1.
Stanley Park
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Stanley Park is a 405-hectare public park that borders the downtown of Vancouver in British Columbia, Canada and is almost entirely surrounded by waters of Vancouver Harbour and English Bay. The park has a history and was one of the first areas to be explored in the city. The land was used by indigenous peoples for thousands of years before British Columbia was colonized by the British during the 1858 Fraser Canyon Gold Rush. For many years after colonization, the park with its abundant resources would also be home to nonaboriginal settlers. The land was turned into Vancouvers first park when the city incorporated in 1886. It was named after Lord Stanley, 16th Earl of Derby, unlike other large urban parks, Stanley Park is not the creation of a landscape architect, but rather the evolution of a forest and urban space over many years. Most of the structures present in the park were built between 1911 and 1937 under the influence of then superintendent W. S. Rawlings. Additional attractions, such as a polar bear exhibit, aquarium, and miniature train, were added in the post-war period. Much of the remains as densely forested as it was in the late 1800s, with about a half million trees. Thousands of trees were lost after three major windstorms that took place in the past 100 years, the last in 2006, significant effort was put into constructing the near-century-old Vancouver Seawall, which can draw thousands of residents and visitors to the park every day. The park also features forest trails, beaches, lakes, childrens play areas, on June 18,2014 Stanley Park was named top park in the entire world by TripAdvisor. Archaeological evidence suggests a human presence in the park dating back more than 3,000 years, the area is the traditional territory of different coastal indigenous peoples. From the Burrard Inlet and Howe Sound regions, Squamish Nation had a village in the park. From the lower Fraser River area, Musqueam Nation used its natural resources, where Lumbermans Arch is now, there once was a large village called Whoi Whoi, or Xwayxway, roughly meaning place of masks. One longhouse, built from cedar poles and slabs, was measured at 200 feet long by 60 feet wide and these houses were occupied by large extended families living in different quadrants of the house. The larger houses were used for ceremonial potlatchs where a host would invite guests to witness and participate in ceremonies, another settlement was further west along the same shore. This place was called Chaythoos, meaning high bank, the site of Chaythoos is noted on a brass plaque placed on the lowlands east of Prospect Point commemorating the parks centennial. Both sites were occupied in 1888, when residents were forcefully removed to allow a road to be constructed around the park
2.
Vancouver
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Vancouver is a coastal seaport city in Canada, located in the Lower Mainland region of British Columbia. As the most populous city in the province, the 2016 census recorded 631,486 people in the city, the Greater Vancouver area had a population of 2,463,431 in 2016, making it the third largest metropolitan area in Canada. Vancouver has the highest population density in Canada with over 5,400 people per square kilometre. With over 250,000 residents, Vancouver municipality is the fourth most densely populated city in North America behind New York City, San Francisco, and Mexico City according to the 2011 census. In that census, Vancouver was one of the most ethnically and linguistically diverse cities in Canada, Vancouver is classed as a Beta global city. In 2014, following thirty years in California, the annual TED conference made Vancouver its indefinite home, several matches of the 2015 FIFA Womens World Cup were played in Vancouver, including the final at BC Place Stadium. From that first enterprise, other stores and some hotels quickly appeared along the waterfront to the west, Gastown became formally laid out as a registered townsite dubbed Granville, B. I. As of 2014, Port Metro Vancouver is the third largest port by tonnage in the Americas, 27th in the world, the busiest and largest in Canada, and the most diversified port in North America. While forestry remains its largest industry, Vancouver is well known as an urban centre surrounded by nature, archaeological records indicate the presence of Aboriginal people in the Vancouver area from 8,000 to 10,000 years ago. The city is located in the territories of the Squamish, Musqueam. They had villages in various parts of present-day Vancouver, such as Stanley Park, False Creek, Kitsilano, Point Grey, the city takes its name from George Vancouver, who explored the inner harbour of Burrard Inlet in 1792 and gave various places British names. The explorer and North West Company trader Simon Fraser and his became the first known Europeans to set foot on the site of the present-day city. In 1808, they travelled from the east down the Fraser River, perhaps as far as Point Grey. The Fraser Gold Rush of 1858 brought over 25,000 men, mainly from California, to nearby New Westminster on the Fraser River, on their way to the Fraser Canyon, a sawmill established at Moodyville in 1863, began the citys long relationship with logging. It was quickly followed by mills owned by Captain Edward Stamp on the shore of the inlet. This mill, known as the Hastings Mill, became the nucleus around which Vancouver formed, the mills central role in the city waned after the arrival of the Canadian Pacific Railway in the 1880s. It nevertheless remained important to the economy until it closed in the 1920s. The settlement which came to be called Gastown grew up quickly around the original makeshift tavern established by Gassy Jack Deighton in 1867 on the edge of the Hastings Mill property
3.
Canada
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Canada is a country in the northern half of North America. Canadas border with the United States is the worlds longest binational land border, the majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate, but southerly areas are warm in summer. Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of its territory being dominated by forest and tundra. It is highly urbanized with 82 per cent of the 35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized cities, One third of the population lives in the three largest cities, Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Its capital is Ottawa, and other urban areas include Calgary, Edmonton, Quebec City, Winnipeg. Various aboriginal peoples had inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization. Pursuant to the British North America Act, on July 1,1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick and this began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly self-governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming modern Canada. With the Constitution Act 1982, Canada took over authority, removing the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state. The country is officially bilingual at the federal level and it is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources, Canadas long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture. Canada is a country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human Development Index. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, Canada is an influential nation in the world, primarily due to its inclusive values, years of prosperity and stability, stable economy, and efficient military. While a variety of theories have been postulated for the origins of Canada. In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona, from the 16th to the early 18th century Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the St. Lawrence River. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada collectively named The Canadas, until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the name for the new country at the London Conference. The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act, later that year, the name of national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day
4.
1962 Pacific typhoon season
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Storms that form east of the date line and north of the equator are called hurricanes, see 1962 Pacific hurricane season. All tropical depressions are assigned a number, most systems reaching tropical storm strength were assigned a name, all typhoons were named. Ninety tropical waves formed in the 1962 season, only 78 of these became major easterly waves. 38 of these waves became tropical depressions,30 became storms and 23 become typhoons and this record of 24 typhoons beat 1952 record which had 21. This record was beaten in the 1964 season with 26 typhoons, six super typhoons formed in 1962 which were Georgia, Emma, Ruth, Opal, Amy and Karen. Even with the activity, only about half the cyclones in 1962 made landfall. There were also seventeen suspect cyclones discovered by the JTWC in post-season reports, three were reported to reach typhoon intensity, three at tropical storm status and two needed tropical depression warnings. Two depressions,50 and 63, formed in the Central Pacific under the Joint Hurricane Warning Centers jurisdiction and were included in the JTWC archives, both depressions stayed out to sea and had no effects on land. The Central Pacific also got Nora, Opal, Ruth, Gilda, Emma and Thelma, the remnants of Nadine, six typhoons entered the Bering Sea, Nora, Opal, Ruth, Thelma, Amy and Emma. Four of the six were super typhoons, three typhoons just missed entering the Bering Sea, Typhoons Hope, Sarah and Gilda. The second tropical wave of the season formed on the morning of February 2 off the southeastern coast of the Philippines, the storm quickly intensified into a tropical depression and soon into the first tropical storm of the 1962 season. The intensifying tropical cyclone went through the half of February 2 as a 45 mph tropical storm. However, on the morning of February 3, the storm curved to the northeast. The strength remained unchanged during the day and before long reached its peak winds speeds of 50 mph, continuing northward away from the coast of the Philippines, Fran remained at peak winds until the evening of February 4. During the morning hours of February 5, Fran dropped down to 45 mph tropical storm and continued northward, on the morning of February 6, Fran weakened into a tropical depression and the final advisory was released six hours after. A surge from an outdraft in the Southern Hemisphere entered the western Pacific on the afternoon of April 13 and this surge began to come together near the island of Woleai and progressed northwestward through the Pacific. After crossing over Woleai, the system neared the island of Yap, on the afternoon of April 16, the system was declared a tropical depression. The depression made a curve to the south during the north, the storm was upgraded to Tropical Storm Georgia on April 17 as the system continued curving, turning to the east
5.
Forest
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A forest is a large area dominated by trees. Hundreds of more precise definitions of forest are used throughout the world, incorporating factors such as density, tree height, land use, legal standing. According to the widely used Food and Agriculture Organization definition, forests covered four billion hectares or approximately 30 percent of the land area in 2006. Forests are the dominant terrestrial ecosystem of Earth, and are distributed across the globe, Forests account for 75% of the gross primary productivity of the Earths biosphere, and contain 80% of the Earths plant biomass. Forests at different latitudes and elevations form distinctly different ecozones, boreal forests near the poles, tropical forests near the equator, higher elevation areas tend to support forests similar to those at higher latitudes, and amount of precipitation also affects forest composition. Human society and forests influence each other in both positive and negative ways, Forests provide ecosystem services to humans and serve as tourist attractions. Forests can also affect peoples health, human activities, including harvesting forest resources, can negatively affect forest ecosystems. Although forest is a term of common parlance, there is no universally recognised precise definition, there are three broad categories of forest definitions in use, administrative, land use, and land cover. Land use definitions are based upon the purpose that the land serves. For example, a forest may be defined as any land that is used primarily for production of timber, land cover definitions define forests based upon the type and density of vegetation growing on the land. Such definitions typically define a forest as an area growing trees above some threshold and these thresholds are typically the number of trees per area, the area of ground under the tree canopy or the section of land that is occupied by the cross-section of tree trunks. Under such land cover definitions, and area of land only be defined as forest if it is growing trees, areas that fail to meet the land cover definition may be still included under while immature trees are establishing if they are expected to meet the definition at maturity. Under land use definitions, there is variation on where the cutoff points are between a forest, woodland, and savanna. Under some definitions, forests require high levels of tree canopy cover, from 60% to 100%, excluding savannas. Other definitions consider savannas to be a type of forest, the term was not endemic to Romance languages, and cognates in Romance languages, such as Italian foresta, Spanish and Portuguese floresta, etc. are all ultimately borrowings of the French word. The exact origin of Medieval Latin foresta is obscure, uses of the word forest in English to denote any uninhabited area of non-enclosure are now considered archaic. The word was introduced by the Norman rulers of England as a term denoting an uncultivated area legally set aside for hunting by feudal nobility. These hunting forests were not necessarily wooded much, if at all, however, as hunting forests did often include considerable areas of woodland, the word forest eventually came to mean wooded land more generally
6.
Woodland
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Woodland /ˈwʊdlənd/ is a low-density forest forming open habitats with plenty of sunlight and limited shade. Woodlands may support an understory of shrubs and herbaceous plants including grasses, woodland may form a transition to shrubland under drier conditions or during early stages of primary or secondary succession. Higher density areas of trees with a closed canopy that provides extensive. Conservationists have worked hard to preserve woodlands, because people are destroying animals habitats when building homes, for example, the woodlands in Northwest Indiana have been preserved as part of the Indiana Dunes. The term ancient woodland is used in British nature conservation to refer to any wooded land that has existed since 1600, woodlot is a closely related American term, which refers to a stand of trees generally used for firewood. While woodlots often technically have closed canopies, they are so small that light penetration from the edge makes them ecologically closer to woodland than forest, in Australia, a woodland is defined as an area with sparse cover of trees, and an open woodland has very sparse cover. Woodlands are also subdivided into tall woodlands, or low woodlands and this contrasts with forests, which have greater than 30% cover by trees
7.
Logging
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Logging is the cutting, skidding, on-site processing, and loading of trees or logs onto trucks or skeleton cars. In forestry, the logging is sometimes used in a narrow sense concerning the logistics of moving wood from the stump to somewhere outside the forest. However, in usage, the term may be used to indicate a range of forestry or silviculture activities. Illegal logging refers to what in forestry might be called timber theft by the timber mafia and it can also refer to the harvesting, transportation, purchase, or sale of timber in violation of laws. Clearcut logging is not necessarily considered a type of logging but a harvesting or silviculture method, in the forest products industry logging companies may be referred to as logging contractors, with the smaller, non-union crews referred to as gyppo loggers. Cutting trees with the highest value and leaving those with lower value and it is sometimes called selective logging, and confused with selection cutting, the practice of managing stands by harvesting a proportion of trees. Logging usually refers to above-ground forestry logging, submerged forests exist on land that has been flooded by damming to create reservoirs. Such trees are logged using underwater logging or by the lowering of the reservoirs in question, ootsa Lake and Williston Lake in British Columbia, Canada are notable examples where timber recovery has been needed to remove inundated forests. Clearcutting, or clearfelling, is a method of harvesting that removes all the standing trees in a selected area. Silviculture objectives for clearcutting, and a focus on forestry distinguish it from deforestation, other methods include shelterwood cutting, group selective, single selective, seed-tree cutting, patch cut, and retention cutting. The above operations can be carried out by different methods, of which the three are considered industrial methods, Trees are felled and then delimbed and topped at the stump. The log is then transported to the landing, where it is bucked and loaded on a truck and this leaves the slash in the cut area, where it must be further treated if wild land fires are of concern. This ability is due to the advancement in the style felling head that can be used, the trees are then delimbed, topped, and bucked at the landing. This method requires that slash be treated at the landing, in areas with access to cogeneration facilities, the slash can be chipped and used for the production of electricity or heat. Full-tree harvesting also refers to utilization of the tree including branches. Cut-to-length logging is the process of felling, delimbing, bucking, harvesters fell the tree, delimb, and buck it, and place the resulting logs in bunks to be brought to the landing by a skidder or forwarder. This method is available for trees up to 900 mm in diameter. Harvesters are employed effectively in level to steep terrain
8.
Disturbance (ecology)
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In biology, a disturbance is a temporary change in environmental conditions that causes a pronounced change in an ecosystem. Disturbances often act quickly and with effect, to alter the physical structure or arrangement of biotic and abiotic elements. Disturbance can also occur over a period of time and can impact the diversity within an ecosystem. Major ecological disturbances may include fires, flooding, windstorms, insect outbreaks, Disturbance forces can have profound immediate effects on ecosystems and can, accordingly, greatly alter the natural community. Conditions under which natural disturbances occur are influenced mainly by climate, weather, fire disturbances will only occur in areas where there is low precipitation, some form of ignition, and enough flammable biomass to allow fire to spread. Conditions often occur as part of a cycle and disturbances may be periodic, other disturbances, such as those caused by humans, invasive species or impact events, can occur anywhere and are not necessarily cyclic. Extinction vortices may result in multiple disturbances or a frequency of a single disturbance. Immediately after a disturbance there is a pulse of recruitment or regrowth under conditions of competition for space or other resources. After the initial pulse, recruitment slows since once a plant is established it is very difficult to displace. Due to the forms of disturbance this directly impacts the organisms which will exploit the disturbance. Often, when disturbances occur naturally, they provide conditions that favor the success of different species over pre-disturbance organisms and this can be attributed to physical changes in the biotic and abiotic conditions of an ecosystem. Because of this, a force can change an ecosystem for significantly longer than the period over which the immediate effects persist. With the passage of time following a disturbance, shifts in dominance may occur with ephemeral herbaceous life-forms progressively becoming over topped by taller perennials herbs, shrubs, however, in the absence of further disturbance forces, many ecosystems trend back toward pre-disturbance conditions. Long lived species and those that can regenerate in the presence of their own adults finally become dominant, such alteration, accompanied by changes in the abundance of different species over time, is called ecological succession. Succession often leads to conditions that will once again predispose an ecosystem to disturbance, Pine forests in the western North America provide a good example of such a cycle involving insect outbreaks. The mountain pine beetle play an important role in limiting pine trees like lodgepole pine in forests of western North America, in 2004 the beetles affected more than 90,000 square kilometres. The beetles exist in endemic and epidemic phases, during epidemic phases swarms of beetles kill large numbers of old pines. This mortality creates openings in the forest for new vegetation, spruce, fir, and younger pines, which are unaffected by the beetles, thrive in canopy openings
9.
Old-growth forest
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Old-growth features include diverse tree-related structures that provide diverse wildlife habitat that increases the biodiversity of the forested ecosystem. The concept of tree structure includes multi-layered canopies and canopy gaps, greatly varying tree heights and diameters. Old-growth forests are valuable, and logging of these forests has been a point of contention between the logging industry and environmentalists. Old-growth forests tend to have trees and standing dead trees, multi-layered canopies with gaps that result from the deaths of individual trees. Depending on the forest, this may take anywhere from a century to several millennia, hardwood forests of the eastern United States can develop old-growth characteristics in one or two generations of trees, or 150–500 years. In British Columbia, Canada, old growth is defined as 120 to 140 years of age in the interior of the province where fire is a frequent and natural occurrence. In British Columbia’s coastal rainforests, old growth is defined as more than 250 years. In Australia, eucalypt trees rarely exceed 350 years of age due to frequent fire disturbance, Forest types have very different development patterns, natural disturbances and appearances. Levels of biodiversity may be higher or lower in old-growth forests compared to that in second-growth forests, depending on circumstances, environmental variables. Logging in old-growth forests is an issue in many parts of the world. Excessive logging reduces biodiversity, affecting not only the old-growth forest itself, a forest in old-growth stage has a mix of tree ages, due to a distinct regeneration pattern for this stage. New trees regenerate at different times from other, because each one of them has different spatial location relative to the main canopy. The mixed age of the forest is an important criterion in ensuring that the forest is a stable ecosystem in the long term. A climax stand that is uniformly aged becomes senescent and degrades within a relatively short time-period to result in a new cycle of forest succession, thus, uniformly aged stands are a less stable ecosystem. Forest canopy gaps are essential in creating and maintaining mixed-age stands, also, some herbaceous plants only become established in canopy openings, but persist beneath an understory. Openings are a result of death due to small impact disturbances such as wind, low-intensity fires. Because old-growth forest is structurally diverse it provides higher-diversity habitat than forests in other stages, thus, sometimes higher biological diversity can be sustained in old-growth forest, or at least a biodiversity that is different from other forest stages. The characteristic topography of much old-growth forest consists of pits and mounds, mounds are caused by decaying fallen trees, and pits by the roots pulled out of the ground when trees fall due to natural causes, including being pushed over by animals
10.
Ecological succession
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Ecological succession is the process of change in the species structure of an ecological community over time. The time scale can be decades, or even millions of years after a mass extinction, the community begins with relatively few pioneering plants and animals and develops through increasing complexity until it becomes stable or self-perpetuating as a climax community. The ʺengineʺ of succession, the cause of change, is the impact of established species upon their own environments. A consequence of living is the subtle and sometimes overt alteration of ones own environment. It is a phenomenon or process by which an ecological community undergoes more or less orderly, Succession was among the first theories advanced in ecology. The study of remains at the core of ecological science. Ecological succession was first documented in the Indiana Dunes of Northwest Indiana which led to efforts to preserve the Indiana Dunes, exhibits on ecological succession are displayed in the Hour Glass, a museum in Ogden Dunes. Precursors of the idea of ecological succession go back to the beginning of the 19th century, the French naturalist Adolphe Dureau de la Malle was the first to make use of the word succession concerning the vegetation development after forest clear-cutting. In 1859 Henry David Thoreau wrote an address called The Succession of Forest Trees in which he described succession in an oak-pine forest. It has long known to observers that squirrels bury nuts in the ground. The Austrian botanist Anton Kerner published a study about the succession of plants in the Danube river basin in 1863, Henry Chandler Cowles, at the University of Chicago, developed a more formal concept of succession. Inspired by studies of Danish dunes by Eugen Warming, Cowles studied vegetation development on sand dunes on the shores of Lake Michigan and he recognized that vegetation on dunes of different ages might be interpreted as different stages of a general trend of vegetation development on dunes. He first published work as a paper in the Botanical Gazette in 1899. Clements and his followers developed a taxonomy of communities and successional pathways. Henry Gleason offered a contrasting framework as early as the 1920s, the Gleasonian model was more complex and much less deterministic than the Clementsian. It differs most fundamentally from the Clementsian view in suggesting a greater role of chance factors and in denying the existence of coherent. Gleason argued that species distributions responded individualistically to environmental factors, gleasons ideas, first published in 1926, were largely ignored until the late 1950s. Two quotes illustrate the contrasting views of Clements and Gleason, Clements wrote in 1916, The developmental study of vegetation necessarily rests upon the assumption that the unit or climax formation is an organic entity
11.
Wildfire
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A wildfire or wildland fire is a fire in an area of combustible vegetation that occurs in the countryside or rural area. Fossil charcoal indicates that wildfires began soon after the appearance of terrestrial plants 420 million years ago, wildfire’s occurrence throughout the history of terrestrial life invites conjecture that fire must have had pronounced evolutionary effects on most ecosystems flora and fauna. Earth is an intrinsically flammable planet owing to its cover of vegetation, seasonally dry climates, atmospheric oxygen, widespread lightning. Wildfires can be characterised in terms of the cause of ignition, their properties, the combustible material present. Wildfires can cause damage to property and human life, but they have beneficial effects on native vegetation, animals. Many plant species depend on the effects of fire for growth, however, wildfire in ecosystems where wildfire is uncommon or where non-native vegetation has encroached may have negative ecological effects. Wildfire behaviour and severity result from the combination of such as available fuels, physical setting. Strategies of wildfire prevention, detection and suppression have varied over the years, one common and inexpensive technique is controlled burning, permitting or even igniting smaller fires to minimise the amount of flammable material available for a potential wildfire. Vegetation may be burned periodically to maintain species diversity and frequent burning of surface fuels limits fuel accumulation. Wildland fire use is the cheapest and most ecologically appropriate policy for many forests, fuels may also be removed by logging, but fuels treatments and thinning have no effect on severe fire behaviour. Wildfires can also be started in communities experiencing shifting cultivation, where land is cleared quickly and farmed until the soil loses fertility, forested areas cleared by logging encourage the dominance of flammable grasses, and abandoned logging roads overgrown by vegetation may act as fire corridors. The most common cause of wildfires throughout the world. In Canada and northwest China, for example, lightning operates as the source of ignition. In other parts of the world, human involvement is a major contributor, in China and in the Mediterranean Basin, human carelessness is a major cause of wildfires. In the United States and Australia, the source of wildfires can be traced both to lightning strikes and to human activities. Coal seam fires burn in the thousands around the world, such as those in Burning Mountain, New South Wales, Centralia, Pennsylvania and they can also flare up unexpectedly and ignite nearby flammable material. The spread of wildfires based on the flammable material present, its vertical arrangement and moisture content. Fuel arrangement and density is governed in part by topography, as land shape determines factors such as available sunlight, overall, fire types can be generally characterized by their fuels as follows, Ground fires are fed by subterranean roots, duff and other buried organic matter
12.
Windthrow
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In forestry, windthrow or blowdown refers to trees uprooted or broken by wind. Breakage of the tree instead of uprooting is sometimes called windsnap. Windthrow is common in all forested parts of the world that experience storms or high wind speeds. The risk of windthrow to a tree is related to the size, the sail area presented by its crown, the anchorage provided by its roots, its exposure to the wind. A common way of quantifying the risk of windthrow to a forest area is to model the probability or return time of a speed that would damage those trees at that location. Tree senescence can also be a factor, where multiple factors contributing to the health of a tree reduce its anchorage. The resulting damage can be a significant factor in the development of a forest, windthrow can also increase following logging, especially in young forests managed specifically for timber. The removal of trees at a forests edge increases the exposure of the trees to the wind. If a tree does not experience much wind movement during the stem exclusion phase of stand succession, trees with heavy growths of ivy, wisteria, or kudzu are already stressed and may be more susceptible to windthrow, as the additional foliage increases the trees sail area. Trees with decayed trunk, fungus-induced cankers and borer damages are more susceptible to windsnap, windthrow disturbance generates a variety of unique ecological resources on which certain forest processes are highly dependent. Windthrow can be considered an abiotic factor that can generate an entire new chain of seral plant succession in a given area. Windthrow can also be considered to act as a process whereby regeneration is made possible with new resource availability. Severe uprooting opens bare patches of soil that can act as seed sinks. These patches have been shown, in the Pacific Northwest of the United States, additionally, the gap created in the forest canopy when windthrow occurs yields an increase in light, moisture, and nutrient availability in near proximity to the disturbance. Toppled trees have the potential of becoming nurse logs, nurturing habitats for other forest organisms, catastrophic windthrow in the presettlement forests of Wisconsin. Platt, W. J. Runkle, J. R. Spies, T. A. & White, light regimes beneath closed canopies and tree-fall gaps in temperate and tropical forests. Canadian Journal of Forest Research,20, 620–631, interspecific variation in susceptibility to windthrow as a function of tree size and storm severity for northern hardwood tree species. Canadian Journal of Forest Research,31, 1–10, Dynamics of nitrogen mineralization and nitrification in hemlock and hardwood treefall gaps
13.
Seral community
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A seral community is an intermediate stage found in ecological succession in an ecosystem advancing towards its climax community. In many cases more than one seral stage evolves until climax conditions are attained, a prisere is a collection of seres making up the development of an area from non-vegetated surfaces to a climax community. A seral community is the given to each group of plants within the succession. A primary succession describes those plant communities that occupy a site that has not previously been vegetated and these can also be described as the pioneer community. Computer modeling is used to evaluate likely succession stages in a seral community. During the first two years, grasses, heaths and herbaceous plants such as fireweed will be abundant, after a few more years shrubs will start to appear, and about six to eight years after clearing, the area is likely to be crowded with young birches. Each of these stages can be referred to as a seral community, in the far western part of North America, chaparral plant communities are typically controlled by periodic natural wildfires. In the southern portion of the Coast Ranges and in Southern California chaparral, allogenic succession Autogenic succession Frederic Clements Plagioclimax
14.
Temperate broadleaf and mixed forest
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Temperate broadleaf and mixed forest is a temperate climate terrestrial biome, with broadleaf tree ecoregions, and with conifer and broadleaf tree mixed coniferous forest ecoregions. The term Temperate broadleaf and mixed forest is used by the World Wildlife Fund in global biogeography as one of the biome designations under which to organize ecoregions, the typical structure of these forests includes four layers. The uppermost layer is the canopy composed of mature trees ranging from 30 to 61 m high. Below the canopy is the three-layered, shade-tolerant understory that is roughly 9 to 15 m shorter than the canopy, the top layer of the understory is the sub-canopy composed of smaller mature trees, saplings, and suppressed juvenile canopy layer trees awaiting an opening in the canopy. Below the sub-canopy is the layer, composed of low growing woody plants. Typically the lowest growing layer is the cover or herbaceous layer. In the Northern hemisphere, characteristic dominant broadleaf trees in this biome include oaks, beeches, maples, the term mixed forest comes from the inclusion of coniferous trees as a canopy component of some of these forests. Typical coniferous trees include, Pines, firs, and spruces, in some areas of this biome the conifers may be a more important canopy species than the broadleaf species. In the Southern hemisphere, endemic genera such as Nothofagus and Eucalyptus occupy this biome, Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests occur in areas with distinct warm and cool season, which give it a moderate annual average temperature —3 to 15.6 °C. These forests occur in warm and rainy climates, sometimes also with a distinct dry season. A dry season occurs in the winter in East Asia and in summer on the wet fringe of the Mediterranean climate zones. Other areas, as in the central and upper eastern United States and southeastern Canada, have an even distribution of rainfall, annual rainfall is typically over 600 mm
15.
Eastern United States
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It is geographically diverse, spanning the Northeast and Southeast as well as the eastern part of the Central United States. In 2011 the 26 states east of the Mississippi had an population of 179,948,346 or 58. 28% of the total U. S. population of 308,745,358. The Southern United States constitutes a region in the south-eastern. In the last few decades, the Southern US has been attracting internal and international migrants, the American South is among the fastest-growing areas in the United States. In one of the earliest English settlements in the New World, English Pilgrims from Europe first settled in New England in 1620, New England produced the first examples of American literature and philosophy and was home to the beginnings of free public education. In the 19th century, it played a prominent role in the movement to abolish slavery in the United States and it was the first region of the United States to be transformed by the Industrial Revolution. The Midwestern United States is one of the four regions within the United States that are recognized by the United States Census Bureau. The region consists of seven states in the central and inland northeastern US, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Michigan, Minnesota, Ohio, a 2006 Census Bureau estimate put the population at 66,217,736. Both the geographic center of the contiguous U. S. the United States Census Bureau divides this region into the East North Central States and the West North Central States. Chicago is the largest city in the region, followed by Indianapolis, chicago has the largest metropolitan statistical area, followed by Detroit, and Minneapolis – Saint Paul. Marie, Michigan is the oldest city in the region, having been founded by French missionaries, the term Midwest has been in common use for over 100 years. Another term sometimes applied to the general region is the heartland. Other designations for the region have fallen into disuse, such as the Northwest or Old Northwest, since the book Middletown appeared in 1929, sociologists have often used Midwestern cities as typical of the entire nation. The region has a higher ratio than the Northeast, the West. Four of the associated with the Midwestern United States are traditionally referred to as belonging to the Great Plains region. However, in recent years they are included in the Midwestern region. The following is a list of the 24 largest cities in the East by population, East Coast of the United States Eastern Canada Territories of the United States on stamps
16.
Tree
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In botany, a tree is a perennial plant with an elongated stem, or trunk, supporting branches and leaves in most species. In some usages, the definition of a tree may be narrower, including only woody plants with secondary growth, plants that are usable as lumber or plants above a specified height. Trees are not a group but include a variety of plant species that have independently evolved a woody trunk. In looser senses, the palms, the tree ferns, bananas. Trees tend to be long-lived, some reaching several thousand years old, the tallest known tree, a coast redwood named Hyperion, stands 115.6 m high. Trees have been in existence for 370 million years and it is estimated that there are just over 3 trillion mature trees in the world. A tree typically has many secondary branches supported clear of the ground by the trunk and this trunk typically contains woody tissue for strength, and vascular tissue to carry materials from one part of the tree to another. For most trees it is surrounded by a layer of bark which serves as a protective barrier, below the ground, the roots branch and spread out widely, they serve to anchor the tree and extract moisture and nutrients from the soil. Above ground, the divide into smaller branches and shoots. The shoots typically bear leaves, which light energy and convert it into sugars by photosynthesis, providing the food for the trees growth. Flowers and fruit may also be present, but some trees, such as conifers, instead have pollen cones and seed cones, others, such as tree ferns, trees play a significant role in reducing erosion and moderating the climate. They remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and store large quantities of carbon in their tissues, trees and forests provide a habitat for many species of animals and plants. Tropical rainforests are one of the most biodiverse habitats in the world, trees provide shade and shelter, timber for construction, fuel for cooking and heating, and fruit for food as well as having many other uses. In parts of the world, forests are shrinking as trees are cleared to increase the amount of available for agriculture. Because of their longevity and usefulness, trees have always revered, with sacred groves in various cultures. Although tree is a term of common parlance, there is no universally recognised precise definition of what a tree is, either botanically or in common language. In its broadest sense, a tree is any plant with the form of an elongated stem, or trunk. Trees are also defined by height, with smaller plants from 0.5 to 10 m being called shrubs
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Biodiversity
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Biodiversity, a contraction of biological diversity, generally refers to the variety and variability of life on Earth. One of the most widely used definitions defines it in terms of the variability within species and it is a measure of the variety of organisms present in different ecosystems. This can refer to genetic variation, ecosystem variation, or species variation within an area, biome, terrestrial biodiversity tends to be greater near the equator, which seems to be the result of the warm climate and high primary productivity. Biodiversity is not distributed evenly on Earth, and is richest in the tropics and these tropical forest ecosystems cover less than 10 per cent of earths surface, and contain about 90 percent of the worlds species. Marine biodiversity tends to be highest along coasts in the Western Pacific, there are latitudinal gradients in species diversity. Biodiversity generally tends to cluster in hotspots, and has been increasing through time, the number and variety of plants, animals and other organisms that exist is known as biodiversity. It is a component of nature and it ensures the survival of human species by providing food, fuel, shelter, medicines. The richness of biodiversity depends on the conditions and area of the region. All species of plants taken together are known as flora and about 300,000 species of plants are known to date, all species of animals taken together are known as fauna which includes birds, mammals, fish, reptiles, insects, crustaceans, molluscs, etc. Rapid environmental changes typically cause mass extinctions, more than 99 percent of all species, amounting to over five billion species, that ever lived on Earth are estimated to be extinct. Estimates on the number of Earths current species range from 10 million to 14 million, of which about 1.2 million have been documented and over 86 percent have not yet been described. More recently, in May 2016, scientists reported that 1 trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one-thousandth of one percent described, the total amount of related DNA base pairs on Earth is estimated at 5.0 x 1037 and weighs 50 billion tonnes. In comparison, the mass of the biosphere has been estimated to be as much as 4 TtC. In July 2016, scientists reported identifying a set of 355 genes from the Last Universal Common Ancestor of all living on Earth. The age of the Earth is about 4.54 billion years old, there are microbial mat fossils found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone discovered in Western Australia. Other early physical evidence of a substance is graphite in 3.7 billion-year-old meta-sedimentary rocks discovered in Western Greenland. More recently, in 2015, remains of life were found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia. According to one of the researchers, If life arose relatively quickly on Earth, then it could be common in the universe
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Canopy (biology)
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In biology, the canopy is the aboveground portion of a plant community or crop, formed by the collection of individual plant crowns. In forest ecology, canopy also refers to the layer or habitat zone, formed by mature tree crowns. Sometimes the term canopy is used to refer to the extent of the layer of leaves of an individual tree or group of trees. Shade trees normally have a canopy that blocks light from lower growing plants. Canopy structure is the organization or spatial arrangement of a plant canopy, leaf Area Index, leaf area per unit ground area, is a key measure used to understand and compare plant canopies. It is also taller than the understory layer, dominant and co-dominant canopy trees form the uneven canopy layer. Canopy trees are able to photosynthesize relatively rapidly due to abundant light, the canopy layer provides protection from strong winds and storms, while also intercepting sunlight and precipitation, leading to a relatively sparsely vegetated understory layer. Forest canopies are home to flora and fauna not found in other layers of forests. The highest terrestrial biodiversity resides in the canopy of tropical rainforests, many rainforest animals have evolved to live solely in the canopy, and never touch the ground. The canopy of a rainforest is typically about 10m thick, the canopy is below the emergent layer, a sparse layer of very tall trees, typically one or two per hectare. With an abundance of water and an ideal temperature in rainforests, light. In the permaculture and forest gardening community, the canopy is the highest of seven layers, Canopy Canopy research Canopy walkway Hemispherical photography Stratification Treefall gap Wildfire Crown shyness Rainforest size-asymmetric competition Lowman, M. D. and H. B. ISBN 0-12-457553-6, ISBN 978-0-12-457553-0 Moffett, M. W, the High Frontier, Exploring the Tropical Rainforest Canopy. Plant Canopies, Their Growth, Form and Function, ISBN 0-521-39563-1, ISBN 978-0-521-39563-2 International Canopy Access Network
19.
Slash-and-burn
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Slash-and-burn agriculture, or fire–fallow cultivation, is a farming method that involves the cutting and burning of plants in a forest or woodland to create a field called a swidden. In subsistence agriculture, slash-and-burn typically uses little technology and it is often applied in shifting cultivation agriculture and in transhumance livestock herding. Slash-and-burn is used by 200–500 million people worldwide, in 2004 it was estimated that in Brazil alone,500,000 small farmers each cleared an average of one hectare of forest per year. The technique is not scalable or sustainable for large human populations, methods such as Inga alley farming have been proposed as alternatives which would cause less environmental degradation. Historically, slash-and-burn cultivation has been practiced throughout much of the world and this happened in the river valleys of Egypt and Mesopotamia. Due to this decrease in food hunting, as human populations increased. Some groups could easily plant their crops in fields along river valleys. In this context, humans used slash-and-burn agriculture to more land to make it suitable for plants. Thus, since Neolithic times, slash-and-burn techniques have been used for converting forests into crop fields. Fire was used before the Neolithic as well, and by hunter-gatherers up to present times, clearings created by fire were made for many reasons, such as to draw game animals and to promote certain kinds of edible plants such as berries. Slash-and-burn fields are used and owned by a family until the soil is exhausted. At this point the ownership rights are abandoned, the family clears a new field, after a few decades, another family or clan may then use the land and claim usufructuary rights. In such a system there is no market in farmland, so land is not bought or sold in the open market. In slash-and-burn agriculture, forests are typically cut months before a dry season, the slash is permitted to dry, and then burned in the following dry season. The resulting ash fertilizes the soil and the field is then planted at the beginning of the next rainy season with crops such as upland rice, maize, cassava. Most of this work is typically done by hand, using basic tools as machetes, axes, hoes. Large families or clans wandering in the lush woodlands long continued to be the most common form of life through human prehistory, axes to fell trees and sickles for harvesting grain were the only tools people might bring with them. All other tools were made from materials found at the site, such as fire stakes of birch, long rods
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Shifting cultivation
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The period of cultivation is usually terminated when the soil shows signs of exhaustion or, more commonly, when the field is overrun by weeds. The length of time that a field is cultivated is usually shorter than the period over which the land is allowed to regenerate by lying fallow and this technique is often used in LEDCs or LICs. In some areas, cultivators use a practice of slash-and-burn as one element of their farming cycle, others employ land clearing without any burning, and some cultivators are purely migratory and do not use any cyclical method on a given plot. Sometimes no slashing at all is needed where regrowth is purely of grasses, in shifting agriculture, after two or three years of producing vegetable and grain crops on cleared land, the migrants abandon it for another plot. Trees, bushes and forests are cleared by slashing, and the vegetation is burnt. The ashes add potash to the soil, then the seeds are sown after the rains. Over time, fields are cultivated for a short time. Eventually a previously cultivated field will be cleared of the natural vegetation, fields in established and stable shifting cultivation systems are cultivated and fallowed cyclically. This type of farming is called jhumming in India. It is common for fruit and nut trees to be planted in fields to the extent that parts of some fallows are in fact orchards. Soil-enhancing shrub or tree species may be planted or protected from slashing or burning in fallows, many of these species have been shown to fix nitrogen. Fallows commonly contain plants that attract birds and animals and are important for hunting, but perhaps most importantly, tree fallows protect soil against physical erosion and draw nutrients to the surface from deep in the soil profile. The relationship between the time the land is cultivated and the time it is fallowed are critical to the stability of shifting cultivation systems and these parameters determine whether or not the shifting cultivation system as a whole suffers a net loss of nutrients over time. A system in there is a net loss of nutrients with each cycle will eventually lead to a degradation of resources unless actions are taken to arrest the losses. In some cases soil can be exhausted in less than a decade. The secondary forests created by shifting cultivation are commonly richer in plant and animal resources useful to humans than primary forests, shifting cultivators view the forest as an agricultural landscape of fields at various stages in a regular cycle. People unused to living in forests cannot see the fields for the trees, shifting agriculture is none of these things. Stable shifting cultivation systems are variable, closely adapted to micro-environments and are carefully managed by farmers during both the cropping and fallow stages. Shifting cultivators may possess a highly developed knowledge and understanding of their environments and of the crops
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Erosion
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In earth science, erosion is the action of surface processes that remove soil, rock, or dissolved material from one location on the Earths crust, then transport it away to another location. Eroded sediment or solutes may be transported just a few millimetres, the rates at which such processes act control how fast a surface is eroded. Feedbacks are also possible between rates of erosion and the amount of eroded material that is carried by, for example. Processes of erosion that produce sediment or solutes from a place contrast with those of deposition, while erosion is a natural process, human activities have increased by 10-40 times the rate at which erosion is occurring globally. At well-known agriculture sites such as the Appalachian Mountains, intensive farming practices have caused erosion up to 100x the speed of the rate of erosion in the region. Excessive erosion causes both on-site and off-site problems, on-site impacts include decreases in agricultural productivity and ecological collapse, both because of loss of the nutrient-rich upper soil layers. In some cases, the end result is desertification. Off-site effects include sedimentation of waterways and eutrophication of bodies, as well as sediment-related damage to roads. Intensive agriculture, deforestation, roads, anthropogenic climate change and urban sprawl are amongst the most significant human activities in regard to their effect on stimulating erosion, however, there are many prevention and remediation practices that can curtail or limit erosion of vulnerable soils. Rainfall, and the surface runoff which may result from rainfall, produces four types of soil erosion, splash erosion, sheet erosion, rill erosion. Splash erosion is generally seen as the first and least severe stage in the erosion process. In splash erosion, the impact of a falling raindrop creates a crater in the soil. The distance these soil particles travel can be as much as 0.6 m vertically and 1.5 m horizontally on level ground. If the soil is saturated, or if the rate is greater than the rate at which water can infiltrate into the soil. If the runoff has sufficient flow energy, it will transport loosened soil particles down the slope, sheet erosion is the transport of loosened soil particles by overland flow. Rill erosion refers to the development of small, ephemeral concentrated flow paths which function as both sediment source and sediment delivery systems for erosion on hillslopes, generally, where water erosion rates on disturbed upland areas are greatest, rills are active. Flow depths in rills are typically of the order of a few centimetres or less and this means that rills exhibit hydraulic physics very different from water flowing through the deeper, wider channels of streams and rivers. Gully erosion occurs when water accumulates and rapidly flows in narrow channels during or immediately after heavy rains or melting snow
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Soil conservation
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Soil conservation is the preventing of soil loss from erosion or reduced fertility caused by over usage, or other chemical soil contamination. Slash-and-burn and other methods of subsistence farming are practiced in some lesser developed areas. A sequel to the deforestation is typically large scale erosion, loss of soil nutrients, techniques for improved soil conservation include crop rotation, cover crops, conservation tillage and planted windbreaks and affect both erosion and fertility. When plants, especially trees, die, they decay and become part of the soil, code 330 defines standard methods recommended by the US Natural Resources Conservation Service. Farmers have practiced soil conservation for millennia, Conservation practices fall in multiple categories, Contour plowing orients crop furrows following the contour lines of the farmed area. Furrows move left and right to maintain a constant altitude, which reduces runoff, Contour plowing was practiced by the ancient Phoenicians, and is effective for slopes between two and ten percent. Contour plowing can increase crop yields from 10 to 50 percent, terracing is the practice of creating nearly level areas in a hillside area. The terraces form a series of steps, each at a higher level than the previous, terraces are protected from erosion by other soil barriers. Terraced farming is common on small farms and in underdeveloped countries. It protects the soil from its erosion and it is one of the way by which soil erosion can be stopped. Windbreaks are sufficiently dense rows of trees at the exposure of an agricultural field subject to wind erosion. Evergreen species provide protection, however, as long as foliage is present in the seasons of bare soil surfaces. Cover crops also help suppress weeds, soil-conservation farming involves no-till farming, “green manures” and other soil-enhancing practices. Such farming methods attempt to mimic the biology of virgin land, the result is less labor and lower costs that increase farmers’ profits. No-till farming and cover crops act as sinks for nitrogen and other nutrients and this increases the amount of soil organic matter. Repeated plowing/tilling degrades soil, killing its beneficial fungi and earthworms, once damaged, soil may take multiple seasons to fully recover, even in optimal circumstances. Critics argue that no-till and related methods are impractical and too expensive for many growers and they cite advantages for conventional tilling depending on the geography, crops and soil conditions. Some farmers claimed that no-till complicates weed control, delays planting, salinity in soil is caused by irrigating with salty water
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Tropical forest
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The biome includes several types of forests, Lowland equatorial evergreen rain forests, commonly known as tropical rainforests, are forests which receive high rainfall throughout the year. These forests occur in a belt around the equator, with the largest areas in the Amazon basin of South America, the Congo basin of central Africa, some trees in these forests drop some or all of their leaves during the winter dry season. These forests are found in parts of South America, in Central America and around the Caribbean, in coastal West Africa, parts of the Indian subcontinent, montane rain forests, are found in cooler-climate mountainous areas. Those with elevations high enough to regularly encounter low-level cloud cover are known as cloud forests, flooded forests, including freshwater swamp forests and peat swamp forests. In contrast to TSMF, tropical forest regions with lower levels of rainfall are home to tropical dry broadleaf forests, temperate rain forests also occur in certain humid temperate coastal regions. Rainforests now cover less than 6% of Earths land surface, scientists estimate that more than half of all the worlds plant and animal species live in tropical rain forests
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Edge effects
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In ecology, edge effects refer to the changes in population or community structures that occur at the boundary of two habitats. Areas with small habitat fragments exhibit especially pronounced edge effects that may extend throughout the range, as the edge effects increase, the boundary habitat allows for greater biodiversity. Inherent – Natural features stabilize the border location, induced – Transient natural disturbances or human related activities, subject borders to successional changes over time. Convoluted – The border is non-linear, perforated – The border has gaps that host other habitats. Height can create borders between patches as well, environmental conditions enable certain species of plants and animals to colonize habitat borders. Plants that colonize tend to be shade-intolerant and tolerant of dry conditions, such as shrubs, animals that colonize tend to be those that require two or more habitats, such as white-tailed and mule deer, elk, cottontail rabbits, blue jays, and robins. Some animals travel between habitats, while edge species are restricted to edges, larger patches include more individuals and therefore have increased biodiversity. The width of the patch also influences diversity, a patch must be more pronounced than just a stark border in order to develop gradients of edge effects. Animals traveling between communities can create travel lanes along borders, which in turn increases light reaching plants along the lanes and promotes primary production, as more light reaches the plants, greater numbers and sizes can thrive. Increased primary production can increase numbers of insects, followed by nesting birds. In the case of wide and/or overgrown borders, some species can become restricted to one side of the border despite having the ability to inhabit the other, sometimes, the edge effects result in abiotic and biotic conditions which diminish natural variation and threaten the original ecosystem. Detrimental edge effects are seen in physical and chemical conditions of border species. For instance, fertilizer from a field could invade a bordering forest. Often, the changes are detrimental to both the size of the habitat and to species, in 1971, Odum wrote, The tendency for increased variety and diversity at community junctions is known as the edge effect. It is common knowledge that the density of songbirds is greater on estates, campuses, air temperature, vapor pressure deficit, soil moisture, light intensity and levels of photosynthetically active radiation all change at edges. One study estimated that the amount of Amazon Basin area modified by edge effects exceeded the area that had been cleared, in studies of Amazon forest fragments, micro-climate effects were evident up to 100m into the forest interior. The smaller the fragment, the more susceptible it is to fires spreading from nearby cultivated fields, forest fires are more common close to edges due to increased light availability that leads to increased desiccation and increased understory growth. Increased understory biomass provides fuel that allows pasture fires to spread into the forests, increased fire frequency since the 1990s is among the edge effects that are slowly transforming Amazonian forests
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Habitat fragmentation
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Habitat fragmentation describes the emergence of discontinuities in an organisms preferred environment, causing population fragmentation and ecosystem decay. Not only causes loss of the amount of habitat, but by creating small, habitat fragmentation is the landscape level of the phenomenon, and patch level process. Thus meaning, it covers, the areas, edge effects. Evidence of habitat destruction through natural processes such as volcanism, fire, habitats which were once continuous become divided into separate fragments. After intensive clearing, the separate fragments tend to be small islands isolated from each other by cropland, pasture, pavement. The latter is often the result of slash and burn farming in tropical forests, one of the major ways that habitat fragmentation affects biodiversity is by reducing the amount of suitable habitat available for organisms. Habitat fragmentation often involves both habitat destruction and the subdivision of previously continuous habitat, plants and other sessile organisms are disproportionately affected by some types of habitat fragmentation because they cannot respond quickly to the altered spatial configuration of the habitat. As the remaining patches are smaller, they tend to support smaller populations of species. Small populations are at a risk of a variety of genetic consequences that influence their long-term survival. Remnant populations often contain only a subset of the diversity found in the previously continuous habitat. Processes that act upon underlying genetic diversity such as adaptation have a pool of fitness-maintaining alleles to survive in the face of environmental change. Populations can maintain genetic diversity through migration, in continuous habitats, migrants have few barriers to establish themselves in suitable sites. The percentage preservation of habitats is closely related to both genetic and species biodiversity preservation. Generally a 10% remnant contiguous habitat will result in a 50% biodiversity loss, minor fluctuations in climate, resources, or other factors that would be unremarkable and quickly corrected in large populations can be catastrophic in small, isolated populations. Thus fragmentation of habitat is an important cause of species extinction, population dynamics of subdivided populations tend to vary asynchronously. In an unfragmented landscape a declining population can be rescued by immigration from an expanding population. In fragmented landscapes, the distance between fragments may prevent this from happening, additionally, unoccupied fragments of habitat that are separated from a source of immigrants by some barrier are less likely to be repopulated than adjoining fragments. Even small species such as the Columbia spotted frog are reliant on the rescue effect, studies showed 25% of juveniles travel a distance over 200m compared to 4% of adults
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Rainforest
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The monsoon trough, alternatively known as the intertropical convergence zone, plays a significant role in creating the climatic conditions necessary for the Earths tropical rainforests. Around 40% to 75% of all species are indigenous to the rainforests. It has been estimated there may be many millions of species of plants, insects. Tropical rainforests have been called the jewels of the Earth and the worlds largest pharmacy, the undergrowth in some areas of a rainforest can be restricted by poor penetration of sunlight to ground level. If the leaf canopy is destroyed or thinned, the ground beneath is soon colonized by a dense, tangled growth of vines, shrubs and small trees, the term jungle is also sometimes applied to tropical rainforests generally. Tropical rainforests are characterized by a warm and wet climate with no dry season. Mean monthly temperatures exceed 18 °C during all months of the year, average annual rainfall is no less than 168 cm and can exceed 1,000 cm although it typically lies between 175 cm and 200 cm. Many of the tropical forests are associated with the location of the monsoon trough. The broader category of tropical moist forests are located in the zone between the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn. Tropical forests have been called the Earths lungs, although it is now known that rainforests contribute little net oxygen addition to the atmosphere through photosynthesis, Tropical forests cover a large part of the globe, but temperate rainforests only occur in few regions around the world. Temperate rainforests are rainforests in temperate regions and they occur in North America, in Europe, in East Asia, in South America and also in Australia and New Zealand. A tropical rainforest typically has a number of layers, each with different plants, examples include the emergent, canopy, understorey and forest floor layers. They need to be able to withstand the hot temperatures and strong winds that occur above the canopy in some areas, eagles, butterflies, bats and certain monkeys inhabit this layer. The canopy layer contains the majority of the largest trees, typically 30 metres to 45 metres tall, the densest areas of biodiversity are found in the forest canopy, a more or less continuous cover of foliage formed by adjacent treetops. The canopy, by some estimates, is home to 50 percent of all plant species, epiphytic plants attach to trunks and branches, and obtain water and minerals from rain and debris that collects on the supporting plants. The fauna is similar to found in the emergent layer. A quarter of all species are believed to exist in the rainforest canopy. Scientists have long suspected the richness of the canopy as a habitat, true exploration of this habitat only began in the 1980s, when scientists developed methods to reach the canopy, such as firing ropes into the trees using crossbows
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Nutrient
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A nutrient is a component in foods that an organism uses to survive and grow. Macronutrients provide the energy an organisms metabolic system needs to function while micronutrients provide the necessary cofactors for metabolism to be carried out. Both types of nutrients can be acquired from the environment, micronutrients are used to build and repair tissues and to regulate body processes while macronutrients are converted to, and used for, energy. Methods of nutrient intake are different for plants and animals, plants take in nutrients directly from the soil through their roots and from the atmosphere through their leaves. Animals and protists have specialized digestive systems that work to break down macronutrients for energy, organic nutrients consist of carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and vitamins. Inorganic chemical compounds such as minerals, water, and oxygen may also be considered nutrients. A nutrient is considered if it must be obtained from an external source either because the organism cannot synthesize it or because insufficient quantities are produced. Nutrients needed in small amounts are called micronutrients while those needed in large quantities are called macronutrients. The effects of nutrients are dose-dependent, shortages are called deficiencies, macronutrients are defined in several different ways. The chemical elements humans consume in the largest quantities are carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, the classes of chemical compounds humans consume in the largest quantities and which provide bulk energy are carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. Water and atmospheric oxygen also must be consumed in large quantities, calcium, salt, magnesium, and potassium are sometimes added to the list of macronutrients because they are required in large quantities compared to other vitamins and minerals. They are sometimes referred to as the macrominerals, carbohydrates are compounds made up of types of sugars. Carbohydrates are classified by their number of units, monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides. Proteins are organic compounds that consist of amino acids joined by peptide bonds, the body cannot manufacture some of the amino acids, the diet must supply them. Proteins, in nutrition, are broken down through digestion by proteases back into free amino acids, fats consist of a glycerin molecule with three fatty acids attached. Fatty acids are unbranched hydrocarbon chains,1 connected by single bonds alone or by double and single bonds. Fats are needed to keep cell membranes functioning properly, to insulate body organs against shock, to body temperature stable. The body does not manufacture certain fatty acids and the diet must supply them, although alcohol provides energy, and can thus be compared to macronutrients, it is not a substance that is essential for normal function
28.
Panama
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Panama, officially called the Republic of Panama, is a country usually considered to be entirely in North America or Central America. It is bordered by Costa Rica to the west, Colombia to the southeast, the Caribbean Sea to the north, the capital and largest city is Panama City, whose metropolitan area is home to nearly half of the countrys 4.1 million people. Panama was inhabited by indigenous tribes prior to settlement by the Spanish in the 16th century. Panama broke away from Spain in 1821 and joined a union of Nueva Granada, Ecuador, when Gran Colombia dissolved in 1831, Panama and Nueva Granada remained joined, eventually becoming the Republic of Colombia. With the backing of the United States, Panama seceded from Colombia in 1903, in 1977 an agreement was signed for the total transfer of the Canal from the United States to Panama by the end of the 20th century, which culminated on 31 December 1999. Revenue from canal tolls continues to represent a significant portion of Panamas GDP, although commerce, banking, in 2015 Panama ranked 60th in the world in terms of the Human Development Index. Since 2010, Panama remains the second most competitive economy in Latin America, covering around 40 percent of its land area, Panamas jungles are home to an abundance of tropical plants and animals – some of them to be found nowhere else on the planet. There are several theories about the origin of the name Panama, some believe that the country was named after a commonly found species of tree. Others believe that the first settlers arrived in Panama in August, when butterflies abound, the best-known version is that a fishing village and its nearby beach bore the name Panamá, which meant an abundance of fish. Captain Antonio Tello de Guzmán, while exploring the Pacific side in 1515, in 1517 Don Gaspar De Espinosa, a Spanish lieutenant, decided to settle a post there. In 1519 Pedrarias Dávila decided to establish the Empires Pacific city in this site, the new settlement replaced Santa María La Antigua del Darién, which had lost its function within the Crowns global plan after the beginning of the Spanish exploitation of the riches in the Pacific. Blending all of the above together, Panamanians believe in general that the word Panama means abundance of fish and this is the official definition given in social studies textbooks approved by the Ministry of Education in Panama. However, others believe the word Panama comes from the Kuna word bannaba which means distant or far away, at the time of the arrival of the Spanish in the 16th century, the known inhabitants of Panama included the Cuevas and the Coclé tribes. These people have disappeared, as they had no immunity from European infectious diseases. The earliest discovered artifacts of indigenous peoples in Panama include Paleo-Indian projectile points, later central Panama was home to some of the first pottery-making in the Americas, for example the cultures at Monagrillo, which date back to 2500–1700 BC. These evolved into significant populations best known through their spectacular burials at the Monagrillo archaeological site, the monumental monolithic sculptures at the Barriles site are also important traces of these ancient isthmian cultures. Before Europeans arrived Panama was widely settled by Chibchan, Chocoan, the largest group were the Cueva. The size of the population of the isthmus at the time of European colonization is uncertain
29.
Land use, land-use change, and forestry
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LULUCF has impacts on the global carbon cycle and as such, these activities can add or remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, influencing climate. LULUCF has been the subject of two reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Additionally, land use is of importance for biodiversity. Land-use change can be a factor in CO2 atmospheric concentration, and is thus a contributor to climate change. IPCC estimates that land-use change contributes a net 1.6 ±0.8 Gt carbon per year to the atmosphere. For comparison, the source of CO2, namely emissions from fossil fuel combustion. This decision sets out the rules that govern how Kyoto Parties with emission reduction commitments account for changes in carbon stocks in land use, land-use change, the most recent options for rule changes under consideration are summarized in a Non-Paper the co-chairs of the contact group on LULUCF. The impact of change on the climate is also more and more recognized by the climate modelling community. On regional or local scales, the impact of LUC can be assess by Regional Climate Models and this is however difficult, particularly for variables, which are inherently noisy, such as precipitation. For this reason, it is suggested to conduct RCM ensemble simulations, the extent, and type of land use directly affects wildlife habitat and thereby impacts local and global biodiversity. Human alteration of landscapes from natural vegetation to any other use typically results in loss, degradation. Land conversion is the single greatest cause of extinction of terrestrial species, an example of land conversion being a chief cause of the critically endangered status of a carnivore is the reduction in habitat for the African wild dog, Lycaon pictus. Deforestation is also the reason for loss of a natural habitat, urban growth has become a problem for forests and agriculture, the expansion of structures prevents natural resources from producing in their environment. The loss of forest land is estimated to have sixteen to thirty four million. In order to prevent the loss of wildlife the forests must maintain a stable climate, the U. S. Forest service predicts that urban and developing terrain in the U. S. will expand by forty one percent in the year 2060. These conditions cause displacement for the wildlife and limited resources for the environment to maintain a sustainble balance, deforestation and climate change Land use Satoyama Good Practice Guidance for Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry IPCC Special Report on Land Use, Land-Use Change, and Forestry
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Land use
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It also has been defined as the total of arrangements, activities, and inputs that people undertake in a certain land cover type. Land use practices vary considerably across the world, as of the early 1990s, about 13% of the Earth was considered arable land, with 26% in pasture, 32% forests and woodland, and 1. 5% urban areas. As Albert Guttenberg wrote many years ago, Land use is a key term in the language of city planning, commonly, political jurisdictions will undertake land-use planning and regulate the use of land in an attempt to avoid land-use conflicts. Land use plans are implemented through land division and use ordinances and regulations, Management consulting firms and non-governmental organizations will frequently seek to influence these regulations before they are codified. In colonial America, few regulations existed to control the use of land, as society shifted from rural to urban, public land regulation became important, especially to city governments trying to control industry, commerce, and housing within their boundaries. The first zoning ordinance was passed in New York City in 1916, in the 1970s, concerns about the environment and historic preservation led to further regulation. Today, federal, state, and local governments regulate growth, the majority of controls on land, however, stem from the actions of private developers and individuals. In these situations, judicial decisions and enforcement of private land-use arrangements can reinforce public regulation, two major federal laws have been passed in the last half century that limit the use of land significantly. These are the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 and the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, Land use and land management practices have a major impact on natural resources including water, soil, nutrients, plants and animals. Land use information can be used to develop solutions for natural resource management issues such as salinity, for instance, water bodies in a region that has been deforested or having erosion will have different water quality than those in areas that are forested. Forest gardening, a food production system, is believed to be the oldest form of land use in the world. The major effect of use on land cover since 1750 has been deforestation of temperate regions. More recent significant effects of use include urban sprawl, soil erosion, soil degradation, salinization. Land-use change, together with use of fuels, are the major anthropogenic sources of carbon dioxide. As a consequence the result has often been misery for large segments of the population and destruction of valuable ecosystems. Such narrow approaches should be replaced by a technique for the planning and management of resources that is integrated and holistic. This will ensure the quality of the land for human use, the prevention or resolution of social conflicts related to land use. The urban growth boundary is one form of land-use regulation, for example, Portland, Oregon is required to have an urban growth boundary which contains at least 20,000 acres of vacant land
31.
The New York Times
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The New York Times is an American daily newspaper, founded and continuously published in New York City since September 18,1851, by The New York Times Company. The New York Times has won 119 Pulitzer Prizes, more than any other newspaper, the papers print version in 2013 had the second-largest circulation, behind The Wall Street Journal, and the largest circulation among the metropolitan newspapers in the US. The New York Times is ranked 18th in the world by circulation, following industry trends, its weekday circulation had fallen in 2009 to fewer than one million. Nicknamed The Gray Lady, The New York Times has long been regarded within the industry as a newspaper of record. The New York Times international version, formerly the International Herald Tribune, is now called the New York Times International Edition, the papers motto, All the News Thats Fit to Print, appears in the upper left-hand corner of the front page. On Sunday, The New York Times is supplemented by the Sunday Review, The New York Times Book Review, The New York Times Magazine and T, some other early investors of the company were Edwin B. Morgan and Edward B. We do not believe that everything in Society is either right or exactly wrong, —what is good we desire to preserve and improve, —what is evil, to exterminate. In 1852, the started a western division, The Times of California that arrived whenever a mail boat got to California. However, when local California newspapers came into prominence, the effort failed, the newspaper shortened its name to The New-York Times in 1857. It dropped the hyphen in the city name in the 1890s, One of the earliest public controversies it was involved with was the Mortara Affair, the subject of twenty editorials it published alone. At Newspaper Row, across from City Hall, Henry Raymond, owner and editor of The New York Times, averted the rioters with Gatling guns, in 1869, Raymond died, and George Jones took over as publisher. Tweed offered The New York Times five million dollars to not publish the story, in the 1880s, The New York Times transitioned gradually from editorially supporting Republican Party candidates to becoming more politically independent and analytical. In 1884, the paper supported Democrat Grover Cleveland in his first presidential campaign, while this move cost The New York Times readership among its more progressive and Republican readers, the paper eventually regained most of its lost ground within a few years. However, the newspaper was financially crippled by the Panic of 1893, the paper slowly acquired a reputation for even-handedness and accurate modern reporting, especially by the 1890s under the guidance of Ochs. Under Ochs guidance, continuing and expanding upon the Henry Raymond tradition, The New York Times achieved international scope, circulation, in 1910, the first air delivery of The New York Times to Philadelphia began. The New York Times first trans-Atlantic delivery by air to London occurred in 1919 by dirigible, airplane Edition was sent by plane to Chicago so it could be in the hands of Republican convention delegates by evening. In the 1940s, the extended its breadth and reach. The crossword began appearing regularly in 1942, and the section in 1946
32.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
33.
Forestry
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Forestry is the science and craft of creating, managing, using, conserving, and repairing forests and associated resources to meet desired goals, needs, and values for human and environment benefits. Forestry is practiced in plantations and natural stands, the science of forestry has elements that belong to the biological, physical, social, political and managerial sciences. A practitioner of forestry is known as a forester, other terms are used a verderer and a silviculturalist being common ones. Silviculture is narrower than forestry, being concerned only with forest plants, Forest ecosystems have come to be seen as the most important component of the biosphere, and forestry has emerged as a vital applied science, craft, and technology. Forestry is an important economic segment in various industrial countries, the preindustrial age has been dubbed by Werner Sombart and others as the wooden age, as timber and firewood were the basic resources for energy, construction and housing. The development of forestry is closely connected with the rise of capitalism, economy as a science and varying notions of land use. Roman Latifundiae, large estates, were quite successful in maintaining the large supply of wood that was necessary for the Roman Empire. Large deforestations came with respectively after the decline of the Romans, however already in the 5th century, monks in the then Byzantine Romagna on the Adriatic coast, were able to establish stone pine plantations to provide fuelwood and food. This was the beginning of the massive forest mentioned by Dante Alighieri in his 1308 poem Divine Comedy, the use and management of many forest resources has a long history in China as well, dating back to the Han Dynasty and taking place under the landowning gentry. A similar approach was used in Japan and it was also later written about by the Ming Dynasty Chinese scholar Xu Guangqi. In Europe, land rights in medieval and early modern times allowed different users to access forests. The notion of commons refers to the traditional legal term of common land. The idea of enclosed private property came about during modern times, however, most hunting rights were retained by members of the nobility which preserved the right of the nobility to access and use common land for recreation, like fox hunting. Systematic management of forests for a yield of timber is said to have begun in the German states in the 14th century, e. g. in Nuremberg. Typically, a forest was divided into sections and mapped. Large firs in the black forest were called „Holländer“, as they were traded to the Dutch ship yards, large timber rafts on the Rhine were 200 to 400m in length, 40m in width and consisted of several thousand logs. The crew consisted of 400 to 500 men, including shelter, bakeries, ovens, timber rafting infrastructure allowed for large interconnected networks all over continental Europe and is still of importance in Finland. The notion of Nachhaltigkeit, sustainability in forestry, is connected to the work of Hans Carl von Carlowitz
34.
Outline of forestry
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Forestry is practiced in plantations and natural stands. It is based оn reduced human intervention, that should be directed to accelerate the processes that nature would do by itself more slowly. It is a relationship of interdependence between humans and the systems in which the amount of biomass available from the forest increases with the health of its natural systems. Plantation forestry – industrial plantations are established to produce a volume of wood in a short period of time. Some plantations are managed by state authorities and others by paper. Donkey puncher was the operator of a steam donkey, a machine used in logging in the 19th and 20th centuries. Silviculture also focuses on making sure that the treatment of forest stands are used to preserve, an estimate of the value and possible uses of timber is an important part of the broader information required to sustain ecosystems. Diameter at breast height – measurement of a trees diameter standardized at 1, the term is sometimes used in a narrow sense to mean moving wood from the stump to somewhere outside the forest, usually a sawmill or a lumber yard. However, in usage, the term may be used to indicate a range of forestry or silviculture activities. Wood is by far the dominant forest product, used for fuel, structural materials in the construction of buildings, or as a raw material, all non-wood products derived from forest resources are called non-timber forest products. H. R.11973 Transfer Act of 1905 - An Act Providing for the transfer of forest reserves from the Department of Interior to the Department of Agriculture
35.
Arbor Day
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Arbor Day is a holiday in which individuals and groups are encouraged to plant and care for trees. Today, many countries such an holiday. Though usually observed in the spring, the date varies, depending on climate, the Spanish village of Mondoñedo held the first documented arbor plantation festival in the world organized by its mayor in 1594. The place remains as Alameda de los Remedios and it is planted with lime. A humble granite marker and a bronze plate recall the event, the festival began on Carnival Tuesday with the ringing of two bells of the church, and the Middle and the Big. Tree plantations continued by Arroyada and Fuente de la Mora, afterwards, there was a feast, and did not miss the dance. The party and plantations lasted three days and he drafted a manifesto in defence of the trees that was sent to surrounding towns to spread the love and respect for nature, and also he advised to make tree plantations in their localities. The first American Arbor Day was originated in Nebraska City, Nebraska, on April 10,1872, an estimated one million trees were planted in Nebraska. Birdsey Northrop of Connecticut was responsible for globalizing it when he visited Japan in 1883 and delivered his Arbor Day, in that same year, the American Forestry Association made Northrop the Chairman of the committee to campaign for Arbor Day nationwide. He also brought his enthusiasm for Arbor Day to Australia, Canada, McCreight urged President Roosevelt to make a public statement to school children about trees and the destruction of American forests. On April 15,1907, Roosevelt issued an Arbor Day Proclamation to the School Children of the United States about the importance of trees, pinchot wrote McCreight, we shall all be indebted to you for having made the suggestion. National Schools Tree Day is held on the last Friday of July for schools, many states have Arbor Day although only Victoria has Arbor Week, which was suggested by Premier Dick Hamer in the 1980s. Arbor Day has been observed in Australia since 20 June 1889, international Day of Treeplanting is celebrated in Flanders on or around 21 March as a theme-day/educational-day/observance, not as public holidays. Tree planting is sometimes combined with awareness campaigns of the fight against cancer, the Arbor Day is celebrated on September 21. However, schools nationwide celebrate this day with environment-related activities, namely tree planting, Arbour Day is celebrated on November 22. It is sponsored by the National Parks Trust of the Virgin Islands, activities include an annual national Arbour Day Poetry Competition and tree planting ceremonies throughout the territory. Cambodia celebrates Arbor Day on July 9 with a planting ceremony attended by the king. Founded by Sir George W. Ross, later the Premier of Ontario and this predates the claimed founding of the day by Don Clark of Schomberg, Ontario for his wife Margret Clark in 1906
36.
Agroforestry
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Agroforestry or agro-sylviculture is a land use management system in which trees or shrubs are grown around or among crops or pastureland. It combines shrubs and trees in agricultural and forestry technologies to more diverse, productive, profitable, healthy, ecologically sound. The theoretical base for agroforestry comes from ecology, via agroecology, from this perspective, agroforestry is one of the three principal land-use sciences. The other two are agriculture and forestry, Agroforestry has a lot in common with intercropping. Beyond these, there are specific to agroforestry. Agroforestry systems can be advantageous over conventional agricultural, and forest production methods and they can offer increased productivity, economic benefits, and more diversity in the ecological goods and services provided. Biodiversity in agroforestry systems is typically higher than in agricultural systems. With two or more interacting plant species in a land area, it creates a more complex habitat that can support a wider variety of birds, insects. Agroforestry was one of the most widely adopted adaptation strategies in the study, along with the use of improved crop varieties, Agroforestry represents a wide diversity in application and in practice. One listing includes over 50 distinct uses, the 50 or so applications can be roughly classified under a few broad headings. There are visual similarities between practices in different categories and this is expected as categorization is based around the problems addressed and the overall economic constraints and objectives. Parklands are visually defined by the presence of trees scattered over a large agricultural plot or pasture. The trees are usually of a species with clear regional favorites. Research with Faidherbia albida in Zambia showed that mature trees can sustain maize yields of 4.1 tonnes per hectare compared to 1.3 tonnes per hectare without these trees. Unlike other trees, Faidherbia sheds its leaves during the rainy crop growing season so it does not compete with the crop for light, nutrients. The leaves then regrow during the dry season and provide land cover, with shade applications, crops are purposely raised under tree canopies and within the resulting shady environment. For most uses, the crops are shade tolerant or the overstory trees have fairly open canopies. A conspicuous example is shade-grown coffee and this practice reduces weeding costs and improves the quality and taste of the coffee
37.
Dehesa
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Dehesa is a multifunctional agro-sylvo-pastoral system and cultural landscape of southern and central Spain and southern Portugal, where it is known as montado. Dehesas may be private or communal property, used primarily for grazing, they produce a variety of products including non-timber forest products such as wild game, mushrooms, honey, cork, and firewood. It is also used as habitat for the Spanish fighting bull. The tree component is oaks, usually holm and cork, other oaks, including melojo and quejigo, may be used to form dehesa, the species depending on geographical location and elevation. Dehesa is a system that provides not only a variety of foods, but also wildlife habitat for endangered species such as the Iberian lynx. Oaks are protected and pruned to produce acorns, which the famous black Iberian pigs feed on in the fall during the montanera. Ham produced from Iberian pigs fattened with acorns and air-dried at high elevations is known as Jamón ibérico, there is debate about the origins and maintenance of the dehesa, and whether or not the oaks can reproduce adequately under the grazing densities now forced upon the dehesa or montado. Goats, cattle, and sheep graze in dehesa. In a typical dehesa, oaks are managed to persist for about 250 years, if cork oaks are present, the cork is harvested about every 9 to 12 years, depending on the productivity of the site. The understory is usually cleared every 7 to 10 years, to prevent the takeover of the woodland by shrubs of the rose family, often referred to as jara. Oaks are spaced to maximize light for the grasses in the understory, water use in the soils, periodic hunts in the dehesa are known as the monteria. Groups attend a hunt at an estate, and wait at hunting spots for game to be driven to them with dogs. They usually pay well for the privilege, and hunt wild boar, the dehesa system has great economic and social importance on the Iberian peninsula because of both the large amount of land involved and its importance in maintaining rural population levels. The major source of income for dehesa owners is usually cork, high end ibérico pigs and sale of hunting rights also represent significant income sources. Cabañeros National Park List of types of formally designated forests Satoyama Silvopasture Wood pasture Fra, pp. 149–151 in Sustainable Use of Biological Diversity in Socio-ecological Production Landscapes, eds. Ichikawa, K. Wong, B. Y. L. and Mulongoy, montreal, Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity. Huntsinger, Lynn, Adriana Sulak, Lauren Gwin, and Tobias Plieninger, oak woodland ranchers in California and Spain, Conservation and diversification. In Advances in Geoecology, ed. S. F. A. Schnabel, joffre, R, Rambal, S, Ratte, JP
38.
Bamboo
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The bamboos /bæmˈbuː/ are evergreen perennial flowering plants in the subfamily Bambusoideae of the grass family Poaceae. The dicotyledonous woody xylem is also absent, the absence of secondary growth wood causes the stems of monocots, including the palms and large bamboos, to be columnar rather than tapering. Bamboos include some of the plants in the world, due to a unique rhizome-dependent system. Certain species of bamboo can grow 91 cm within a 24-hour period, giant bamboos are the largest members of the grass family. Bamboos are of economic and cultural significance in South Asia, Southeast Asia and East Asia, being used for building materials, as a food source. Bamboo has a higher compressive strength than wood, brick, or concrete. The word bamboo comes from the Kannada term bambu, which was introduced to English through Indonesian, the subfamily in its current sense belongs to the BOP clade of grasses, where it is sister to the Pooideae. The woody bamboos do not form a group, instead. Altogether, more than 1,400 species are placed in 115 genera, most bamboo are native to warm and moist tropical and warm temperate climates. However, many species are found in climates, from hot tropical regions to cool mountainous regions. In the Asia-Pacific region they occur across East Asia, from 50°N latitude in Sakhalin south to Northern Australia, and west to India, China, Japan, Korea, India, and Australia, all have several endemic populations. They also occur in numbers in sub-Saharan Africa, confined to tropical areas, from southern Senegal in the north to southern Mozambique. Bamboo is also native through Central America and Mexico, northward into the Southeastern United States, canada and continental Europe is not known to have any native species of bamboo. Recently, some attempts have been made to grow bamboo on a basis in the Great Lakes region of east-central Africa. In the United States, several companies are growing, harvesting, bamboos include some of the fastest-growing plants on Earth, with reported growth rates up to 91 cm in 24 hours. Primarily growing in regions of warmer climates during the late Cretaceous period, some of the largest timber bamboo can grow over 30 m tall, and be as large as 25–30 cm in diameter. However, the range for mature bamboo is species-dependent, with the smallest bamboos reaching only several inches high at maturity. A typical height range that would cover many of the common bamboos grown in the United States is 4. 6–12 m, depending on species
39.
Close to nature forestry
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Close to nature forestry is a theory and practice that takes the forest as an ecosystem and manages it as such. It is based оn reduced human intervention, that should be directed to accelerate the processes that nature would do by itself more slowly and it aims at overcoming the divorce between forestalist and ecologist management systems of forest. As an important consequence, it concludes that if applied, it would render the segregation of forest lands into productive. Europe The Arbeitsgemeinschaft für Naturgemässe Waldwirtschaft was established in Germany in 1950, in recent years this association has increased a lot its membership. Another term often used to describe a close to nature approach to forest management, especially in Britain, because of a 1948 forest law, Slovenia has many forests managed according to the principles of close to nature forestry. In 1989 ANW promoted a meeting at Robanov Kot, in the Julian Alps, at present the organization headquarters are in the French region of Alsace. North America In the United States professor Thom McEvoy has published the book Positive Impact Forestry, as a more immediate precursor he makes reference to American forester and ecologist Aldo Leopold. The Ecoforestry Institute consists on educational, non profit and non governmental organizations operating in US and they propose a forestry based on ecological principles, very similar to those of Pro Silva. The sought after solution is not to segregate the territory into areas devoted to forestry or ecology. The management has to obtain healthy and stable forest systems that produce wood with a minimum human intervention, the products to obtain, other than wood, are fauna habitats, biodiversity, recreational, aesthetics, and water management. The human action has the object of accelerating natural processes, ProSilva recommends to use the uneven-aged forest system, in which the ages, and consequently sizes, of trees in a forest are different. It has the advantage to offer a stable structure regarding natural disasters and plagues and it provides a better soil protection, since there is a permanent tree cover. The Ecoforestry Institute, similarly to Pro Silva, recommends multi-aged, proposed thinning frequency is about ten years, and intensity low, in order to limit the ingress of excessive light, that could promote too much understory, or the growing of epicormic shoots. It has to be directed to favor the trees that show good prospect for the future, the operations have to be done in a way that will avoid soil compaction or damage to the trees that will remain standing. When foresters plant trees, they may use either native or introduced species and it may be that there is information available about the behavior of this species in the habitat, or the forester is ready to make a trial. From the ecological point of view, the species is considered as a threat. The introduced species risks being invasive, invasives displace local species, resulting in a reduction of biodiversity, a condition also to be expected if great extensions are forested using introduced species. Professor McEvoy is very clear and strict, introduced species can not be used at all working in a close to nature forestry system
40.
Community forestry
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It involves the participation and collaboration of various stakeholders including community, government and non-government organisations. The level of involvement of each of groups is dependent on the specific community forest project, the management system in use. It gained prominence in the mid-1970s and examples of community forestry can now be seen in countries including Nepal, Indonesia, Korea, Brazil, India. It has been considered one of the most promising options of combining forest conservation with development and community empowerment. Community forestry is defined by the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations as any situation that intimately involves local people in forestry activity. Community forestry is deepened by SPERI via the concept of spirit forest where is source and space for maintaining livelihood identity, the second principal line of action is the implementation of pilot projects to demonstrate the feasibility of the community forestry framework. In a 2016 review of community-based forestry, FAO estimated that almost one-third of the worlds forest area is some form of community-based management. Community forestry first came to prominence in the mid-1970s and has continued to evolve over the last few decades in a number of countries. There is a variety of stakeholders involved when considering community forestry. Participation from some of the levels of community, government and non-government organisations are essential in the projects success. While specific stakeholders vary between different community forestry projects the primary groups are as follows, Table 1. Common stakeholders involved with community forestry, in this situation, stakeholders came to conclusion to handover forest resources to local communities for conserving, managing and utilization by their own decision. Despite significant development, continued improvement in the collaboration between local governments and forest communities seems to be a key point for better community forest management, a wide range of futures scenarios have been put up to help the environmental decision process. A study conducted in the Brazilian Amazon determined that there are a number of challenges that must be faced when developing a management strategy for community forestry. These challenges are outlined in Table 2 and Figure 1 shows the impact each management challenge has on other obstacles, each of the challenges outlined in Table 1 must be addressed in order for a self-sustaining community forestry management program to be established. Challenges faced by stakeholders managing forests For a conservation program within a Community forest to succeed, governments with interest in forest conservation introduce statewide policies and legislations which have historically failed to deliver the desired outcomes such as in China, Nepal and Peru. Moreover, no single stakeholder by itself can ensure the success of such a program, though there is little research on the role of community forestry to wildlife conservation, some empirical studies suggests that it help in wildlife conservation. It is done by decreasing the human disturbance, increasing regeneration of forest, common land in Nepal is owned by the state which often does not have the capacity to monitor and manage the area
41.
Ecoforestry
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Ecoforestry has been defined as selection forestry or restoration forestry. The main idea of Ecoforestry is to maintain or restore the forest to standards where the forest may still be harvested for products on a sustainable basis, Ecoforestry is forestry that emphasizes holistic practices which strive to protect and restore ecosystems rather than maximize economic productivity. Sustainability of the forest also comes with uncertainties, there are other factors that may affect the forest furthermore than that of the harvesting. There are internal conditions such as effects of compaction, tree damage, disease, fire. These factors have to be taken into account when determining the sustainability of a forest, if these factors are added to the harvesting and production that comes out of the forest, then the forest will become less likely to survive, and will then become less sustainable. Since the forest is considered an ecosystem, it is dependent on all of the living and non-living factors within itself and this is a major part of why the forest needs to be sustainable before it is harvested. For example, a tree would convert sunlight to sugars for respiration to keep the tree alive, the remains of the converted sugars is left in roots for consumption by the organisms surrounding the tree in the habitat. This shows the productivity of an ecosystem with its inhabitants, productivity within the ecosystem cannot come to fruition unless the forest is sustainable enough to be harvested. If all of the organisms of the ecosystem are non existent, once that happens, there is no longer any forest to harvest from. The overall productivity of a system can be found in an equation where the Net Primary Production, or NPP, is equal to the Gross Primary Production, or GPP, minus the Respiration, the formula is the NPP = GPP - R. The NPP is the efficiency of the plants in the ecosystem. Through having a constant efficiency in NPP, the ecosystem is then more sustainable, the GPP refers to the rate of energy stored by photosynthesis in plants. The R refers to the maintenance and reproduction of plants from the energy expended, Ecoforestry has many principles within the existence of itself. It covers sustainable development and the harvesting of the organisms living within the forest ecosystem. There have been proposals of principles outlined for ecoforestry. They are covered over books, articles, and environmental agencies, all of the principles relate to the idea that in ecoforestry, less should be harvested, and diversity must be managed. Through harvesting less, there is enough left in the forest, so that the forest may stay healthy. It will grow at a sustainable level annually, and thus it will be able to still be harvested the following year, through management of the diversity, species may cohabitate in an ecosystem where the forest may feed off of other species in its growth and production
42.
Energy forestry
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Energy forestry is a form of forestry in which a fast-growing species of tree or woody shrub is grown specifically to provide biomass or biofuel for heating or power generation. Short rotation forestry are crops of Alder, Ash, Birch, Eucalyptus, Poplar, in comparison, burning fossil fuels increases atmospheric carbon unsustainably, by using carbon that was added to the earths carbon sink millions of years ago. This is a contributor to climate change. According to the FAO, compared to other crops, wood is among the most efficient sources of bioenergy in terms of quantity of energy released by unit of carbon emitted. Yields of some varieties can be as high as 12 oven dry tonnes every year, however, commercial experience on plantations in Scandinavia have shown lower yield rates. These crops can also be used in bank stabilisation and phytoremediation, in fact, experiments in Sweden with willow plantations have proved to have many beneficial effects on the soil and water quality when compared to conventional agricultural crops. Growing trees are relatively water intensive, the system of energy forestry has faced criticism over food vs. fuel, whereby it has become financially profitable to replace food crops with energy crops
43.
Mycoforestry
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Mycoforestry is an ecological forest management system implemented to enhance forest ecosystems and plant communities through the introduction of mycorrhizal and saprotrophic fungi. Mycoforestry is considered a type of permaculture and can be implemented as a component of an agroforestry system. Mycoforestry can enhance the yields of crops and produce edible mushrooms. Mycoforestry is an alternative to the practice of clearcutting, which removes dead wood from forests, thereby diminishing nutrient availability, according to Paul Stamets, the first principle for the creation of a mycoforestry system is to utilize native fungal species. Implementing a mycoforestry system provides the potential of improving restoration efforts, however to utilize native fungal flora, first the relationships between present fungal species and growth substrate, and habitat need to be studied. This method keeps and will promote the functioning of the native ecosystem and it is assumed in a functioning forest ecosystem an underground mycelial network persists even if no fruiting bodies are visible. A period of disappearance of mushrooms from an area should not cause alarm, in order to trigger the formation of fruiting bodies, many fungal species require specific environmental conditions. Most species of fungi do not fruit year round, mycoforestry is an emergent scientific field and practice. Until broadly standardized protocols are created and perfected, the collection of current and historical ecological site conditions will improve the success of the project. Therefore, a survey of fungal relations at the site under both prime and poor conditions is beneficial to implementation of a mycoforestry system, the second principle is to promote saprotrophic fungi in the environment. Saprophytic fungi are crucial to mycoforestry systems because these are the primary composers breaking down wood and this can be accomplished through inoculation of wood debris at site. Spored oils can be used in chainsaws when problematic or invasive hardwood requires felling and this method is a simple means to inoculate a tree. Additionally plug spawn can be implemented and injected into wood mass again prompting colonization by the selected fungus, eventually repeated colonization efforts should not be necessary as many fungal life forms are strong and will spread and sustain in the soil on their own. In management of the system it is important that dead wood be in contact with the ground. This allows fungus to reach up from the soil and decompose fallen wood releasing nutrients at a quicker rate then if the wood is left standing. Additionally it is important to leave dead wood on site for decomposition back into the soil and this philosophy is similarly based to the fact that clear cutting of a forest reduces soil nutrients and thickness. The third principal is to implement species known to plant species. Utilizing mushroom species that attract insects could be a source of fish food
44.
Forest gardening
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Making use of companion planting, these can be intermixed to grow in a succession of layers, to build a woodland habitat. Forest gardening is a method of securing food in tropical areas. In the 1980s, Robert Hart coined the term forest gardening after adapting the principles, Forest gardens are probably the worlds oldest form of land use and most resilient agroecosystem. They originated in prehistoric times along jungle-clad river banks and in the wet foothills of monsoon regions, in the gradual process of families improving their immediate environment, useful tree and vine species were identified, protected and improved whilst undesirable species were eliminated. Eventually superior foreign species were selected and incorporated into the gardens and these are also called agroforests and, where the wood components are short-statured, the term shrub garden is employed. Forest gardens have been shown to be a significant source of income, Robert Hart adapted forest gardening for the United Kingdoms temperate climate during the 1980s. His theories were developed by Martin Crawford from the Agroforestry Research Trust and various permaculturalists such as Graham Bell, Patrick Whitefield, Dave Jacke. Forest gardens, or home gardens, are common in the tropics, using intercropping to cultivate trees, crops, in Kerala in south India as well as in northeastern India, the home garden is the most common form of land use and is also found in Indonesia. One example combines coconut, black pepper, cocoa and pineapple and these gardens exemplify polyculture, and conserve much crop genetic diversity and heirloom plants that are not found in monocultures. Forest gardens have been compared to the religious concept of the Garden of Eden. This was also explored in the bestselling book 1491 by author Charles C. Mann, since the 1970s, numerous geoglyphs have also been discovered on deforested land in the Amazon rainforest, furthering the evidence about Pre-Columbian civilizations. On the Yucatán Peninsula, much of the Maya food supply was grown in orchard-gardens, the system takes its name from the low wall of stones that characteristically surrounds the gardens. Most well known are the Chaga or Chagga gardens on the slopes of Mt. Kilimanjaro in Tanzania and these are an excellent example of an agroforestry system. In many countries, women are the actors in home gardening. In North-Africa, oasis layered gardening with palm trees, fruit trees and vegetables is a type of forest garden. The term “home garden” is often considered synonymous to the kitchen garden, however, they differ in terms of function, size, diversity, composition and features. In Nepal, 72% of households have home gardens of an area 2–11% of the land holdings. Because of their size, the government has never identified home gardens as an important unit of food production and they thereby remain neglected from research
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Plantation
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A plantation is an area of land or water where one crop is specifically planted for widespread commercial sale. The crops grown include cotton, coffee, tea, cocoa, sugar cane, sisal, oil seeds, oil palms, rubber trees, protectionist policies and natural comparative advantage have sometimes contributed to determining where plantations were located. Among the earliest examples of plantations were the latifundia of the Roman Empire, Plantation agriculture grew rapidly with the increase in international trade and the development of a worldwide economy that followed the expansion of European colonial empires. Like every economic activity, it has changed over time, Industrial plantations are established to produce a high volume of wood in a short period of time. Plantations are grown by state forestry authorities and/or the paper and wood industries, christmas trees are often grown on plantations as well. In southern and southeastern Asia, teak plantations have replaced the natural forest. Industrial plantations are managed for the commercial production of forest products. Individual blocks are usually even-aged and often consist of just one or two species and these species can be exotic or indigenous. Forest genetic resources are the basis for genetic alteration, selected individuals grown in seed orchards are a good source for seeds to develop adequate planting material. Wood production on a plantation is generally higher than that of natural forests. In 2000, while plantations accounted for 5% of global forest, in the first year, the ground is prepared usually by the combination of burning, herbicide spraying, and/or cultivation and then saplings are planted by human crew or by machine. The saplings are usually obtained in bulk from industrial nurseries, which may specialize in breeding in order to produce fast growing disease-. In the first few years until the canopy closes, the saplings are looked after, after the canopy closes, with the tree crowns touching each other, the plantation is becoming dense and crowded, and tree growth is slowing due to competition. This stage is termed pole stage, when competition becomes too intense, it is time to thin out the section. There are several methods for thinning, but where topography permits, the most popular is row-thinning, many trees are removed, leaving regular clear lanes through the section so that the remaining trees have room to expand again. The removed trees are delimbed, forwarded to the forest road, loaded onto trucks, a typical pole stage plantation tree is 7–30 cm in diameter at breast height. Such trees are not suitable for timber, but are used as pulp for paper and particleboard. As the trees grow and become dense and crowded again, the process is repeated
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Social forestry in India
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Social forestry means the management and protection of forests and afforestation of barren and deforested lands with the purpose of helping in the environmental, social and rural development. The term, social forestry, was first used in India in 1976 by The National Commission on Agriculture and it was then that India embarked upon a social forestry project with the aim of taking the pressure off currently existing forests by planting trees on all unused and fallow land. Government is trying to increase forest areas that are close to human settlement and have been degraded over the due to human activities needed to be afforested. Trees were to be planted in and around agricultural fields, plantation of trees along railway lines and roadsides, and river and canal banks were carried out. They were planted in village common land, government wasteland, Social forestry scheme was initiated in India to increase fuel availability in rural areas and to prevent soil erosion. Social forestry also aims at raising plantations by the man so as to meet the growing demand for timber, fuel wood, fodder. This concept of village forests to meet the needs of the people is not new. It has existed through the all over the country. Through the social scheme, the government has involved community participation, as part of a drive towards afforestation. A movement has been started called Plant a Tree Challenge, which invokes a sense among people to come and participate and take every occasion to Plant a Tree as is their own responsibility. This need for a social forestry scheme was felt as India has a dominant rural population still depends largely on fuel wood. This demand for fuel wood will not come down but the area under forest will reduce further due to the growing population, Social forestry scheme can be categorized into groups, farm forestry, community forestry, extension forestry and agroforestry. At present in almost all the countries where social forestry programmes have taken up. Individual farmers are being encouraged to plant trees on their own farmland to meet the needs of the family. In many areas, this tradition of growing trees on the farmland already exists, non-commercial farm forestry is the main thrust of most of the social forestry projects in the country today. It is not always necessary that the farmer grows trees for fuelwood and they may want it to provide shade for the agricultural crops, as wind shelters, soil conservation or to use wasteland. Farm Forestry is another name for Agroforestry, a part of Social Forestry, as a rough estimate, the total demand for pulpwood is approximately 10 million ADMT. Indian Paper Manufacturers Association is an organisation of Indian Pulp
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Sustainable forest management
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Sustainable forest management is the management of forests according to the principles of sustainable development. Sustainable forest management has to keep the balance between three pillars, ecological, economic and socio-cultural. A number of sets of criteria and indicators have since developed to evaluate the achievement of SFM at the global, regional, country. These were all attempts to codify and provide for independent assessment of the degree to which the objectives of sustainable forest management are being achieved in practice. In 2007, the United Nations General Assembly adopted the Non-Legally Binding Instrument on All Types of Forests, a definition of SFM was developed by the Ministerial Conference on the Protection of Forests in Europe, and has since been adopted by the Food and Agriculture Organization. This balance is critical to the survival of forests, and to the prosperity of forest-dependent communities. For forest managers, sustainably managing a particular forest tract means determining, in a way, how to use it today to ensure similar benefits, health. In most cases, forest managers develop their forest plans in consultation with citizens, businesses, organizations and other interested parties in, the tools and visualization have been recently evolving for better management practices. Because forests and societies are in constant flux, the outcome of sustainable forest management is not a fixed one. What constitutes a sustainably managed forest will change over time as values held by the public change, Criteria and indicators are tools which can be used to conceptualise, evaluate and implement sustainable forest management. Criteria define and characterize the essential elements, as well as a set of conditions or processes, periodically measured indicators reveal the direction of change with respect to each criterion. Criteria and indicators of sustainable forest management are used and many countries produce national reports that assess their progress toward sustainable forest management. There are nine international and regional criteria and indicators initiatives, which involve more than 150 countries. Countries who are members of the same initiative usually agree to produce reports at the same time, within countries, at the management unit level, efforts have also been directed at developing local level criteria and indicators of sustainable forest management. There appears to be growing international consensus on the key elements of sustainable forest management, seven common thematic areas of sustainable forest management have emerged based on the criteria of the nine ongoing regional and international criteria and indicators initiatives. This consensus on common thematic areas effectively provides a common, implicit definition of sustainable forest management, the seven thematic areas were acknowledged by the international forest community at the fourth session of the United Nations Forum on Forests and the 16th session of the Committee on Forestry. The Ecosystem Approach has been prominent on the agenda of the Convention on Biological Diversity since 1995, the CBD definition of the Ecosystem Approach and a set of principles for its application were developed at an expert meeting in Malawi in 1995, known as the Malawi Principles. The definition,12 principles and 5 points of operational guidance were adopted by the fifth Conference of Parties in 2000, application of the ecosystem approach will help to reach a balance of the three objectives of the Convention
