55 million Hispanic United States residents who are five years of age and over,38 million speak Spanish at home. The Spanish Constitution of 1978 uses the term castellano to define the language of the whole Spanish State in contrast to las demás lenguas españolas. Article III reads as follows, El castellano es la lengua española oficial del Estado, las demás lenguas españolas serán también oficiales en las respectivas Comunidades Autónomas. Castilian is the official Spanish language of the State, the other Spanish languages as well shall be official in their respective Autonomous Communities. The Spanish Royal Academy, on the hand, currently uses the term español in its publications. Two etymologies for español have been suggested, the Spanish Royal Academy Dictionary derives the term from the Provençal word espaignol, and that in turn from the Medieval Latin word Hispaniolus, from—or pertaining to—Hispania
4.
Empire of Japan
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The Empire of Japan was the historical Japanese nation-state and great power that existed from the Meiji Restoration in 1868 to the enactment of the 1947 constitution of modern Japan. Imperial Japans rapid industrialization and militarization under the slogan Fukoku Kyōhei led to its emergence as a world power, after several large-scale military successes during the Second Sino-Japanese War and the Pacific War, the Empire also gained notoriety for its war crimes against the peoples it conquered. A period of occupation by the Allies followed the surrender, Occupation and reconstruction continued well into the 1950s, eventually forming the current nation-state whose full title is the State of Japan or simply rendered Japan in English. The historical state is referred to as the Empire of Japan or the Japanese Empire or Imperial Japan in English. In Japanese it is referred to as Dai Nippon Teikoku, which translates to Greater Japanese Empire and this is analogous to Großdeutsches Reich, a term that translates to Greater German Empire in English and Dai Doitsu Teikoku in Japanese. This meaning is significant in terms of geography, encompassing Japan, due to its name in kanji characters and its flag, it was also given the exonym Empire of the Sun. After two centuries, the policy, or Sakoku, under the shoguns of the Edo period came to an end when the country was forced open to trade by the Convention of Kanagawa in 1854. The following years saw increased trade and interaction, commercial treaties between the Tokugawa shogunate and Western countries were signed. In large part due to the terms of these Unequal Treaties, the Shogunate soon faced internal hostility, which materialized into a radical, xenophobic movement. In March 1863, the Emperor issued the order to expel barbarians, although the Shogunate had no intention of enforcing the order, it nevertheless inspired attacks against the Shogunate itself and against foreigners in Japan. The Namamugi Incident during 1862 led to the murder of an Englishman, Charles Lennox Richardson, the British demanded reparations but were denied. While attempting to exact payment, the Royal Navy was fired on from coastal batteries near the town of Kagoshima and they responded by bombarding the port of Kagoshima in 1863. For Richardsons death, the Tokugawa government agreed to pay an indemnity, shelling of foreign shipping in Shimonoseki and attacks against foreign property led to the Bombardment of Shimonoseki by a multinational force in 1864. The Chōshū clan also launched the coup known as the Kinmon incident. The Satsuma-Chōshū alliance was established in 1866 to combine their efforts to overthrow the Tokugawa bakufu, in early 1867, Emperor Kōmei died of smallpox and was replaced by his son, Crown Prince Mutsuhito. On November 9,1867, Tokugawa Yoshinobu resigned from his post and authorities to the Emperor, however, while Yoshinobus resignation had created a nominal void at the highest level of government, his apparatus of state continued to exist. On January 3,1868, Satsuma-Chōshū forces seized the palace in Kyoto. On January 17,1868, Yoshinobu declared that he would not be bound by the proclamation of the Restoration, on January 24, Yoshinobu decided to prepare an attack on Kyoto, occupied by Satsuma and Chōshū forces
5.
Flag of the Philippines
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The National Flag of the Philippines is a horizontal flag bicolor with equal bands of royal blue and scarlet, and with a white, equilateral triangle at the hoist. In the center of the triangle is a sun with eight primary rays. Panay, which recent interpretations call as as representative of the entire Visayas region, a unique feature of this flag is its ability to indicate a state of war if it is displayed with the red side on top. The flags length is twice its width, giving it a ratio of 1,2. The length of all the sides of the triangle are equal to the width of the flag. Each star is oriented in such manner that one of its tips points towards the vertex at which it is located. Moreover, the gap-angle between two neighbours of the 8 ray-bundles is as large as the angle of one ray-bundle, with each ray having double the thickness of its two minor rays. The golden sun is not exactly in the center of the triangle and this flag is waved when having ceremonies The shade of blue used in the flag has varied over time, beginning with the original color lazuli Rosco. The exact nature of this shade is uncertain, but a candidate is the blue of the Cuban flag. Specifications for the colors with shades matching those used in the American flag were adopted by the National Historical Institute in 1955. For the 1998 independence centennial celebrations, the Flag and Heraldic Code of the Philippines was passed, the flags colors are specified by Republic Act 8491 in terms of their cable number in the system developed by the Color Association of the United States. The official colors and their approximations in other spaces are listed below. The Philippines does not utilize a separate war flag, instead, to indicate a state of war, the red field is flown upwards and is placed on the right if it is in a hanging position. In times of peace, however, the area is the superior field. The only time that the flag was not oriented in a state of war was during the Battle of Alapan in 1898,15 days before the Philippine Declaration of Independence in Kawit, Cavite. During the 2010 US-Association of Southeast Asian Nations summit in New York City, the U. S. Embassy in Manila apologized for the mistake, and the Philippines Department of Foreign Affairs accepted the apology. In the center of the triangle is an eight-rayed golden sun symbolizing unity, freedom, peoples democracy. Three five-pointed stars, one for each of the triangles points, the flags original symbolism is enumerated in the text of the independence proclamation, which makes reference to an attached drawing, though no record of the drawing has surfaced
6.
Coat of arms of the Philippines
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The current arms, which shares many features of the national flag, was designed by Filipino artist and heraldist Captain Galo B. The said lion shall hold in his paw a sword with guard, along with this, the lesser arms of the Spanish monarch was used. Minor details of the arms had changed over the years but the design elements remained. During the 1896 Philippine Revolution, the Filipino leaders had no permanent political symbol, both consisted of an equilateral triangle, but differed on what symbols were placed inside the triangle. Many documents of the Katipunan bore a letter K which stood for Kalayaan, general Emilio Aguinaldo, officially the first President of the Philippines, adopted the mythological sun and the three stars in each angle of the equilateral triangle as his emblem. During the American Occupation, a law was enacted prescribing a new coat of arms for the islands and it also bore as its crest an American eagle, the symbol of United States. Beneath the shield was the scroll with the words Philippine Islands and it remained unaltered until the inauguration of Commonwealth of the Philippines in 1935. During the Commonwealth, extensive reform was made to the government in preparation for Philippine independence, one of major changes was changing the symbol for Filipinos. The Arms and Great Seal of the Commonwealth Government of the Philippines was approved in 1935, the sea lion was made gold instead of silver and the eagle was slightly enlarged and placed closer to the arm. The word Commonwealth of the Philippines replaced Philippine Islands in the scroll below, on 15 December 1938, President Manuel L. Quezon created the Special Committee of Arms of the Philippines. After almost two years of study, the committee recommended certain modifications to the coat of arms of the Commonwealth of the Philippines and they recommended that the eight-ray Philippine sun must be the point of honor. On the crest is the American eagle, its talon grasping a branch with eight leaves and eight fruits. Beneath the shield was the scroll with the inscription Philippines, after providing the various branches of the government with their own symbols, President Quezon created the Philippine Heraldic Committee in 1940. The committee was assigned the studying and recommending the designs and symbolism for official seals of Philippines political subdivision, cities, the heraldic work of the committee was suspended during the Pacific War. During the Second Philippine Republic, a nationalistic policy were adopted. Foreign components of the Filipino heraldic symbol which represented its colonial links to Spain. Written within three sets of two lines of the three sides of the triangle were Kalayaan, Kapayapaan, Katarungan. Around the seal was a double marginal circle within which was written Republika ng Pilipinas, after World War II, President Sergio Osmeña reactivated the Philippine Heraldic Committee
7.
Lupang Hinirang
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Lupang Hinirang is the national anthem of the Philippines. Its music was composed in 1898 by Julian Felipe, and the lyrics were adapted from the Spanish poem Filipinas, under the American Period, the Flag Act of 1907 prohibited the public display of flags, banners, emblems, or devices used by revolutionaries in the Philippine–American War. Under this law, the government banned the song from being played. The Flag Law was repealed in 1919, under the Commonwealth, Commonwealth Act №382, approved on September 5,1938, officially adopted the musical arrangement and composition by Julián Felipe as the national anthem. The Spanish lyrics were translated into Tagalog beginning in the 1940s, over the years, several English versions came into use. On February 12,1998, Republic Act №8491 codified the Filipino lyrics, Lupang Hinirang began as incidental music which President Emilio Aguinaldo commissioned for use in the proclamation of Philippine independence from Spain. This task was given to Julián Felipe and was to replace a march which Aguinaldo had deemed unsatisfactory and it was played by the Banda San Francisco de Malabón during the proclamation rites on 12 June. In August 1899, the soldier and writer José Palma penned the Spanish poem Filipinas, the poem was published for the first time in the newspaper La Independencia on 3 September 1899, and was subsequently set to the tune of the Marcha Nacional Filipina. Philippine law requires that the anthem always be rendered in accordance with Felipes original musical arrangement and composition, in the 1920s, the time signature was changed to 4/4 to facilitate its singing and the key was changed from the original C major to G. After the repeal of the Flag Law in 1919, the Insular Government decided to translate the hymn from its original Spanish to English, the first translation was written around that time by the renowned poet Paz Marquez Benitez of the University of the Philippines. The most popular translation, called the Philippine Hymn, was written by Senator Camilo Osías, Tagalog translations began appearing in the 1940s, with the first known one titled Diwa ng Bayan, which was sung during the Japanese occupation of the Philippines. The second most popular one was O Sintang Lupa by Julián Cruz Balmaceda, Ildefonso Santos, and Francisco Caballo, upon the adoption of Diwa ng Bayan, the song Awit sa Paglikha ng Bagong Pilipinas and the Japanese national anthem Kimigayo were replaced. During the term of President Ramon Magsaysay, Education Secretary Gregorio Hernández formed a commission to revise the lyrics, on 26 May 1956, the Pilipino translation Lupang Hinirang was sung for the first time. Minor revisions were made in the 1960s, and it is this version by Felipe Padilla de León which is presently used, the Filipino lyrics have been confirmed by Republic Act No.8491 in 1998, abandoning use of both the Spanish and English versions. Lupang Hinirang was not the first Filipino national anthem to be conceived, the composer and revolutionist Julio Nakpil penned Marangál na Dalit ng Katagalugan, which was later called Salve Patria. It was originally intended to be the anthem of the Katipunan. The arrangement was by Julio Nakpil, who reconstructed it from memory after the score was destroyed in 1945 during the battle for Manila. It would later be reworked and incorporated in the piece, Salve
8.
Awit sa Paglikha ng Bagong Pilipinas
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Awit sa Paglikha ng Bagong Pilipinas, also known by its incipit Tindíg. Aking Ináng Bayan is a song written by Filipino composer Felipe Padilla de León. It was commissioned during the Japanese Occupation of the Philippines and intended to supplant Lupang Hinirang as the national anthem and it was also sung by the members of the Hukbo ng Bayan Laban sa Hapon, however, the words bear sentiments against the Japanese at that time. It was later re-used during the Martial Law period as the national anthem. The song was sung by the Communist New Peoples Army through the title Tindíg Uring Anakpawis
9.
Southeast Asia
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Southeast Asia or Southeastern Asia is a subregion of Asia, consisting of the countries that are geographically south of China, east of India, west of New Guinea and north of Australia. The region lies near the intersection of geological plates, with seismic and volcanic activity. Southeast Asia consists of two regions, Mainland Southeast Asia, also known historically as Indochina, comprising Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Thailand, Myanmar. Maritime Southeast Asia, comprising Indonesia, East Malaysia, Singapore, Philippines, East Timor, Brunei, Cocos Islands, definitions of Southeast Asia vary, but most definitions include the area represented by the countries listed below. All of the states are members of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations, the area, together with part of South Asia, was widely known as the East Indies or simply the Indies until the 20th century. Sovereignty issues exist over some territories in the South China Sea, Papua New Guinea has stated that it might join ASEAN, and is currently an observer. Southeast Asia is geographically divided into two subregions, namely Mainland Southeast Asia and Maritime Southeast Asia, Mainland Southeast Asia includes, Maritime Southeast Asia includes, The Andaman and Nicobar Islands of India are geographically considered part of Southeast Asia. Eastern Bangladesh and the Seven Sister States of India are culturally part of Southeast Asia, the eastern half of Indonesia and East Timor are considered to be biogeographically part of Oceania. Homo sapiens reached the region by around 45,000 years ago, homo floresiensis also lived in the area up until 12,000 years ago, when they became extinct. Austronesian people, who form the majority of the population in Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei, East Timor. Solheim and others have shown evidence for a Nusantao maritime trading network ranging from Vietnam to the rest of the archipelago as early as 5000 BC to 1 AD. The peoples of Southeast Asia, especially those of Austronesian descent, have been seafarers for thousands of years and their vessels, such as the vinta, were ocean-worthy. Magellans voyage records how much more manoeuvrable their vessels were, as compared to the European ships, Passage through the Indian Ocean aided the colonisation of Madagascar by the Austronesian people, as well as commerce between West Asia and Southeast Asia. Gold from Sumatra is thought to have reached as far west as Rome and this was later replaced by Hinduism. Theravada Buddhism soon followed in 525, in the 15th century, Islamic influences began to enter. This forced the last Hindu court in Indonesia to retreat to Bali, in Mainland Southeast Asia, Burma, Cambodia and Thailand retained the Theravada form of Buddhism, brought to them from Sri Lanka. This type of Buddhism was fused with the Hindu-influenced Khmer culture, very little is known about Southeast Asian religious beliefs and practices before the advent of Indian merchants and religious influences from the 2nd century BCE onwards. Prior to the 13th century CE, Hinduism and Buddhism were the religions in Southeast Asia
10.
Manila
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Manila, officially City of Manila, is the capital of the Philippines. Founded on June 24,1571, by Spanish conquistador Miguel López de Legazpi and it is situated on the eastern shore of Manila Bay and is home to many landmarks, some of which date back to the 16th century. In 2012, the Globalization and World Cities Research Network listed Manila as a global city, the city proper is home to 1,780,148 people in 2015, forming the historic core of Metro Manila, the capital region of the Philippines. The metropolitan area, which includes the much larger Quezon City, Manila is also the most densely populated city proper in the world, with 41,515 people per square kilometer. The term Manila is commonly used to refer to either the whole area or the city proper. Manila is located on the shore of the Manila Bay on one of the finest harbors in the country. The city has six districts for the lower house of the Philippine Congress. Manila was once ruled by the Kingdom of Tondo before it became a province of the Majapahit Empire. During the Bruneian invasion of the Philippines, Sultan Bolkiah of Brunei captured Seludong and renamed it Maynilà, Maynilà became a vassal state of the Sultanate of Brunei, established to overpower Tondo. In 1571, conquistadors arrived from Mexico, across the Pacific Ocean, Spanish missionaries soon Christianized the city, incorporated Tondo and built some of the oldest churches in the country, including San Agustin Church. The conquistadors renamed the area Nuevo Reino de Castilla, Manila became the center of Spanish activity in the Far East and one end of the Manila–Acapulco galleon trade route linking Spanish America with Asia, one of the earliest examples of globalization. Because of its location on Pacific trade routes, Manila received the moniker Pearl of the Orient. Spanish rule of the Philippine archipelago lasted for more than three centuries, until 1898, order was usually quickly restored and the city returned to the business of trade. In the 19th century, Manila was one of the most modern cities in Asia, before the Spanish–American War, it saw the rise of the Philippine Revolution. After the war, the United States took control, switched the official language from Spanish to English, near the end of World War II, during the Battle of Manila, most of the city was flattened by intensive aerial bombardment by the United States Air Force. As a result, relatively little remains of Manilas prewar and colonial architecture, although there are ongoing projects, especially within the old walled city. Maynilà, the Filipino name for the city, originated from the word nilà, referring to a mangrove tree that grew on the delta of the Pasig River. The flowers were made into garlands that, according to folklore, were offered to statues on religious altars or in churches
11.
Baguio
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Baguio, officially the City of Baguio and often referred to as Baguio City, is a highly urbanized city in northern Luzon of the Philippines, now also known as Summer Capital of the Philippines. The city has become the center of business, commerce, and education in northern Luzon, according to the 2015 census, Baguio has a population of 345,366. Baguio was established as a station by the Americans in 1900 at the site of an Ibaloi village known as Kafagway. It was the United States only hill station in Asia, the name of the city is derived from bagiw, the Ibaloi word for moss. The city is situated at an altitude of approximately 1,500 meters in the Luzon tropical pine forests ecoregion conducive for the growth of mossy plants, most of the lands in Kafagway were owned by Ibaloys even prior to the appointment of Mateo Cariño as chieftain. The Spanish presidencia, which was located at Bagyiw at the vicinity of Guisad Valley was later moved to Cariños house where the current City Hall stands. Bagyiw, a term for moss once abundant in the area was converted by the Spaniards into Baguio. Baguio was converted into a town, with Mateo Cariño being the presidente, when the United States took possession of the Philippines after the Spanish–American War, Baguio was selected to become the summer capital of the Philippine Islands. Governor-General William Taft on his first visit in 1901, noted the air as bracing as Adirondacks or Murray Bay, temperature this hottest month in the Philippines on my cottage porch at three in the afternoon sixty-eight. In 1903, Filipino, Japanese and Chinese workers were hired to build Kennon Road, before this, the only road to Benguet was Naguilian Road, and it was largely a horse trail at higher elevations. It was named after Roosevelts Secretary of State, John Milton Hay, the Mansion, built on 1908, served as the official residence of the American Governor-General during the summer to escape Manilas heat. In 1904 the rest of the city was planned out by the American architect Daniel Burnham, on September 1,1909 Baguio was declared as a chartered city and the Summer Capital of the Philippines. Prior to World War II, Baguio was the capital of the Commonwealth of the Philippines. Following the Japanese invasion of the Philippines in 1941, the Japanese used Camp John Hay, the nearby Philippine Constabulary base, Camp Holmes, was used as an internment camp for about 500 civilian enemy aliens, mostly Americans, between April 1942 and December 1944. By late March, Baguio City was within range of the American, president José P. Laurel of the Second Philippine Republic, a puppet state established on 1943, departed the city on March 22 and reaching Taiwan on March 30. The remainder of the Second Republic government, along with Japanese civilians, were ordered to evacuate Baguio on 30 March, yamashita and his staff then relocated to Bambang, Nueva Vizcaya. It is where they gave up the entire Imperial Japanese Armed Forces to American authorities at the High Commissioners Residence in Camp John Hay on September 3,1945, the 1990 Luzon earthquake destroyed much of the city of Baguio on July 16,1990. Some of the buildings were built on or near fault lines
12.
Tagalog language
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Tagalog is an Austronesian language spoken as a first language by a quarter of the population of the Philippines and as a second language by the majority. Its standardized form, officially named Filipino, is officially the national language, the word Tagalog is derived from the endonym taga-log, composed of tagá- and ilog. Linguists such as Dr. David Zorc and Dr. Robert Blust speculate that the Tagalogs, the first written record of Tagalog is the Laguna Copperplate Inscription, which dates to 900 CE and exhibits fragments of the language along with Sanskrit, Old Malay, Javanese and Old Tagalog. The first known book to be written in Tagalog is the Doctrina Christiana. Tagalog differs from its Central Philippine counterparts with its treatment of the Proto-Philippine schwa vowel *ə, in Bikol and Visayan, this sound merged with /u/ and. In Tagalog, it has merged with /i/, for example, Proto-Philippine *dəkət is Tagalog dikít and Visayan & Bikol dukot. Proto-Philippine *r, *j, and *z merged with /d/ but is /l/ between vowels, Proto-Philippine *ŋajan and *hajək became Tagalog ngalan and halík. Proto-Philippine *R merged with /ɡ/. *tubiR and *zuRuʔ became Tagalog tubig, the first substantial dictionary of the Tagalog language was written by the Czech Jesuit missionary Pablo Clain in the beginning of the 18th century. Clain spoke Tagalog and used it actively in several of his books and he wrote the first dictionary, which he later passed over to Francisco Jansens and José Hernandez. Tagalog was declared the language by the first constitution in the Philippines. In 1939, President Quezon renamed the proposed Tagalog-based national language as wikang pambansâ, in 1959, the language was further renamed as Pilipino. The 1987 constitution designated Filipino as the national language mandating that as it evolves, it shall be developed and enriched on the basis of existing Philippine. The regional languages are the official languages in the regions. In secondary school, Filipino and English become the primary languages of instruction and it is the first language by a quarter of the population of the Philippines and a second language by the majority. Tagalog is a Central Philippine language within the Austronesian language family, being Malayo-Polynesian, it is related to other Austronesian languages, such as Malagasy, Javanese, Malay, Tetum, and Yami. It is closely related to the languages spoken in the Bicol Region and the Visayas islands, such as the Bikol group and the Visayan group, including Hiligaynon and Cebuano. At present, no comprehensive dialectology has been done in the Tagalog-speaking regions, though there have been descriptions in the form of dictionaries and grammars of various Tagalog dialects. Some example of differences are, Many Tagalog dialects, particularly those in the south, preserve the glottal stop found after consonants
13.
One-party state
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All other parties are either outlawed or allowed to take only a limited and controlled participation in elections. One-party states explain themselves through various methods, most often, proponents of a one-party state argue that the existence of separate parties runs counter to national unity. Others argue that the one party is the vanguard of the people, the Soviet government argued that multiple parties represented the class struggle, which was absent in Soviet society, and so the Soviet Union only had one party, the Communist Party. Some one-party states only outlaw opposition parties, while allowing allied parties to exist as part of a permanent coalition such as a popular front. However, these parties are largely or completely subservient to the ruling party, examples of this are the Peoples Republic of China under the United Front, or the National Front in former East Germany. Others may allow non-party members to run for seats, as was the case with Taiwans Tangwai movement in the 1970s and 1980s. Within their own countries, dominant parties ruling over one-party states are referred to simply as the Party. One-party systems often arise from decolonization because one party has had a dominant role in liberation or in independence struggles. One-party states are often, but not always, considered to be authoritarian or totalitarian, however, not all authoritarian or totalitarian states operate based on one-party rule. Some, especially absolute monarchies and certain military dictatorships, have all political parties illegal. The term communist state is used in the West to apply to states in which the ruling party subscribes to a form of Marxism–Leninism. While the role of the Communist Party is enshrined in the constitution, no party is permitted to campaign or run candidates for election, the party was conceived by the original Black American settlers and their descendants who referred to themselves as Americo-Liberians. Initially, its ideology was influenced by that of the Whig Party in the United States. Over time it developed into a powerful Masonic Order that ruled every aspect of Liberian society for well over a century until it was overthrown in 1980, while the True Whig Party still exists today, its influence has substantially declined
14.
Authoritarianism
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Authoritarianism is a form of government characterized by strong central power and limited political freedoms. Individual freedoms are subordinate to the state and there is no constitutional accountability under an authoritarian regime, modern dictatorships use an authoritarian concept to form a government. Linz distinguished new forms of authoritarianism from personalistic dictatorships and totalitarian states, several subtypes of authoritarian regimes have been identified by Linz and others. Bureaucratic-military authoritarian regimes are those governed by a coalition of military officers, mark J. Linz also has identified three other subtypes of authoritarian regime, corporatist or organic-statistic, racial and ethnic democracy and post-totalitarian. Examples include the Soviet Eastern bloc states in the mid-1980s, authoritarian regimes are also sometimes subcategorized by whether they are personalistic or populist. Personalistic authoritarian regimes are characterized by arbitrary rule and authority exercised mainly through patronage networks and coercion rather than through institutitions, personalistic authoritarian regimes have been seen in post-colonial Africa. By contrast, populist authoritarian regimes are mobilizational regimes in which a strong, charismatic, examples include Argentina under Perón, Egypt under Nasser, and Venezuela under Chávez and Maduro. Authoritarianism is characterized by highly concentrated and centralized power maintained by political repression and it uses political parties and mass organizations to mobilize people around the goals of the regime. Adam Przeworski has theorized that authoritarian equilibrium rests mainly on lies, fear, authoritarian political systems may be weakened through inadequate performance to demands of the people. Because the legitimacy of the state is dependent on performance, authoritarian states that fail to adapt may collapse, authoritarianism is marked by indefinite political tenure of the ruler or ruling party or other authority. The transition from a system to a more democratic form of government is referred to as democratization. John Duckitt suggests a link between authoritarianism and collectivism, asserting that both stand in opposition to individualism, Duckitt writes that both authoritarianism and collectivism submerge individual rights and goals to group goals, expectations and conformities. Totalitarianism is a version of authoritarianism. Authoritarianism primarily differs from totalitarianism in that social and economic institutions exist that are not under governmental control, building on the work of Yale political scientist Juan Linz, Paul C. Concomitant role conceptions differentiate totalitarians from authoritarians, authoritarians view themselves as individual beings largely content to control, and often maintain, the status quo. The tyrant is less a person than a function to guide. Consequently, the utilisation of power for personal aggrandizement is more evident among authoritarians than totalitarians, lacking the binding appeal of ideology, authoritarians support their rule by a mixture of instilling fear and granting rewards to loyal collaborators, engendering a kleptocracy. Compared to totalitarianism, the state still maintains a certain distinction between state and society
15.
Republic
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It is a government where the head of state is not a monarch. Both modern and ancient republics vary widely in their ideology, composition, in the classical and medieval period of Europe, many states were fashioned on the Roman Republic, which referred to the governance of the city of Rome, between it having kings and emperors. The Italian medieval and Renaissance political tradition, today referred to as humanism, is sometimes considered to derive directly from Roman republicans such as Sallust. Republics were not equated with classical democracies such as Athens, but had a democratic aspect, Republics became more common in the Western world starting in the late 18th century, eventually displacing absolute monarchy as the most common form of government in Europe. In modern republics, the executive is legitimized both by a constitution and by popular suffrage, for instance, Article IV of the United States Constitution guarantee to every State in this Union a Republican form of Government. The term originates as the Latin translation of Greek word politeia, cicero, among other Latin writers, translated politeia as res publica and it was in turn translated by Renaissance scholars as republic. The term politeia can be translated as form of government, polity, or regime, and is therefore not always a word for a specific type of regime as the modern word republic is. And also amongst classical Latin, the term republic can be used in a way to refer to any regime. In medieval Northern Italy, a number of city states had commune or signoria based governments, in the late Middle Ages, writers, such as Giovanni Villani, began writing about the nature of these states and the differences from other types of regime. They used terms such as libertas populi, a free people, the terminology changed in the 15th century as the renewed interest in the writings of Ancient Rome caused writers to prefer using classical terminology. To describe non-monarchical states writers, most importantly Leonardo Bruni, adopted the Latin phrase res publica. While Bruni and Machiavelli used the term to describe the states of Northern Italy, which were not monarchies, the term can quite literally be translated as public matter. It was most often used by Roman writers to refer to the state and government, in subsequent centuries, the English word commonwealth came to be used as a translation of res publica, and its use in English was comparable to how the Romans used the term res publica. Notably, during The Protectorate of Oliver Cromwell the word commonwealth was the most common term to call the new monarchless state, likewise, in Polish, the term was translated as rzeczpospolita, although the translation is now only used with respect to Poland. Presently, the term republic commonly means a system of government which derives its power from the rather than from another basis. After the classical period, during the Middle Ages, many cities developed again. The modern type of itself is different from any type of state found in the classical world. Nevertheless, there are a number of states of the era that are today still called republics
16.
President of the Philippines
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The President of the Philippines is the head of state and head of government of the Philippines. The President leads the executive branch of the Philippine government and is the commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces of the Philippines, Filipinos refer to their President as Pangulo or Presidente. The President serves a single, fixed, six-year term without possibility of re-election, in Filipino, one of the two official languages of the Philippines, the President is referred to as Pangulo. In the other languages of the Philippines such as the Visayan languages. Depending on the chosen for these terms, a number of persons could alternatively be considered the inaugural holder of the office. Andrés Bonifacio could be considered the first President of a united Philippines since he was the third Supreme President of the Katipunan and its Supreme Council, led by the Supreme President, coordinated provincial and district councils. When the Katipunan started a revolt against the Spanish colonial government in August 1896. While the term Katipunan remained, Bonifacios government was known as the Tagalog Republic. Bonifacios revolutionary government never controlled territory for any significant period. Some historians contend that including Bonifacio as a past president would imply that Macario Sacay, in March 1897, during the Philippine Revolution against Spain Emilio Aguinaldo was elected president of the revolutionary government at the Tejeros Convention. The new government was meant to replace the Katipunan, though the latter was not formally abolished until 1899, Aguinaldo was again elected President at Biak-na-Bato in November, leading the Republic of Biak-na-Bato. Aguinaldo therefore signed the Pact of Biak-na-Bato and went into exile in Hong Kong at the end of 1897, in April 1898, the Spanish–American War broke out, and the Asiatic Squadron of the United States Navy sailed for the Philippines. At the Battle of Manila Bay on May 1,1898 the American Navy decisively defeated the Spanish Navy effectively ending Spanish rule in the Philippines, aquinaldo subsequently returned to the Philippines aboard a U. S. Navy vessel and renewed the revolution. He formed a government on May 24,1898 and issued the Philippine Declaration of Independence on June 12,1898. On June 23,1898, Aguinaldo transformed his government into a revolutionary government. On January 23,1899, he was then elected President of the First Philippine Republic, consequently, this government is also called the Malolos Republic. The First Philippine Republic was short-lived and never internationally recognized, the Philippines was transferred from Spanish to American control by the Treaty of Paris of 1898, signed in December of that year. The Philippine–American War broke out between the United States and Aguinaldos government and his government effectively ceased to exist on April 1,1901, after he pledged allegiance to the United States following his capture by U. S. forces in March
17.
Governor-General of the Philippines
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They were also the representative of the executive of the ruling power. On November 15,1935, the Commonwealth of the Philippines was established as a government to prepare the country for independence from the American control. The governor-general was replaced by an elected Filipino President of the Philippine Commonwealth, as the executive of the Philippines. The former American Governor-General then became known as the High Commissioner to the Philippines, from 1565 to 1898, the Philippines was under Spanish rule. From 1565–1821, The governor and captain-general was appointed by the Viceroy of New Spain upon recommendation of the Spanish Cortes, when there was a vacancy, the Royal Audiencia in Manila appoints a temporary governor from among its members. Ad interim Real Audiencia Great Britain occupied Manila and the port of Cavite as part of the Seven Years War. After the 1821 Mexican War of Independence, Mexico became independent and was no part of the Spanish Empire. The Viceroyalty of New Spain ceased to exist, the Philippines, as a result, was directly governed from Madrid, under the Crown. The American military government was established following the defeat of Spain in the Spanish–American War, during the transition period, executive authority in all civil affairs in the Philippine government was exercised by the military governor. For the first year, a Military Governor, Adna Chaffee, ruled parts of the still resisting the American rule, concurrent with civil governor. Disagreements between the two were not uncommon, the following year, on July 4,1902, Taft became the sole executive authority. Chaffee remained as commander of Philippine Division until September 30,1902, the title was changed to Governor General in 1905 by an act of Congress. The term insular refers to U. S. island territories that are not incorporated into either a state or a federal district, all insular areas was under the authority of the U. S. Bureau of Insular Affairs, a division of the US War Department. On November 15,1935, the Commonwealth of the Philippines was inaugurated as a government to prepare the country for independence. The office of President of the Philippine Commonwealth replaced the Governor-General as the chief executive. The Governor-General became the High Commissioner of the Philippines with Frank Murphy, the High Commissioner exercised no executive power but rather represented the colonial power, the United States Government, in the Philippines. The high commissioner moved from Malacañang Palace to the newly built High Commissioners Residence, after the Philippine independence on July 4,1946, the last High Commissioner, Paul McNutt, became the first United States Ambassador to the Philippines. In December 1941, the Commonwealth of the Philippines was invaded by Japan as part of World War II, the next year, the Empire of Japan sent a military governor to control the country during wartime, followed by the formal establishment of the puppet second republic
18.
Shigenori Kuroda
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Shigenori Kuroda was a general of the Japanese Imperial Army and the Japanese Governor-General of the Philippines during World War II. Kuroda was commissioned as an officer in 1909. He graduated from Army War College in 1916 with Tomoyuki Yamashita and Shizuichi Tanaka, in 1922, Kuroda served as military attaché in England. From 1935-1937, he served as military attaché in India, in 1937, he was made major general and Deputy Inspector General for Military Training in 1941, which was then under General Otozō Yamada. From July 1,1942 to May 19,1943, he was Chief of Staff in Japanese Southern Expeditionary Army Group and he participated in the Second Sino-Japanese War, where he led the 26th Division in the Battle of Wuyuan. The battle, which was part of the Japanese counterattack in response to the Chinese 1939-40 Winter Offensive, resulted to a Chinese victory, despite the loss in the said battle, the Japanese had a strategic victory for making the Chinese fail their primary objectives. From May 28,1943 to September 26,1944, he was military governor of the Philippines. During his rule in the Philippines, a constitution was formed by the Preparatory Commission for Independence, the Preparatory Commission, led by José P. Laurel, presented its draft Constitution on September 4,1943 and three days later, the KALIBAPI general assembly ratified the draft Constitution. By early 1944, the Imperial Japanese Army General Staff anticipated the return of American forces to the Philippines, so, the weight for preparing against an American landing fell to Kuroda. Kuroda planned to concentrate the bulk of the Japanese forces in Luzon, the staff instead devoted only five of his ten divisions in Luzon, which was said to have no experience in any of the past Japanese campaigns. After being denied of his ideas for the defense of the Philippines and he was replaced by Tomoyuki Yamashita, his former schoolmate in the Army War College, who was said to be superb and excellent tactician, after the fall of his patron Tojo Hideki from power. Yamashita found the condition unfavorable with many of the newly placed generals unfamiliar with the archipelago, the defense for the Philippine archipelago was charged to 270,000 army and air force troops as of October 20,1944. The total size of the Japanese navy at the time amounted to 17 battleships,4 aircraft carriers,13 heavy cruisers,6 light cruisers, Kuroda then retired in 1945, arrested for war crimes in 1946, and condemned to life imprisonment. His lawyer at the time was Lieutenant Colonel Jose Lukban and he disguised Kuroda by putting a mole on his face, and removing that at the end of the trial to discredit the witnesses thrown at the Japanese general. He was released eventually in 1952, and died the same year, 26th Division Japanese Fourteenth Area Army
19.
Tomoyuki Yamashita
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Tomoyuki Yamashita was an Imperial Japanese Army general during World War II. The accomplishment earned Yamashita the sobriquet The Tiger of Malaya, after the war, following a trial in Manila, he was found guilty of war crimes and executed by hanging for his troops conduct during the Japanese defense of the occupied Philippines in 1944. Yamashita was the son of a local doctor in Osugi. He attended military schools in his youth. In November 1905 Yamashita graduated from the 18th class of the Imperial Japanese Army Academy and he was ranked 16th out of 920 cadets. In December 1908 he was promoted to lieutenant and fought against the German Empire in Shantung, in May 1916 he was promoted to captain. He attended the 28th class of the Army War College, graduating sixth in his class in 1916 and he married Hisako Nagayama, the daughter of retired Gen. Nagayama, in 1916. Yamashita became an expert on Germany, serving as assistant military attaché at Bern, Switzerland, in February 1922 he was promoted to major. In 1922, on his return to Japan, Maj. Yamashita served in the Imperial Headquarters, while posted to the Imperial Japanese Army General Staff, Yamashita unsuccessfully promoted a military reduction plan. Despite his ability, Yamashita fell into disfavor as a result of his involvement with political factions within the Japanese military, as a leading member of the Imperial Way group, he became a rival to Hideki Tōjō and other members of the Control Faction. In 1927 Yamashita was posted to Vienna, Austria, as a military attaché until 1930 and he was then promoted to the rank of Colonel. In 1930 Col. Yamashita was given command of the elite 3rd Imperial Infantry Regiment and he was promoted to major-general in August 1934. After the February 26 Incident of 1936, he fell into disfavor with Emperor Hirohito due to his appeal for leniency toward rebel officers involved in the attempted coup. He realized that he had lost the trust of the Emperor and he was eventually relegated to a post in Korea, being given command of a brigade. Yamashita was promoted to lieutenant-general in November 1937, from 1938-40 he was assigned to command the IJA 4th Division which saw some action in northern China against insurgents fighting the occupying Japanese armies. In December 1940 Yamashita was sent on a clandestine military mission to Germany and Italy. Such strategies caused much friction between himself and Gen. Hideki Tojo, the War Minister, who was not keen on implementing these proposals, on 6 November 1941 Lt. Gen. Yamashita was put in command of the Twenty-Fifth Army. On 8 December he launched an invasion of Malaya from bases in French Indochina, Yamashita remarked that only a driving charge would ensure victory in Malaya
20.
Benigno Aquino Sr.
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He was the Director-General of KALIBAPI, a political party established during the Japanese occupation of the Philippines. His grandson Benigno S. Aquino III was the 15th President of the Philippines from 2010 to 2016 and he had two siblings, namely Gonzalo Aquino and Amando Aquino, and a half-brother, Herminio Aquino. He studied at the Colegio de San Juan de Letran in Manila, Benigno Igno Aquino was first elected to the Philippine Legislature in 1919 representing the 2nd District of Tarlac. He became part of the Philippine Independence Mission in 1931, which negotiated the terms of obtaining Philippine independence from the United States, during the elections for the Commonwealth of the Philippines government in 1935 he ran again in his district in Tarlac and won. In 1937, he was appointed by Commonwealth President Manuel L. Quezon as Secretary of Agriculture, being among the more prominent Commonwealth officials left after the Commonwealth government went into exile in 1941, Aquino were among those recruited by the Japanese to form a government. Aquino became the director-general of KALIBAPI and one of the two assistant chairmen of the Preparatory Commission for Philippine Independence, when the Second Philippine Republic was inaugurated, he was elected Speaker of the National Assembly. On August 25,1946, Aquino was flown back to the Philippines for his trial on charges by the Peoples Court. In May 1916, he married Maria Urquico, the daughter of katipunero Antonio Urquico and he had two sons and two daughters with Maria, namely, Antonio Aquino, Servillano Aquino II, Milagros Aquino, and Erlinda Aquino. On December 20,1947, Aquino died of an attack at the Rizal Memorial Coliseum in Manila while watching a boxing match. Aquinos widow Dona Aurora died in 1998, cS1 maint, BOT, original-url status unknown. Sugar and the Origins of Modern Philippine Society
21.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
22.
Surrender of Japan
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The surrender of Imperial Japan was announced on August 15 and formally signed on September 2,1945, bringing the hostilities of World War II to a close. By the end of July 1945, the Imperial Japanese Navy was incapable of conducting major operations, on August 6,1945, at 8,15 AM local time, the United States detonated an atomic bomb over the Japanese city of Hiroshima. Sixteen hours later, American President Harry S. Truman called again for Japans surrender, warning them to expect a rain of ruin from the air, later in the day, the United States dropped a second atomic bomb, this time on the Japanese city of Nagasaki. After several more days of negotiations and a failed coup détat. In the radio address, called the Jewel Voice Broadcast, he announced the surrender of Japan to the Allies, on August 28, the occupation of Japan by the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers began. The role of the bombings in Japans unconditional surrender. The state of war ended when the Treaty of San Francisco came into force on April 28,1952. Four more years passed before Japan and the Soviet Union signed the Soviet–Japanese Joint Declaration of 1956, by 1945, the Japanese had suffered an unbroken string of defeats for nearly two years in the South West Pacific, the Marianas campaign, and the Philippines campaign. In July 1944, following the loss of Saipan, General Hideki Tōjō was replaced as minister by General Kuniaki Koiso. After the Japanese loss of the Philippines, Koiso in turn was replaced by Admiral Kantarō Suzuki, the Allies captured the nearby islands of Iwo Jima and Okinawa in the first half of 1945. Okinawa was to be an area for Operation Downfall, the American invasion of the Japanese Home Islands. The Allied submarine campaign and the mining of Japanese coastal waters had largely destroyed the Japanese merchant fleet, the destruction of the Japanese merchant fleet, combined with the strategic bombing of Japanese industry, had wrecked Japans war economy. Production of coal, iron, steel, rubber, and other vital supplies was only a fraction of that before the war, as a result of the losses it had suffered, the Imperial Japanese Navy had ceased to be an effective fighting force. Although 19 destroyers and 38 submarines were still operational, their use was limited by the lack of fuel, the only course left is for Japans one hundred million people to sacrifice their lives by charging the enemy to make them lose the will to fight. As a final attempt to stop the Allied advances, the Japanese Imperial High Command planned an all-out defense of Kyūshū codenamed Operation Ketsugō and this was to be a radical departure from the defense in depth plans used in the invasions of Peleliu, Iwo Jima, and Okinawa. Instead, everything was staked on the beachhead, more than 3,000 kamikazes would be sent to attack the transports before troops. The strategy of making a last stand at Kyūshū was based on the assumption of continued Soviet neutrality, a set of caves were excavated near Nagano on Honshu, the largest of the Japanese islands. In the event of invasion, these caves, the Matsushiro Underground Imperial Headquarters, were to be used by the army to direct the war and to house the Emperor and his family
23.
Japanese government-issued Philippine peso
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During World War II in the Philippines, the occupying Japanese government-issued fiat currency in several denominations, this is known as the Japanese government-issued Philippine fiat peso. Some Filipinos called the fiat peso Mickey Mouse money, many survivors of the war tell stories of going to the market laden with suitcases or bayóng overflowing with the Japanese-issued bills. According to one witness,75 Mickey Mouse pesos, or about 35 U. S. dollars at that time, in 1944, a box of matches cost more than 100 Mickey Mouse pesos. These bills were used by American psychological warfare personnel as propaganda leaflets. Japanese occupation banknotes were overprinted with the words The Co-prosperity Sphere, in an attempt to discredit the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, and dropped from Allied aircraft over the occupied territories. A new series of 1,5, and 10 peso bills was issued in 1943, hyperinflation had also forced the Japanese to issue 100,500, and 1000 peso notes in 1944
24.
Philippine Executive Commission
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The Philippine Executive Commission or PEC was established on January 1942 with Jorge B. Vargas as its first Chairman. The PEC was created as the temporary government of the Greater Manila area. The PEC formally abolished all parties on December 8,1942. It was tasked to foster cooperation with the Japanese as part of the Order Great East Asia that promotes the lifting of the great Oriental race. The KALIBAPI was appointed as a right arm of the Japanese occupational forces of the Philippines. On May 6,1943, Japanese Premier Hideki Tojo during a visit to the Philippines pledged to establish the Republic of the Philippines. This pledge of Tojo prompted the KALIBAPI, to call for a convention on June 19,1943, the commission tasked to draft a constitution for the Philippine Republic and elected head was José P. Laurel. The Preparatory Commission presented its draft Constitution on September 4,1943, the Japanese-sponsored establishment of the Republic of the Philippines was proclaimed on October 14,1943, with José P. Laurel being sworn-in as President. On the same day, a Pact of Alliance was signed between the new Philippine Republic and the Japanese government that was ratified two days later by the National Assembly. The Philippine Republic was immediately recognized by Japan, and in the days by Germany, Thailand, Manchukuo, Burma, Croatia. By Sword and Fire, The Destruction of Manila in World War II,3 February-3 March 1945 by Alphonso J. Aluit Bookmark, Inc
25.
Commonwealth of the Philippines
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It replaced the Insular Government, a United States territorial government, and was established by the Tydings–McDuffie Act. The Commonwealth was designed as an administration in preparation for the countrys full achievement of independence. During its more than a decade of existence, the Commonwealth had a strong executive and its legislature, dominated by the Nacionalista Party, was at first unicameral, but later bicameral. In 1937, the government selected Tagalog–the language of Manila and its surrounding provinces–as the basis of the national language, womens suffrage was adopted and the economy recovered to its pre-Depression level before the Japanese occupation in 1942. The Commonwealth government went into exile from 1942 to 1945, when the Philippines was under Japanese occupation, in 1946, the Commonwealth ended and the Philippines claimed full sovereignty as provided for in Article XVIII of the 1935 Constitution. The Commonwealth of the Philippines was also known as the Philippine Commonwealth and it had official names in Tagalog, Kómonwélt ng Pilipinas and Spanish, Mancomunidad de Filipinas. The 1935 constitution specifies the Philippines as the short form name and uses the Philippine Islands only to refer to pre-1935 status. Under the Insular Government, both terms had official status, the pre-1935 U. S. territorial administration, or Insular Government, was headed by a governor general who was appointed by the president of the United States. In December 1932, the U. S. Congress passed the Hare–Hawes–Cutting Act with the premise of granting Filipinos independence, provisions of the bill included reserving several military and naval bases for the United States, as well as imposing tariffs and quotas on Philippine exports. The bill, however, was opposed by the then Philippine Senate President Manuel L. Quezon and was rejected by the Philippine Senate. A Constitutional Convention was convened in Manila on July 30,1934, on February 8,1935, the 1935 Constitution of the Commonwealth of the Philippines was approved by the convention by a vote of 177 to 1. The constitution was approved by President Franklin D. Roosevelt on March 23,1935, on 17 September 1935, presidential elections were held. Candidates included former president Emilio Aguinaldo, the Iglesia Filipina Independiente leader Gregorio Aglipay, Manuel L. Quezon and Sergio Osmeña of the Nacionalista Party were proclaimed the winners, winning the seats of president and vice-president, respectively. The Commonwealth Government was inaugurated on the morning of November 15,1935, the event was attended by a crowd of around 300,000 people. The new government embarked on ambitious nation-building policies in preparation for economic, a proper evaluation of the policies effectiveness or failure is difficult due to Japanese invasion and occupation during World War II. Japan launched an attack on the Philippines on December 8,1941. The Commonwealth government drafted the Philippine Army into the U. S. Army Forces Far East, Manila was declared an open city to prevent its destruction, and it was occupied by the Japanese on January 2,1942. Meanwhile, battles against the Japanese continued on the Bataan Peninsula, Corregidor and this government participated in the Pacific War Council as well as the Declaration by United Nations
26.
Philippines
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The Philippines, officially the Republic of the Philippines, is a sovereign island country in Southeast Asia situated in the western Pacific Ocean. It consists of about 7,641 islands that are categorized broadly under three main geographical divisions from north to south, Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao, the capital city of the Philippines is Manila and the most populous city is Quezon City, both part of Metro Manila. The Philippines has an area of 300,000 square kilometers, and it is the eighth-most populated country in Asia and the 12th most populated country in the world. As of 2013, approximately 10 million additional Filipinos lived overseas, multiple ethnicities and cultures are found throughout the islands. In prehistoric times, Negritos were some of the archipelagos earliest inhabitants and they were followed by successive waves of Austronesian peoples. Exchanges with Chinese, Malay, Indian, and Islamic nations occurred, then, various competing maritime states were established under the rule of Datus, Rajahs, Sultans or Lakans. The arrival of Ferdinand Magellan in Homonhon, Eastern Samar in 1521 marked the beginning of Hispanic colonization, in 1543, Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos named the archipelago Las Islas Filipinas in honor of Philip II of Spain. With the arrival of Miguel López de Legazpi from Mexico City, in 1565, the Philippines became part of the Spanish Empire for more than 300 years. This resulted in Roman Catholicism becoming the dominant religion, during this time, Manila became the western hub of the trans-Pacific trade connecting Asia with Acapulco in the Americas using Manila galleons. Aside from the period of Japanese occupation, the United States retained sovereignty over the islands until after World War II, since then, the Philippines has often had a tumultuous experience with democracy, which included the overthrow of a dictatorship by a non-violent revolution. It is a member of the United Nations, World Trade Organization, Association of Southeast Asian Nations, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum. It also hosts the headquarters of the Asian Development Bank, the Philippines was named in honor of King Philip II of Spain. Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos, during his expedition in 1542, named the islands of Leyte, eventually the name Las Islas Filipinas would be used to cover all the islands of the archipelago. Before that became commonplace, other such as Islas del Poniente. The official name of the Philippines has changed several times in the course of its history, during the Philippine Revolution, the Malolos Congress proclaimed the establishment of the República Filipina or the Philippine Republic. From the 1898 Treaty of Paris, the name Philippines began to appear, since the end of World War II, the official name of the country has been the Republic of the Philippines. The metatarsal of the Callao Man, reliably dated by uranium-series dating to 67,000 years ago is the oldest human remnant found in the archipelago to date and this distinction previously belonged to the Tabon Man of Palawan, carbon-dated to around 26,500 years ago. Negritos were also among the archipelagos earliest inhabitants, but their first settlement in the Philippines has not been reliably dated, there are several opposing theories regarding the origins of ancient Filipinos
27.
Romanization of Japanese
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The romanization of Japanese is the application of the Latin script to write the Japanese language. This method of writing is referred to in English as rōmaji. There are several different romanization systems, the three main ones are Hepburn romanization, Kunrei-shiki romanization, and Nihon-shiki romanization. Variants of the Hepburn system are the most widely used, Japanese is normally written in a combination of logographic characters borrowed from Chinese and syllabic scripts which also ultimately derive from Chinese characters. It is also used to transliterate Japanese terms in text written in English on topics related to Japan, such as linguistics, literature, history, and culture. Rōmaji is the most common way to input Japanese into word processors and computers, all Japanese who have attended elementary school since World War II have been taught to read and write romanized Japanese. The word rōmaji literally means Roman letters, and in Japan it is often used to refer to the Latin alphabet itself than to any specific form of romanized Japanese. The earliest Japanese romanization system was based on the Portuguese orthography and it was developed around 1548 by a Japanese Catholic named Yajiro. Jesuit priests used the system in a series of printed Catholic books so that missionaries could preach and teach their converts without learning to read Japanese orthography. The most useful of these books for the study of early modern Japanese pronunciation and early attempts at romanization was the Nippo jisho, in general, the early Portuguese system was similar to Nihon-shiki in its treatment of vowels. The latter continued to be printed and read after the suppression of Christianity in Japan, the Hepburn system included representation of some sounds that have since changed. The Nihon-shiki romanization was an outgrowth of that movement, several Japanese texts were published entirely in rōmaji during this period, but it failed to catch on. Today, the use of Nihon-shiki for writing Japanese is advocated by the Oomoto sect, during the Allied occupation of Japan, the government of the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers made it official policy to romanize Japanese. However, that failed and a more moderate attempt at Japanese script reform followed. Hepburn romanization generally follows English phonology with Romance vowels and it is an intuitive method of showing Anglophones the pronunciation of a word in Japanese. It was standardized in the USA as American National Standard System for the Romanization of Japanese, Hepburn is the most common romanization system in use today, especially in the English-speaking world. The Revised Hepburn system of romanization uses a macron to indicate long vowels. For example, the name じゅんいちろう, is written with the kana characters ju-n-i-chi-ro-u, without the apostrophe, it would not be possible to distinguish this correct reading from the incorrect ju-ni-chi-ro-u
28.
Japanese occupation of the Philippines
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The Japanese occupation of the Philippines occurred between 1942 and 1945, when Imperial Japan occupied the Commonwealth of the Philippines during World War II. The invasion of the Philippines started on 8 December 1941, ten hours after the attack on Pearl Harbor, as at Pearl Harbor, American aircraft were severely damaged in the initial Japanese attack. Lacking air cover, the American Asiatic Fleet in the Philippines withdrew to Java on 12 December 1941, General Douglas MacArthur was ordered out, leaving his men at Corregidor on the night of 11 March 1942 for Australia,4,000 km away. The 13,000 survivors on Corregidor surrendered on 6 May, Japan occupied the Philippines for over three years, until the surrender of Japan. A highly effective guerilla campaign by Philippine resistance forces controlled sixty percent of the islands, mostly jungle, MacArthur supplied them by submarine, and sent reinforcements and officers. General MacArthur kept his promise to return to the Philippines on 20 October 1944, the landings on the island of Leyte were accompanied by a force of 700 vessels and 174,000 men. Through December 1944, the islands of Leyte and Mindoro were cleared of Japanese soldiers, during the campaign, the Imperial Japanese Army conducted a suicidal defense of the islands. Cities such as Manila were reduced to rubble, between 500,000 and 1,000,000 Filipinos died during the occupation. Japan launched an attack on the Philippines on 8 December 1941, initial aerial bombardment was followed by landings of ground troops both north and south of Manila. Under the pressure of numbers, the defending forces withdrew to the Bataan Peninsula. Manila, declared a city to prevent its destruction, was occupied by the Japanese on 2 January 1942. The Philippine defense continued until the surrender of U. S. -Philippine forces on the Bataan Peninsula in April 1942. Most of the 80,000 prisoners of war captured by the Japanese at Bataan were forced to undertake the infamous Bataan Death March to a prison camp 105 kilometers to the north. Thousands of men, weakened by disease and malnutrition and treated harshly by their captors, Quezon and Osmeña had accompanied the troops to Corregidor and later left for the United States, where they set up a government-in-exile. MacArthur was ordered to Australia, where he started to plan for a return to the Philippines, the Japanese military authorities immediately began organizing a new government structure in the Philippines. Most of the Philippine elite, with a few notable exceptions, the puppet republic was headed by President José P. Laurel. Philippine collaboration in puppet government began under Jorge B, vargas, who was originally appointed by Quezon as the mayor of Greater Manila before Quezon departed Manila. The only political party allowed during the occupation was the Japanese-organized KALIBAPI, during the occupation, most Filipinos remained loyal to the United States, and war crimes committed by forces of the Empire of Japan against surrendered Allied forces and civilians were documented
29.
Manuel L. Quezon
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Manuel Luis Quezón y Molina was a Filipino statesman, soldier, and politician who served as president of the Commonwealth of the Philippines from 1935 to 1944. He was the first Filipino to head a government of the entire Philippines, Quezon was a Spanish Filipino, with both his parents being Filipino mestizos. Quezon was the first Senate president elected to the presidency, the first president elected through an election. During his presidency, Quezon tackled the problem of landless peasants in the countryside and he established a government-in-exile in the U. S. with the outbreak of the war and the threat of Japanese invasion. It was during his exile in the U. S. that he died of tuberculosis at Saranac Lake and he was buried in the Arlington National Cemetery until the end of World War II, when his remains were moved to Manila. His final resting place is the Quezon Memorial Circle, President Benigno Aquino III, and María Zeneida Quezon Avanceña, who is 94 years old and the daughter of the former President, were duly informed about this recognition. Quezon, was born in Baler in the district of El Príncipe and his parents were Lucio Quezon and María Dolores Molina, both of whom were Spanish-Mestizos with distant ethnic Tagalog origins. His father was a grade school teacher from Paco, Manila. Quezon started life in a province of the Philippines as the son of a rice farmer. He went from governor of his local Tayabas region to president of the country in 10 years and he was influential in revising a key law that gave Filipinos a majority in the Philippine Commission and negotiated the Jones Act that allowed Filipinos to be self-legislating. He later boarded at the Colegio de San Juan de Letran where he completed secondary school, in 1899, Quezon cut short his law studies at the University of Santo Tomás in Manila to participate in the struggle for independence against the United States, led by Emilio Aguinaldo. During the Philippine–American War he was an Aide-de-camp to Emilio Aguinaldo and he rose to the rank of Major and fought in the Bataan sector. However, after surrendering in 1900 wherein he made his first break in the American press, Quezon returned to the university and passed the bar examinations in 1903, achieving fourth place. He worked for a time as a clerk and surveyor, entering government service as an appointed fiscal for Mindoro and he became a councilor and was elected governor of Tayabas in 1906 after a hard-fought election. Manuel Quezon was a personality who dominated the political scene. His active involvement in the destiny of his country was felt both in the Philippines and the United States. From 1909 to 1916, he served as one of the Philippines two resident commissioners to the U. S. House of Representatives, lobbying for the passage of the Philippine Autonomy Act or Jones Law. He headed the first Independent Mission to the U. S. Congress in 1919, building a long-term friendship with American Lieutenant Douglas MacArthur was vital to many of his achievements
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Capital city
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A capital city is the municipality exercising primary status in a country, state, province, or other region, usually as its seat of government. A capital is typically a city that encompasses the offices and meeting places of its respective government. In some jurisdictions, including countries, the different branches of government are located in different settlements. In some cases, a distinction is made between the capital and the seat of government, which is in another place. The word capital derives from the Latin caput, meaning head, in several English-speaking states, the terms county town, county seat, and borough seat are also used in lower subdivisions. In unitary states, subnational capitals are known as administrative centres. The capital is often, but not necessarily, the largest city of its constituent, historically, the major economic centre of a state or region often becomes the focal point of political power, and becomes a capital through conquest or federation. Examples are Ancient Babylon, Abbasid Baghdad, Ancient Athens, Rome, Constantinople, Changan, Ancient Cusco, Madrid, Paris, London, Moscow, Beijing, Tokyo, Vienna, and Berlin. Some of these cities are or were also religious centres, e. g. Constantinople, Rome, Jerusalem, Ancient Babylon, Moscow, Belgrade, Paris, and Peking. A capital city that is also the economic, cultural. The convergence of political and economic or cultural power is by no means universal, traditional capitals may be economically eclipsed by provincial rivals, e. g. Nanking by Shanghai, Quebec City by Montreal, and numerous US state capitals. The decline of a dynasty or culture could also mean the extinction of its city, as occurred at Babylon. Although many capitals are defined by constitution or legislation, many long-time capitals have no legal designation as such, for example Bern, Edinburgh, Lisbon, London, Paris, are located in or near them. In Canada, there is a capital, while the ten provinces. The states of such countries as Mexico, Brazil, and Australia all have capital cities, for example, the six state capitals of Australia are Adelaide, Brisbane, Hobart, Melbourne, Perth, and Sydney. In Australia, the capital cities is regularly used, to refer to the aforementioned state capitals plus the federal capital Canberra and Darwin. Abu Dhabi is the city of the Emirate of Abu Dhabi. In unitary states which consist of multiple constituent countries, such as the United Kingdom or the Kingdom of Denmark, the national capitals of Germany and Russia, the Stadtstaat of Berlin and the Federal City of Moscow, are also constituent states of both countries in their own right
31.
Open city
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The attacking armies of the opposing military will then be expected not to bomb or otherwise attack the city but simply march in. The concept aims at protecting the historic landmarks and resident civilians from an unnecessary battle. Attacking forces do not always respect the declaration of an open city, defensive forces will use it as a political tactic as well. According to the Protocol I of the Geneva Conventions, it is forbidden for the party to attack, by any means whatsoever. This led the Mayor of Krakow to declare it a city on 5 September 1939. The German army entered the city the next day, brussels was declared an open city by the Belgian Government in 1940 during the Battle of Belgium. It was later occupied by the Germans, paris was declared an open city by the French Government in June 1940 during the Battle of France. Belgrade was declared open in April 1941 by the Government of Yugoslavia, the German Wehrmacht did not respect the open city status and heavily bombed the city. Manila was declared a city on 26 December 1941 by US general Douglas MacArthur during the Japanese invasion of the Philippines. The Imperial Japanese Army ignored the declaration and bombed the city, batavia was declared an open city on 5 March 1942 after the Dutch Army was evacuated. The Japanese occupied the city the next day, Rome was declared open on 14 August 1943 by the Italian government following the cessation of Allied bombing. Subsequently Allied forces entered Rome in June 1944 and retreating German forces also declared Florence, athens was declared an open city by the Germans on 11 October 1944. Hamburg was declared open on 3 May 1945 by the Germans and was occupied by the British. However, the Social Democratic Party which was the party of the ruling coalition from 1994 to 1996 supported it. Nevertheless, four wards of Tokyo and Kagoshima City, Japans southernmost port, laws of war Rome, Open City, an Italian film about Romes days as an open city
32.
Jorge B. Vargas
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Jorge Bartolome Vargas was a lawyer, diplomat and youth advocate born in Bago, Negros Occidental, Philippines. He was a member of the Philippine Amateur Athletic Federation in 1911. He served as its second Chairman from 1935 to 1955 and he was also the first Filipino member of the International Olympic Committee. After being admitted to the Philippine Bar in 1914, he was appointed as law clerk in the Philippine Commission and he quickly rose through the ranks and was promoted to the position of Chief Clerk of the Department of the Interior in 1917. When the Japanese invaded the country in 1941, Vargas was designated to the Department of National Defense as its secretary, a few weeks later, he was appointed by President Manuel Quezon as mayor of the Greater Manila area in 1941. His responsibilities included administering the city upon the arrival of occupational troops of the Imperial Japanese Army on January 2,1942. By 1942, Vargas became chairman of the Japanese-sponsored Philippine Executive Commission, during the collaborationist Second Philippine Republic, he was once asked by the Japanese to assume the Presidency, but he declined. He instead served as the regimes Ambassador to Japan, in that position, he was quoted shortly before Japanese troops were driven from Manila as stating that we know Japan is destined for sure victory and prosperity for ages to come. Vargas served as Chairman of the National Planning Commission from 1946–1954 and was a member of the Board of Regents of the University of the Philippines from 1961-1965, in 1960, the Republic of the Philippines conferred on him the Legion of Honor with the rank of Commander. Vargas involvement with Scouting started in 1935 when he became a member of the board of the Philippine Council of the Boy Scouts of America. Together with other Philippine Scouting advocates he became one of the members of the Boy Scouts of the Philippines in 1936. Upon the death of Manuel Camus in 1949, Vargas was unanimously chosen by the National Executive Board to serve as the BSPs President and he served the position of National President until 1961. He became a member of the World Scout Committee of the World Organization of the Scout Movement from 1951 to 1957 and he also became the first recipient of the Tanglaw ng Kabataan Award of the BSP in 1961. Japan, Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun Jorge B. Vargas Museum and Filipiniana Research Center
33.
Battle of Corregidor
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The Battle of Corregidor, fought May 5–6,1942, was the culmination of the Japanese campaign for the conquest of the Commonwealth of the Philippines during World War II. The fall of Bataan on April 9,1942 ended all organized opposition by the U. S. Army Forces Far East to the invading Japanese forces on Luzon in the northern Philippines. The Japanese had to take Corregidor, as long as the island remained in American hands, they would be denied the use of Manila Bay, the US army recaptured the island in 1945. At 3.5 mi long and 1.5 mi across at its head and its widest but elevated area, known as Topside, contained most of its 56 coastal artillery pieces and installations. Middleside was a plateau containing more battery positions as well as barracks. Bottomside was the low ground where an area and the civilian town of San Jose was located. The tunnel system under Malinta Hill was the most extensive construction on Corregidor. It consisted of a main east-west passage 826 ft long with a 24 ft diameter and had 25 lateral passages, a separate system of tunnels north of this main tunnel housed the underground hospital, it had its own 12 laterals and space for 1,000 beds. The facility could be reached either through the tunnel or by a separate outside entrance on the north side of Malinta Hill. East of this was Malinta Tunnel, the location of General Douglas MacArthurs headquarters, reinforced with concrete walls, floors, and overhead arches, it also had blowers to furnish fresh air, and a double-track electric tramway line along the east-west passage. The Malinta Tunnel furnished bombproof shelters for the hospital, headquarters, the two 12 in guns of Batteries Smith and Hearn, with a horizontal range of 29,000 yd and all-around traverse were the longest range of all the islands artillery. Caballo Island, with Fort Hughes—just south of Corregidor—was the next largest in size, at about 160 acres, the island rose abruptly from the bay to a height of 380 ft on its western side. Commander Francis J. Bridget was in charge of its defenses with a total of 800 men, of whom 93 were Marines and 443 belonged to the Navy. Coastal artillery numbered some 13 assorted pieces, with its anti-aircraft defenses tied in with those of Corregidor, Fort Drum—which lay about 4 mi south of Fort Hughes—was the most unusual of the harbor defenses. The top deck of this concrete battleship was 40 ft above the mark and had 20 ft thick walls. The last—Carabao island—lay only 500 yd from the shores of Cavite Province, except at one point along its eastern shore, the island rises precipitously from the sea in cliffs more than 100 ft high. The Americans had placed Fort Frank on this island, which late in 1941, had a garrison of about 400 men. Its armament consisted of two 14 in guns, eight 12 in mortars, four 155 mm GPFs, as well as anti-aircraft, both were under Major General George F. Moore who also commanded the Corregidor garrison
34.
Masaharu Homma
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Masaharu Homma was a lieutenant general in the Imperial Japanese Army during World War II. Homma commanded the Japanese 14th Army which invaded the Philippines and perpetrated the Bataan Death March, after the war, Homma was convicted of war crimes relating to the actions of troops under his direct command and executed by firing squad on April 3,1946. Homma was born on Sado Island, in the Sea of Japan off Niigata Prefecture and he graduated in the 14th class of the Imperial Japanese Army Academy in 1907, and in the 27th class of the Army Staff College in 1915. Homma had a respect for, and some understanding of. In 1917 he was attached to the East Lancashire Regiment, and in 1918 served with the British Expeditionary Force in France, from 1930 to 1932, Homma was again sent as a military attaché to the United Kingdom, where his proficiency in the English language was useful. He was also assigned to be part of the Japanese delegation to the Geneva Disarmament Conference in 1932 and served with the Press Section of the Army Ministry from 1932 to 1933. He was given a command again, as commander of the IJA 1st Infantry Regiment from 1933 to 1935. In 1937, Homma was appointed aide-de-camp to Prince Chichibu, a brother of Emperor Shōwa, with him, he made a diplomatic tour in Europe which ended in Germany. There he attended the Nuremberg rally and met Adolf Hitler, with whom the prince tried to boost relations and he then served as the commander of the Taiwan Army of the Imperial Armed Forces, and composed the lyric of the military song Taiwan Army. Yamaguchi Yoshiko was invited to sing the song to boost Taiwanese morale, after the fall of Nanking, he declared publicly that unless peace is achieved immediately it will be disastrous. Homma was removed from his position at the front lines, and he was promoted to lieutenant general in July 1938. With the start of the Pacific War, Homma was named commander of the 43, 110-man IJA 14th Army and he ordered his troops to treat the Filipinos not as enemies but as friends, and respect their customs and religion. In one instance, on his approach to Manila, Homma stopped his columns and ordered the men to clean up and tighten formations, knowing that unkempt soldiers are likely to loot. There was also a growing subversion within Hommas command by a group of insubordinates. Homma failed to give credence to the possibility that a retreat into the Bataan Peninsula by Filipino-American forces might succeed in upsetting the Japanese timetable. By the time he recognized his mistake, his best infantry division had been replaced by a trained reserve brigade. Rather than waste his men in furious frontal assaults, he tried to outmaneuver the American forces and this brought criticism from superiors who believed he had been contaminated by Western ideas about conserving the lives of his men. Worried about the offensive in Luzon, Hirohito pressed Army Chief of Staff Hajime Sugiyama twice in January 1942 to increase troop strength
35.
KALIBAPI
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The Kapisanan ng Paglilingkod sa Bagong Pilipinas, or KALIBAPI, was a Filipino political party that served as the sole party of state during the Japanese occupation. It was intended to be a Filipino version of Japans governing Taisei Yokusankai party, the three toured the Philippines, setting up local party organisations and promoting the new order in East Asia at mass meetings. For the Japanese, KALIBAPI served as a recruitment service in its initial stages before taking on an expanded role in mid 1943. It was left to KALIBAPI to write the new constitution and establish the new National Assembly, all 54 members of the Assembly were KALIBAPI members, although 33 of them had held elected office before the invasion as well. KALIBAPI soon claimed a membership that ran into the hundreds of thousands, the islands were declared officially independent as the Second Philippine Republic on 14 October 1943 under the Presidency of José P. Laurel and his KALIBAPI government. This had been accomplished through the Preparatory Committee for Philippine Independence, taking a highly nationalistic standpoint, KALIBAPI was active in initiatives to promote the Tagalog language as a central feature of Filipino identity. To this end a pared-down,1000 word version of the language was promoted to be learned rapidly by those not yet versed in the language. The general nationalism of Laurels government strained relations with Japan, particularly as Laurel had refused to declare war on the United States, as such the Japanese instructed Ramos to form a new group, Makapili, in November 1944 to give more tangible military support to the Japanese. KALIBAPI disappeared after the Japanese surrender with some of its leaders arrested for collaboration and treason, the Association for Service to the gladys J. D. the 16th president of the burit republic. New Philippines during the Japanese Occupation, Attempting to Transplant a Japanese Wartime Concept to the Philippines, The Journal of Sophia Asian Studies, 149–185 Pomeroy, the Philippines, Colonialism, Collaboration, and Resistance, International Publishers Co. pp. 113–119
36.
Artemio Ricarte
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Artemio Ricarte y García was a Filipino general during the Philippine Revolution and the Philippine–American War. Ricarte is also notable for never having taken an oath of allegiance to the United States government, battles, San Francisco De Malabon- Aug. He finished his studies in his hometown and moved to Manila for his tertiary education. He enrolled at the Colegio de San Juan de Letran where he graduated with a Bachelor of Arts degree and he prepared for the teaching profession at the University of Santo Tomas and then at the Escuela Normal. After finishing his studies, he was sent to the town of San Francisco de Malabon in Cavite province to supervise a primary school, in his new job, he met Mariano Álvarez, another school teacher and a surviving revolutionary of the 1872 Cavite mutiny. Ricarte then joined the ranks of the Katipunan under the Magdiwang Council, after the start of the Philippine Revolution on August 31,1896, Ricarte led the revolutionists in attacking the Spanish garrison in San Francisco de Malabon. He crushed the Spanish troops and took the guards as prisoner. On March 22,1897, during the Tejeros Convention, Ricarte was unanimously elected Captain-General and he led his men in various battles in Cavite, Laguna, and Batangas. The second phase of the Philippine Revolution was ushered in when the Americans brought back Aguinaldo from exile on May 19,1898, Ricarte was a minor figure at this stage. He was the commander of Sta. Ana when Manila fell to the Americans on August 13,1898 and this eventually led General Jaudenes to surrender the City of Manila to Admiral Dewey, thus the liberation of the Philippines from the Spanish colonizers. General Ricarte was jubilant over the victory, thinking it was the prelude to the attainment of complete Philippine independence, the Americans, having gotten rid of the Spaniards with the help of Filipinos, were intent on possessing the Philippines. This development saddened Ricarte, to the extent that later on, when the Philippine–American War started in 1899, he was Chief of Operations of the Philippine forces in the second zone around Manila. In July 1900, he tried to infiltrate the American lines to enter Manila, for six months, he was locked up in the Bilibid Prisons but stubbornly refused to swear allegiance to the United States. Because of this, the Americans exiled him to Guam, together with many of the rebel prisoners in the islands. The exile lasted for two years, in early 1903, both Ricarte and Mabini would be allowed back into the Philippines upon taking the oath of allegiance to America. Just as their transport USS Thomas pulled into Manila Bay, both were asked to take the oath, Mabini, who was ill, took the oath but Ricarte refused. Ricarte was set free but banned from the Philippines, without setting foot on Philippine soil, he was placed on the transport Galic and sailed to Hong Kong
37.
Yokohama
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Yokohama is the second largest city in Japan by population and most populous municipality of Japan. It is the city of Kanagawa Prefecture. It lies on Tokyo Bay, south of Tokyo, in the Kantō region of the island of Honshu. It is a commercial hub of the Greater Tokyo Area. Yokohamas population of 3.7 million makes it Japans largest city after the Special Wards of Tokyo, Yokohama was a small fishing village up to the end of the feudal Edo period, when Japan held a policy of national seclusion, having little contact with foreigners. It was initially agreed that one of the ports to be opened to ships would be the bustling town of Kanagawa-juku on the Tōkaidō. However, the Tokugawa shogunate decided that Kanagawa-juku was too close to the Tōkaidō for comfort, the Port of Yokohama was officially opened on June 2,1859. Yokohama quickly became the base of trade in Japan. Kannai, the trade and commercial district, was surrounded by a moat. To protect British commercial and diplomatic interests in Yokohama a military garrison was established in 1862, with the growth in trade increasing numbers of Chinese also came to settle in the city. Recreational sports introduced to Japan by foreign residents in Yokohama included European style horse racing in 1862, cricket in 1863, after the Meiji Restoration of 1868, the port was developed for trading silk, the main trading partner being Great Britain. In 1887, a British merchant, Samuel Cocking, built the citys first power plant, at first for his own use, this coal-burning plant became the basis for the Yokohama Cooperative Electric Light Company. The city was incorporated on April 1,1889. The early 20th century was marked by growth of industry. Entrepreneurs built factories along reclaimed land to the north of the city toward Kawasaki, much of Yokohama was destroyed on September 1,1923 by the Great Kantō earthquake. The Yokohama police reported casualties at 30,771 dead and 47,908 injured, fuelled by rumours of rebellion and sabotage, vigilante mobs thereupon murdered many Koreans in the Kojiki-yato slum. Many people believed that Koreans used black magic to cause the earthquake, martial law was in place until November 19. Rubble from the quake was used to land for parks
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Hideki Tojo
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After the end of the war, Tojo was arrested, sentenced to death for Japanese war crimes by the International Military Tribunal for the Far East, and hanged on December 23,1948. Hideki Tojo was born in the Kōjimachi district of Tokyo on December 30,1884, as the 3rd son of Hidenori Tojo, under the bakufu, Japanese society was divided rigidly into four castes, the merchants, peasants, artisans and the samurai. The Tojo family came from the caste, through the Tojos were relatively lowly warrior retainers for the great damiyos that they had served for generations. Tojos father was a samurai turned Army officer and his mother was the daughter of a Buddhist priest, making his family very respectable, Tojo had an education typical of a Japanese youth in the Meiji era. Japanese girls who were taught it was the highest honor for a woman to have as many sons as possible who could die for the Emperor in war. Japanese schools in the Meiji era were very competitive, and there was no tradition of sympathy with failures, Tojo was of average intelligence, but he was known to compensate for his limited intelligence with a willingness to work extremely hard. Tojos boyhood hero was the 17th century shogun Tokugawa Ieyasu who issued the injunction, Avoid the things you like, Tojo liked to say, I am just an ordinary man possessing no shining talents. Anything I have achieved I owe to my capacity for hard work, in 1899, Tojo entered the Army Cadet School. When he graduated from the Japanese Military Academy in March 1905 he was commissioned as a lieutenant in the infantry of the IJA. Tojos anger at the Treaty of Portsmouth left him with a dislike of Americans. In 1909, Tojo married Katsuko Ito, with whom he would have three sons and four daughters, in 1918-19, Tojo briefly served in Siberia as part of the Japanese expeditionary force sent to intervene in the Russian Civil War. Tojo served as Japanese military attache to Germany between 1919-1922, a stern, humorless man, Tojo was known for his brusque manner, his obsession with etiquette, and for his coldness. Tojo wrote with bitterness at the time that American whites would never accept Asians as equals, Japan, too, has to be strong to survive in the world. By 1928, he had become the chief of the Japanese Army. He began to take an interest in militarist politics during his command of the 8th Infantry Regiment. Reflecting the hermaphrodite imagery often used in Japan to describe people in power, Tojo often visited the homes of the men under his command, assisted his men with personal problems and made loans to officers short of money. In 1934, Tojo was promoted to general and served as Chief of the Personnel Department within the Army Ministry. Tojo wrote a chapter in the book Hijōji kokumin zenshū, a book published in March 1934 by the Army Ministry calling for Japan to become a national defense state
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Pan-Asianism
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Pan-Asianism is an ideology that promotes the unity of Asian peoples. Several theories and movements of Pan-Asianism have been proposed, specifically from East and Southeast Asia, motivating the movement has been resistance to Western imperialism and colonialism and a belief that Asian values should take precedence over European values. During the Cold War, the movement became less vigorous, as nations in the region aligned with one or the other of the superpowers, pre-World War II Japanese Pan-Asianism was, at its core, the idea that Asia should unite against European imperialism. Before and during World War II, this was an element in Japanese propaganda to justify Japanese external invasions. The Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere was an example of this propaganda, Japanese Asianism developed in intertwining among debates on solidarity with Asian nations who were under pressure of the West and on aggressive expansion to the Asian continent. The former debates originated from liberalism, pan-Asian thought in Japan began to develop in the late 19th century and was spurred on particularly following the defeat of Russia in the Russo-Japanese War. This created interest from Rabindranath Tagore, Sun Yat-sen and Sri Aurobindo, the growing official interest in broader Asian concerns was shown in the establishment of facilities for Indian Studies. In 1899, Tokyo Imperial University set up a chair in Sanskrit and Kawi, in this environment, a number of Indian students came to Japan in the early twentieth century, founding the Oriental Youngmens Association in 1900. Their anti-British political activity caused consternation to the Indian Government, following a report in the London Spectator, however, Japanese society had been strongly inclined to ultranationalism from the Freedom and Peoples Rights Movement. The latter debates on aggressive expansionism to Asia became clearly apparent and their representatives were the Black Ocean Society and the Black Dragon Society. The Black Dragon Society argued for Japanese imperialism and expansionism, exceptionally, Ryōhei Uchida, who was a member of the Black Dragon Society, was a Japan-Korea unionist and activist of Philippines and Chinese revolutions. Tōten Miyazaki consistently supported a Chinese revolution of Sun Yat-sen with spiritual sacrifice, Okakura Kakuzō criticized Western imperialism as a destroyer of human beauty, and argued for romantic solidarity with diverse Asia as one against Western civilization. The Himalayas divide, only to accentuate, two mighty civilisations, the Chinese with its communism of Confucius, and the Indian with its individualism of the Vedas. In this Okakura was utilising the Japanese concept of sangoku, which existed in Japanese culture before the concept of Asia became popularised, sangoku literally means the three countries, Honshu, Kara and Tenjiku. However, most Asianists were nationalistic and imperialistic and were connected with rightist organizations and they discussed self-righteous solidarity which led to ideology such as a new order of East Asia and Greater East Asia Co-prosperity Sphere based on Japanese supremacy. In a Chinese perspective, Japanese Asianism was interpreted as an ideology for Japanese military aggression. In 1917, Li Dazhao argued for liberation of Asian nations, in 1924, Sun Yat-sen stated that the West was hegemonic and the East was Confucian, and he argued for full independence by resisting colonialism with Greater Asianism which unified Asian nations. After Indonesian National Revolution against Dutch colonialism, Sukarnos vision of Majapahit revival was to abolish the western colonial hegemony in Southeast Asia, the Indonesian opposition against the formation of Malaysia led to a confrontation between the two countries
40.
Constitution of the Philippines
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The Constitution of the Philippines is the constitution or supreme law of the Republic of the Philippines. Its final draft was completed by the Constitutional Commission on October 12,1986 and was ratified by a plebiscite on February 2,1987. Three other constitutions have effectively governed the country in its history, the 1935 Commonwealth Constitution, the 1973 Constitution, ruling by decree during the early part of her tenure and as a president installed via the People Power Revolution, President Corazon C. Aquino issued Proclamation No. Often called the Freedom Constitution, this constitution was intended as a temporary constitution to ensure the freedom of the people. A constitutional assembly was called to draft a new constitution for the country. The Commission elected Cecilia Muñoz-Palma, a former Associate Justice of the Supreme Court, lino Brocka, a film director and political activist who was member of the Commission, walked out before the constitutions completion, and two other delegates dissented from the final draft. The Commission finished the draft on October 12,1986. The constitution was ratified by a plebiscite on February 2,1987. The Constitution contains a preamble and eighteen self-contained articles with a numbering that resets for every article. The preamble introduces the constitution and the source of sovereignty, the people and it follows the pattern in past constitutions, including an appeal to God. The waters around, between, and connecting the islands of the archipelago, regardless of their breadth and dimensions, article 2 lays out the basic social and political creed of the Philippines, particularly the implementation of the constitution and sets forth the objectives of the government. S. Similar to U. S. jurisprudence and other common law jurisdictions, article 4 defines the citizenship of Filipinos. It enumerates two kinds of citizens, natural-born citizens and naturalized citizens, natural-born citizens are those who are citizens from birth without having to perform any act to acquire or perfect Philippine citizenship. The Philippines follows a jus sanguinis system where citizenship is acquired through a blood relationship with Filipino citizens. Article 5 provides for the qualification to vote and for a system of the secrecy of the ballot and absentee voting, article 6 provides for a bicameral legislature called the Congress composed of the Senate and the House of Representatives. Article 7 provides for a form of government where the executive power is vested on the President. It provides for the qualification, terms of office, election and it also provides for a Vice President and for the presidential line of succession. Article 8 vests the judicial power upon the Supreme Court and other courts as may be established by law
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Provinces of the Philippines
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The provinces of the Philippines are the primary political and administrative divisions of the Philippines. There are 81 provinces at present, further subdivided into component cities and municipalities, the National Capital Region, as well as independent cities, are independent of any provincial government. Each province is governed by a legislature called the Sangguniang Panlalawigan. The provinces are grouped into 18 regions based on geographical, cultural, fifteen of these regions are designated with numbers corresponding to their geographic location in order from north to south. The Cordillera Administrative Region, National Capital Region, Negros Island Region, each province is a member of the League of Provinces of the Philippines, an organization which aims to address issues affecting provincial and metropolitan government administrations. A provincial government is autonomous of other provinces within the Republic, each province is governed by two main elected branches of the government, executive and legislative. Judicial affairs are separated from provincial governance and are administered by the Supreme Court of the Philippines, the provincial governor is chief executive and head of each province. The vice governor acts as the president for each Sangguniáng Panlalawigan, every SP is composed of regularly elected members from provincial districts, as well as ex officio members. The number of regularly elected SP members allotted to each province is determined by its income class, first- and second-class provinces are provided ten regular SP members, third- and fourth-class provinces have eight, while fifth- and sixth-class provinces have six. Exceptions are provinces with more than five congressional districts, such as Cavite with 14 regularly elected SP members, every SP has designated seats for ex officio members, given to the respective local presidents of the Association of Barangay Captains, Philippine Councilors League, and Sangguniáng Kabataan. The vice governor and regular members of an SP are elected by the voters within the province, ex officio members are elected by members of their respective organisations. National intrusion into the affairs of each provincial government is limited by the Philippine Constitution, the President of the Philippines however coordinates with provincial administrators through the Department of the Interior and Local Government. For purposes of representation, each province is guaranteed its own congressional district. One congressional representative represents each district in the House of Representatives, senatorial representation is elected at an at-large basis and not apportioned through territory-based districts. Those classified as highly urbanized or independent component cities are independent from the province. Local government units classified as component cities and municipalities are under the jurisdiction of the provincial government, the provincial government does not have direct relations with individual barangays. Supervision over a government is the mandate of the mayor. Provinces are classified according to annual income based on the previous 4 calendar years
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Emilio Aguinaldo
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He was captured in Palanan, Isabela by American forces on March 23,1901, which brought an end to his presidency. In 1935, Aguinaldo ran unsuccessfully for president of the Philippine Commonwealth against Manuel Quezon, after the Japanese invasion of the Philippines in 1941, he cooperated with the new rulers, even making a radio appeal for the surrender of the American and Filipino forces on Bataan. He was arrested as a collaborator after the Americans returned but was freed in a general amnesty. He studied at Colegio de San Juan de Letran but wasnt able to finish his studies due to outbreak of cholera in 1882, Emilio became the Cabeza de Barangay of Binakayan, a chief barrio of Cavite el Viejo, when he was only 17 years old to avoid conscription. In 1895 the Maura Law that called for the reorganization of local governments was enacted, at the age of 25 years old, Aguinaldo became Cavite Viejos first gobernadorcillo capitan municipal while on a business trip in Mindoro. On January 1,1896, he married Hilaria del Rosario and they had five children, Carmen Aguinaldo-Melencio, Emilio Jun R. Aguinaldo Jr. Maria Aguinaldo-Poblete, Cristina Aguinaldo-Suntay and Miguel Aguinaldo. Hilaria died of leprosy on March 6,1921 at the age of 44, nine years later, on July 14,1930, Aguinaldo married Maria Agoncillo at Barasoain Church. She died on May 29,1963, a year before Aguinaldo himself, Aguinaldo served three-terms as mayor and vice-mayor of his home town Kawit Cavite. Great-Grandson Emilio Orange M. Aguinaldo IV married news reported abs-cbn Bernadette Sembrano in 2007, on January 1,1895, Aguinaldo became a Freemason, joining Pilar Lodge No. 203, Imus, Cavite by the codename Colon, Aguinaldo joined the organization and used the nom de guerre Magdalo, in honor of Mary Magdalene. The local chapter of Katipunan in Cavite was established and named Sangguniang Magdalo, the Katipunan-led Philippine Revolution against the Spanish began in the last week of August 1896 in San Juan del Monte. However, Aguinaldo and other Cavite rebels initially refused to join in the offensive alleging lack of arms, in August 1896, as coordinated attacks broke out and sparked the revolution beginning in Manila. Emilio Aguinaldo marched from Kawit with 600 men and launched a series of skirmishes at Imus which eventually ended in open hostilities against Spanish troops stationed there. On September 1, with the aid of Captain Jose Tagle of Imus, a Spanish relief column commanded by Brig. General Ernesto de Aguirre had been dispatched from Manila to aid the beleaguered Spanish defenders of Imus, supported only by a hundred troops and by a cavalry, Aguirre gave the impression that he had been sent out to suppress a minor disturbance. Aguinaldo and his men counter-attacked but suffered losses and almost cost his own life. Despite the success, Aguirre did not press the attack and felt the inadequacy of his troops, during the lull in the fighting, Aguinaldos troops reorganized and prepared for another Spanish attack. On September 3, Aguirre came back with a larger force of 3,000 men
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