1.
Management
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Management is the administration of an organization, whether it be a business, a not-for-profit organization, or government body. The term management may also refer to the people who manage an organization, management is also an academic discipline, a social science whose objective is to study social organization and organizational leadership. Individuals who aim at becoming management researchers or professors may complete the Doctor of Business Administration or the PhD in business administration or management, in larger organizations, there are generally three levels of managers, which are typically organized in a hierarchical, pyramid structure. Senior managers provide direction to the managers who report to them. Middle managers, examples of which would include branch managers, regional managers and section managers, middle managers communicate the strategic goals of senior management to the front-line managers. Lower managers, such as supervisors and front-line team leaders, oversee the work of regular employees, in smaller organizations, the roles of managers have much wider scopes. A manager can perform several roles or even all of the commonly observed in a large organization. There are many smaller organizations than larger ones. Views on the definition and scope of management include, According to Henri Fayol, to manage is to forecast and to plan, to organise, to command, to co-ordinate, fredmund Malik defines it as the transformation of resources into utility. Management included as one of the factors of production - along with machines, materials, peter Drucker saw the basic task of management as twofold, marketing and innovation. Nevertheless, innovation is also linked to marketing, peter Drucker identifies marketing as a key essence for business success, but management and marketing are generally understood as two different branches of business administration knowledge. Management involves identifying the mission, objective, procedures, rules and this implies effective communication, an enterprise environment implies human motivation and implies some sort of successful progress or system outcome. As such, management is not the manipulation of a mechanism, not the herding of animals, management does not need to be seen from enterprise point of view alone, because management is an essential function to improve ones life and relationships. Management is therefore everywhere and it has a range of application. Based on this, management must have humans, communication, plans, measurements, motivational psychological tools, goals, and economic measures may or may not be necessary components for there to be management. At first, one views management functionally, such as measuring quantity, adjusting plans and this applies even in situations where planning does not take place. Critics, however, find this definition useful but far too narrow, one habit of thought regards management as equivalent to business administration and thus excludes management in places outside commerce, as for example in charities and in the public sector. More broadly, every organization must manage its work, people, processes, technology, nonetheless, many people refer to university departments that teach management as business schools
2.
Project management
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Project management is the discipline of initiating, planning, executing, controlling, and closing the work of a team to achieve specific goals and meet specific success criteria. The temporary nature of projects stands in contrast with business as usual, in practice, the management of these two systems is often quite different, and as such requires the development of distinct technical skills and management strategies. The primary challenge of project management is to all of the project goals within the given constraints. This information is usually described in a user or project manual, the primary constraints are scope, time, quality and budget. The secondary — and more ambitious — challenge is to optimize the allocation of necessary inputs, in the 1950s organizations started to systematically apply project-management tools and techniques to complex engineering projects. As a discipline, project management developed from fields of application including civil construction, engineering. Both Gantt and Fayol were students of Frederick Winslow Taylors theories of scientific management and his work is the forerunner to modern project management tools including work breakdown structure and resource allocation. The 1950s marked the beginning of the project management era where core engineering fields come together to work as one. Project management became recognized as a distinct discipline arising from the management discipline with engineering model, in the United States, prior to the 1950s, projects were managed on an ad-hoc basis, using mostly Gantt charts and informal techniques and tools. At that time, two mathematical project-scheduling models were developed, the Critical Path Method was developed as a joint venture between DuPont Corporation and Remington Rand Corporation for managing plant maintenance projects. PERT and CPM are very similar in their approach but still present some differences, CPM is used for projects that assume deterministic activity times, the times at which each activity will be carried out are known. PERT, on the hand, allows for stochastic activity times. Because of this difference, CPM and PERT are used in different contexts. These mathematical techniques quickly spread into many private enterprises, AACE continued its pioneering work and in 2006 released the first integrated process for portfolio, program and project management. The International Project Management Association was founded in Europe in 1967, IPMA maintains its federal structure today and now includes member associations on every continent except Antarctica. IPMA offers a Four Level Certification program based on the IPMA Competence Baseline, the ICB covers technical, contextual, and behavioral competencies. In 1969, the Project Management Institute was formed in the USA, PMI publishes A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge, which describes project management practices that are common to most projects, most of the time. There are a number of approaches for managing project activities including lean, iterative, incremental, a traditional phased approach identifies a sequence of steps to be completed
3.
Communication
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Communication is the act of conveying intended meanings from one entity or group to another through the use of mutually understood signs and semiotic rules. The main steps inherent to all communication are, The forming of communicative motivation or reason, transmission of the encoded message as a sequence of signals using a specific channel or medium. Noise sources such as forces and in some cases human activity begin influencing the quality of signals propagating from the sender to one or more receivers. Reception of signals and reassemblying of the message from a sequence of received signals. Decoding of the encoded message. Interpretation and making sense of the original message. The channel of communication can be visual, auditory, tactile and haptic, olfactory, electromagnetic, human communication is unique for its extensive use of abstract language. Development of civilization has been linked with progress in telecommunication. Nonverbal communication describes the process of conveying information in the form of non-linguistic representations, examples of nonverbal communication include haptic communication, chronemic communication, gestures, body language, facial expressions, eye contact, and how one dresses. Nonverbal communication also relates to intent of a message, examples of intent are voluntary, intentional movements like shaking a hand or winking, as well as involuntary, such as sweating. Speech also contains nonverbal elements known as paralanguage, e. g. rhythm, intonation, tempo and it affects communication most at the subconscious level and establishes trust. Likewise, written texts include nonverbal elements such as handwriting style, spatial arrangement of words, Nonverbal communication demonstrates one of Wazlawicks laws, you cannot not communicate. Once proximity has formed awareness, living creatures begin interpreting any signals received, Nonverbal cues are heavily relied on to express communication and to interpret others’ communication and can replace or substitute verbal messages. There are several reasons as to why non-verbal communication plays a role in communication. Written communication can also have non-verbal attributes, e-mails and web chats allow individual’s the option to change text font colours, stationary, emoticons, and capitalization in order to capture non-verbal cues into a verbal medium. Many different non-verbal channels are engaged at the time in communication acts. “Non-verbal behaviours may form a language system. ”Smiling, crying, pointing, caressing. Such non-verbal signals allow the most basic form of communication when verbal communication is not effective due to language barriers, Verbal communication is the spoken or written conveyance of a message
4.
Organization
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An organization or organisation is an entity comprising multiple people, such as an institution or an association, that has a collective goal and is linked to an external environment. The word is derived from the Greek word organon, which means organ, a hybrid organization is a body that operates in both the public sector and the private sector simultaneously, fulfilling public duties and developing commercial market activities. A voluntary association is an organization consisting of volunteers, such organizations may be able to operate without legal formalities, depending on jurisdiction, including informal clubs. Organizations may also operate in secret and/or illegally in the case of secret societies, criminal organizations, the study of organizations includes a focus on optimizing organizational structure. In common law countries, legal juries render decisions of guilt, liability and quantify damages, juries are used in athletic contests, book awards. Sometimes a selection committee functions like a jury, in the Middle Ages, juries in continental Europe were used to determine the law according to consensus among local notables. Committees are often the most reliable way to make decisions, condorcets jury theorem proved that if the average member votes better than a roll of dice, then adding more members increases the number of majorities that can come to a correct vote. The problem is that if the member is subsequently worse than a roll of dice. Parliamentary procedure, such as Roberts Rules of Order, helps prevent committees from engaging in discussions without reaching decisions. Bad parts of the organization starve, everybody is paid for what they actually do, and runs a tiny business that has to show a profit, or they are fired. Companies who utilize this organization type reflect a rather one-sided view of what goes on in ecology and it is also the case that a natural ecosystem has a natural border - ecoregions do not in general compete with one another in any way, but are very autonomous. The pharmaceutical company GlaxoSmithKline talks about functioning as this type of organization in this article from The Guardian. This organizational type assigns each worker two bosses in two different hierarchies, one hierarchy is functional and assures that each type of expert in the organization is well-trained, and measured by a boss who is super-expert in the same field. The other direction is executive and tries to get projects completed using the experts, projects might be organized by products, regions, customer types, or some other schema. As an example, a company might have an individual with overall responsibility for products X and Y, therefore, subordinates responsible for quality control of project X will have two reporting lines. A hierarchy exemplifies an arrangement with a leader who leads other individual members of the organization, so one can imagine that if the leader does not have the support of his subordinates, the entire structure will collapse. Hierarchies were satirized in The Peter Principle, a book that introduced hierarchiology, the broader analysis of organizations is commonly referred to as organizational structure, organizational studies, organizational behavior, or organization analysis. A number of different perspectives exist, some of which are compatible, From a functional perspective, from an institutional perspective, an organization is viewed as a purposeful structure within a social context
5.
Microsoft Office
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Microsoft Office is an office suite of applications, servers, and services developed by Microsoft. It was first announced by Bill Gates on 1 August 1988, initially a marketing term for a bundled set of applications, the first version of Office contained Microsoft Word, Microsoft Excel, and Microsoft PowerPoint. Over the years, Office applications have grown substantially closer with shared features such as a spell checker, OLE data integration. Microsoft also positions Office as a development platform for software under the Office Business Applications brand. On 10 July 2012, Softpedia reported that Office is used by over a billion people worldwide, Office is produced in several versions targeted towards different end-users and computing environments. The original, and most widely used version, is the version, available for PCs running the Windows. The most current desktop version is Office 2016 for Windows and macOS, released on 22 September 2015 and 9 July 2015, more recently, Microsoft developed Office Mobile, which are free-to-use versions of Office applications for mobile devices. Microsoft also produces and runs Office Online, a version of core Office apps. Microsoft Word is a word processor available for Windows and macOS, Word is also included in some editions of the now discontinued Microsoft Works. The first version of Word, released in the autumn of 1983, was for the MS-DOS operating system and had the distinction of introducing the mouse to a broad population, Word 1.0 could be purchased with a bundled mouse, though none was required. Following the precedents of LisaWrite and MacWrite, Word for Macintosh attempted to add closer WYSIWYG features into its package, Word for Mac was released in 1985. Word for Mac was the first graphical version of Microsoft Word and its proprietary Doc format is a de facto standard, although Word 2007 deprecated this format in favor of Office Open XML, which was later standardized by Ecma International as an open format. Support for Portable Document Format and OpenDocument was first introduced in Word for Windows with Service Pack 2 for Word 2007, Microsoft Excel is a spreadsheet program that originally competed with the dominant Lotus 1-2-3, and eventually outsold it. It is available for the Windows and macOS platforms, Microsoft released the first version of Excel for the Mac OS in 1985, and the first Windows version in November 1987. Microsoft PowerPoint is a program for Windows and macOS. It is used to create slideshows, composed of text, graphics, and other objects, Microsoft Access is a database management system for Windows that combines the relational Microsoft Jet Database Engine with a graphical user interface and software-development tools. Microsoft Access stores data in its own based on the Access Jet Database Engine. It can also import or link directly to data stored in other applications, Microsoft Outlook is a personal information manager
6.
Word
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In linguistics, a word is the smallest element that can be uttered in isolation with semantic or pragmatic content. This contrasts deeply with a morpheme, which is the smallest unit of meaning, a word may consist of a single morpheme, or several, whereas a morpheme may not be able to stand on its own as a word. A complex word will typically include a root and one or more affixes, words can be put together to build larger elements of language, such as phrases, clauses, and sentences. The term word may refer to a word or to a written word. Spoken words are made up of units of sound called phonemes, the difficulty of deciphering a word depends on the language. Dictionaries categorize a languages lexicon into lemmas and these can be taken as an indication of what constitutes a word in the opinion of the writers of that language. The most appropriate means of measuring the length of a word is by counting its syllables or morphemes, when a word has multiple definitions or multiple senses, it may result in confusion in a debate or discussion. Leonard Bloomfield introduced the concept of Minimal Free Forms in 1926, words are thought of as the smallest meaningful unit of speech that can stand by themselves. However, some words are not minimal free forms as they make no sense by themselves. Some semanticists have put forward a theory of so-called semantic primitives or semantic primes, according to this theory, semantic primes serve as the basis for describing the meaning, without circularity, of other words and their associated conceptual denotations. In the Minimalist school of theoretical syntax, words are construed as bundles of features that are united into a structure with form. For example, the word koalas has semantic features, category features, number features, phonological features, the task of defining what constitutes a word involves determining where one word ends and another word begins—in other words, identifying word boundaries. There are several ways to determine where the boundaries of spoken language should be placed, Potential pause, A speaker is told to repeat a given sentence slowly. The speaker will tend to insert pauses at the word boundaries, however, this method is not foolproof, the speaker could easily break up polysyllabic words, or fail to separate two or more closely linked words. Indivisibility, A speaker is told to say a sentence out loud, thus, I have lived in this village for ten years might become My family and I have lived in this little village for about ten or so years. These extra words will tend to be added in the boundaries of the original sentence. However, some languages have infixes, which are put inside a word, similarly, some have separable affixes, in the German sentence Ich komme gut zu Hause an, the verb ankommen is separated. Phonetic boundaries, Some languages have rules of pronunciation that make it easy to spot where a word boundary should be
7.
Microsoft PowerPoint
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Microsoft PowerPoint is a presentation program currently developed by Microsoft, for use on both Microsoft Windows and Apple Macintosh operating systems. PowerPoint, initially named Presenter, was created by Forethought Inc, Microsofts version of PowerPoint was officially launched on May 22,1990, as a part of the Microsoft Office suite. PowerPoint is useful for helping develop the slide-based presentation format and is one of the most commonly used slide-based presentation programs available. Microsoft has also released the PowerPoint mobile application for use on Apple, originally designed for the Macintosh computer, the initial release was called Presenter, developed by Thomas Rudkin and Dennis Austin of Forethought, Inc. In 1987, it was renamed to PowerPoint due to problems with trademarks, by then some experts believed that desktop presentations, using computers to create flip charts and overhead transparencies, could become as large a market as desktop publishing. That year Forethought was bought by Microsoft for $14 million, and became Microsofts Graphics Business Unit, Microsofts version of PowerPoint was officially launched on May 22,1990, the same day that Microsoft released Windows 3.0. PowerPoint introduced many new changes with the release of PowerPoint 97 and it incorporated the Visual Basic for Applications language, underlying all macro generation in Office 97. PowerPoint 2000 introduced a clipboard that could hold objects at once. PowerPoint 2002 massively overhauled the engine, allowing users to create more advanced. PowerPoint 2011 makes it possible to remove image backgrounds, and provides additional effects for pictures. As of 2012, various versions of PowerPoint claim about 95% of the software market share. Among presenters world-wide, this program is used at a frequency of 350 times per second. PowerPoint presentations consist of a number of pages or slides. The slide analogy is a reference to the slide projector, slides may contain text, graphics, sound, movies, and other objects, which may be arranged freely. The presentation can be printed, displayed live on a computer, for larger audiences the computer display is often a video projector. Slides can also form the basis of webcasts, PowerPoint provides three types of movements, Entrance, emphasis, and exit of elements on a slide itself are controlled by what PowerPoint calls Custom Animations. Transitions, on the hand, there are movements between slides. These can be animated in a variety of ways, Custom animation can be used to create small story boards by animating pictures to enter, exit or move
8.
Microsoft Excel
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Microsoft Excel is a spreadsheet developed by Microsoft for Windows, macOS, Android and iOS. It features calculation, graphing tools, pivot tables, and a programming language called Visual Basic for Applications. It has been a widely applied spreadsheet for these platforms, especially since version 5 in 1993. Excel forms part of Microsoft Office, Microsoft Excel has the basic features of all spreadsheets, using a grid of cells arranged in numbered rows and letter-named columns to organize data manipulations like arithmetic operations. It has a battery of supplied functions to answer statistical, engineering, in addition, it can display data as line graphs, histograms and charts, and with a very limited three-dimensional graphical display. It allows sectioning of data to view its dependencies on various factors for different perspectives, Excel was not designed to be used as a database. Microsoft allows for a number of optional command-line switches to control the manner in which Excel starts, the Windows version of Excel supports programming through Microsofts Visual Basic for Applications, which is a dialect of Visual Basic. Programming with VBA allows spreadsheet manipulation that is awkward or impossible with standard spreadsheet techniques, programmers may write code directly using the Visual Basic Editor, which includes a window for writing code, debugging code, and code module organization environment. A common and easy way to generate VBA code is by using the Macro Recorder, the Macro Recorder records actions of the user and generates VBA code in the form of a macro. These actions can then be repeated automatically by running the macro, the macros can also be linked to different trigger types like keyboard shortcuts, a command button or a graphic. The actions in the macro can be executed from these types or from the generic toolbar options. The VBA code of the macro can also be edited in the VBE, advanced users can employ user prompts to create an interactive program, or react to events such as sheets being loaded or changed. Macro Recorded code may not be compatible between Excel versions, some code that is used in Excel 2010 can not be used in Excel 2003. Making a Macro that changes the colors and making changes to other aspects of cells may not be backward compatible. User-created VBA subroutines execute these actions and operate like macros generated using the macro recorder, from its first version Excel supported end user programming of macros and user defined functions.0. Beginning with version 5.0 Excel recorded macros in VBA by default, after version 5.0 that option was discontinued. All versions of Excel, including Excel 2010 are capable of running an XLM macro, Excel supports charts, graphs, or histograms generated from specified groups of cells. The generated graphic component can either be embedded within the current sheet and these displays are dynamically updated if the content of cells change
9.
Minutes
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Minutes, also known as protocols or, informally, notes, are the instant written record of a meeting or hearing. They typically describe the events of the meeting and may include a list of attendees, a statement of the issues considered by the participants, and related responses or decisions for the issues. Minutes may be created during the meeting by a typist or court reporter, alternatively, the meeting can be audio recorded, video recorded, or a groups appointed or informally assigned secretary may take notes, with minutes prepared later. Many government agencies use minutes recording software to record and prepare all minutes in real-time, Minutes are the official written record of the meetings of an organization or group. They are not transcripts of those proceedings, using Roberts Rules of Order Newly Revised, the minutes should contain mainly a record of what was done at the meeting, not what was said by the members. The organization may have its own rules regarding the content of the minutes, for most organizations or groups, it is important for the minutes to be terse and only include a summary of the decisions. A verbatim report is not useful. Unless the organizations rules require it, a summary of the discussions in a meeting is necessary nor appropriate. The minutes of certain groups, such as a board of directors. Minutes from board meetings are kept separately from minutes of membership meetings within the same organization. Also, minutes of executive sessions may be kept separately, committees are not required to keep formal minutes although less formal notes may be taken. For committees, their records are the reports submitted to their parent body. The format of the minutes can vary depending on the established by an organization. Roberts Rules of Order Newly Revised contains a set of minutes. Generally, minutes begin with the name of the holding the meeting and may also include the place, date, list of people present. Since the primary function of minutes is to record the decisions made, if a formal motion is proposed, seconded, passed, or not, then this is recorded. The voting tally may also be included, the part of the minutes dealing with a routine motion might note merely that a particular motion was moved by Ann and passed. It is not strictly necessary to include the name of the person who seconds a motion
10.
Latin
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Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
11.
Renaissance
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The Renaissance was a period in European history, from the 14th to the 17th century, regarded as the cultural bridge between the Middle Ages and modern history. It started as a movement in Italy in the Late Medieval period and later spread to the rest of Europe. This new thinking became manifest in art, architecture, politics, science, Early examples were the development of perspective in oil painting and the recycled knowledge of how to make concrete. Although the invention of movable type sped the dissemination of ideas from the later 15th century. In politics, the Renaissance contributed to the development of the customs and conventions of diplomacy, the Renaissance began in Florence, in the 14th century. Other major centres were northern Italian city-states such as Venice, Genoa, Milan, Bologna, the word Renaissance, literally meaning Rebirth in French, first appeared in English in the 1830s. The word also occurs in Jules Michelets 1855 work, Histoire de France, the word Renaissance has also been extended to other historical and cultural movements, such as the Carolingian Renaissance and the Renaissance of the 12th century. The Renaissance was a movement that profoundly affected European intellectual life in the early modern period. Renaissance scholars employed the humanist method in study, and searched for realism, however, a subtle shift took place in the way that intellectuals approached religion that was reflected in many other areas of cultural life. In addition, many Greek Christian works, including the Greek New Testament, were back from Byzantium to Western Europe. Political philosophers, most famously Niccolò Machiavelli, sought to describe life as it really was. Others see more competition between artists and polymaths such as Brunelleschi, Ghiberti, Donatello, and Masaccio for artistic commissions as sparking the creativity of the Renaissance. Yet it remains much debated why the Renaissance began in Italy, accordingly, several theories have been put forward to explain its origins. During the Renaissance, money and art went hand in hand, Artists depended entirely on patrons while the patrons needed money to foster artistic talent. Wealth was brought to Italy in the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries by expanding trade into Asia, silver mining in Tyrol increased the flow of money. Luxuries from the Eastern world, brought home during the Crusades, increased the prosperity of Genoa, unlike with Latin texts, which had been preserved and studied in Western Europe since late antiquity, the study of ancient Greek texts was very limited in medieval Western Europe. One of the greatest achievements of Renaissance scholars was to bring this entire class of Greek cultural works back into Western Europe for the first time since late antiquity, Arab logicians had inherited Greek ideas after they had invaded and conquered Egypt and the Levant. Their translations and commentaries on these ideas worked their way through the Arab West into Spain and Sicily and this work of translation from Islamic culture, though largely unplanned and disorganized, constituted one of the greatest transmissions of ideas in history
12.
Personal assistant
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A personal assistant, also referred to as personal aide or personal secretary, is a job title describing a person who assists a specific person with their daily business or personal tasks. A personal assistant helps with time and daily management, scheduling of meetings, correspondence, the role of a personal assistant can be varied, such as answering phone calls, taking notes, scheduling meetings, emailing, texts etc. They assist with a variety of life management tasks, including running errands, arranging travel, finance, a personal assistant is someone that completes tasks the managers require whether personal or professional. They ensure that everything runs smoothly, personal assistants often act as the managers first point of contact with people from both inside and outside the organization. This means that their tasks and skills can often be divided into two fields of technical skills and personal skills, tasks may include but are not limited to, devising and maintaining office systems, including data management and filing. In addition to supporting managers, their team and departments, many PAs also have their own personal workload, people who cannot afford to hire their own personal assistants to run errands or answer phone calls full-time can hire a personal concierge or a part-time assistant. Most companies offer secretarial personal assistance as well as basic assistant services like research, scheduling, travel arrangements, costs of a part-time employee can end up exceeding the amount it would have cost to hire a full-time employee. Other companies charge a monthly fee for personal assistant services based upon the number of requests expected to be placed each month. Newer personal assistant companies instead charge a flat rate, which saves money. These personal assistants may develop great skills at the birth of a new company and have opportunities for advancement, other personal assistants will have garnered valuable knowledge and experience if they choose to move into other positions. Personal assistants in the field can be offered positions elsewhere in the company. Some are asked to consider full-time positions elsewhere in the company, some employers will not see the potential for a personal assistant immediately and thus the personal assistant will remain in that position until other positions become vacant. In more recent years, the celebrity personal assistant has been thrust into the spotlight, many celebrity assistants have used the celebritys exposure to create their own companies, like Madonnas former assistant. Personal Assistant or PA jobs have many options to develop your career to the next level, experienced PAs can move into Executive PA Jobs, where they will be providing PA services to senior Executives. This will mean a great level of confidence, skill and the ability to deal with high level executive roles and pressures. Au pair Body man, U. S. political jargon for an assistant to a politician or political candidate Lifestyle management
13.
Isaac Pitman
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Sir Isaac Pitman, was an English teacher who developed the most widely used system of shorthand, known now as Pitman shorthand. He first proposed this in Stenographic Soundhand in 1837 and he was also the vice president of the Vegetarian Society. Pitman was knighted by Queen Victoria in 1894, Pitman was born in Trowbridge, Wiltshire in England. One of his cousins was Abraham Laverton, in 1831 he had five months training at the Training College of the British and Foreign School Society, which was sufficient to qualify him as a teacher. He started teaching at Barton-upon-Humber, Lincolnshire, in 1835 he married a widow, and moved in 1836 to Wotton-under-Edge, Gloucestershire, where he started his own school. In 1839 he moved to Bath, where he opened a small school, in the 1851 census he appears in Bath aged 38, living with his wife, Mary, aged 58, born in Newark-on-Trent, Nottinghamshire. He married Isabella Masters in 1861, and he appears in the 1871 census, aged 58, with his new wife Isabella, Isaac Pitman was a lifelong advocate of spelling reform for the English language, producing many pamphlets during his lifetime on spelling reform. His motto was time saved is life gained, one of the outcomes of his interest in spelling reform was the creation of his system of phonetic shorthand which he first published in 1837, in a pamphlet titled Sound-Hand. Among the examples in this pamphlet, were the Psalm 100, the Lords Prayer, by 1843 his business of preparing and publishing had expanded sufficiently to give up teaching, and to set up his own printing press, as well as compositing and a binding. In 1844 he published Phonotypy, his work on spelling reform. In 1845 he published the first version of the English Phonotypic Alphabet, in the 1881 census his name is spelled phonetically as Eisak Pitman. In the 1891 census he is listed as Isaac. In 1886 Pitman went into partnerships with his sons Alfred and Ernest to form Isaac Pitman, in the same year the millionth copy of the Phonographic Teacher was sold in Great Britain. The publishing division was bought by rival Pearson Plc in 1985, the training business evolved into two separate businesses, Pitman Training and JHP Training. The element of student feedback was an innovation of Pitmans system. This scheme was made possible by the introduction of postage rates across England in 1840. Not only did he read The Writings of Emanuel Swedenborg daily, he devoted much time. He published and distributed books and tracts by and about Swedenborg, among the authors he encouraged was Thomas Child
14.
Shorthand
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Shorthand is an abbreviated symbolic writing method that increases speed and brevity of writing as compared to longhand, a more common method of writing a language. The process of writing in shorthand is called stenography, from the Greek stenos and it has also been called brachygraphy, from Greek brachys and tachygraphy, from Greek tachys, depending on whether compression or speed of writing is the goal. A typical shorthand system provides symbols or abbreviations for words and common phrases, abbreviation methods are alphabet-based and use different abbreviating approaches. Several autocomplete programs, standalone or integrated in text editors, based on word lists, many journalists use shorthand writing to quickly take notes at press conferences or other similar scenarios. Shorthand was used widely in the past, before the invention of recording. Shorthand was considered a part of secretarial training and police work. Although the primary use of shorthand has been to record oral dictation or discourse, for example, healthcare professionals may use shorthand notes in medical charts and correspondence. The earliest known indication of shorthand systems is from the Parthenon in Ancient Greece and this shows a writing system primarily based on vowels, using certain modifications to indicate consonants. Hellenistic tachygraphy is reported from the 2nd century BC onwards, though there are indications that it might be older, the oldest datable reference is a contract from Middle Egypt, stating that Oxyrhynchos gives the semeiographer Apollonios for two years to be taught shorthand writing. Hellenistic tachygraphy consisted of word stem signs and word ending signs, over time, many syllabic signs were developed. In Ancient Rome, Marcus Tullius Tiro, a slave and later a freedman of Cicero, the Tironian notes consisted of Latin word stem abbreviations and of word ending abbreviations. The original Tironian notes consisted of about 4000 signs, but new signs were introduced, in order to have a less complex writing system, a syllabic shorthand script was sometimes used. After the decline of the Roman Empire, the Tironian notes were no longer used to transcribe speeches, though they were known and taught. After the 11th century, however, they were mostly forgotten, when many monastery libraries were secularized in the course of the 16th-century Protestant Reformation, long-forgotten manuscripts of Tironian notes were rediscovered. In imperial China, clerks used an abbreviated, highly cursive form of Chinese characters to record court proceedings and these records were used to create more formal transcripts. One cornerstone of imperial court proceedings was that all confessions had to be acknowledged by the signature, personal seal, or thumbprint. Versions of this technique survived in clerical professions into the modern day, an interest in shorthand or short-writing developed towards the end of the 16th century in England. In 1588 Timothy Bright published his Characterie, An Arte of Shorte, Swifte and Secrete Writing by Character which introduced a system with 500 arbitrary symbols each representing one word
15.
Typewriter
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A typewriter is a mechanical or electromechanical machine for writing characters similar to those produced by printers movable type. A typewriter operates by means of keys that strike a ribbon to transmit ink or carbon impressions onto paper, typically, a single character is printed on each key press. The machine prints characters by making ink impressions of type elements similar to the used in movable type letterpress printing. At the end of the century, the term typewriter was also applied to a person who used a typing machine. After its invention in the 1860s, the quickly became an indispensable tool for practically all writing other than personal handwritten correspondence. It was widely used by writers, in offices. As with the automobile, telephone, and telegraph, a number of people contributed insights, historians have estimated that some form of typewriter was invented 52 times as thinkers tried to come up with a workable design. Some of the early typing instruments, In 1575 an Italian printmaker, Francesco Rampazzetto, invented the scrittura tattile, in 1714, Henry Mill obtained a patent in Britain for a machine that, from the patent, appears to have been similar to a typewriter. In 1802 Italian Agostino Fantoni developed a particular typewriter to enable his blind sister to write, in 1808 Italian Pellegrino Turri invented a typewriter. He also invented carbon paper to provide the ink for his machine, in 1823 Italian Pietro Conti di Cilavegna invented a new model of typewriter, the tachigrafo, also known as tachitipo. In 1829, William Austin Burt patented a machine called the Typographer which, the Science Museum describes it merely as the first writing mechanism whose invention was documented, but even that claim may be excessive, since Turris invention pre-dates it. Even in the hands of its inventor, this machine was slower than handwriting, Burt and his promoter John D. Sheldon never found a buyer for the patent, so the invention was never commercially produced, because the typographer used a dial, rather than keys, to select each character, it was called an index typewriter rather than a keyboard typewriter. Index typewriters of that era resemble the squeeze-style embosser from the 1960s more than they resemble the modern keyboard typewriter, by the mid-19th century, the increasing pace of business communication had created a need for mechanization of the writing process. Stenographers and telegraphers could take down information at rates up to 130 words per minute, from 1829 to 1870, many printing or typing machines were patented by inventors in Europe and America, but none went into commercial production. Charles Thurber developed multiple patents, of which his first in 1843 was developed as an aid to the blind, in 1855, the Italian Giuseppe Ravizza created a prototype typewriter called Cembalo scrivano o macchina da scrivere a tasti. It was a machine that let the user see the writing as it was typed. In 1861, Father Francisco João de Azevedo, a Brazilian priest, made his own typewriter with basic materials and tools, such as wood, in that same year the Brazilian emperor D
16.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
17.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
18.
Standardized test
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A standardized test is a test that is administered and scored in a consistent, or standard, manner. Any test in which the same test is given in the manner to all test takers, is a standardized test. Standardized tests do not need to be tests, time-limited tests. The questions can be simple or complex, Standardized tests are perceived as being fairer than non-standardized tests, because everyone gets the same test and the same grading system. This is fairer and more objective than a system in some students get an easier test. The consistency also permits more reliable comparison of outcomes across all test takers, the prevalence of standardized testing in formal education has also been criticized for many reasons, however. As Amy M. Olson and Darrell Sabers argue in the article Standardized Tests, in 1960, standardized tests were defined as those in which the conditions and content were equal for all examinees therefore can be given at any times and places. For example, if examinees were given different directions for completing the test, nearly 40 years later, the Standards of Educational and Psychological Testing reflects a shift away from focus on equal content, but a continued emphasis on equal conditions. The constant testing environment and equal conditions are more emphasized in the testing community and these changes can be seen in the modern definition of standardization. “What has remained constant across the changing definitions of standardization, as Olson and Sabers explain, however, is a focus on the purpose of standardization and these exams were used to select employees for the state bureaucracy. Later, sections on military strategies, civil law, revenue and taxation, agriculture, in this form, the examinations were institutionalized for more than a millennium. Today, standardized testing remains widely used, most famously in the Gaokao system, meadows warned of the collapse of the British Empire if standardized testing was not implemented throughout the empire immediately. It is because of this, that the first European implementation of standardized testing did not occur in Europe proper and this practice of standardized testing was later adopted in the late 19th century by the British mainland. The parliamentary debates that ensued made many references to the Chinese mandarin system and it was from Britain that standardized testing spread, not only throughout the British Commonwealth, but to Europe and then America. Its spread was fueled by the Industrial Revolution, when the score depends upon the graders individual preferences, then the result an individual student receives depends upon who grades the test. More recently, standardized testing has been shaped in part, by the ease, though the process is more difficult than grading multiple-choice tests electronically, essays can also be graded by computer. In other instances, essays and other open-ended responses are graded according to a pre-determined assessment rubric by trained graders, for example, at Pearson, all essay graders have four-year university degrees, and a majority are current or former classroom teachers. Standardized testing has been a part of American education since the 1800s, for instance the College Entrance Examination Board did not began standardized testing in connection to higher education until 1900
19.
White-collar worker
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In many countries, a white-collar worker is a person who performs professional, managerial, or administrative work. White-collar work is performed in an office, cubicle, or other administrative setting, many occupations blend blue, white and pink industry categorizations. Formerly a minority in the agrarian and early industrial societies, white-collar workers have become a majority in industrialized countries due to modernization and outsourcing of manufacturing jobs. The blue-collar and white-collar descriptors as it pertains to work dress may no longer be an accurate descriptor as office attire has broadened beyond a white shirt, employees in office environments may wear a variety of colors, may dress business casual or wear casual clothes altogether. In addition work tasks have blurred, white-collar employees may perform blue-collar tasks. An example would be a restaurant manager who may wear more formal clothing yet still assist with cooking food or taking customers orders or a worker who also performs desk work. A Cochrane systematic review published in 2016 concluded that at present there is low quality evidence that sit-stand desks can reduce sitting at work at the short term. There is no evidence for other types of interventions, also, evidence was lacking on the long term health benefits of such interventions. Knowledge worker Designation of workers by collar color Notes Further reading Mills, white Collar, the American Middle Classes, in series, Galaxy Book. New York, Oxford University Press,1956
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Administrative Professionals' Day
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The secular holiday recognizes the work of secretaries, administrative assistants, receptionists, and other administrative support professionals. Typically administrative professionals are given cards, flowers, chocolates, in Hong Kong, it is celebrated annually on the Wednesday of the last full week of April. In Malaysia, Administrative Professionals Week is always held annually during the last full week in April, Administrative Professionals Day is always held the Wednesday of that week. In New Zealand, it is on the third Wednesday of April, in South Africa, it is celebrated annually on the first Wednesday of September. In Australia, it is celebrated annually on the first Friday of May, in United Kingdom, it is celebrated on Twitter recently. In Ireland, it is celebrated in the offices of top professional firms, the inaugural day for this celebration being 27 April 2016 in honour of Niamh OConnor. During World War II, there was a shortage of skilled personnel in the United States due to Depression-era birth-rate decline. The National Secretaries Associations name was changed to Professional Secretaries International in 1981, Administrative Professionals Day is a registered trademark with registration number 2475334. The first Secretaries Day was sponsored by the National Secretaries Association with the support of corporate groups, in 1955, the observance date of National Secretaries Week was moved to the last full week of April, with Wednesday now designated as Administrative Professionals Day. The week-long observance was created in order to out the bookings at restaurants, country clubs. This forces everyone in the office to evaluate how they stack up on Administrative Professionals Day—as Melonyce McAfee analogizes, other critics take an anti-consumerist stance and accuse the flower, card, and candy industries of inventing the holiday for convenient sales between Easter and Mothers Day. The typical gifts of flowers and cards also unintentionally mark the holiday and the administrative role as a gendered one, since these are typically feminine gifts
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Typewriting
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Typing is the process of writing or inputting text by pressing keys on a typewriter, computer keyboard, cell phone, or calculator. It can be distinguished from other means of input, such as handwriting. Text can be in the form of letters, numbers and other symbols, the worlds first typist was Lillian Sholes from Wisconsin who wrote on the typewriter. She was the daughter of Christopher Sholes, the man who invented the first practical typewriter, user interface features such as spell checker and autocomplete serve to facilitate and speed up typing and to prevent or correct errors the typist may make. The basic technique stands in contrast to hunt and peck typing in which the typist keeps his or her eyes on the copy at all times. Touch typing also involves the use of the home row method, many touch typists also use keyboard shortcuts or hotkeys when typing on a computer. This allows them to edit their document without having to take their hands off the keyboard to use a mouse. An example of a shortcut is pressing the Ctrl key plus the S key to save a document as they type. Many experienced typists can feel or sense when they have made an error and can hit the ← Backspace key, hunt and peck, also known as search and peck or Eagle Finger, is a common form of typing, in which the typist presses each key individually. Instead of relying on the position of keys, the typist must find each key by sight. Use of this method may also prevent the typist from being able to see what has been typed without glancing away from the keys. Although good accuracy may be achieved, any typing errors that are made may not be noticed immediately, there is also the disadvantage that because fewer fingers are used, those that are used are forced to move a much greater distance. There are many idiosyncratic typing styles in between novice-style hunt and peck and touch typing, for example, many hunt and peck typists have the keyboard layout memorized and are able to type while focusing their gaze on the screen. Some use just two fingers, while others use 3-6 fingers, some use their fingers very consistently, with the same finger being used to type the same character every time, while others vary the way they use their fingers. One study examining 30 subjects, of varying different styles and expertise, has found minimal difference in typing speed between touch typists and self-taught hybrid typists, according to the study, The number of fingers does not determine typing speed. People using self-taught typing strategies were found to be as fast as trained typists, instead of the number of fingers, there are other factors that predict typing speed. Keep their hands fixed on one position, instead of moving them over the keyboard, in the buffer method, the typist looks at the source copy, mentally stores one or several sentences, then looks at the keyboard and types out the buffer of sentences. This eliminates frequent up and down motions with the head and is used in typing competitions in which the typist is not well versed in touch typing, Not normally used in day-to-day contact with keyboards, this buffer method is used only when time is of the essence
22.
Accounting
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Accounting or accountancy is the measurement, processing and communication of financial information about economic entities such as businesses and corporations. The modern field was established by the Italian mathematician Luca Pacioli in 1494, practitioners of accounting are known as accountants. The terms accounting and financial reporting are often used as synonyms, Accounting can be divided into several fields including financial accounting, management accounting, external auditing, and tax accounting. Accounting information systems are designed to support accounting functions and related activities, Accounting is facilitated by accounting organizations such as standard-setters, accounting firms and professional bodies. Financial statements are audited by accounting firms, and are prepared in accordance with generally accepted accounting principles. GAAP is set by various standard-setting organizations such as the Financial Accounting Standards Board in the United States, as of 2012, all major economies have plans to converge towards or adopt the International Financial Reporting Standards. The history of accounting is thousands of old and can be traced to ancient civilizations. By the time of the Emperor Augustus, the Roman government had access to detailed financial information, double-entry bookkeeping developed in medieval Europe, and accounting split into financial accounting and management accounting with the development of joint-stock companies. The first work on a double-entry bookkeeping system was published in Italy, both the words accounting and accountancy were in use in Great Britain by the mid-1800s, and are derived from the words accompting and accountantship used in the 18th century. In Middle English the verb to account had the form accounten, which was derived from the Old French word aconter, which is in turn related to the Vulgar Latin word computare, meaning to reckon. The base of computare is putare, which meant to prune, to purify, to correct an account, hence, to count or calculate. The word accountant is derived from the French word compter, which is derived from the Italian. Accountancy refers to the occupation or profession of an accountant, particularly in British English, Accounting has several subfields or subject areas, including financial accounting, management accounting, auditing, taxation and accounting information systems. Financial accounting focuses on the reporting of a financial information to external users of the information, such as investors. It calculates and records business transactions and prepares financial statements for the users in accordance with generally accepted accounting principles. GAAP, in turn, arises from the agreement between accounting theory and practice, and change over time to meet the needs of decision-makers. This branch of accounting is also studied as part of the exams for qualifying as an actuary. It is interesting to note that two professionals, accountants and actuaries, have created a culture of being archrivals
23.
Belgium
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Belgium, officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a sovereign state in Western Europe bordered by France, the Netherlands, Germany, Luxembourg, and the North Sea. It is a small, densely populated country which covers an area of 30,528 square kilometres and has a population of about 11 million people. Additionally, there is a group of German-speakers who live in the East Cantons located around the High Fens area. Historically, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg were known as the Low Countries, the region was called Belgica in Latin, after the Roman province of Gallia Belgica. From the end of the Middle Ages until the 17th century, today, Belgium is a federal constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. It is divided into three regions and three communities, that exist next to each other and its two largest regions are the Dutch-speaking region of Flanders in the north and the French-speaking southern region of Wallonia. The Brussels-Capital Region is a bilingual enclave within the Flemish Region. A German-speaking Community exists in eastern Wallonia, Belgiums linguistic diversity and related political conflicts are reflected in its political history and complex system of governance, made up of six different governments. Upon its independence, declared in 1830, Belgium participated in the Industrial Revolution and, during the course of the 20th century, possessed a number of colonies in Africa. This continuing antagonism has led to several far-reaching reforms, resulting in a transition from a unitary to a federal arrangement during the period from 1970 to 1993. Belgium is also a member of the Eurozone, NATO, OECD and WTO. Its capital, Brussels, hosts several of the EUs official seats as well as the headquarters of major international organizations such as NATO. Belgium is also a part of the Schengen Area, Belgium is a developed country, with an advanced high-income economy and is categorized as very high in the Human Development Index. A gradual immigration by Germanic Frankish tribes during the 5th century brought the area under the rule of the Merovingian kings, a gradual shift of power during the 8th century led the kingdom of the Franks to evolve into the Carolingian Empire. Many of these fiefdoms were united in the Burgundian Netherlands of the 14th and 15th centuries, the Eighty Years War divided the Low Countries into the northern United Provinces and the Southern Netherlands. The latter were ruled successively by the Spanish and the Austrian Habsburgs and this was the theatre of most Franco-Spanish and Franco-Austrian wars during the 17th and 18th centuries. The reunification of the Low Countries as the United Kingdom of the Netherlands occurred at the dissolution of the First French Empire in 1815, although the franchise was initially restricted, universal suffrage for men was introduced after the general strike of 1893 and for women in 1949. The main political parties of the 19th century were the Catholic Party, French was originally the single official language adopted by the nobility and the bourgeoisie
24.
Bachelor's degree
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A bachelors degree or baccalaureate is an undergraduate academic degree awarded by colleges and universities upon completion of a course of study lasting three to seven years. In some institutions and educational systems, some bachelors degrees can only be taken as graduate or postgraduate degrees after a first degree has been completed. The term bachelor in the 12th century referred to a knight bachelor, by the end of the 13th century, it was also used by junior members of guilds or universities. By folk etymology or wordplay, the word came to be associated with bacca lauri in reference to laurels being awarded for academic success or honours. An honours degree generally requires an academic standard than a pass degree. In most African countries, the university systems follow the model of their former colonizing power, for example, the Nigerian university system is similar to the British system, while the Ivorian system is akin to the French. The degree is typically identical to the program of Frances universities, bachelors degree programs cover most of the fields in Algerian universities, except some fields, such as Medicine and Pharmaceutical Science. Bachelors degrees at the University of Botswana normally take four years, the system draws on both British and American models. Degrees are classified as First Class, Second Class Division One, Second Class Division Two and Third as in English degrees, but without being described as honours. The main degrees are named by British tradition, but in recent years there have been a numbers of degrees named after specific subjects, such as Bachelor of Library, in Morocco, a bachelors degree is referred to as al-ʾijāzah. The course of study takes three years, which are divided into two cycles. The first cycle comprises the first, or propaedeutic, year, after successfully completing their first two years, students can pursue either theoretical specialization or professional specialization. The second cycle is one long, after whose completion students receive the licence détudes fondamentales or the licence professionnelle. This academic degree system was introduced in September 2003, University admission is extremely competitive, with attendant advantages and disadvantages. Nonetheless, it takes four to five years to complete a bachelors degree, in cases of poor performance, the time limit is double the standard amount of time. For example, one may not study for more than 10 years for a five-year course, students are normally asked to leave if they must take longer. B. Arch. and other specialized undergraduate degrees, such as B. Eng, Science undergraduate degrees may require six months or a semester dedicated to SIWES but it is usually mandatory for all engineering degrees. A semester for project work/thesis is required, not excluding course work, the classifications of degrees, first-class, second-class, third-class and a pass
25.
University
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A university is an institution of higher education and research which grants academic degrees in various academic disciplines. Universities typically provide undergraduate education and postgraduate education, the word university is derived from the Latin universitas magistrorum et scholarium, which roughly means community of teachers and scholars. Universities were created in Italy and evolved from Cathedral schools for the clergy during the High Middle Ages, the original Latin word universitas refers in general to a number of persons associated into one body, a society, company, community, guild, corporation, etc. Like other guilds, they were self-regulating and determined the qualifications of their members, an important idea in the definition of a university is the notion of academic freedom. The first documentary evidence of this comes from early in the life of the first university, the University of Bologna adopted an academic charter, the Constitutio Habita, in 1158 or 1155, which guaranteed the right of a traveling scholar to unhindered passage in the interests of education. Today this is claimed as the origin of academic freedom and this is now widely recognised internationally - on 18 September 1988,430 university rectors signed the Magna Charta Universitatum, marking the 900th anniversary of Bolognas foundation. The number of universities signing the Magna Charta Universitatum continues to grow, the university is generally regarded as a formal institution that has its origin in the Medieval Christian setting. The earliest universities were developed under the aegis of the Latin Church by papal bull as studia generalia and it is possible, however, that the development of cathedral schools into universities was quite rare, with the University of Paris being an exception. Later they were founded by Kings or municipal administrations. In the early period, most new universities were founded from pre-existing schools. Many historians state that universities and cathedral schools were a continuation of the interest in learning promoted by monasteries, the first universities in Europe with a form of corporate/guild structure were the University of Bologna, the University of Paris, and the University of Oxford. The students had all the power … and dominated the masters, princes and leaders of city governments perceived the potential benefits of having a scholarly expertise develop with the ability to address difficult problems and achieve desired ends. The emergence of humanism was essential to understanding of the possible utility of universities as well as the revival of interest in knowledge gained from ancient Greek texts. The rediscovery of Aristotles works–more than 3000 pages of it would eventually be translated–fuelled a spirit of inquiry into natural processes that had begun to emerge in the 12th century. Some scholars believe that these represented one of the most important document discoveries in Western intellectual history. Richard Dales, for instance, calls the discovery of Aristotles works a turning point in the history of Western thought and this became the primary mission of lecturers, and the expectation of students. The university culture developed differently in northern Europe than it did in the south, Latin was the language of the university, used for all texts, lectures, disputations and examinations. Professors lectured on the books of Aristotle for logic, natural philosophy, and metaphysics, while Hippocrates, Galen, outside of these commonalities, great differences separated north and south, primarily in subject matter
26.
Economics
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Economics is a social science concerned chiefly with description and analysis of the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services according to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Economics focuses on the behaviour and interactions of economic agents and how economies work, consistent with this focus, textbooks often distinguish between microeconomics and macroeconomics. Microeconomics examines the behaviour of elements in the economy, including individual agents and markets, their interactions. Individual agents may include, for example, households, firms, buyers, macroeconomics analyzes the entire economy and issues affecting it, including unemployment of resources, inflation, economic growth, and the public policies that address these issues. Economic analysis can be applied throughout society, as in business, finance, health care, Economic analyses may also be applied to such diverse subjects as crime, education, the family, law, politics, religion, social institutions, war, science, and the environment. At the turn of the 21st century, the domain of economics in the social sciences has been described as economic imperialism. The ultimate goal of economics is to improve the conditions of people in their everyday life. There are a variety of definitions of economics. Some of the differences may reflect evolving views of the subject or different views among economists, to supply the state or commonwealth with a revenue for the publick services. Say, distinguishing the subject from its uses, defines it as the science of production, distribution. On the satirical side, Thomas Carlyle coined the dismal science as an epithet for classical economics, in this context and it enquires how he gets his income and how he uses it. Thus, it is on the one side, the study of wealth and on the other and more important side, a part of the study of man. He affirmed that previous economists have usually centred their studies on the analysis of wealth, how wealth is created, distributed, and consumed, but he said that economics can be used to study other things, such as war, that are outside its usual focus. This is because war has as the goal winning it, generates both cost and benefits, and, resources are used to attain the goal. If the war is not winnable or if the costs outweigh the benefits. Some subsequent comments criticized the definition as overly broad in failing to limit its subject matter to analysis of markets, there are other criticisms as well, such as in scarcity not accounting for the macroeconomics of high unemployment. The same source reviews a range of included in principles of economics textbooks. Among economists more generally, it argues that a particular definition presented may reflect the direction toward which the author believes economics is evolving, microeconomics examines how entities, forming a market structure, interact within a market to create a market system
27.
High school diploma
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A high school diploma is a North American academic school leaving qualification awarded upon high school graduation. The high school diploma is typically studied for over the course of four years, the diploma is typically awarded by the school in accordance with the requirements of the local state or provincial government. Requirements for earning the diploma vary by jurisdiction, and there may be different requirements for different streams or levels of high school graduation, typically they include a combination of selected coursework meeting specified criteria for a particular stream and acceptable passing grades earned on the state exit examination. In British Columbia, the diploma is known as the British Columbia Certificate of Graduation, the province of BC has two distinct graduation programs, the BC Certificate of Graduation and the BC Adult Graduation Diploma. Students also have the opportunity to meet their goals through the BC School Completion Certificate. The current Dogwood requirements have been in place since July 1,2004, required courses include, among other things, language arts, social studies, mathematics, and science courses in grades 10,11, and 12. Part of the evaluation of students includes standardized provincial examinations in a number of the courses in grades 10 and 12. As part of the 80 credits for the Dogwood,16 credits must be at the Grade 12 level, in Ontario, the high school diploma is known as the Ontario Secondary School Diploma. The diploma is awarded to all students who complete the Ontario educational curriculum and those who leave school after completing 14 credits but prior to obtaining the diploma can obtain the Ontario Secondary School Certificate. Most schools individual graduation requirements far outweigh the states minimum standards, the California exit exam was suspended till 2018. This information is taken from the California department of education, drivers Education is required for all students. An additional requirement is a grade on the Prairie State Achievement Examination which is typically taken in Grade 11. Accommodations are made for students with unique needs. English Language Learner students may substitute English as a Second Language for English to meet the graduation requirements, students receiving special education services may complete modified requirements according to an Individualized Education Plan. In New York State, the high school diploma awarded is known as the Regents Diploma, two levels are offered, the standard Regents Diploma and the Regents Diploma with Advanced Designation. A passing score is 65 in each subject, the With Honors designation is added if the score in all required exams is 90 or greater. In Texas, there are three programs offered for graduation, the Minimum High School Program, the Recommended High School Program, the Recommended and Distinguished programs are the streams typically chosen by most students, and are expected of students who are college-bound. Also required for graduation is successful completion with passing grades on the Exit Level examination of the State of Texas Assessments of Academic Readiness, multiple re-sits for the exam are available, in case of failure on a previous attempt
28.
United States Department of Defense
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The Department is the largest employer in the world, with nearly 1.3 million active duty servicemen and women as of 2016. Adding to its employees are over 801,000 National Guardsmen and Reservists from the four services and it is headquartered at the Pentagon in Arlington, Virginia, just outside of Washington, D. C. The Department of Defense is headed by the Secretary of Defense, Military operations are managed by nine regional or functional Unified Combatant Commands. The Department of Defense also operates several joint services schools, including the National Defense University, the history of the defense of the United States started with the Continental Congress in 1775. The creation of the United States Army was enacted on 14 June 1775 and this coincides with the American holiday Flag Day. The Second Continental Congress would charter the United States Navy, on 13 October 1775, today, both the Navy and the Marine Corps are separate military services subordinate to the Department of the Navy. The Preamble of the United States Constitution gave the authority to federal government, to defend its citizens and this first Congress had a huge agenda, that of creating legislation to build a government for the ages. Legislation to create a military defense force stagnated, two separate times, President George Washington went to Congress to remind them of their duty to establish a military. In a special message to Congress on 19 December 1945, the President cited both wasteful military spending and inter-departmental conflicts, deliberations in Congress went on for months focusing heavily on the role of the military in society and the threat of granting too much military power to the executive. The act placed the National Military Establishment under the control of a single Secretary of Defense, the National Military Establishment formally began operations on 18 September, the day after the Senate confirmed James V. Forrestal as the first Secretary of Defense. The National Military Establishment was renamed the Department of Defense on 10 August 1949, under the Department of Defense Reorganization Act of 1958, channels of authority within the department were streamlined, while still maintaining the authority of the Military Departments. Also provided in this legislation was a centralized authority, the Advanced Research Projects Agency. The Act moved decision-making authority from the Military Departments to the Joint Chiefs of Staff and it also strengthened the command channel of the military over U. S. forces from the President to the Secretary of Defense. Written and promoted by the Eisenhower administration, it was signed into law 6 August 1958, because the Constitution vests all military authority in Congress and the President, the statutory authority of the Secretary of Defense is derived from their constitutional authorities. Department of Defense Directive 5100.01 describes the relationships within the Department. The latest version, signed by former Secretary of Defense Robert Gates in December 2010, is the first major re-write since 1987, the Office of the Secretary of Defense is the Secretary and Deputy Secretarys civilian staff. S. Government departments and agencies, foreign governments, and international organizations, OSD also performs oversight and management of the Defense Agencies and Department of Defense Field Activities. OSD also supervises the following Defense Agencies, Several defense agencies are members of the United States Intelligence Community and these are national-level intelligence services that operate under the jurisdiction of the Department of Defense but simultaneously fall under the authorities of the Director of National Intelligence
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Colonel (United States)
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It is equivalent to the naval rank of captain in the other uniformed services. The pay grade for colonel is O-6, the insignia of the rank of colonel, as seen on the right, is worn on the officers left side. The insignia for a colonel is an eagle which is a stylized representation of the eagle dominating the Great Seal of the United States. As on the Great Seal, the eagle has a U. S. shield superimposed on its chest and is holding an olive branch, however, in simplification of the Great Seal image, the insignia lacks the scroll in the eagles mouth and the rosette above its head. On the Great Seal, the branch is always clutched in the eagles right-side talons. The head of the eagle faces towards the branch, rather than the arrows. As a result, the head of the eagle faces towards the viewers left. During World War II the military insignia for the rank of Colonel changed somewhat with the eagle facing the arrows and this was done only during war years. These special war eagles, although rare, can sometimes be found in surplus or memorabilia sales. In the United States Army and United States Air Force, the eagle is worn with the head of the eagle to the wearers right. In the United States Marine Corps, United States Navy, United States Coast Guard and NOAA, the United States rank of colonel is a direct successor to the same rank in the British Army. The first colonels in America were appointed from Colonial militias maintained as reserves to the British Army in the American colonies, upon the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War, colonial legislatures would grant commissions to men to raise a regiment and serve as its colonels. Thus, the first American colonels were usually respected men with ties in local communities, such was the origin of the phrase soldier and statesman. With the post-war reduction of the US Army, the rank of colonel disappeared, the first insignia for the rank of colonel consisted of gold epaulettes worn on the blue uniform of the Continental Army. The first recorded use of the insignia was in 1805 as this insignia was made official in uniform regulations by 1810. The rank of colonel was relatively rare in the early 19th century, partly because the U. S. Army was very small, and the rank was usually obtained only after long years of service. During the War of 1812 the Army grew rapidly and many colonels were appointed, a number of other colonels were appointed by brevet - an honorary promotion usually for distinguished service in combat. The American Civil War saw an influx of colonels as the rank was commonly held in both the Confederate army and Union Army by those who commanded a regiment
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Lieutenant colonel (United States)
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In the United States Army, U. S. Marine Corps, and U. S. Air Force, a lieutenant colonel is a field grade military officer rank just above the rank of major and just below the rank of colonel. It is equivalent to the rank of commander in the other uniformed services. The pay grade for the rank of lieutenant colonel is O-5, in the United States armed forces, the insignia for the rank consists of a silver oak leaf, with slight stylized differences between the Army/Air Force version and the Navy/Marine Corps version. While often written as Lt. Colonel in orders and signature blocks, as a courtesy, lieutenant colonels are addressed simply as colonel verbally, the U. S. Army uses the three letter abbreviation LTC. The United States Marine Corps and U. S. Air Force use the abbreviations LtCol and Lt Col respectively. The U. S. Government Printing Office recommends the abbreviation LTC for U. S. Army usage, LtCol for Marine Corps usage, the Associated Press Stylebook recommends the abbreviation Lt. Col. for the Army, Marine Corps, and Air Force. Slang terms for the historically used by the U. S. military include light colonel, short colonel, light bird, half colonel, bottlecap colonel. The rank of lieutenant colonel has existed in the British Army since at least the 16th century and was used in both American colonial militia and colonial regular regiments. The Continental Army continued the British and colonial use of the rank of lieutenant colonel, the lieutenant colonel was sometimes known as lieutenant to the colonel. In British practice, regiments were commanded by their lieutenant colonels. The conversion was never completely effected and some regiments remained commanded by colonels throughout the war, from 1784 until 1791, there was only one lieutenant colonel in the US Army, who acted as the armys commanding officer. In the Continental Army aides to the Commander in Chief, viz, Lieutenant General George Washington, were lieutenant colonels. Additionally, certain officers serving under the Adjutant General, Inspector General, such was the case of Joshua Lawrence Chamberlain, who commanded a Maine regiment as both a lieutenant colonel and later as a colonel. Such was the case with George A. Custer, who was a lieutenant colonel in the regular army, a lieutenant colonel may also serve as a brigade/brigade combat team, regiment/regimental combat team, Marine Aviation Group, Marine Expeditionary Unit, or battalion task force executive officer. These staff positions may include, G-1, G-2, G-3, G-4, G-5, usage of The G-n may refer to either a specific staff section or the staff officer leading a section. Lieutenant colonels may also be junior staff at a variety of higher echelons, Lieutenant colonels may also serve on general staffs and may be the heads of some wing staff departments. Senior Lieutenant colonels occasionally serve as group commanders, in US Army and Air Force ROTC detachments, the commanding officer is typically a lieutenant colonel, along with several majors, captains, and non-commissioned officers serving as assistants. However, some detachments are commanded by full colonels, the rank of lieutenant colonel is also used by many large American police departments for officers in senior administrative positions
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Major (United States)
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In the United States Army, Marine Corps, and Air Force, major is a field grade military officer rank above the rank of captain and below the rank of lieutenant colonel. It is equivalent to the rank of lieutenant commander in the other uniformed services. Although lieutenant commanders are considered junior officers by their respective services, the pay grade for the rank of major is O-4. The insignia for the rank consists of an oak leaf. Promotion to major is governed by Department of Defense policies derived from the Defense Officer Personnel Management Act of 1980, a major in the U. S. Army typically serves as a battalion executive officer or as the battalion operations officer. A major can also serve as a staff officer for a regiment, brigade or task force in the areas concerning personnel, logistics. A major will also be a staff officer / action officer on higher staffs, in addition, majors command augmented companies in Combat Service and Service Support units. U. S. Army majors also command Special operations companies, during the American Civil War the Union Army continued to use the existing titles of rank and rank insignia established for the US Army. The number of rows of lace increased with the rank of the officer. A major in the Air Force typically has duties as a staff officer at the squadron. In flying squadrons majors are generally flight commanders or assistant directors of operations, in the mission support and maintenance groups majors may occasionally be squadron commanders. In the medical corps, a major may be the head of a clinic or flight, many police agencies in the United States use the rank of major for officers in senior administrative and supervisory positions. The position is most often found in larger agencies, where the number of sworn personnel requires an expanded and complex rank structure. The term major is not always used in scenarios, and some police departments prefer to use titles such as Deputy Chief, Commander, or similar. However, there are agencies, particularly state police, which prefer to use both the insignia and title. The rank may also be used in conjunction with, rather than instead of, confederate Army rank insignia, A guide Officer rank insignia Rank history
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Captain (United States O-6)
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The predecessors of the NOAA Corps, the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey Corps and the Environmental Science Services Administration Corps, also used the rank. In the United States Navy, captain is an officer rank. It ranks above commander and below rear admiral and it is equivalent to the rank of colonel in the other uniformed services. Promotion to captain is governed by Department of Defense policies derived from the Defense Officer Personnel Management Act of 1980 or its companion Reserve Officer Personnel Management Act, Navy captains with sea commands in the surface warfare officer community generally command ships of cruiser size or larger. The more senior the officer, the larger the ship, others may hold command as commodores of destroyer squadrons consisting of multiple destroyers and frigates. Surface Warfare Officers may also command large amphibious warfare ships or combat support ships. Today, like their surface warfare counterparts, captains in the community may serve as commodores of submarine squadrons. A smaller cohort outside of sea and shore commands may also serve as astronauts on loan to the National Aeronautics, in the Naval Special Warfare Sea Air Land community, captains with sea commands are typically commodores in command of Naval Special Warfare Groups. In addition, in the strike group, the Marine Expeditionary Unit commanding officer will always be a Marine Corps colonel. Adding to the confusion, all commanding officers of commissioned U. S. Navy warships and submarines are called captain regardless of actual rank. The United States Coast Guard also uses the same rank system for its commissioned officers as the U. S. Navy, with a Coast Guard captain ranking above a commander. The sleeve and shoulder board insignia are similar to the Navy insignia, the Coast Guard has no staff corps officers. Like the U. S. Navy, all commanding officers of commissioned cutters are addressed as captain regardless of their actual rank, seagoing NOAA captains command certain National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ships, while NOAA aviators command NOAA flight operations activities. USPHS rapid deployment force teams, containing 105 USPHS physicians, nurses, although it exists largely as a maritime training organization, the United States Maritime Service also uses the rank of captain. Captain DA Pamphlet 600–3, Commissioned Officer Professional Development and Career Management
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Commander (United States)
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In the United States, commander is a military rank that is also sometimes used as a military billet title, depending on the branch of service. It is also used as a rank or title in some organizations outside the military, particularly in police, the commander rank started out as Master and Commander in 1674 within the British Navy for the officer responsible for sailing a ship under the Captain and some times second-in-command. Sub-captain, under-captain, rector and master-commanding was also used for the same position, with the Master and Commander also serving as captain of smaller ships, the British Navy subsumed as the third and lowest of three grades of captain given the various sizes of ships. The American Continental Navy adopted the tri-graded captain ranks, Captain 2nd Grade, or Master Commandant, became Commander in 1838. Commander ranks above lieutenant commander and below captain, Commander is equivalent to the rank of lieutenant colonel in the other uniformed services. Notably, it is the first rank at which the holder wears an embellished cap, whereas officers of the other services are entitled to embellishment at O-4 rank. A commander in the U. S. Navy may command a frigate, destroyer, submarine, aviation squadron or small shore activity, or may serve on a staff afloat or ashore, or a larger vessel afloat. An officer in the rank of commander who commands a vessel may also be referred to as captain as a courtesy title, commanding officers of aviation squadrons and shore activities may also be informally referred to as skipper but never as captain. Although it exists largely as a training organization, the U. S. Maritime Service also has the grade of commander. The commission is appointed by the President via the Secretary of Transportation, for example, the senior officer in a U. S. Navy aviation squadron is the commanding officer because he or she is in command of that singular unit. That officers immediate superior in command will likely be an air group or air wing commander and this is in keeping with the naval tradition of commanding officers commanding single units, but commanders commanding multiple units. The Los Angeles Police Department was one of the first American police departments to use this rank, a commander is the third-highest rank in the force, above the rank of captain and below deputy chief. Duties are as commanding officer of Community Affairs, Internal Affairs, Governmental Liaison, Narcotics, Organized Crime and Vice, Criminal Intelligence, Detective Services, the San Francisco Police Department also has a Commander rank. Like the LAPD, it is above Captain and below Deputy Chief, the Metropolitan Police Department of the District of Columbia uses the rank of commander. The rank falls between those of inspector and assistant chief, the Rochester Police Department uses the rank of commander. Higher than captain and below deputy chief, the rank is achieved by appointment, Commander is the rank held by the two patrol division heads and other commanders fill various administrative roles. The Saint Paul Police Department is another force that uses the rank of commander. In the Saint Paul Police Department, commanders serve as the chief of the district/unit that they oversee, many police departments in the Midwest use the rank of commander
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Lieutenant commander (United States)
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Lieutenant commanders rank above lieutenants and below commanders, and rank is equivalent to a major in the other United States Army, United States Air Force, and United States Marine Corps. Promotion to lieutenant commander in the U. S. Navy is governed by United States Department of Defense policies derived from the Defense Officer Personnel Management Act of 1980. While lieutenant commander is the U. S. Navys first commissioned officer to be selected by board, they are considered to be junior officers due to their origin as lieutenant. This can be seen by the fact that lieutenant commanders do not wear the oak-leaf gold embellishment on their combination covers and this is in contrast to other branches, where majors wear the appropriate covers of field-grade officers. The United States Coast Guard used their own system until World War I. In 1916, discontent grew among Coast Guard Captains By law, the Appropriations Act of 1918, the Coast Guard adopted the Navy rank structure to prevent against disagreements over seniority. There are two insignia used by lieutenant commanders, in all dress uniforms, they wear sleeve braid or shoulder boards bearing a single gold quarter-inch stripe between two gold half-inch strips. Above or inboard of the stripes, they wear their specialty insignia, military unit Comparative military ranks U. S. Navy officer rank insignia
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United States Secretary of Defense
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The Secretary of Defense is the leader and chief executive officer of the Department of Defense, an Executive Department of the Government of the United States of America. The Secretary of Defenses power over the United States military is only to that of the President. This position corresponds to what is known as a Defense Minister in many other countries. The Secretary of Defense is appointed by the President with the advice and consent of the Senate, Secretary of Defense is a statutory office, and the general provision in 10 U. S. C. This is also extended to the United States Coast Guard during any period of time in which its command, only the Secretary of Defense can authorize the transfer of operational control of forces between the three Military Departments and the nine Combatant Commands. The current Secretary of Defense is retired United States Marine Corps general James Mattis, the Army, Navy, and Marine Corps were established in 1775, in concurrence with the American Revolution. Based on the experiences of World War II, proposals were made on how to more effectively manage the large combined military establishment. The Army generally favored centralization while the Navy had institutional preferences for decentralization, the resulting National Security Act of 1947 was largely a compromise between these divergent viewpoints. The Act merged the Department of War with the Department of the Navy to form the National Military Establishment, the Act also separated the Army Air Forces from the Department of the Army to become its own branch of service, the Department of the Air Force. At first, each of the service secretaries maintained quasi-cabinet status, the position of the Deputy Secretary of Defense, the number two position in the department, was also created at this time. The last major revision of the framework concerning the position was done in the Goldwater–Nichols Department of Defense Reorganization Act of 1986. In particular, it elevated the status of joint service for commissioned officers, making it in practice a requirement before appointments to general officer and flag officer grades could be made. Because the Constitution vests all military authority in Congress and the President, as the head of DoD, all officials, employees and service members are under the Secretary of Defense. All of these positions, civil and military, require Senate confirmation. Department of Defense Directive 5100.01 describes the relationships within the Department. The latest version, signed by former Secretary of Defense Robert Gates in December 2010, is the first major re-write since 1987, the name of the principally military staff organization, organized under the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, is the Joint Staff. In addition, there is the Joint Meritorious Unit Award, which is the ribbon and unit award issued to joint DoD activities. While the approval authority for DSSM, DMSM, JSCM, JSAM and JMUA is delegated to inferior DoD officials, Permanent Representative to NATO in recognition of U. S
