1.
Adhesive tape
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Adhesive tape refers to any one of a variety of combinations of a backing materials coated with an adhesive. Different backing materials and adhesives can be used depending on the intended use, pressure-sensitive adhesive, a key component of some adhesive tapes, was first developed in 1845 by Dr. Horace Day, a surgeon. In 1901, the German Oscar Troplowitz invented an adhesive patch called Leukoplast for the German company Beiersdorf AG. Pressure-sensitive tape, PSA tape, self-stick tape or sticky tape consists of a pressure-sensitive adhesive coated onto a material such as paper, plastic film, cloth. It is sticky without any heat or solvent for activation and adheres with light pressure and these tapes usually require a release agent on their backing or a release liner to cover the adhesive. Sometimes, the adhesive tape is used for these tapes. Many pressure-sensitive adhesive tapes exhibit triboluminescence, observable in a dark room, water activated tape, gummed paper tape or gummed tape is starch- or sometimes animal glue-based adhesive on a kraft paper backing which becomes sticky when moistened. A specific type of gummed tape is called reinforced gummed tape, the backing of this reinforced tape consists of two layers of paper with a cross-pattern of fiberglass filaments laminated between. The laminating adhesive had previously been asphalt but now is commonly a hot-melt atactic polypropylene. Gummed tapes are described in ASTM D5749-01 Standard Specification for Reinforced, water-activated tape is used for closing and sealing boxes. Before closing corrugated boxes, the tape is wetted or remoistened, activated by water. The tape is mostly 3 inches wide, heat activated tape is usually tack-free until it is activated by a heat source. It is sometimes used in packaging, for example, a tear strip tape for cigarette packs, conversely, thermal release tape, such as REVALPHA by Nitto Denko, loses its tack and fully releases when heated to a certain temperature. This type of tape is used often in the semiconductor industry, drywall tape is paper, cloth, or mesh, sometimes with a gummed or pressure-sensitive adhesive. It is used to make the joints between sheets of drywall materials, masking tape Tape dispenser Sellotape Sticky mat Chemistry of adhesive tapes Nature – Tape X-rays FIPAGO – International Federation of Manufacturers of Gummed Paper
2.
Pressure-sensitive tape
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It can be used in the home, office, industry, and institutions for a wide variety of purposes. The tape consists of a pressure-sensitive adhesive coated onto a material such as paper, plastic film, cloth. Some have a release liner which protects the adhesive until the liner is removed. Some have layers of adhesives, primers, easy release materials, filaments, printing and it will stick without the need for a solvent such as heat or water for activation. By contrast a gummed or water activated adhesive tape requires warm water for activation, likewise, some heat activated tapes require heat. Single-sided tapes allow bonding to a surface or joining of two adjacent or overlapping materials, double-sided tape allows joining of two items back-to-back. Pressure-sensitive adhesive was first developed in 1845 by Dr. Horace Day, commercial tapes were introduced in the early twentieth century. Hundreds of patents have since been published on a variety of formulations and constructions. Transparent office tape has a transparent film backing and an acrylic or synthetic rubber-based adhesive and it is used for sealing envelopes, repairing torn paper products, general holding, etc. Archival tape is similar to transparent office tape, with low-acid adhesives that will not degrade surfaces they are applied to, gaffer tape is normally based on a heavy fabric or plastic tape. The name derives from its use by gaffers in the entertainment industry among others, to hold down cables particularly to prevent a tripping hazard and to prevent damage to cables and equipment. The adhesive leaves little or no residue, and the tape removes cleanly from cables, fabric and its matte surface also minimizes reflections from lights. Duct tape usually has a fabric backing and a strong adhesive. Originally designed for sealing ammunition boxes from moisture and re-purposed for civilian use, it is used by people needing a strong. Box sealing tape is a type of packaging tape which is clear or opaque and it is usually two inch or three inch wide and is made of a polypropylene or polyester backing. Masking tape is used to cover areas that shouldnt be painted and it usually has a paper backing and an adhesive designed to remove from surfaces. Electrical tape stretches to conform to objects, and is made of materials like vinyl that do not conduct electricity. The various colors available can be used to identify wires in a circuit, surgical tape is an adhesive bandage used to hold a dressing on a wound
3.
Label
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A label is a piece of paper, polymer, cloth, metal, or other material affixed to a container or product, on which is written or printed information or symbols about the product or item. Information printed directly on a container or article can also be considered labeling, methods of production and attachment to packaging are many and various and may also be subject to internationally recognised standards. In many countries, hazardous products such as poisons or flammable liquids must have a warning label, labels may be used for any combination of identification, information, warning, instructions for use, environmental advice or advertising. They may be stickers, permanent or temporary labels or printed packaging, Permanent product identification by a label is commonplace, labels need to remain secure throughout the life of the product. For example, a VIN plate on an automobile must be resistant to heat, oils and tampering, similarly, removable product labels need to bond until they are removed. For example, a label on a new refrigerator has installation, usage and environmental information, packaging may have labeling attached to or integral with the package. These may carry pricing, barcodes, UPC identification, usage guidance, addresses, advertising, recipes and they also may be used to help resist or indicate tampering or pilferage. In industrial or military environments, asset labeling is used to identify assets for maintenance. Such labels are made of engraved Traffolyte or a similar material. They are usually tamper-evident, permanent or frangible and usually contain a barcode for electronic identification using readers, for example, the US Military uses a UID system for its assets. Garments normally carry separate care/treatment labels which, in regions, are subject to legislation. These labels typically indicate how the item should be washed, whether bleach can be used, textile labels may be woven into the garment or attached, and may be heat resistant, colorfast, washable, leather or PVC/Plastic. Printed labels are an alternative to woven labels, some upholstered furniture and mattresses have labels that are required by law, describing the contents of the stuffing. Textiles containing pesticides as an ingredient may also require government approval, a label including a company name or identification number and a material content list may also be required. Mailing labels identify the addressee, the sender and any information which may be useful in transit. Many software packages such as word processor and contact manager programs produce standardized mailing labels from a set that comply with postal standards. These labels may also include routing barcodes and special handling requirements to expedite delivery, piggyback labels are made from combining two layers of adhesive substrate. The bottom layer forms the backing for the top, the label can be applied to any object as normal, the top layer can be a removable label that can be applied elsewhere, which may change the message or marking on the remaining label underneath
4.
Tamper-evident technology
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Tamper-evident describes a device or process that makes unauthorized access to the protected object easily detected. Seals, markings or other techniques may be tamper indicating, tampering involves the deliberate altering or adulteration of information, a product, a package, or system. Solutions may involve all phases of production, distribution, logistics, sale. No single solution can be considered as tamper proof, often multiple levels of security need to be addressed to reduce the risk of tampering. Some considerations might include, Identify who a potential tamperer might be and what level of knowledge, materials, tools, Identify all feasible methods of unauthorized access into a product, package, or system. In addition to the means of entry, also consider secondary or back door methods. Control or limit access to products or systems of interest, improve the tamper resistance by making tampering more difficult, time-consuming, etc. Add tamper-evident features to indicate the existence of tampering. Educate people to watch for evidence of tampering, length of time available for tampering. This makes it difficult and unlikely that they will have time to open the packaging, examine or remove the items. Tamper-evident designs have been a feature of letters since ancient times, often using wax, clay, similar practices continue today, from examples such as envelopes to carefully designed packaging for payslips. In modern contract law, it is common to see each page of a contract individually initialled and numbered, meanwhile, most checks have a variety of features to defeat both tampering and duplication. Technicians at the National Security Agency developed anti-tamper holograph and prism labels that are difficult to duplicate, Security seals are commonly employed on devices like electronic voting machines in an attempt to detect tampering. However, testing by Argonne National Laboratory and others demonstrates that existing seals can usually be defeated by a trained person using low-tech methods. They offer ideas on countermeasures, and are exploring the option of anti-evidence seals. Tamper-evident design is perhaps most visible in the process of packaging and labelling. Cans of baby food were among the first high-profile cases, where manufacturers were extorted by persons claiming to have added various poisons to baby food and replaced them on supermarket shelves. The amount of stock which needed to be destroyed, and the threat of public fear, customers were advised to never buy a product with a popped lid
5.
Authentication
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Authentication is the act of confirming the truth of an attribute of a single piece of data claimed true by an entity. In other words, authentication often involves verifying the validity of at least one form of identification, Authentication is relevant to multiple fields. In art, antiques and anthropology, a problem is verifying that a given artifact was produced by a certain person or in a certain place or period of history. In computer science, verifying a persons identity is required to allow access to confidential data or systems. With autographed sports memorabilia, this could involve someone attesting that they witnessed the object being signed, a vendor selling branded items implies authenticity, while he or she may not have evidence that every step in the supply chain was authenticated. The second type of authentication is comparing the attributes of the object itself to what is known about objects of that origin. For example, an art expert might look for similarities in the style of painting, check the location and form of a signature, or compare the object to an old photograph. The physics of sound and light, and comparison with a physical environment, can be used to examine the authenticity of audio recordings, photographs. Documents can be verified as being created on ink or paper readily available at the time of the implied creation. Attribute comparison may be vulnerable to forgery, in art and antiques, certificates are of great importance for authenticating an object of interest and value. Certificates can, however, also be forged, and the authentication of these poses a problem. For instance, the son of Han van Meegeren, the well-known art-forger, forged the work of his father and provided a certificate for its provenance as well, see the article Jacques van Meegeren. Criminal and civil penalties for fraud, forgery, and counterfeiting can reduce the incentive for falsification, currency and other financial instruments commonly use this second type of authentication method. The third type of authentication relies on documentation or other external affirmations, in criminal courts, the rules of evidence often require establishing the chain of custody of evidence presented. This can be accomplished through a written evidence log, or by testimony from the police detectives, some antiques are accompanied by certificates attesting to their authenticity. Signed sports memorabilia is usually accompanied by a certificate of authenticity and these external records have their own problems of forgery and perjury, and are also vulnerable to being separated from the artifact and lost. In computer science, a user can be access to secure systems based on user credentials that imply authenticity. A network administrator can give a user a password, or provide the user with a key card or other device to allow system access
6.
Security bag
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A security bag is a heavy duty bag used to contain high-value products or documents or legally sensitive items. Envelopes with security features are called security envelopes as well as security bags, when used to contain items related to a crime, special evidence bags are used. Authentication of signatures and chain of custody are often required, Security bags or envelopes may be specially designed plastic bags, paper bags, or fabric bags. Bags or envelopes can be made to be resistant, to make it difficult for unauthorized entry. Often it is important for them to be tamper-evident, to indicate when an unauthorized entry has occurred. No one security feature can be considered as tamper proof, layers of TR and TE features, as well as the broader security systems are needed to provide better assurance of security. Bags and envelopes are often closed by a pressure sensitive adhesive on the closing flap. Some adhesives, pressure sensitive tapes, and labels have special security features which are designed to irreversibly indicate opening, tamper-indicating security seals employ a variety of mechanisms for operation, each with its own advantages and disadvantages. Documentation such as labels for certified signatures for custody and chain-of-custody labels are frequently included, evidence management Provenance Traceability Package pilferage Security seal
7.
Security hologram
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Security holograms are labels with a hologram printed onto it for sale security reasons. Security holograms are very difficult to forge because they are replicated from a hologram which requires expensive, specialized. They are used widely in several banknotes around the world, in particular those that are of high denominations and they are also used in passports, credit and bank cards as well as quality products. Holograms are classified into different types with reference to the degree of level of optical security incorporated in them during the process of master origination. The different classifications are described below, These are by far the most common type of hologram -, the term hologram has taken on a secondary meaning due to the widespread use of a multilayer image on credit cards and driver licenses. This type of hologram consists of two or more images stacked in such a way that each is alternately visible depending upon the angle of perspective of the viewer. The technology here is similar to the used for the past 50 years to make red safety night reflectors for bicycles, trucks. These holograms may be of two layers or three layers, in the case of the two-layer holograms, the matter of the middle ground is usually superimposed over the matter of the background of the hologram. These holograms display a unique multilevel, multi-colour effect and these images have one or two levels of flat graphics “floating” above or at the surface of the hologram. The matter in the background appears to be under or behind the hologram and these holograms have a maximum resolution of 10 micrometres per optical element and are produced on specialized machines making forgery difficult and expensive. To design optical elements, several algorithms are used to shape scattered radiation patterns, flip Flop Hologram Masters Origination is a technique used to produce holograms that display flip flop effect. They are produced used 2D/3D master shooting system and this two channel effect of 2D/3D holograms displays two different images from different angles. These holograms are often fabricated using supreme quality material, the final master obtained from this flip flop mastering technique are used to manufacture holograms which gives flip-flop effects. Having an excellent blend of 2D/3D and flipping images offers holographic images an excellent depth and these types of hologram are created using highly sophisticated and very expensive electron-beam lithography systems. This kind of technology allows the creation of surface holograms with a resolution of up to 0.1 micrometres and this technique requires development of various algorithms for designing optical elements that shapes scattered radiation patterns. This type of hologram offers features like the viewing of four lasers at a point, 2D/3D raster text, switch effects, 3D effects, concealed images, laser readable text. The various kinds of features possible in security holograms are mentioned below, These usually take the form of thin lines. Concealed images can be seen at large angle light diffraction, and these are sets of thin lines of a complicated geometry drawn with high resolution
8.
Bottle
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A bottle is a rigid container with a neck that is narrower than the body and a mouth. By contrast, a jar has a large mouth or opening which may be as wide as the overall container. A device applied in the line to seal the mouth of a bottle is termed an external bottle cap, closure. A bottle can also be sealed by a conductive innerseal by using induction sealing, the bottle has developed over millennia of use, with some of the earliest examples appearing in China, Phoenicia, Rome and Crete. Bottles are often recycled according to the SPI recycling code for the material, some regions have a legally mandated deposit which is refunded after returning the bottle to the retailer. The glass bottle was an important development in the history of wine, because, glass has all the qualities required for long-term storage. It eventually gave rise to château bottling, the practice where a wine is put in a bottle at the source. Prior to this, wine would be sold by the barrel and put into bottles only at the merchants shop and this left a large and often abused opportunity for fraud and adulteration, as the consumer had to trust the merchant as to the contents. It is thought that most wine consumed outside of wine-producing regions had been tampered with in some way, also, not all merchants were careful to avoid oxidation or contamination while bottling, leading to large bottle variation. Particularly in the case of port, certain conscientious merchants bottling of old ports fetch higher prices even today, to avoid these problems, most fine wine is bottled at the place of production. There are many sizes and shapes of bottles used for wine, some of the known shapes, Bordeaux, This bottle is roughly straight sided with a curved shoulder that is useful for catching sediment and is also the easiest to stack. Traditionally used in Bordeaux but now worldwide, this is probably the most common type, Burgundy, Traditionally used in Burgundy, this has sides that taper down about 2/3 of the height to a short cylindrical section, and does not have a shoulder. Champagne, Traditionally used for Champagne, it is similar to a Burgundy bottle, in 1872, British soft drink maker Hiram Codd of Camberwell, London, designed and patented a bottle designed specifically for carbonated drinks. The Codd-neck bottle was designed and manufactured to enclose a marble, the bottles were filled upside down, and pressure of the gas in the bottle forced the marble against the washer, sealing in the carbonation. The bottle was pinched into a shape, as can be seen in the photo to the left. This prevented the marble from blocking the neck as the drink was poured, one etymology of the term codswallop originates from beer sold in Codd bottles, though this is generally dismissed as a folk etymology. The bottles were produced for many decades, but gradually declined in usage. Since children smashed the bottles to retrieve the marbles, they are scarce and have become collector items
9.
Carton
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A carton is a box or container usually made of paperboard and sometimes of corrugated fiberboard. Many types of cartons are used in packaging, sometimes a carton is also called a box. A carton is a type of packaging suitable for food, pharmaceuticals, hardware, folding cartons are usually combined into a tube at the manufacturer and shipped flat to the packager. Tray styles have a bottom and are often shipped as flat blanks. High-speed equipment is available to set up, load, and close the cartons, egg cartons or trays are designed to protect whole eggs while in transit. Traditionally these have made of molded pulp. This uses recycled newsprint which is molded into a shape which protects the eggs, more recently egg cartons have also been made from expanded polystyrene and PET. Cartons for liquids can be fabricated from laminates of liquid packaging board, foil, most are based on either Tetra Pak or SIG Combibloc systems. One option is to have the printed laminate supplied on a roll, the carton is cut, scored, and formed at the packager. A second option is to have the pre-assembled tubes delivered to the packager for completion and these are suited for aseptic processing and are used for milk, soup, juice, etc. Gable top cartons are used for liquid products such as milk, juice. These use polyethylene-coated liquid packaging board and sometimes a foil laminate, most are opened by pushing open the gables at the top back and pulling the top out. Some have fitments to assist in opening and pouring the contents, the history of the carton goes as far back as 1879 in a Brooklyn, New York, factory operated by Robert Gair. A die-ruled, cut, and scored paperboard into an impression of a folded carton. By 1896, the National Biscuit Company was the first to use cartons to package crackers, the inventor of this carton was G. W. However, it was in 1915 that John Van Wormer of Toledo, Ohio, was granted the first patent for the first paper bottle, which was the first folded blank box for holding milk. The milk carton was original in the sense that it could be folded, glued, filled with milk, the early 1960s brought many automated systems to help with production of repeatable processes. It was at time that an engineer from Detroit, Michigan, named Mario Lepore developed a machine to fold
10.
Shipping container
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A shipping container is a container with strength suitable to withstand shipment, storage, and handling. Shipping containers range from large steel boxes used for intermodal shipments to the ubiquitous corrugated boxes. In the context of international shipping trade, container or shipping container is virtually synonymous with intermodal freight container, freight containers are a reusable transport and storage unit for moving products and raw materials between locations or countries. In addition, its estimated that several million of these containers have now been discarded due to the shipping cost of sending back to their port of origin. Corrugated boxes are used as shipping containers. They are made of corrugated fiberboard which is lightweight, recyclable, wooden boxes are often used for shipping heavy and dense products. They are sometimes specified for shipments of government or military shipments, a crate is a large container, often made of wood, used to transport large, heavy or awkward items. A crate has a structure, with or without sheathing. An Intermediate bulk container is a used for transport and storage of fluids. The construction may be plastic, composite, steel, stainless steel and it is often made of a woven synthetic material. A bulk box, bulk bin, skid box, or tote box is a pallet size box used for storage, drums are cylindrical shipping containers made of steel, plastic or fiber. They are often used for liquids and granular materials, insulated shipping containers are a type of packaging used to ship temperature sensitive products such as foods, pharmaceuticals, and chemicals. They are used as part of a chain to help maintain product freshness. Some pails are used as shipping containers, a Unit Load Device, or ULD, is a container used to transport cargo on commercial aircraft. A ULD can be a pallet or container used to load luggage, freight and it allows a large quantity of cargo to be bundled into a single unit. Since this leads to fewer units to load, it saves ground crews time and effort, customized cushioning, blocking and bracing, carrying handles, lift rings, locks, etc. are common to facilitate handling and to protect the contents. Often, these containers are reusable. Specialized shipping containers include, High Cube Containers, pallet wides, open tops, side loaders, double door or tunnel-tainers, another specialized container known as Transtainer is a portable fuel and oil freight container
11.
Corrugated box
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Corrugated box design is the process of matching design factors for corrugated fiberboard boxes with the functional physical, processing and end-use requirements. Packaging engineers work to meet the requirements of a box while controlling total costs throughout the system. In addition to the structural design discussed in article, printed bar codes, labels. Corrugated boxes are used frequently as shipping containers, boxes need to contain the product from manufacturing through distribution to sale and sometimes end-use. Boxes provide some measure of protection by themselves but often require inner components such as cushioning, bracing and blocking to help protect fragile contents. The shipping hazards depend largely upon the particular system being employed. Ordinary shipping containers require printing and labels to identify the contents, provide legal and regulatory information, boxes that are used for marketing, merchandising, and point-of-sale often have high graphics to help communicate the contents. Some boxes are designed for display of contents on the shelf, others are designed to help dispense the contents. Popular for their strength, durability, lightness, recyclability, and cost-effectiveness, due to the quality and safety of packaging items in corrugated boxes, they are used widely in the food industry. The boxes handle the pressure that comes with stacking, making them ideal for easy transporting, more than 95% of all products in the United States are shipped in corrugated boxes. Corrugated paperboard accounts for more than half of all the paper recycled in the US, one of the important functions of a corrugated box is to provide crush resistance and adequate strength for stacking in warehouses. A box can be designed by optimizing the grade of corrugated board, box design, flute direction, support from the product also provides load sharing and can be an important factor. Box closures sometimes can have effects on box stacking strength, if long-term storage of corrugated boxes in high humidity is expected, extra strength and moisture resistance is called for. The method of loading boxes on pallets strongly affects stacking, vertical columns provide the best box performance while interlocking patterns of boxes significantly reduce performance. The interaction of the boxes and pallets is also important, Box compression testing is a means of evaluating boxes, stacks of boxes, and unit loads under controlled conditions. Field conditions of stacking and dynamic compression do not have the degree of control. Compression strength can be estimated based on construction, size. Many packaging engineers find it beneficial to periodically audit warehouses and visit customers package receiving operations, when field performance is observed or documented to have problems, a new cycle of design and testing may be justified
12.
Unit load
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A unit load combines individual items or items in shipping containers into single units that can be moved easily with a pallet jack or forklift truck. Most consumer and industrial products move through the chain in unitized or unit load form for at least part of their distribution cycle. Unit loads make handling, storage, and distribution more efficient and they help reduce handling costs and damage by reducing individual handling. A typical unit load might consist of corrugated fiberboard boxes stacked on a pallet or slip sheet and stabilized with stretch wrap, pressure-sensitive tape, about 2 billion unit loads are in daily use in the United States. There are three kinds of unit load design, Component based, systems based, and standards compliant, component-based design is the outmoded ad hoc method of unit load design. Components are sometimes specified to get assured performance, or tested to get inexpensive economic performance. When packaging, pallet, and handling systems are designed separately at different locations by different teams, companies must now consider sustainability when determining how their packaging products will be reused or recycled at the end of their journey. Unit loads move by a mix of many types of vehicles and storage areas. Therefore, unit loads must be designed to travel by any such vehicles, there are therefore many similarities in the requirements for long term storage and long distance transportation of unit loads. Standards permit a load to be designed and tested to meet a written specification or test method. A unit load can be verified to comply with a standard, standards provide institutional memory of the many conditions in real logistic trains, and collect the best practices for design and testing unit loads. Standards also describe load requirements, so that logistic providers can plan to meet them, material based standards describe proven designs for particular circumstances. These are often used to describe unit load components such as pallets, strapping, seals, caps, retaining rings, performance testing standards describe needs and allow flexibility in the choice of matierials. These are applied to particular unit load designs, ASTM D4169 has standard test protocols for unit loads. These vary based on the value of the load, the hazards. This is a performance based standard, another standard for unit loads is MIL-STD-1660, a standard for ammunition unit loads. DOD unit loads generally use 40 in ×48 in pallets and they weigh less than 4,000 lb to limit the stresses on handling equipment. They are weatherproof, and stack 16 ft high and they often use steel pallets, steel straps with notched seals, outdoor plywood, and plastic film
13.
Security printing
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The main goal of security printing is to prevent forgery, tampering, or counterfeiting. A number of methods are used in the security printing industry. In November 2011 Canada joined the list of countries using polymer currency as it began the introduction of a new banknote series. A watermark is an image or pattern in paper that appears lighter or darker than surrounding paper when viewed with a light from behind the paper. A watermark is made by impressing a water coated metal stamp or dandy roll onto the paper during manufacturing, watermarks were first introduced in Bologna, Italy in 1282, as well as their use in security printing, they have also been used by papermakers to identify their product. Watermarks can also be made on polymer currency, for example, printed with white ink, simulated watermarks have a different reflectance than the base paper and can be seen at an angle. Because the ink is white, it cannot be photocopied or scanned, intaglio is a printing technique in which the image is incised into a surface. Normally, copper or zinc plates are used, and the incisions are created by etching or engraving the image, but one may also use mezzotint. In printing, the surface is covered in ink, and then rubbed vigorously with tarlatan cloth or newspaper to remove the ink from the surface, leaving it in the incisions. A damp piece of paper is placed on top, and the plate and paper are run through a press that, through pressure. The very sharp printing obtained from the process is hard to imitate by other means. Intaglio also allows for the creation of latent images which are visible when the document is viewed at a very shallow angle. A guilloché is a pattern formed of two or more curved bands that interlace to repeat a circular design. They are made with a geometric lathe and this involves the use of extremely small text, and is most often used on currency and bank checks. The text is generally enough to be indiscernible to the naked eye. Cheques, for example, use microprint as the signature line, color changing inks are made from mica. Color changing inks colored magnetizable inks are prepared by including chromatic pigments of high color strength, the magnetic pigments’ strong inherent color generally reduces the spectrum of achievable shades. Generally, pigments should be used at high concentrations to ensure that sufficient magnetizable material is applied even in thin offset coats, some magnetic pigment are best suited for colored magnetizable inks due to their lower blackness
14.
Holography
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Holography is the science and practice of making holograms. The hologram itself is not an image and it is usually unintelligible when viewed under diffuse ambient light and it is an encoding of the light field as an interference pattern of seemingly random variations in the opacity, density, or surface profile of the photographic medium. In its pure form, holography requires the use of light for illuminating the subject. A microscopic level of detail throughout the volume of space can be reproduced. Holograms can now also be entirely computer-generated and show objects or scenes that never existed, stage illusions such as Peppers Ghost and other unusual, baffling, or seemingly magical images are also often incorrectly called holograms. The Hungarian-British physicist Dennis Gabor, was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1971 for his invention and development of the holographic method. His work, done in the late 1940s, was built on pioneering work in the field of X-ray microscopy by other scientists including Mieczysław Wolfke in 1920 and William Lawrence Bragg in 1939. The discovery was a result of research into improving electron microscopes at the British Thomson-Houston Company in Rugby, England. The word holography comes from the Greek words ὅλος and γραφή, early holograms used silver halide photographic emulsions as the recording medium. They were not very efficient as the produced grating absorbed much of the incident light, various methods of converting the variation in transmission to a variation in refractive index were developed which enabled much more efficient holograms to be produced. Several types of holograms can be made, a later refinement, the rainbow transmission hologram, allows more convenient illumination by white light rather than by lasers. Rainbow holograms are used for security and authentication, for example, on credit cards. They are also capable of multicolour-image reproduction, specular holography is a related technique for making three-dimensional images by controlling the motion of specularities on a two-dimensional surface. It works by reflectively or refractively manipulating bundles of light rays, most holograms produced are of static objects but systems for displaying changing scenes on a holographic volumetric display are now being developed. Holograms can also be used to store, retrieve, and process information optically and it was thought that it would be possible to use X-rays to make holograms of very small objects and view them using visible light. Today, holograms with x-rays are generated by using synchrotrons or x-ray free-electron lasers as radiation sources, the reconstruction is then retrieved via computation. Due to the wavelength of x-rays compared to visible light. As free-electron lasers can provide ultrashort and x-ray pulses in the range of femtoseconds which are intense and coherent, in laser holography, the hologram is recorded using a source of laser light, which is very pure in its color and orderly in its composition
15.
Paper embossing
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Embossing and debossing are the processes of creating either raised or recessed relief images and designs in paper and other materials. An embossed pattern is raised against the background, while a pattern is sunken into the surface of the material. Often used in combination with foil stamping, embossing alters the surface of paper stock or other substrates by providing a three-dimensional or raised effect on selected areas, the procedure requires the use of two dies, one that is raised and one that is recessed. The dies fit into each other so that when the paper is pressed between them, the raised die forces the stock into the die and creates the embossed impression. A thorough understanding the process will enable a successful result. Generally, embossing is the process most often employed to attract attention or convey a high quality textural contrast in relation to the area of the paper stock. Debossing is similar to embossing, but recesses the design rather than raising it, rather than the paper being raised in specific areas, it is indented. The process involves applying pressure to the front side of a substrate, although it is not as common as embossing, it is occasionally used to provide a different effect or appearance that fits a particular theme. Embossing and debossing on digitally printed applications is an off-line process, embossing is basically used to create a distinctive effect. The greatest concern and emphasis on the clients behalf should be placed on the outcome of the embossed effect, pressure, the intensity of the impact on the weight of the stock being embossed. Heat, the ability to maintain a consistent heat level for the best impression, most types of paper can be embossed, and size is not normally a consideration. Embossing without ink, so that the image is raised but not colored, is called blind embossing, embossing used in conjunction with ink, so that the raised area is colored, is called color register embossing. Embossing used in conjunction with foil stamping is called combination stamping or combo stamping, embossing involves a separate stage in the production process, after any varnishing and laminating. It requires a press run, and is priced accordingly. In addition to being used as an element, embossing can be used to improve the performance of paper products like napkins, diapers. The metals most often used for die construction are zinc, magnesium, copper, the material used for a specific application depends upon a number of factors. Blind embossing does not include the use of ink or foil to highlight the embossed area, the change in the dimensional appearance of the material is the only noticeable difference resulting from the embossing. The blind embossing process provides a clean and distinctive or subtle image on paper stock and it is best used to create a subtle impression or low level of attention to the piece, yet provide some slight form of differentiation for the finished work
16.
Barcode
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A barcode is an optical, machine-readable, representation of data, the data usually describes something about the object that carries the barcode. Originally barcodes systematically represented data by varying the widths and spacings of parallel lines, later two-dimensional codes were developed, using rectangles, dots, hexagons and other geometric patterns in two dimensions, usually called barcodes although they do not use bars as such. Barcodes originally were scanned by special optical scanners called barcode readers, later applications software became available for devices that could read images, such as smartphones with cameras. An early use of one type of barcode in a context was sponsored by the Association of American Railroads in the late 1960s. Two plates were used per car, one on side, with the arrangement of the colored stripes encoding information such as ownership, type of equipment. The plates were read by a scanner, located for instance, at the entrance to a classification yard. The project was abandoned after ten years because the system proved unreliable after long-term use. Barcodes became commercially successful when they were used to automate supermarket checkout systems and their use has spread to many other tasks that are generically referred to as automatic identification and data capture. The very first scanning of the now ubiquitous Universal Product Code barcode was on a pack of Wrigley Company chewing gum in June 1974, silver told his friend Norman Joseph Woodland about the request, and they started working on a variety of systems. Their first working system used ultraviolet ink, but the ink faded too easily and was expensive, convinced that the system was workable with further development, Woodland left Drexel, moved into his fathers apartment in Florida, and continued working on the system. His next inspiration came from Morse code, and he formed his first barcode from sand on the beach, I just extended the dots and dashes downwards and made narrow lines and wide lines out of them. To read them, he adapted technology from optical soundtracks in movies and he later decided that the system would work better if it were printed as a circle instead of a line, allowing it to be scanned in any direction. The patent was issued on 7 October 1952 as US Patent 2,612,994, in 1951, Woodland moved to IBM and continually tried to interest IBM in developing the system. IBM offered to buy the patent, but its offer was not high enough, philco purchased their patent in 1962 and then sold it to RCA sometime later. During his time as an undergraduate, David Collins worked at the Pennsylvania Railroad, immediately after receiving his masters degree from MIT in 1959, he started work at GTE Sylvania and began addressing the problem. He developed a system called KarTrak using blue and red reflective stripes attached to the side of the cars, encoding a six-digit company identifier, light reflected off the stripes was fed into one of two photomultipliers, filtered for blue or red. The Boston and Maine Railroad tested the KarTrak system on their cars in 1961. The tests continued until 1967, when the Association of American Railroads selected it as a standard, Automatic Car Identification, the installations began on 10 October 1967
17.
Radio-frequency identification
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Radio-frequency identification uses electromagnetic fields to automatically identify and track tags attached to objects. The tags contain electronically stored information, Passive tags collect energy from a nearby RFID readers interrogating radio waves. Active tags have a power source such as a battery. Unlike a barcode, the tag need not be within the line of sight of the reader, RFID is one method for Automatic Identification and Data Capture. These concerns resulted in standard specifications development addressing privacy and security issues, ISO/IEC18000 and ISO/IEC29167 use on-chip cryptography methods for untraceability, tag and reader authentication, and over-the-air privacy. ISO/IEC20248 specifies a digital data structure for RFID and barcodes providing data, source. This work is done within ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC31 Automatic identification, in 2014, the world RFID market is worth US$8.89 billion, up from US$7.77 billion in 2013 and US$6.96 billion in 2012. This includes tags, readers, and software/services for RFID cards, labels, fobs, the market value is expected to rise to US$18.68 billion by 2026. In 1945, Léon Theremin invented a tool for the Soviet Union which retransmitted incident radio waves with the audio information. Sound waves vibrated a diaphragm which slightly altered the shape of the resonator, similar technology, such as the IFF transponder, was routinely used by the allies and Germany in World War II to identify aircraft as friend or foe. Transponders are still used by most powered aircraft to this day, another early work exploring RFID is the landmark 1948 paper by Harry Stockman. Considerable research and development work has to be done before the basic problems in reflected-power communication are solved. Mario Cardullos device, patented on January 23,1973, was the first true ancestor of modern RFID, the basic Cardullo patent covers the use of RF, sound and light as transmission media. The original business plan presented to investors in 1969 showed uses in transportation, banking, security and medical. An early demonstration of reflected power RFID tags, both passive and semi-passive, was performed by Steven Depp, Alfred Koelle, and Robert Frayman at the Los Alamos National Laboratory in 1973, the portable system operated at 915 MHz and used 12-bit tags. This technique is used by the majority of todays UHFID and microwave RFID tags, the first patent to be associated with the abbreviation RFID was granted to Charles Walton in 1983. A radio-frequency identification system uses tags, or labels attached to the objects to be identified, two-way radio transmitter-receivers called interrogators or readers send a signal to the tag and read its response. RFID tags can be passive, active or battery-assisted passive
18.
Frangibility
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A material is said to be frangible if through deformation it tends to break up into fragments, rather than deforming elastically and retaining its cohesion as a single object. Common biscuits or crackers are examples of materials, while fresh bread. A structure is frangible if it breaks, distorts, or yields on impact so as to present a hazard to the vehicle. A frangible structure is designed to be frangible and to be of minimum mass. Frangible pavement lights or smoke outlet panels may be placed in the pavement in front of a building, to allow these areas to be broken and smoke to escape from the basement in case of fire. These are commonly found in London, for example, where the area may be outlined by a metal demarcation strip. A frangible light pole base is designed to break away when a vehicle strikes it and this lessens the risk of injury to occupants of the vehicle. Frangible supports are used for Airport Approach Structures. Examples are the Glaser Safety Slug and the breaching round, Frangible bullets will disintegrate upon contact with a surface harder than the bullet itself. Frangible bullets are used by shooters engaging in close quarter combat training to avoid ricochets, targets are placed on steel backing plates that serve to completely fragment the bullet. Frangible bullets are made of non-toxic metals, and are frequently used on green ranges. Following a serious incident, caused by an aircraft hitting a lighting structure at San Francisco International airport. A frangible object was defined as an object of low mass, designed to break, distort or yield on impact and this characteristic is seemingly contradictory to the operational requirements for stiffness and rigidity imposed on this type of equipment. This work has resulted in part 6 of the Aerodrome Design Manual, based on the results of these tests, design criteria were formulated. An overview of the carried out to achieve these results is given in Frangibility of Approach Lighting Structures at Airports. The missing reference in this article is in Impact simulation of an approach light structure by an aircraft wing section. It states that numerical methods can be used to evaluate the frangibility of structures, a first publication on this subject is given in Frangible design of instrument landing system/glide slope towers
19.
Delamination
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Delamination is a mode of failure for composite materials and steel. In laminated materials, repeated cyclic stresses, impact, and so on can cause layers to separate, forming a structure of separate layers. Delamination also occurs in reinforced concrete structures subject to reinforcement corrosion, the oxidized metal therefore requires greater space than the original reinforcing bars, which causes a wedge-like stress on the concrete. This force eventually overcomes the relatively weak strength of concrete, resulting in a separation of the concrete above. Fiber pull-out and delamination can occur, in part, due to weak bonding between the fibers and the polymer matrix. Some manufacturers of carbon composite bike frames suggest disposing of the frame after a crash, as there is increasing use of composite materials in aircraft construction, delamination is an air safety concern, especially in the tail sections of the airplanes. For aircraft, satellite, and other components, the requirements for quality may be very strict. Using a test method, such as manual tap testing, to produce audible sounds is not reliable, small defects, or those several layers deep, may be very difficult, if not impossible, to detect. The change in pitch becomes slight enough that the ear cannot resolve it. Using sound is also subjective and dependent on the quality of hearing as well as judgement. Any intentional variations in the part may also change the pitch of the produced sound, some of these variations include ply overlaps, ply count change gores, core density change, and geometry. While these features can all exist in the part and sound different from each other. Inspection methods such as ultrasound, infrared thermography, shearography, and radiography produce quantifiable results and all have much higher resolution capability than manual tap testing
20.
Serration
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Serration generally refers to a saw-like appearance or a row of sharp or tooth-like projections. A serrated cutting edge has many points of contact with the material being cut. By having less contact area than a blade or other edge, the applied pressure at each point of contact is greater. This causes an action that involves many small splits in the surface of the material being cut. In nature, serration is commonly seen in the edge on the teeth of some species. However, it appears on non-cutting surfaces, for example in botany where a toothed leaf margin or other plant part. A serrated leaf edge may reduce the force of wind and other natural elements, probably the largest serrations on Earth occur on the skylines of mountains. These occur both due to the action of landform edges pushing rock upwards, and the uneven action of erosion. Human uses of serration have copied, and gone beyond, those found in nature, for example, the teeth on a saw or other serrated blade serves a similar cutting or scraping purpose as the serration of an animal tooth. Tailors use pinking shears to cut cloth with a serrated edge, screw threads show serration in profile, although they are usually shown in abbreviated or symbolic fashion on mechanical drawings to save time and ink. Brogue shoes are made with serrated edges on the leather pieces, the step clamp and step block assembly in metalworking adopt serration for the purpose of applying clamping pressure from an adjustable position
21.
Perforation
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A perforation is a small hole in a thin material or web. There is usually more than one perforation in an organized fashion, the process of creating perforations is called perforating, which involves puncturing the workpiece with a tool. Perforations are usually used to allow separation of two sections of the material, such as allowing paper to be torn easily along the line. Packaging with perforations in paperboard or plastic film is easy for consumers to open, other purposes include filtrating fluids, sound deadening, allowing light or fluids to pass through, and to create an aesthetic design. Various applications include plastic films to allow the packages to breathe, medical films, micro perforated plate and sound, perforation can be created by pins, needles, die and punch or laser. Rotary pinned perforation rollers are precision tools that can be used to perforate a wide variety of materials, the pins or needles can be used cold or heated. Cold perforation tools include needle punches, there are a handful of manufacturers that specialize in hot and cold needle perforation tooling and equipment. In materials that have elasticity this can result in a hole that is preferred in many applications. Pinned rollers can be made from a variety of materials, including plastic, steel, in more brittle films, cold perforation can cause slitting rather than creating a round hole, which can jeopardize the materials integrity under pressure. The solution to this is often heating the pin, i. e. hot pin perforation, hot perforation melts a hole in the material, causing a reinforced ring around the hole. Hot needle perforation also assists when high density pin patterns are utilized, die and punch sets can be used for thicker materials or materials that require large holes, this process is the most common for metalworking. The workpiece is sheared by pressing the punch through the workpiece, the middle section of the workpiece is scrap, commonly known as the chad in paper and similar materials. The punch and die are shaped to produce the desired shaped hole, the clearance must be properly maintained to ensure a clean cut. Burrs are produced on the side of the workpiece that is against the die, common applications are fruit and vegetable bags, hole punching and ticket punching. Laser cutting can place many precise holes in a web, laser perforations look similar in many respects to hot needle perforations. The big advantage of laser perforation is the consistency of the hole size and this is very important in modified atmosphere packaging for fresh produce. The laser perforation is often carried out on roll slitting machines as the material is slit down to the finished roll size. Perforation frequently refers to the practice of creating a series of holes or slits so that paper or plastics can be torn more easily along a given line
22.
Release liner
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A release liner is a paper or plastic-based film sheet used to prevent a sticky surface from prematurely adhering. It is coated on one or both sides with an agent, which provides a release effect against any type of a sticky material such as an adhesive or a mastic. Release liners are available in different colors, with or without printing under the low surface energy coating or on the backside of the liner, release is separation of the liner from a sticky material, liner is the carrier for the release agent. Globally there are between 400 and 500 companies involved in making or dealing with release liner products on an industrial scale, in general there are two types of companies which are manufacturing release liner. Commercial coating companies deal with a lot of different end uses of this industry and they provide unique solutions to their customers, based on a wide variety of substrates and an endless combination of release agents with specialized properties. Commercial coaters usually do not make finished products, just the release itself and then their customers will coat a sticky material on this liner. An in-house producer makes the liner and uses it internally to manufacture the final product. In-house producers are typically focused on a narrow range of products e. g. labels or tapes. They use a limited amount of substrates and release materials, which are specialized for their end applications. g, on a yankee cylinder of a paper machine. BO-PET, a PET film is a high temperature resistant. Providing them with unique and adjusted features for the application that they are targeted for and this way the tough and dimensionally stable PET film is combined with cheap polyolefin resin which makes the fill a better carrier web for specialty applications. Commonly used release agents for release liner can be crosslinkable silicone, other coatings, there are probably hundreds of different applications, where release liner materials are being used. Such as Pressure-sensitive labels Pressure-sensitive tape Self-adhesive plastic sheet Pressure-sensitive adhesive
23.
Die cutting (web)
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In the metalworking and leather industries, the process is known as clicking and the machine may be referred to as a clicking machine. When a dinking die or dinking machine is used, the process is known as dinking, commonly produced items using this process include gaskets, labels, corrugated boxes, and envelopes. Die cutting started as a process of cutting leather for the industry in the mid-19th century. It is now sophisticated enough to cut through just one layer of a laminate, so it is now used on labels, stamps, and other stickers, die cutting can be done on either flatbed or rotary presses. Rotary die cutting is often done inline with printing, the primary difference between rotary die cutting and flatbed die cutting is that the flatbed is not as fast but the tools are cheaper. This process lends itself to smaller production runs where it is not as easy to absorb the added cost of a rotary die, rotary die cutting is die cutting using a cylindrical die on a rotary press. A series of gears will force the die to rotate at the speed as the rest of the press. The machines used for this process can incorporate multiple stations that die cut a shape in the material. Dies used in rotary die cutting are either solid engraved dies, adjustable dies, engraved dies have a much higher tolerance and are machined out of a solid steel bar normally made out of tool steel. Dinking uses special dies called dinking dies, or hollow cutters, the edges of the dies are usually beveled about 20° and sharpened. The material is punched through into a wood or soft metal block in order to not dull the edges, the die may be pressed into the material with a hammer or a mechanical press. Postage stamp separation Steel rule die Cutting plotters Degarmo, E. Paul, Black, J T. Kohser, materials and Processes in Manufacturing, Wiley, ISBN 0-471-65653-4
24.
Electronic article surveillance
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Electronic article surveillance is a technological method for preventing shoplifting from retail stores, pilferage of books from libraries or removal of properties from office buildings. Special tags are fixed to merchandise or books and these tags are removed or deactivated by the clerks when the item is properly bought or checked out. At the exits of the store, a detection system sounds an alarm or otherwise alerts the staff when it senses active tags. Some stores also have detection systems at the entrance to the restrooms that sound an alarm if someone tries to take unpaid merchandise with them into the restroom. For high-value goods that are to be manipulated by the patrons, surveillance tags that could be attached to items in stores were first invented by Arthur Minasy in 1966. Except for permanent tags, this strip is also lined with a strip of material with a moderate coercive field. Detection is achieved by sensing harmonics and sum or difference signals generated by the magnetic response of the material under a mixture of low-frequency magnetic fields. When the ferromagnetic material is magnetized, it biases the amorphous metal strip into saturation, deactivation of these tags is therefore done with magnetization. This system is suitable for items in libraries since the tags can be deactivated when items are borrowed and re-activated upon return and it is also suitable for merchandise in retail stores, due to the small size and very low cost of the tags. Electro-magnetic systems are no common in food or apparel retail environments, most having been replaced by radio frequency. These strips are not bound together but free to oscillate mechanically, amorphous metals are used in such systems due to their good magnetoelastic coupling, which implies that they can efficiently convert magnetic energy into mechanical vibrations. The detectors for such tags emit periodic tonal bursts at about 58 kHz and this causes the strip to vibrate longitudinally by magnetostriction, and it continues to oscillate after the burst is over. The vibration causes a change in magnetization in the amorphous strip, if this signal meets the required parameters, the alarm is activated. When the semi-hard magnet is magnetized, the tag is activated, the tag can also be deactivated by demagnetizing the strip, making the response small enough so that it will not be detected by the detectors. AM tags are three dimensional plastic tags, much thicker than electro-magnetic strips and are seldom used for books. However, they are inexpensive and have better detection rates than magnetic tags. Called Emtag by B&G International, this type tag is attached to the inside of a plastic surround permanently attached to the power cords of hand tools. These tags are essentially an LC tank circuit that has a peak anywhere from 1.75 MHz to 9.5 MHz
25.
Barricade tape
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Barricade tape is brightly colored tape that is used to warn or catch the attention of passersby of an area or situation containing a possible hazard. It acts as an impediment to prevent accidental entrance to that area or situation. Barricade tape is also known as tape or barrier tape or in reference to the safety hazard involved as notice tape, caution tape, warning tape. In case the tape is used by an organization the tape is named police tape, Barricade tape is made with durable, resilient, tear-proof plastic materials such as polyethylene, polypropylene, or nylon. It is at least 2 mm thick and 3 inches wide, however, different manufacturers offer different sizes and thicknesses of barricade tape. Other common sizes of tape are 2,4 or 6 inches wide and 4 or 10 mm thick. Barricade tape often has a background and pre-printed bold warning text. It is also possible to purchase plain barricade tape and write a message on it. Barricade tape is used according to the specifications set by OSHA. Barricade tape may be use primarily as a safety precaution for various industries and procedures, Construction Tape – is used in construction zones to notify people about ongoing construction and that there are possible hazards within the demarcated area. Construction tape usually employs a yellow-black color combination and incorporates printed text, such as Under Construction, Caution, Work Zone and this type of barrier tape is commonly found at the site of renovations, demolition, and minor repairs. Hazard Tape – is used in containing a substantial danger. Examples include electrocution hazards or areas within which there is a risk of exposure to toxic chemicals, hazard tape is available in different color combinations, each of which indicates certain classes of threat. For example, yellow-black tape is used to signal the presence of a physical hazard and this type of barrier tape is commonly used in laboratories, production areas, and industrial zones. Traffic Control Device Tape – this type of tape, as its name implies is used to control traffic. Traffic control device tapes are used as traffic signal to redirect traffic during parade or whenever a road is closed. These are usually brightly colored, either in solid orange or orange-white combination, police Tape or Law Enforcement Tape – this type of barrier tape is used to isolate, protect and preserve a crime scene. Police tape is used to notify the public that an investigation is on going and this is usually seen with a yellow-white, yellow-black or blue-white color combination
26.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
27.
Packaging and labeling
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Packaging is the technology of enclosing or protecting products for distribution, storage, sale, and use. Packaging also refers to the process of designing, evaluating, Packaging can be described as a coordinated system of preparing goods for transport, warehousing, logistics, sale, and end use. Packaging contains, protects, preserves, transports, informs, in many countries it is fully integrated into government, business, institutional, industrial, and personal use. Package labeling or labelling is any written, electronic, or graphic communication on the package or on a separate but associated label. The first packages used the materials available at the time, baskets of reeds, wineskins, wooden boxes, pottery vases, ceramic amphorae, wooden barrels, woven bags. Processed materials were used to form packages as they were developed, for example, early glass, the study of old packages is an important aspect of archaeology. The use of tinplate for packaging dates back to the 18th century, by 1697, John Hanbury had a rolling mill at Pontypool for making Pontypoole Plates. The method pioneered there of rolling iron plates by means of cylinders enabled more uniform black plates to be produced than was possible with the practice of hammering. Tinplate boxes first began to be sold from ports in the Bristol Channel in 1725, the tinplate was shipped from Newport, Monmouthshire. By 1805,80,000 boxes were made and 50,000 exported, tobacconists in London began packaging snuff in metal-plated canisters from the 1760s onwards. With the discovery of the importance of airtight containers for food preservation by French inventor Nicholas Appert, after receiving the patent, Durand did not himself follow up with canning food. By 1813, they were producing the first canned goods for the Royal Navy, the progressive improvement in canning stimulated the 1855 invention of the can opener. In 1858, another lever-type opener of a complex shape was patented in the United States by Ezra Warner of Waterbury. Set-up boxes were first used in the 16th century and modern folding cartons date back to 1839, the first corrugated box was produced commercially in 1817 in England. Corrugated paper received a British patent in 1856 and was used as a liner for tall hats, scottish-born Robert Gair invented the pre-cut paperboard box in 1890—flat pieces manufactured in bulk that folded into boxes. Gair discovered that by cutting and creasing in one operation he could make prefabricated paperboard boxes, commercial paper bags were first manufactured in Bristol, England, in 1844, and the American Francis Wolle patented a machine for automated bag-making in 1852. Packaging advancements in the early 20th century included Bakelite closures on bottles, transparent cellophane overwraps and these innovations increased processing efficiency and improved food safety. As additional materials such as aluminum and several types of plastic were developed, they were incorporated into packages to improve performance, in 1952, Michigan State University became the first university in the world to offer a degree in Packaging Engineering
28.
Active packaging
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The terms active packaging, intelligent packaging, and smart packaging refer to packaging systems used with foods, pharmaceuticals, and several other types of products. They help extend shelf life, monitor freshness, display information on quality, improve safety, active packaging usually means having active functions beyond the inert passive containment and protection of the product. Intelligent and smart packaging usually involve the ability to sense or measure an attribute of the product and this information can be communicated to users or can trigger active packaging functions. Programmable matter, smart materials, etc can be employed in packages, depending on the working definitions, some traditional types of packaging might be considered as active or intelligent. More often, the terms are used with new technologically advanced systems, microelectronics, computer applications, nanotechnology, for many years, desiccants have been used to actively control the water vapor in a closed package. A desiccant is a hygroscopic substance usually in a pouch or sachet which is placed inside a sealed package. They have been used to reduce corrosion of machinery and electronics and to extend the life of moisture sensitive foods. Corrosion inhibitors can be applied to items to prevent rust. Volatile corrosion inhibitors or vapor phase corrosion inhibitors can be provided inside a package in a pouch or can be incorporated in a saturated overwrap of special paper, many of these are organic salts that condense on the metal to resist corrosion. Some films also have VCI emitting capability, films are available with copper ions in the polymer structure, These neutralize the corrosive gas in a package and deter rust. VCI create an environment in the packaging. It works on the principle of difference in pressure and causes reaction with Metals and Non metals. There are different forms of VCIs available like Papers, Plastics, HDPE Papers, Oils, Foams, Chips, Aluminum Barrier Foils, Bubble, Emitters etc. that can prevent corrosion at many stages. Trace transition metals in foods, especially iron, can induce oxidative degradation of food components, especially lipids. Metal-chelating active packaging materials are made by immobilizing metal-chelating active compounds onto traditional active packaging material, the surface immobilized metal-chelating compounds can scavenge the transition metals from the product and enhance the oxidative stability of the product. The metal-chelating active packaging technology is also antioxidant active packaging that will extend the shelf-life of consumer products by controlling the oxidation, the metal-chelating active packaging technology is known to be able to remove synthetic food preservatives from the food product. This technology can be used to address the consumer demand for additive free. Oxygen scavengers or oxygen absorbers help remove oxygen from a closed package, some are small packets or sachets containing powdered iron, as the iron rusts, oxygen is removed from the surrounding atmosphere
29.
Child-resistant packaging
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Child-resistant packaging or CR packaging is special packaging used to reduce the risk of children ingesting dangerous items. This is often accomplished by the use of a safety cap. In some jurisdictions, unit packaging such as blister packs is also regulated for child safety, consumer Product Safety Commission has stated in a press release that There is no such thing as child-proof packaging. So you shouldnt think of packaging as your primary line of defense, rather, you should think of packaging, even child-resistant packaging, as your last line of defense. The child-resistant locking closure for containers was invented in 1967 by Dr. Henri Breault, a history of accidents involving children opening household packaging and ingesting the contents led the United States Congress to pass the Poison Prevention Packaging Act of 1970, authored by U. S. Senator Frank E. Moss of Utah, consumer Product Safety Commission the authority to regulate this area. Additions throughout the decades have increased the coverage to include other hazardous items. Coordination exists for improving standards on requirements and protocols. Child-resistant packaging can be a problem for some aged individuals or people with disabilities, regulations require designs to be tested to verify that most adults can access the package. Some jurisdictions allow pharmacists to provide medications in non CR packages when there are no children in the same house, the regulations are based on protocols of performance tests of packages with actual children, to determine if the packages can be opened. More recently, additional testing is used to determine if aged individuals or people with disabilities have the ability to open the same packages. Often the CR requirements are met by package closures which require two dissimilar motions for opening, hundreds of package designs are available for packagers to consider. ISO8317 Child-resistant packaging - Requirements and testing procedures for reclosable packages, L. Encyclopedia of Packaging Technology, John Wiley & Sons,2009, ISBN 978-0-470-08704-6 Lockhart, H. and Paine, F. A
30.
Contract packager
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Packaging is the technology of enclosing or protecting products for distribution, storage, sale, and use. Packaging also refers to the process of designing, evaluating, Packaging can be described as a coordinated system of preparing goods for transport, warehousing, logistics, sale, and end use. Packaging contains, protects, preserves, transports, informs, in many countries it is fully integrated into government, business, institutional, industrial, and personal use. Package labeling or labelling is any written, electronic, or graphic communication on the package or on a separate but associated label. The first packages used the materials available at the time, baskets of reeds, wineskins, wooden boxes, pottery vases, ceramic amphorae, wooden barrels, woven bags. Processed materials were used to form packages as they were developed, for example, early glass, the study of old packages is an important aspect of archaeology. The use of tinplate for packaging dates back to the 18th century, by 1697, John Hanbury had a rolling mill at Pontypool for making Pontypoole Plates. The method pioneered there of rolling iron plates by means of cylinders enabled more uniform black plates to be produced than was possible with the practice of hammering. Tinplate boxes first began to be sold from ports in the Bristol Channel in 1725, the tinplate was shipped from Newport, Monmouthshire. By 1805,80,000 boxes were made and 50,000 exported, tobacconists in London began packaging snuff in metal-plated canisters from the 1760s onwards. With the discovery of the importance of airtight containers for food preservation by French inventor Nicholas Appert, after receiving the patent, Durand did not himself follow up with canning food. By 1813, they were producing the first canned goods for the Royal Navy, the progressive improvement in canning stimulated the 1855 invention of the can opener. In 1858, another lever-type opener of a complex shape was patented in the United States by Ezra Warner of Waterbury. Set-up boxes were first used in the 16th century and modern folding cartons date back to 1839, the first corrugated box was produced commercially in 1817 in England. Corrugated paper received a British patent in 1856 and was used as a liner for tall hats, scottish-born Robert Gair invented the pre-cut paperboard box in 1890—flat pieces manufactured in bulk that folded into boxes. Gair discovered that by cutting and creasing in one operation he could make prefabricated paperboard boxes, commercial paper bags were first manufactured in Bristol, England, in 1844, and the American Francis Wolle patented a machine for automated bag-making in 1852. Packaging advancements in the early 20th century included Bakelite closures on bottles, transparent cellophane overwraps and these innovations increased processing efficiency and improved food safety. As additional materials such as aluminum and several types of plastic were developed, they were incorporated into packages to improve performance, in 1952, Michigan State University became the first university in the world to offer a degree in Packaging Engineering
31.
Package pilferage
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Pilferage is the theft of part of the contents of a package. It may also include theft of the contents but leaving the package, small packages can be pilfered from a larger package such as a shipping container. Broader and related aspects of theft may include taking the entire package, pallet load, truck load, shoplifting, Solutions involve all phases of product production, packaging, distribution, logistics, sale, and use. No single solution is considered as pilfer proof, often, packaging engineers, logistics engineers, and security professionals have addressed multiple levels of security to reduce the risk of pilfering. Some considerations have included, Identifying who a potential pilferer might be, engineers usually start with knowing what level of knowledge, materials, tools, etc. might they have. Identifying all feasible methods of unauthorized access into a product, package, in addition to the primary means of entry, engineers also consider secondary or back door methods. Identifying available means of resealing, reclosing, or replacing special seals, using extra strong and secure packaging, A weak or damaged package is an invitation to pilferage. Considering unique custom seals and labels Improving the pilfer resistance to make pilfering more difficult, time-consuming, concealing the identity and value of a pilferable item. Logistics and packaging professionals do not want to bring attention to the item, its package, addresses, names, adding pilfer-evident features to help indicate the existence of pilfering. Choosing a logistics provider who can reduce the risks of pilferage, shipping in packages in unit loads with stretch wrap or in intermodal shipping containers with security seals Educating people to watch for evidence of pilfering. With a corrugated box, using a wider and stronger closure tape, 3-inch or 72 mm, using a tamper-evident tape or seal on packages that leaves a message, warning, or other indication if removed. Installing a surveillance system to identify any suspects. L. Encyclopedia of Packaging Technology, John Wiley & Sons,2009, ISBN 978-0-470-08704-6 Rosette, J. L, Improving Tamper-Evident Packaging, Problems, Tests and Solutions,1992
32.
Package testing
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Package testing or packaging testing involves the measurement of a characteristic or property involved with packaging. This includes packaging materials, packaging components, primary packages, shipping containers, testing measures the effects and interactions of the levels of packaging, the package contents, external forces, and end-use. It can involve controlled laboratory experiments, subjective evaluations by people, documentation is important, formal test method, test report, photographs, video, etc. Testing can be a qualitative or quantitative procedure, package testing is often a physical test. With some types of packaging such as food and pharmaceuticals, chemical tests are conducted to determine suitability of food contact materials, testing programs range from simple tests with little replication to more thorough experimental designs. Package testing can extend for the life cycle. Packages can be tested for their ability to be recycled and their ability to degrade as surface litter, pharmaceuticals, medical devices, dangerous goods, etc. This may cover both the qualification, periodic retesting, and control of the packaging processes. Processes may be controlled by a variety of quality management systems such as HACCP, statistical process control, validation protocols, ISO9000, for unregulated products, testing can be required by a contract or governing specification. The degree of testing can often be a business decision. With distribution packaging, one vital packaging development consideration is to determine if a packaged-product is likely to be damaged in the process of getting to the final customer, a primary purpose of a package is to ensure the safety of a product during transportation and storage. Package testing is often a part of Project management programs. Packages are usually tested when there is a new packaging design, a revision to a current design, a change in packaging material, testing a new packaging design before full scale manufacturing can save time and money. Many suppliers or vendors offer limited material and package testing as a service to customers. It is common for packagers to partner with reputable suppliers, Many suppliers have certified quality management systems such as ISO9000 or allow customers to conduct technical, data from testing is commonly shared. There is sometimes a risk that supplier testing may tend to be self-serving, large companies often have their own packaging staff and a package testing and development laboratory. Corporate engineers know their products, manufacturing capabilities, logistics system, cost reduction of existing products and cost avoidance for new products have been documented. Another option is to use a paid consultant, Independent contractor and they are commonly chosen for specialized expertise, for access to certain test equipment, for surge projects, or where independent testing is otherwise required
33.
Packaging engineering
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Packaging engineering, also package engineering, packaging technology and packaging science, is a broad topic ranging from design conceptualization to product placement. All steps along the process, and more, must be taken into account in the design of the package for any given product. Package engineering includes industry-specific aspects of engineering, marketing, materials science, industrial design. Packaging engineers must interact with research and development, manufacturing, marketing, graphic design, regulatory, purchasing, planning, the package must sell and protect the product, while maintaining an efficient, cost-effective process cycle. Engineers develop packages from a variety of rigid and flexible materials. Some materials have scores or creases to allow controlled folding into package shapes, Packaging involves extrusion, thermoforming, molding and other processing technologies. Packages are often developed for high speed fabrication, filling, processing, Packaging engineers use principles of structural analysis and thermal analysis in their evaluations. Contract Packaging Engineering also known as Staffing Packaging Engineering, is a subgroup within the Packaging Engineering Field. Contract Packaging Engineers typically work under the jurisdiction of a legal arrangement between a company and the engineer or consulting company. Contrary to an engineer, Contract Packaging Engineers work per project and/or predetermined time stated within the contract. Some packaging engineers have backgrounds in science, engineering, or design disciplines while some have college degrees specializing in this field. Formal packaging programs might be listed as engineering, packaging science, packaging technology. BE, BS, MS, M. Tech and PhD programs are available, in 1952, Michigan State University became the first university in the USA to offer a degree in Packaging. Faculty and staff are published in packaging and other technical subjects. Indiana State University began offering Packaging as a B. S. in 1974, today, ISU offers Packaging Engineering Technology. The University of Wisconsin-Stout is the school in the UW System that offers a B. S. degree in Packaging. Rutgers University offers the nation’s only packaging program housed in an engineering school, the Rutgers Packaging Engineering Program also offers an 18 credit Graduate Packaging Engineering Certificate. Clemson University offers a bachelors and masters degrees in Packaging Science, the undergraduate program at Clemson requires students to take at least one six-month co-op for the degree
34.
Reusable packaging
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Reusable packaging is manufactured of durable materials and is specifically designed for multiple trips and extended life. A reusable package or container is “designed for reuse without impairment of its protective function. ”The term returnable is sometimes used interchangeably but it can also include returning packages or components for other than reuse, recycling, disposal, incineration, etc. Typically, the used to make returnable packaging include steel, wood. Reusability of packaging is an important consideration of the credo of “reduce, reuse. It is also important to the movement toward more sustainable packaging, returnable packaging is encouraged by regulators. For many years, several types of shipping containers have been returnable and reusable and these have made most sense when a reverse logistics system is available or can be readily developed. A return, recondioning, and reuse system can save money on the cost per shipment, manufacturing, particularly the automobile industry, has used heavy-duty returnable racks for shipping hoods, fenders, engines, dashboards, etc. from suppliers to final assembly plants. The racks are then returned for the next shipment cycle, bulk foods, chemicals, and pharmaceuticals are often shipped in reusable and returnable containers. These need to be inspected, cleaned and sanitized as part of the reuse cycle. An effective Quality Management System is necessary, wooden pallets are often made to be expendable, for a single shipment. Others are heavy duty and intended for multiple shipments, some are in “pallet pools” which are used, inspected, and refurbished for extended usage. Often reusable industrial shipping containers have bar code labels or RFID chips to help identify, automotive OEM manufacturers use and encourage the use of returnable packaging to move components from their vendors to their factories. The components are placed in packaging and are at times. Such packaging replaces traditional corrugated cartons, thereby helping companies cut costs by avoiding wastage and it also helps in reducing the environmental footprint of the automotive industry. Other advantages of using returnable packaging include avoiding damages to parts in while in transit, parts are at times placed in specially designed receptacles for easy picking on the assembly line contributing to fewer mistakes and simpler inventory management. A few examples of packaging in automotive industry, Several types of consumer containers have been in reuse systems. Reusable bottles for milk, soda, and beer have been part of closed-loop use-return-clean-refill-reuse cycles, home canning often uses glass mason jars which are often reused several times. With any food packaging, proper cleaning and disinfecting between each use is critical to health, used packages are often reused for purposes other than their primary use
35.
Shelf life
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Shelf life is the length of time that a commodity may be stored without becoming unfit for use, consumption, or sale. In other words, it refer to whether a commodity should no longer be on a pantry shelf. It applies to cosmetics, foods and beverages, medical devices, medicines, explosives, pharmaceutical drugs, chemicals, tires, batteries, in some regions, an advisory best before, mandatory use by or freshness date is required on packaged perishable foods. Most expiration dates are used as based on normal and expected handling. Use prior to the date does not guarantee the safety of a food or drug. According to the USDA, canned foods are safe indefinitely as long as they are not exposed to freezing temperatures, if the cans look ok, they are safe to use. Discard cans that are dented, rusted, or swollen, high-acid canned foods will keep their best quality for 12 to 18 months, low-acid canned foods for 2 to 5 years. Sell by date is an ambiguous term for what is often referred to as an expiration date. Most food is edible after the expiration date. A product that has passed its shelf life might still be safe, Shelf life depends on the degradation mechanism of the specific product. Most can be influenced by several factors, exposure to light, heat, moisture, transmission of gases, mechanical stresses, product quality is often mathematically modelled around a parameter. For some foods, health issues are important in determining shelf life, bacterial contaminants are ubiquitous, and foods left unused too long will often be contaminated by substantial amounts of bacterial colonies and become dangerous to eat, leading to food poisoning. However, shelf life alone is not an indicator of how long the food can safely be stored. For example, pasteurized milk can remain fresh for five days after its sell-by date if it is refrigerated properly, in contrast, if milk already has harmful bacteria, the use-by dates become irrelevant. The expiration date of pharmaceuticals specifies the date the manufacturer guarantees the full potency, most medications continue to be effective and safe for a time after the expiration date. A rare exception is a case of renal tubular acidosis purportedly caused by expired tetracycline, a study conducted by the U. S. Food and Drug Administration covered over 100 drugs, prescription and over-the-counter. The study showed that about 90% of them were safe and effective as long as 15 years past their expiration dates. One major exception is the Shelf Life Extension Program of the U. S. Department of Defense, which commissioned a major study of drug efficacy from the FDA starting in the mid-1980s
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Shelf-stable food
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Shelf-stable food is food of a type that can be safely stored at room temperature in a sealed container. This includes foods that would normally be stored refrigerated but which have been processed so that they can be stored at room or ambient temperature for a usefully long shelf life. For instance, the first shelf-stable formulation of ranch dressing, created in 1983, had a life of 150 days. Various food preservation and packaging techniques are used to extend a foods shelf life, all of these approaches can all extend a foods shelf life without unacceptably changing its taste or texture. For some foods alternative ingredients can be used, common oils and fats become rancid relatively quickly if not refrigerated, replacing them with hydrogenated oils delays the onset of rancidity, increasing shelf life. This is an approach in industrial food production, but recent concerns about health hazards associated with trans fats have led to their strict control in several jurisdictions. List of dried foods Meal, Ready-to-Eat Retort pouch
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Sustainable packaging
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Sustainable packaging is the development and use of packaging which results in improved sustainability. This involves increased use of life cycle inventory and life cycle assessment to guide the use of packaging which reduces the environmental impact. It includes a look at the whole of the chain, from basic function, to marketing. Additionally, an eco-cost to value ratio can be useful The goals are to improve the long term viability and quality of life for humans, sustainable packaging must meet the functional and economic needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Sustainability is not necessarily an end state but is a process of improvement. Sustainable packaging is a new addition to the environmental considerations for packaging. It requires more analysis and documentation to look at the design, choice of materials, processing. This is not just the green movement that many businesses and companies have been trying to include over the past years. Companies implementing these eco-friendly actions are reducing their carbon footprint, using recycled materials. They often encourage suppliers, contract packagers, and distributors to do likewise, for example, researchers at the Agricultural Research Service are looking into using dairy-based films as an alternative to petroleum-based packaging. Instead of being made of polymers, these dairy-based films would be composed of proteins such as casein and whey. The films would be biodegradable and offer better oxygen barriers than synthetic, more research must be done to improve the water barrier quality of the dairy-based film, but advances in sustainable packaging are actively being pursued. Environmental marketing claims on packages need to be made with caution, ambiguous greenwashing titles such as green packaging and environmentally friendly can be confusing without specific definition. Some regulators, such as the US Federal Trade Commission, are providing guidance to packagers Companies have long been reusing and recycling packaging when economically viable, using minimal packaging has also been a common goal to help reduce costs. Recent years have accelerated these efforts based on movements, consumer pressure. All phases of packaging, distribution, and logistics are included, sustainable packaging is no longer focused on just recycling. Just as packaging is not the only eco target, although it is top of mind for many. The criteria for ranking and comparing packaging based on their sustainability is an area of development
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Wrap rage
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People can potentially be injured from attempts at opening difficult packages, use of cutting tools can pose a risk of damage to the contents of the package. Easy-opening systems are available to improve package opening convenience, packaging sometimes must be made difficult to open. For example, regulations dictate that some over-the-counter drugs have tamper resistance to deter unauthorized opening before delivery to the intended customer, other packages are intentionally made difficult to open to reduce package pilferage and shoplifting. Hard plastic blister packs also protect the products while they are being shipped, in addition, using transparent plastic allows customers to view products directly before purchasing them. The term wrap rage itself came about as a result of media attention to the phenomenon, although other variants such as packaging rage have been used as early as 1998, Word Spy identifies the earliest use of wrap rage as coming from The Daily Telegraph in 2003. The American Dialect Society identified the term as one of the most useful of 2007, in 2006, Consumer Reports magazine recognized the wrap rage phenomenon when it created the Oyster Awards for the products with the hardest-to-open packaging. In a survey conducted at the Cox School of Business, almost 80 percent of households expressed anger, consumers also tend to use words such as hate and difficult when describing these products. Consumers sometimes use potentially unsafe tools such as blades, boxcutters, snips. In the Yours survey, 71% of respondents said they had been injured while trying to open food packaging, the most common injury respondents had from trying to open packaging was a cut finger, followed by a cut hand, sprained wrist, bruised hand and strained shoulder muscle. According to a British study, over 60,000 people receive hospital treatment each year due to injuries from opening food packaging, the Consumer Product Safety Commission estimated that attempts to open packaging caused about 6,500 emergency room visits in the U. S. in 2004. When packagers and retailers are willing, there are possible solutions to allow easy access to package contents. Easy access, however, can allow more pilferage and shoplifting. Some companies are making their packs easier for consumers to open to help reduce frustration, other companies must keep tamper resistant packages. Forces driving the efforts to improve packaging include pressure from consumers and retailers, several methods of making packages easy to open have long been available. These include perforations, tear tapes and break-open components, some easy-open features can add extra cost to packaging. Household scissors or a utility knife are sometimes used to open difficult packaging, tin snips are effective for tough plastics, the higher mechanical advantage of compound metal snips make it possible to cut such packages open even using little hand strength. These packages can also be opened with a household can opener. Computer rage Rage Road rage Tamper resistance
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Beer bottle
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A beer bottle is a bottle designed as a container for beer. Such designs vary greatly in size and shape, but the glass commonly is brown or green to reduce spoilage from light, the most widely established alternatives to glass containers for beer in retail marketing are beverage cans and aluminum bottles, for larger volumes kegs are in common use. Bottling lines are lines that fill beer into bottles on a large scale. Many smaller breweries send their bulk beer to large facilities for contract bottling—though some will bottle by hand, the first step in bottling beer is depalletising, where the empty bottles are removed from the original pallet packaging delivered from the manufacturer, so that individual bottles may be handled. The bottles may then be rinsed with filtered water or air, next the bottle enters a labelling machine where a label is applied. The product is packed into boxes and warehoused, ready for sale. Depending on the magnitude of the endeavour, there are many different types of bottling machinery available. Liquid level machines fill bottles so they appear to be filled to the line on every bottle, while volumetric filling machines fill each bottle with exactly the same amount of liquid. Overflow pressure fillers are the most popular machines with beverage makers, in terms of automation, inline filling machines are most popular, but rotary machines are much faster albeit much more expensive. A short glass bottle used for beer is called a stubby. Shorter and flatter than standard bottles, stubbies pack into a space for transporting. The steinie was introduced in the 1930s by Joseph Schlitz Brewing Company and derived their name from their similarity to the shape of a beer stein, the bottles are sometimes made with thick glass so that the bottle can be cleaned and reused before being recycled. The capacity of a stubby is generally somewhere between 330 and 375 ml, the Canadian stubby bottle was traditionally 341 ml while the U. S. longneck was 355 ml. Some of the advantages of stubby bottles are, ease of handling, less breakage, lighter in weight, less storage space. After the relaxation of Prohibition in the U. S. in 1936, the glass industry responded by devising short bottles with little necks, nicknamed stubbies, and types with short necks were called steinies. Capacities varied, with 12oz being the most common used for soft drinks. The steinie dominated in the U. S. by 1950, stubbies were popular in Canada until the 1980s. Today, standard SP Lager from Papua New Guinea is one of the few beers still sold in 12oz neckless stubbies, the U. S. steinie shape now dominates for small beer bottles the world over, in sizes from half-pint to the European 500ml
40.
Box wine
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Box wine is wine packaged in a bag-in-box. Wine is contained in a plastic bladder typically with an air-tight valve emerging from a corrugated fiberboard box. It serves as an alternative to traditional wine bottling in glass with a cork or synthetic seal and it is sometimes called goon, and goon bag in Australia. The process for packaging cask wine was invented by Thomas Angove of Angoves, a winemaker from Renmark, South Australia, polyethylene bladders of 1 gallon were placed in corrugated boxes for retail sale. The original design required that the cut the corner off the bladder, pour out the serving of wine. In 1967, Australian inventor Charles Malpas and Penfolds Wines patented a plastic, air-tight tap welded to a metallised bladder, all modern wine casks now use some sort of plastic tap, which is exposed by tearing away a perforated panel on the box. For the next bag in a box packaging was primarily preferred by producers of less expensive wines as it is cheaper to fabricate and distribute than glass bottles. Within the decade premium wineries and bottlers began packaging their own high-quality boxed wine, including French rabbit, Bandit Wines, Octavin, Target and this coupled with an increased cultural interest in environmentally sustainable packaging has cultivated growing popularity with affluent wine consumers. Bag-in-box packaging is less expensive, lighter and more friendly than glass-bottled wine, as well as being easier to transport. Typical bag-in-box containers hold 1. 5–4750 ml bottles of wine per box, the tap utilised by bag-in-box packaging greatly reduces oxidation of the wine during dispensing. Wine contained in plastic bladders are not intended for cellaring and should be consumed within the manufacturer printed shelf life, deterioration may be noticeable by 12 months after filling. Manufacturers of higher class bottled wines have complained about the cheapness of cask wines, in particular, the lower level of alcohol excise levied on cask wine in Australia has been criticised as encouraging binge drinking. There is also no indication, as with a bottle. Cask wine in Australia is colloquially referred to as goon, which is a derived from the word flagon, meaning a large vessel used for drink, or boxy. Wine cask Franzia, brand of box wine Hardy Wine Company Bum wine, low-end fortified wine Jug wine, inexpensive table wine
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Disposable food packaging
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Disposable food packaging comprises disposable items often found in fast food restaurants, takeout restaurants and kiosks, and catering establishments. Food serving items for picnics and parties are very similar, typical disposable foodservice products are plates, bowls, cups, utensils, doilies and tray papers. These products can be made from a number of materials including plastics, paper, bioresins, Packaging of fast food and take-out food is necessary for the customer but involves a significant amount of material that ends up in landfill, recycling, composting, or litter. The paper plate was invented by the German bookbinder Hermann Henschel in Luckenwalde in 1867, in 1908, Samuel J. Crumbine was a public health officer in Kansas. He was on a train when he witnessed one of his tuberculosis patients taking a drink of water from a dipper and water bucket in the car. Right behind his patient was a girl who drank from the same dipper. This inspired him to launch a crusade to ban publicly shared or common utensils in public places, taking note of the trend, Lawrence Luellen and Hugh Moore invented a disposable paper cup called the Health Cup and later renamed the Dixie Cup. Single-use cone cups were followed by the commercialization of single-use plates and bowls, wooden cutlery, by the 1930s these products were widely used to feed the men and women who worked on the remote dams, bridges and roads of the Works Progress Administration. In the 1940s they were used to feed factory workers. After World War II, foodservice packaging materials like plastic and polystyrene foam were developed, the unique properties of these materials and their ability to be made into a variety of shapes and sizes, provided foodservice operators, and consumers, with a wider variety of packaging choices. A major development in disposable foodservice packaging happened in 1948 when the newly founded McDonalds restaurant closed to revamp its menu. Along with changing their menu items, the restaurant wanted to change the way it handled dishwashing and dishwashers, car hops and wait staff, and storage, breakage and theft of table ware. When the McDonalds re-opened six months later, its meals were no longer served with the use of glasses, plates or cutlery, the use of disposable foodservice packaging is a step toward preventing foodborne disease. By being used once, these products significantly reduce food contamination. The U. S. Food and Drug Administration’s Food Code authoritatively spells out the sanitary and health advantages of single-use foodservice packaging, A food establishment without facilities. The Food Code further states in situations in which the reuse of multiuse items could result in foodborne illness to consumers, single-service, disposable foodservice packaging can be made from a number of materials, each with its own uses and benefits. Aluminum Aluminum is used to manufacture foils, wraps, bags, containers, plastics Many disposable foodservice products can be made of plastic or plastic-coated paper, cups, plates, bowls, trays, food containers and cutlery, for example. Plastics are used because the material is lightweight and holds the temperature of hot/cold food, polystyrene is in one of the most common types of plastics used for foodservice packaging
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Foam food container
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A foam food container is a disposable container for various foods, including beverages. Food types may be processed, raw, or cooked, the containers are commonly used to serve takeout food from restaurants, and are also available by request for diners who wish to take the remainder of their meal home. Foam take-out containers are made from EPS foam, or another type of polystyrene foam and they are usually white in color, although they may be printed or impressed with a company logo or other message. Styrofoam is a trademark of The Dow Chemical Company for closed-cell extruded polystyrene foam currently made for thermal insulation and this is a different material from the extruded polystyrene used for Styrofoam insulation. Another tradename for expanded polystyrene is thermacol, originated by BASF, foam takeout containers come in different varieties. These may include, A rectangular shaped clamshell style container with an attached lid, the larger ones usually feature several compartments, allowing different foods to be kept separated from each other. This variety usually features several small projections on the lid of the container and these containers are leak-resistant only if kept upright, and often have a square imprint area for labeling. A cylindrical style container with a separate, translucent or opaque plastic lid which can seal tightly to resist leaks, the container may or may not taper somewhat towards the bottom. Both overall size, and the ratio of height to diameter can vary greatly, such containers usually hold soups and stews, however, smaller varieties are often used to hold sauces and condiments. This is the most commonly used takeout box for Chinese cuisines in East and Southeast Asia and it is standard for Cantonese cuisine in Hong Kong and many parts of China. It is sometimes used overseas in restaurants, particularly in the United States. Because foam takeout containers are made out of polystyrene foam. However, Methanogenic consortia degrade styrene, using it as a carbon source, pseudomonas putida can also convert styrene oil into various biodegradable polyhydroxyalkanoates. Some cities have gone as far as banning the use of foam containers, notably San Francisco, Seattle and Portland. In 2013, the mayor of New York City proposed banning foam food containers and this plan began to be implemented in early 2015, however a September court ruling has since put the ban on hold. It is debated whether styrene may migrate into food which is stored in food containers for even a small amount of time. Some researchers argue that polystyrene containers do pose a health risk, styrene foam containers can melt if the food or liquid is of a sufficient temperature. Some containers have been tested and labelled for use in microwave ovens, although the absence of such labeling does not mean a container is unsafe for this use
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Food packaging
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Food packaging is packaging for food. A package provides protection, tampering resistance, and special physical, chemical and it may bear a nutrition facts label and other information about food being offered for sale. Barrier protection - A barrier from oxygen, water vapor, dust, permeation is a critical factor in design. Some packages contain desiccants or oxygen absorbers to help extend shelf life, modified atmospheres or controlled atmospheres are also maintained in some food packages. Keeping the contents clean, fresh, and safe for the shelf life is a primary function. Containment or agglomeration - Small items are grouped together in one package to allow efficient handling. Liquids, powders, and granular materials need containment, information transmission - Packages and labels communicate how to use, transport, recycle, or dispose of the package or product. Some types of information are required by governments, marketing - The packaging and labels can be used by marketers to encourage potential buyers to purchase the product. Package design has been an important and constantly evolving phenomenon for several decades, marketing communications and graphic design are applied to the surface of the package and the point of sale display. Security - Packaging can play an important role in reducing the security risks of shipment, Packages can be made with improved tamper resistance to deter tampering and also can have tamper-evident features to help indicate tampering. Packages can be engineered to reduce the risks of package pilferage, some package constructions are more resistant to pilferage. Packages may include authentication seals to indicate that the package. Using packaging in this way is a means of retail loss prevention, convenience - Packages can have features which add convenience in distribution, handling, stacking, display, sale, opening, reclosing, use, and reuse. Portion control - Single-serving packaging has an amount of contents to control usage. Bulk commodities can be divided into packages that are a suitable size for individual households. It also aids the control of inventory, selling sealed one-liter bottles of milk, the above materials are fashioned into different types of food packages and containers such as, Primary packaging is the main package that holds the food that is being processed. Secondary packaging combines the primary packages into one box being made, tertiary packaging combines all of the secondary packages into one pallet. Packaging machines may be of the general types, Reduced packaging
44.
Luxury packaging
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Luxury and specialty packaging is the design, research, development, and manufacturing of packaging, displays, and for luxury brands. The packaging of a product is part of the brand’s image and research shows consumers are willing to spend more on products if the packaging looks appealing. Globally, the packaging market continues to grow, driven by global trends of personalised packaging, attention to sustainability issues. The luxury packaging market is forecast to grow by 4. 4% to 2019, reaching $17.6 billion, package design and development are often thought of as an integral part of the new product development process. Alternatively, development of a package can be a separate process, the design criteria, performance, completion time targets, resources, and cost constraints need to be established and agreed upon. Package design processes often employ rapid prototyping, computer-aided design, computer-aided manufacturing, high value products are inviting to theft. Security packaging can be an important consideration to help reduce package pilferage, authentication technologies can be used to help verify that the expensive luxury product is not among the many counterfeit consumer goods. Security solutions involve all phases of production, packaging, distribution, logistics, sale. No single solution is considered as pilfer proof, often, packaging engineers, logistics engineers, and security professionals have addressed multiple levels of security to reduce the risk of pilfering. Some considerations have included, Identifying who a potential thief might be, engineers usually start with knowing what level of knowledge, materials, tools, etc. might they have. Identifying all feasible methods of unauthorized access into a product, package, in addition to the primary means of entry, engineers also consider secondary or back door methods. Identifying available means of resealing, reclosing, or replacing special seals, using extra strong and secure packaging, A weak or damaged package is an invitation to pilferage. Considering unique custom seals and labels Improving the pilfer resistance to make pilfering more difficult, time-consuming, concealing the identity and value of a pilfer able item during distribution. Logistics and packaging professionals do not want bring attention to the item, its package, addresses, names, adding pilfer-evident features to help indicate the existence of pilfering. Choosing a logistics provider who can reduce the risks of pilferage, shipping in packages in unit loads with stretch wrap or in intermodal shipping containers with security seals Educating people to watch for evidence of pilfering. With a corrugated box, using a wider and stronger closure tape, 3-inch or 72 mm, using a tamper-evident tape or seal on packages that leaves a message, warning, or other indication if removed. Installing a surveillance system to identify any suspects. Some designers consider nine steps to creating the design of luxury packaging, beginning with meeting the client to gain insight into the product
45.
Milk bag
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Milk bags are plastic bags that contain milk. They are usually stored in a pitcher or jug with one of the cut off to allow for pouring. A typical milk bag contains approximately 1 1⁄3 litres of milk in Canada and 1 L of milk in South America, Eastern Europe, bagged milk is common in many parts of Canada. The innovation was introduced in 1967 by DuPont using European equipment, the new packaging quickly found favour with the domestic dairy industry, being lighter and less fragile than glass bottles. However, the public preferred plastic jugs for years. They are sold in eastern Canada, but not widely in western Canada, three bags are sold together in a larger bag containing a total of 4 L of milk. The bags are not sold individually, and are not labelled at all or labelled with only the expiry date. The three-bag 4 L package is the largest normally sold at retail, some convenience store chains offer 4 L plastic jugs instead of milk bags, even in eastern Canada. Two accessories are commonly associated with Canadian milk bags, pitchers, the key-shaped bag opener with a clip and a magnet was invented in Toronto in 1979. These bag openers are a type of refrigerator magnet, although the bags can be opened with scissors or knives. Milk bags were also common in the former Soviet Union, and other Eastern bloc countries, such as Poland, East Germany, Hungary, Romania, Yugoslavia, and Bulgaria. They remain popular in the Baltics and some Eastern European countries, a resurgence of milk bags is beginning in Britain amid concerns that plastic bottles are not being recycled. Milk bags were used in Australia, in the late 1990s and they were also used in Gympie, Queensland, in the 1970s and early 1980s, and also in Caboolture, Queensland around the same time. These were 1 pint in size, in the United Kingdom, Sainsburys began a pilot experiment on distributing milk in bags in 2008 in conjunction with Dairy Crest. In the UK, the bags are used in conjunction with a specialized plastic jug. In Mexico, assistance programs and prior welfare and government social programs distribute milk in bags at very low prices, Milk bags are also commonly used in India, Colombia, Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay, Israel and South Africa. The principal benefits of bagged milk are economic, for producers, it is easier to vary portion size when sealing bags than cartons, as well as lowering the cost of packaging. For consumers, bags typically allow for smaller sizes, reducing the risk of spoilage
46.
Milk bottle
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Milk bottles are bottles used for milk. They may be reusable glass bottles used mainly for doorstep delivery of milk by milkmen. Customers are expected to rinse the empty bottles and leave on the doorstep for collection, the standard size of a bottle varies with location, common sizes are 1 pint or 1 quart, although cream may be delivered in smaller bottles. More recently, plastic bottles have been used for milk. These are often made of high-density polyethylene, are used only once, before milk bottles, milkmen filled the customers jugs. For many collectors, milk bottles carry a quality of a bygone age. It is not clear when the first milk bottles came into use, however, the New York Dairy Company is credited with having the first factory that produced milk bottles, and one of the first patents for a milk container was held by the Lester Milk Jar. Lewis P. Whiteman held the first patent for a milk bottle with a small glass lid. The next earliest patent is for a bottle with a dome-type tin cap and was granted September 23,1884 to Whitemans brother. The Whiteman brothers produced milk bottles based on these specifications at the Warren Glass Works Company in Cumberland, Maryland, the Original Thatcher is one of the most desirable milk bottles for collectors. The patent for the dome lid is dated April 27,1886. There are several variations of this early milk bottle and many reproductions, during this time period, many types of bottles were being used to hold and distribute milk. These include a pop bottle type with a clamp, used by the Chicago Sterilized Milk Company, Sweet Clover. Fruit jars were used, but only the Cohansey Glass Manufacturing plant made them with dairy names embossed on them. The Commonsense Milk Bottle with the first cap seat was developed as a means for sealing a reusable milk bottle by the Thatcher Manufacturing Company around 1900. Most bottles produced after this time have a cap seat, by the 1920s, glass milk bottles had become the norm in the UK after slowly being introduced from the US before World War I. Milk bottles before the 1930s were round, in 1935, slender-neck bottles were introduced in the UK. In the 1940s, a squat bottle became the more popular style
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Optical disc packaging
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Optical disc packaging is the packaging that accompanies CDs, DVDs, and other formats of optical media. Most packaging is rigid or semi-rigid and designed to protect the media from scratches, a jewel CD case is a compact disc case that has been used since the compact disc was first released in 1982. It is a plastic case, measuring 142 by 125 by 10 millimetres, a volume of 177.5 cubic centimetres, which usually contains a compact disc along with the liner notes. Two opposing transparent halves are hinged together to form the casing, all three parts are made of injection-moulded polystyrene. The front lid contains two, four, or six tabs to keep any liner notes in place, the liner notes typically will be a 120 by 120 millimetres booklet, or a single 242 by 120 millimetres leaf folded in half. The back card is folded into a flattened U shape, with the sides being visible along the ends of the case, the back media tray snaps into the back cover, and is responsible for securing the disk. The center is a hub of teeth which grip the disc by its hole. This effectively suspends the disk in the middle of the container, the media tray was originally constructed of a flexible black polystyrene, but many newer trays use a more fragile transparent polystyrene. This allows the reverse of the card, which is usually used for additional artwork. This format did not become common until the mid-1990s, the jewel case is the standard case used by majority of manufacturers and it is the most common type of case found in record and movie stores. Jewel cases are used for DVDs, but generally not for those that contain major film releases. Blank Blu-ray Disc media is also most commonly sold in jewel cases. According to Philips, the jewel case reflects either the generally high quality of the case design compared to initial attempts. According to one publication, initial attempts at packaging CDs were unsatisfactory, when the new design, by Peter Doodson, was found to be virtually perfect it was dubbed the jewel case. Another publication quotes Doodson describing that he specified polished ribs as they pick up the light and shine, endurance, The CD jewel case has a tight and firm grip of the CD because of the trays teeth or lock. Because of this, even if the CD jewel case is turned upside-down, left, or right, flimsier cases may cause the CD to become loose, or even fall out. Also, since the case is made of plastic, it is sturdier compared to cardboard, paper. When pressure is applied to the CD jewel case, the case will break first before the CD, if the case is made of thin cardboard, there is a greater chance that the CD would break or get damaged because the weight is directed onto it
