1.
Empire of Japan
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The Empire of Japan was the historical Japanese nation-state and great power that existed from the Meiji Restoration in 1868 to the enactment of the 1947 constitution of modern Japan. Imperial Japans rapid industrialization and militarization under the slogan Fukoku Kyōhei led to its emergence as a world power, after several large-scale military successes during the Second Sino-Japanese War and the Pacific War, the Empire also gained notoriety for its war crimes against the peoples it conquered. A period of occupation by the Allies followed the surrender, Occupation and reconstruction continued well into the 1950s, eventually forming the current nation-state whose full title is the State of Japan or simply rendered Japan in English. The historical state is referred to as the Empire of Japan or the Japanese Empire or Imperial Japan in English. In Japanese it is referred to as Dai Nippon Teikoku, which translates to Greater Japanese Empire and this is analogous to Großdeutsches Reich, a term that translates to Greater German Empire in English and Dai Doitsu Teikoku in Japanese. This meaning is significant in terms of geography, encompassing Japan, due to its name in kanji characters and its flag, it was also given the exonym Empire of the Sun. After two centuries, the policy, or Sakoku, under the shoguns of the Edo period came to an end when the country was forced open to trade by the Convention of Kanagawa in 1854. The following years saw increased trade and interaction, commercial treaties between the Tokugawa shogunate and Western countries were signed. In large part due to the terms of these Unequal Treaties, the Shogunate soon faced internal hostility, which materialized into a radical, xenophobic movement. In March 1863, the Emperor issued the order to expel barbarians, although the Shogunate had no intention of enforcing the order, it nevertheless inspired attacks against the Shogunate itself and against foreigners in Japan. The Namamugi Incident during 1862 led to the murder of an Englishman, Charles Lennox Richardson, the British demanded reparations but were denied. While attempting to exact payment, the Royal Navy was fired on from coastal batteries near the town of Kagoshima and they responded by bombarding the port of Kagoshima in 1863. For Richardsons death, the Tokugawa government agreed to pay an indemnity, shelling of foreign shipping in Shimonoseki and attacks against foreign property led to the Bombardment of Shimonoseki by a multinational force in 1864. The Chōshū clan also launched the coup known as the Kinmon incident. The Satsuma-Chōshū alliance was established in 1866 to combine their efforts to overthrow the Tokugawa bakufu, in early 1867, Emperor Kōmei died of smallpox and was replaced by his son, Crown Prince Mutsuhito. On November 9,1867, Tokugawa Yoshinobu resigned from his post and authorities to the Emperor, however, while Yoshinobus resignation had created a nominal void at the highest level of government, his apparatus of state continued to exist. On January 3,1868, Satsuma-Chōshū forces seized the palace in Kyoto. On January 17,1868, Yoshinobu declared that he would not be bound by the proclamation of the Restoration, on January 24, Yoshinobu decided to prepare an attack on Kyoto, occupied by Satsuma and Chōshū forces
2.
Baguio
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Baguio, officially the City of Baguio and often referred to as Baguio City, is a highly urbanized city in northern Luzon of the Philippines, now also known as Summer Capital of the Philippines. The city has become the center of business, commerce, and education in northern Luzon, according to the 2015 census, Baguio has a population of 345,366. Baguio was established as a station by the Americans in 1900 at the site of an Ibaloi village known as Kafagway. It was the United States only hill station in Asia, the name of the city is derived from bagiw, the Ibaloi word for moss. The city is situated at an altitude of approximately 1,500 meters in the Luzon tropical pine forests ecoregion conducive for the growth of mossy plants, most of the lands in Kafagway were owned by Ibaloys even prior to the appointment of Mateo Cariño as chieftain. The Spanish presidencia, which was located at Bagyiw at the vicinity of Guisad Valley was later moved to Cariños house where the current City Hall stands. Bagyiw, a term for moss once abundant in the area was converted by the Spaniards into Baguio. Baguio was converted into a town, with Mateo Cariño being the presidente, when the United States took possession of the Philippines after the Spanish–American War, Baguio was selected to become the summer capital of the Philippine Islands. Governor-General William Taft on his first visit in 1901, noted the air as bracing as Adirondacks or Murray Bay, temperature this hottest month in the Philippines on my cottage porch at three in the afternoon sixty-eight. In 1903, Filipino, Japanese and Chinese workers were hired to build Kennon Road, before this, the only road to Benguet was Naguilian Road, and it was largely a horse trail at higher elevations. It was named after Roosevelts Secretary of State, John Milton Hay, the Mansion, built on 1908, served as the official residence of the American Governor-General during the summer to escape Manilas heat. In 1904 the rest of the city was planned out by the American architect Daniel Burnham, on September 1,1909 Baguio was declared as a chartered city and the Summer Capital of the Philippines. Prior to World War II, Baguio was the capital of the Commonwealth of the Philippines. Following the Japanese invasion of the Philippines in 1941, the Japanese used Camp John Hay, the nearby Philippine Constabulary base, Camp Holmes, was used as an internment camp for about 500 civilian enemy aliens, mostly Americans, between April 1942 and December 1944. By late March, Baguio City was within range of the American, president José P. Laurel of the Second Philippine Republic, a puppet state established on 1943, departed the city on March 22 and reaching Taiwan on March 30. The remainder of the Second Republic government, along with Japanese civilians, were ordered to evacuate Baguio on 30 March, yamashita and his staff then relocated to Bambang, Nueva Vizcaya. It is where they gave up the entire Imperial Japanese Armed Forces to American authorities at the High Commissioners Residence in Camp John Hay on September 3,1945, the 1990 Luzon earthquake destroyed much of the city of Baguio on July 16,1990. Some of the buildings were built on or near fault lines
3.
Politics of the Philippines
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This system revolves around three separate and sovereign yet interdependent branches, the legislative branch, the executive branch, and the judicial branch. Executive power is exercised by the government under the leadership of the president, legislative power is vested in both the government and the two-chamber Congress, the Senate and the House of Representatives. Judicial power is vested in the courts with the Supreme Court of the Philippines as the highest judicial body, Elections are administered by an independent Commission on Elections every three years starting 1102. Held every second Monday of May, the winners in the elections take office on the following June 30, local government is produced by local government units from the provinces, cities, municipalities and barangays. While the most regions do not have power, and exist merely for administration purposes. While local government units enjoy autonomy, much of their budget is derived from allocations from the national government, the upper house, the Senate, is composed of 24 senators elected via the plurality-at-large voting with the country as one at-large district. The senators elect amongst themselves a Senate President, the lower house is the House of Representatives, currently composed of 292 representatives, with no more than 20% elected via party-list system, with the rest elected from legislative districts. The House of Representatives is headed by the Speaker, each bill needs the consent of both houses in order to be submitted to the president for his signature. If the president vetoes the bill, Congress can override the veto with a two-thirds supermajority, Congress decisions are mostly via majority vote, except for voting on constitutional amendments and other matters. Each house has its own inherent power, with the Senate given the power to vote on treaties, the constitution provides Congress with impeachment powers, with the House of Representatives having the power to impeach, and the Senate having the power to try the impeached official. The party of the president controls the House of Representatives. From 1907 to 1941, the Nacionalistas operated under a dominant-party system, during World War II, the Japanese-sponsored Second Philippine Republic forced all the existing parties to merge into the KALIBAPI that controlled the party as a one-party state. From 1945 to 1972, the Philippines was under a two-party system, with the Nacionalistas and their offshoots Liberals alternating power, the political climate ushered in a multi-party system which persists into this day. Executive power is vested to the President, in practice however, the president, who is both the head of state and head of government, is directly elected to a single six-year term via first past the post. In case of death, resignation or incapacitation, the Vice President acts as the president until the expiration of the term, the Vice President is elected separately from the president, and may be of differing political parties. While the vice president has no powers aside from acting as president when the latter is unable to do so. The cabinet is composed of the heads of the executive departments, which provide services to the people. The president is also the commander in chief of the Armed Forces of the Philippines, the president is also given several military powers, although once exercised, Congress is able to prolong or end it
4.
Republic
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It is a government where the head of state is not a monarch. Both modern and ancient republics vary widely in their ideology, composition, in the classical and medieval period of Europe, many states were fashioned on the Roman Republic, which referred to the governance of the city of Rome, between it having kings and emperors. The Italian medieval and Renaissance political tradition, today referred to as humanism, is sometimes considered to derive directly from Roman republicans such as Sallust. Republics were not equated with classical democracies such as Athens, but had a democratic aspect, Republics became more common in the Western world starting in the late 18th century, eventually displacing absolute monarchy as the most common form of government in Europe. In modern republics, the executive is legitimized both by a constitution and by popular suffrage, for instance, Article IV of the United States Constitution guarantee to every State in this Union a Republican form of Government. The term originates as the Latin translation of Greek word politeia, cicero, among other Latin writers, translated politeia as res publica and it was in turn translated by Renaissance scholars as republic. The term politeia can be translated as form of government, polity, or regime, and is therefore not always a word for a specific type of regime as the modern word republic is. And also amongst classical Latin, the term republic can be used in a way to refer to any regime. In medieval Northern Italy, a number of city states had commune or signoria based governments, in the late Middle Ages, writers, such as Giovanni Villani, began writing about the nature of these states and the differences from other types of regime. They used terms such as libertas populi, a free people, the terminology changed in the 15th century as the renewed interest in the writings of Ancient Rome caused writers to prefer using classical terminology. To describe non-monarchical states writers, most importantly Leonardo Bruni, adopted the Latin phrase res publica. While Bruni and Machiavelli used the term to describe the states of Northern Italy, which were not monarchies, the term can quite literally be translated as public matter. It was most often used by Roman writers to refer to the state and government, in subsequent centuries, the English word commonwealth came to be used as a translation of res publica, and its use in English was comparable to how the Romans used the term res publica. Notably, during The Protectorate of Oliver Cromwell the word commonwealth was the most common term to call the new monarchless state, likewise, in Polish, the term was translated as rzeczpospolita, although the translation is now only used with respect to Poland. Presently, the term republic commonly means a system of government which derives its power from the rather than from another basis. After the classical period, during the Middle Ages, many cities developed again. The modern type of itself is different from any type of state found in the classical world. Nevertheless, there are a number of states of the era that are today still called republics
5.
President of the Philippines
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The President of the Philippines is the head of state and head of government of the Philippines. The President leads the executive branch of the Philippine government and is the commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces of the Philippines, Filipinos refer to their President as Pangulo or Presidente. The President serves a single, fixed, six-year term without possibility of re-election, in Filipino, one of the two official languages of the Philippines, the President is referred to as Pangulo. In the other languages of the Philippines such as the Visayan languages. Depending on the chosen for these terms, a number of persons could alternatively be considered the inaugural holder of the office. Andrés Bonifacio could be considered the first President of a united Philippines since he was the third Supreme President of the Katipunan and its Supreme Council, led by the Supreme President, coordinated provincial and district councils. When the Katipunan started a revolt against the Spanish colonial government in August 1896. While the term Katipunan remained, Bonifacios government was known as the Tagalog Republic. Bonifacios revolutionary government never controlled territory for any significant period. Some historians contend that including Bonifacio as a past president would imply that Macario Sacay, in March 1897, during the Philippine Revolution against Spain Emilio Aguinaldo was elected president of the revolutionary government at the Tejeros Convention. The new government was meant to replace the Katipunan, though the latter was not formally abolished until 1899, Aguinaldo was again elected President at Biak-na-Bato in November, leading the Republic of Biak-na-Bato. Aguinaldo therefore signed the Pact of Biak-na-Bato and went into exile in Hong Kong at the end of 1897, in April 1898, the Spanish–American War broke out, and the Asiatic Squadron of the United States Navy sailed for the Philippines. At the Battle of Manila Bay on May 1,1898 the American Navy decisively defeated the Spanish Navy effectively ending Spanish rule in the Philippines, aquinaldo subsequently returned to the Philippines aboard a U. S. Navy vessel and renewed the revolution. He formed a government on May 24,1898 and issued the Philippine Declaration of Independence on June 12,1898. On June 23,1898, Aguinaldo transformed his government into a revolutionary government. On January 23,1899, he was then elected President of the First Philippine Republic, consequently, this government is also called the Malolos Republic. The First Philippine Republic was short-lived and never internationally recognized, the Philippines was transferred from Spanish to American control by the Treaty of Paris of 1898, signed in December of that year. The Philippine–American War broke out between the United States and Aguinaldos government and his government effectively ceased to exist on April 1,1901, after he pledged allegiance to the United States following his capture by U. S. forces in March
6.
Governor-General of the Philippines
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They were also the representative of the executive of the ruling power. On November 15,1935, the Commonwealth of the Philippines was established as a government to prepare the country for independence from the American control. The governor-general was replaced by an elected Filipino President of the Philippine Commonwealth, as the executive of the Philippines. The former American Governor-General then became known as the High Commissioner to the Philippines, from 1565 to 1898, the Philippines was under Spanish rule. From 1565–1821, The governor and captain-general was appointed by the Viceroy of New Spain upon recommendation of the Spanish Cortes, when there was a vacancy, the Royal Audiencia in Manila appoints a temporary governor from among its members. Ad interim Real Audiencia Great Britain occupied Manila and the port of Cavite as part of the Seven Years War. After the 1821 Mexican War of Independence, Mexico became independent and was no part of the Spanish Empire. The Viceroyalty of New Spain ceased to exist, the Philippines, as a result, was directly governed from Madrid, under the Crown. The American military government was established following the defeat of Spain in the Spanish–American War, during the transition period, executive authority in all civil affairs in the Philippine government was exercised by the military governor. For the first year, a Military Governor, Adna Chaffee, ruled parts of the still resisting the American rule, concurrent with civil governor. Disagreements between the two were not uncommon, the following year, on July 4,1902, Taft became the sole executive authority. Chaffee remained as commander of Philippine Division until September 30,1902, the title was changed to Governor General in 1905 by an act of Congress. The term insular refers to U. S. island territories that are not incorporated into either a state or a federal district, all insular areas was under the authority of the U. S. Bureau of Insular Affairs, a division of the US War Department. On November 15,1935, the Commonwealth of the Philippines was inaugurated as a government to prepare the country for independence. The office of President of the Philippine Commonwealth replaced the Governor-General as the chief executive. The Governor-General became the High Commissioner of the Philippines with Frank Murphy, the High Commissioner exercised no executive power but rather represented the colonial power, the United States Government, in the Philippines. The high commissioner moved from Malacañang Palace to the newly built High Commissioners Residence, after the Philippine independence on July 4,1946, the last High Commissioner, Paul McNutt, became the first United States Ambassador to the Philippines. In December 1941, the Commonwealth of the Philippines was invaded by Japan as part of World War II, the next year, the Empire of Japan sent a military governor to control the country during wartime, followed by the formal establishment of the puppet second republic
7.
Benigno Aquino Sr.
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He was the Director-General of KALIBAPI, a political party established during the Japanese occupation of the Philippines. His grandson Benigno S. Aquino III was the 15th President of the Philippines from 2010 to 2016 and he had two siblings, namely Gonzalo Aquino and Amando Aquino, and a half-brother, Herminio Aquino. He studied at the Colegio de San Juan de Letran in Manila, Benigno Igno Aquino was first elected to the Philippine Legislature in 1919 representing the 2nd District of Tarlac. He became part of the Philippine Independence Mission in 1931, which negotiated the terms of obtaining Philippine independence from the United States, during the elections for the Commonwealth of the Philippines government in 1935 he ran again in his district in Tarlac and won. In 1937, he was appointed by Commonwealth President Manuel L. Quezon as Secretary of Agriculture, being among the more prominent Commonwealth officials left after the Commonwealth government went into exile in 1941, Aquino were among those recruited by the Japanese to form a government. Aquino became the director-general of KALIBAPI and one of the two assistant chairmen of the Preparatory Commission for Philippine Independence, when the Second Philippine Republic was inaugurated, he was elected Speaker of the National Assembly. On August 25,1946, Aquino was flown back to the Philippines for his trial on charges by the Peoples Court. In May 1916, he married Maria Urquico, the daughter of katipunero Antonio Urquico and he had two sons and two daughters with Maria, namely, Antonio Aquino, Servillano Aquino II, Milagros Aquino, and Erlinda Aquino. On December 20,1947, Aquino died of an attack at the Rizal Memorial Coliseum in Manila while watching a boxing match. Aquinos widow Dona Aurora died in 1998, cS1 maint, BOT, original-url status unknown. Sugar and the Origins of Modern Philippine Society
8.
Surrender of Japan
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The surrender of Imperial Japan was announced on August 15 and formally signed on September 2,1945, bringing the hostilities of World War II to a close. By the end of July 1945, the Imperial Japanese Navy was incapable of conducting major operations, on August 6,1945, at 8,15 AM local time, the United States detonated an atomic bomb over the Japanese city of Hiroshima. Sixteen hours later, American President Harry S. Truman called again for Japans surrender, warning them to expect a rain of ruin from the air, later in the day, the United States dropped a second atomic bomb, this time on the Japanese city of Nagasaki. After several more days of negotiations and a failed coup détat. In the radio address, called the Jewel Voice Broadcast, he announced the surrender of Japan to the Allies, on August 28, the occupation of Japan by the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers began. The role of the bombings in Japans unconditional surrender. The state of war ended when the Treaty of San Francisco came into force on April 28,1952. Four more years passed before Japan and the Soviet Union signed the Soviet–Japanese Joint Declaration of 1956, by 1945, the Japanese had suffered an unbroken string of defeats for nearly two years in the South West Pacific, the Marianas campaign, and the Philippines campaign. In July 1944, following the loss of Saipan, General Hideki Tōjō was replaced as minister by General Kuniaki Koiso. After the Japanese loss of the Philippines, Koiso in turn was replaced by Admiral Kantarō Suzuki, the Allies captured the nearby islands of Iwo Jima and Okinawa in the first half of 1945. Okinawa was to be an area for Operation Downfall, the American invasion of the Japanese Home Islands. The Allied submarine campaign and the mining of Japanese coastal waters had largely destroyed the Japanese merchant fleet, the destruction of the Japanese merchant fleet, combined with the strategic bombing of Japanese industry, had wrecked Japans war economy. Production of coal, iron, steel, rubber, and other vital supplies was only a fraction of that before the war, as a result of the losses it had suffered, the Imperial Japanese Navy had ceased to be an effective fighting force. Although 19 destroyers and 38 submarines were still operational, their use was limited by the lack of fuel, the only course left is for Japans one hundred million people to sacrifice their lives by charging the enemy to make them lose the will to fight. As a final attempt to stop the Allied advances, the Japanese Imperial High Command planned an all-out defense of Kyūshū codenamed Operation Ketsugō and this was to be a radical departure from the defense in depth plans used in the invasions of Peleliu, Iwo Jima, and Okinawa. Instead, everything was staked on the beachhead, more than 3,000 kamikazes would be sent to attack the transports before troops. The strategy of making a last stand at Kyūshū was based on the assumption of continued Soviet neutrality, a set of caves were excavated near Nagano on Honshu, the largest of the Japanese islands. In the event of invasion, these caves, the Matsushiro Underground Imperial Headquarters, were to be used by the army to direct the war and to house the Emperor and his family
9.
Geography of the Philippines
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The Philippines is an archipelago that consists of 7,641 islands with a total land area of 301,780 square kilometers. The 11 largest islands contain 95% of the land area. The largest of these islands is Luzon at about 105,000 square kilometers, the next largest island is Mindanao at about 95,000 square kilometers. The archipelago is around 800 kilometers from the Asian mainland and is located between Taiwan and Borneo, the Philippine archipelago is divided into three island groups, Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. The Luzon islands include Luzon itself, Palawan, Mindoro, Marinduque, Masbate, Romblon, Catanduanes, Batanes and Polilio. The Visayas is the group of islands in the central Philippines, the Mindanao islands include Mindanao itself, Dinagat, Siargao, Camiguin, Samal, plus the Sulu Archipelago, composed primarily of Basilan, Sulu, and Tawi-Tawi. The archipelago numbers some 7,641 islands, and the claims a exclusive economic zone of 200 nautical miles from its shores. The Philippines occupies an area that stretches for 1,850 kilometers from about the fifth to the twentieth parallels north latitude, the total land area is slightly more than 300,000 square kilometers. Only approximately 1,000 of its islands are populated, eleven islands make up 95 percent of the Philippine landmass, and two of these — Luzon and Mindanao — measure 105,000 square kilometers and 95,000 square kilometers, respectively. They, together with the cluster of islands in Visayas in between them, represent the three regions of the archipelago that are identified by the three stars on the Philippine flag. The Philippines is broken up by the sea, which gives it one of the longest coastlines of any nation in the world, off the coast of eastern Mindanao is the Philippine Trench, which descends to a depth of 10,430 meters. The Philippines is part of a western Pacific arc system characterized by active volcanoes, among the most notable peaks are Mount Mayon near Legazpi City, Taal Volcano south of Manila, and Mount Apo in Mindanao. All of the Philippine islands are prone to earthquakes, the rain forests also offer prime habitat for more than 500 species of birds, including the Philippine eagle, some 1,100 species of orchids, and some 8,500 species of flowering plants. Laguna de Bay, east of Manila Bay, is the largest freshwater lake in the Philippines, several rivers have been harnessed for hydroelectric power. To protect the biological resources, the government has taken a first step of preparing a Biodiversity Action Plan to address conservation of threatened species. The islands are volcanic in origin, being part of the Pacific Ring of Fire, the highest point in the country is the peak of Mount Apo in Mindanao, which is 2,954 meters above sea level. The second highest point can be found on Luzon at Mount Pulog, the Philippine Archipelago is geologically part of the Philippine Mobile Belt located between the Philippine Sea Plate, the South China Sea Basin of the Eurasian Plate, and the Sunda Plate. The Philippine Trench is a submarine trench 1,320 kilometers in length found directly east of the Philippine Mobile Belt and is the result of a collision of tectonic plates
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