1.
Seduction
–
Strategies of seduction include, conversation and sexual scripts, paralingual features, non-verbal communication and short term behavioural strategies. The word seduction stems from Latin and means literally leading astray, as a result, the term may have a positive or negative connotation. Famous seducers from history or legend include Lilith, Giacomo Casanova, the emergence of the Internet and technology has supported the availability and the existence of a seduction community, which is based on discourse about seduction. This is predominately by pickup artists, Seduction is also used within marketing to increase compliance and willingness. Seduction is a motif in history and fiction, both as a warning of the social consequences of engaging in the behaviour or becoming its victim. In the Bible, Eve offers the forbidden fruit to Adam, Eve herself was verbally seduced by the serpent, believed in Christianity to be Satan, later, Chapter 7 of Proverbs warns of the pitfalls of seduction. Sirens of Greek mythology lured sailors to their death by singing them to shipwreck, famous male seducers, their names synonymous with sexual allure, range from Genji to James Bond. If her father refuse to give her unto him, he shall pay money according to the dowry of virgins. The Second Book of Samuel in the Old Testament describes King David seducing Bathsheba, King David has sexual relations with this woman, and then sends her husband to the front lines of battle with near certainty of death. Once Uriah is dead, King David takes Bathsheba as his wife, males and females both implement the strategy of seduction as a method of negotiating their sexual relationships. This can often involve manipulation of other individuals and this is primarily based on desire, normally physical, as well as attraction towards them. Popular phrases often used include, ‘the language of love is universal’ and these phrases help to demonstrate the extensively pervasive and ubiquitous strategy use within love and relationships amongst humans. Research has indicated that seduction could substitute or equate to a form of collapsed or condensed courtship, evolutionary psychology suggests that this form of sexual enticement can be used in order to cajole desired individuals to engage in sexual intercourse and ultimately reproduce. This behaviour is also aimed at persuading someone to develop a short-term or long-term sexual relationship with them, males declare that they adopt the strategy of seduction statistically more frequently than females. From an evolutionary perspective this is due to higher parental investment. Females therefore need to be seduced more prior to engaging in sexual intercourse, men more commonly wish to engage in more frequent short-term mating, which may require this strategy of seduction used to access the female for intercourse. However, this finding has been contradicted by non-verbal seduction results which indicate that females have more control within this area, other potential strategies individuals employ to gain access to a mate include courting or having relatives select mates for socioeconomic reasons. Ultimately, both males and females have reported preferring seduction above all other strategies, such as the use power or aggression, Seduction is related to human mate poaching
Seduction
–
Don Juan in
Mozart's opera
Don Giovanni, a painting by
Max Slevogt
2.
Censorship in Hong Kong
–
Censorship in Hong Kong, which refers to the suppression of speech or other public communication, raises issues regarding the freedom of speech. By law, censorship is usually practised against the distribution of materials, particularly child pornography, obscene images. Prior to the transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong in 1997, since the handover to mainland China, Hong Kong has been granted relative legal, economic, and political autonomy under the one country, two systems policy. Since the handover, Hong Kong newspapers have increased their use of an editorial independence as a marketing tool towards international audiences. In 1998, there was a controversy about remarks made by magazine publisher Xu Simin alleging anti-mainland bias from the government-funded broadcaster RTHK, although pro-RTHK commentators saw Xus comments as coming from Beijing, Central Government representatives distanced themselves from his comments. In 2001, the HKJA expressed concerns that governments and Tung Chee-hwas shrill rhetoric threatens open debate by encouraging self-censorship, Hong Kongs ranking on the Press Freedom Index published annually by Reporters Without Borders was 18th in 2002. They may consider whether reporting on some issues affect the relationship between their bosses and the government. That year, Hong Kongs ranking on the Press Freedom Index dropped twenty places to 54th place, Hong Kongs ranking in the index, which stood at 61st in 2014, gave up nine further places in the 2015 report. Police misconduct was cited as a factor, Journalists have complained about sensitive news stories critical of the government that they have been under undisguised pressure to change or soften. PEN Center believes that the controversy surrounding CY Leungs dealings with UGL were seriously under-reported in some media outlets, all told, the incidence of censorship, political pressure to self-censor and intimidation is increasing, according to PEN American Center, International Federation of Journalists. During the two-and-a-half-month protests in 2014, the coverage of events and viewpoints on traditional media turned young people to social media for news. The Guardian described the protests as the social movement in history. People placed greater reliance on media, some of which were launched during the protests. Even the recently defunct House News resurrected itself, reformatted as The House News Bloggers, before the handover, their popular cartoonist Larry Feign, humour columnist Nury Vittachi were dismissed. Gittings complained that he came under pressure to tone down coverage of politically sensitive issues. Editor-in-Chief Wang Xiangwei was criticised for his decision to reduce the coverage of the death of Li Wangyang on 7 June 2012. Wang reportedly reversed the decision to run a story. A senior staff member who sought to understand the decision circulated the resulting email exchanges, reporter Paul Mooney, whose contract with the paper was not renewed in May 2012, said that the Li Wangyang story was not an isolated incident
Censorship in Hong Kong
–
The offending Puma entry "D7689"
3.
Censorship in Eritrea
–
Human rights in Eritrea are viewed as among the worst in the world, particularly with regards to freedom of the press. However, the Eritrean government has dismissed the accusations as politically motivated. As an attempt at reform, Eritrean government officials and NGO representatives have participated in public meetings. A new movement called Citizens for Democratic Rights in Eritrea aimed at bringing about dialogue between the government and opposition was formed in early 2009. Eritrea is a one-party state in national legislative elections have been repeatedly postponed. Since Eritreas conflict with Ethiopia in 1998–2001, Eritreas human rights record has worsened, human rights violations are frequently committed by the government or on behalf of the government. Freedom of speech, press, assembly, and association are limited and those that practice unregistered religions, try to flee the nation, or escape military duty are arrested and put into prison. According to Amnesty International Eritrea is one of the worlds most repressive countries, in recent years, there have been increasing measures to prevent worshipers from practicing their faith. Some of the most prosecuted are Jehovahs Witness, and members of Evangelical congregations, the Eritrean government has shut down their churches, and persecuted many members of the congregations. After independence, President Issias Afwerki’s administration denied all rights to Jehovahs Witnesses. No members could receive any government assistance, or use any government services, Jehovahs Witnesses are not allowed to obtain national identification cards, without which they are not allowed to participate in the political and social sphere of Eritrea. National identification cards permit citizens to participate in life, as well as in transactions with the government or any financial institution. The government began to informally allow Jehovahs Witness members to practice their faith within their home and they were still barred from practicing in any public space. Many families fled the country to seek asylum due to mass persecution. According to Amnesty International, there are currently 250 families that have left Eritrea to seek asylum abroad, domestic and international human rights organizations are not allowed to function in Eritrea. The registered, census-based religions are the Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church, the Roman Catholic Church, Eritrean Lutheran Church, all denominations of Christianity were given freedom of worship until 2002 when the government outlawed worship and assembly outside the registered denominations. Evangelical churches in Eritrea have been some of the most persecuted religious groups, for religious groups to participate and freely practice their faith they must apply for registration with the Department of Religious Affairs. The government has seized many churches and religious buildings, in 2003, there was a record number of arrests made on members of Evangelical churches
Censorship in Eritrea
–
Helen Berhane, an Eritrean singer, who has written of her experiences at the hands of the State, courtesy of Church in Chains
Censorship in Eritrea
–
Eritrea
4.
Censorship in Finland
–
Censorship in Finland refers to government policies in controlling and regulating certain information. In 1686, the office of Censor of Books, which was to monitor literature imported and published in Finland, was established, publishers had to get approval for their books. In the 19th century, the censors attacked the press, several newspapers were stopped soon after they came out. In 1829, a law was made about censorship, which increased the censorship. The law was in place until 1865, a committee was made to take care of it. Its president was the deputy chancellor of the university, during WW1 Russian censorship was carried out in the following cities, Helsinki, Tornio, Kuopio, Vaasa, Pori, Tampere, Turku, Rauma, Oulu and Viipuri. During the era of Russification in Finland, several Finnish newspapers were taken out of print, during the Second World War, a government agency was founded to administer censorship. In the immediate aftermath of the Continuation War, a number of books were withdrawn from public libraries because of Soviet pressure and this ban concerned mostly pre-war and wartime propaganda works which were considered anti-Soviet, but the books remained in free circulation in the second-hand market. In 1958, the memoirs Kommunisti sisäministerinä of former communist Minister of Interior Affairs Yrjö Leino were withdrawn from circulation, the book was republished in 1991. During the period of Finlandization, major Finnish publishers tended to avoid books that were thought to risk Soviet displeasure. For example, the first volume of the Finnish translation of Aleksander Solzhenitsyn’s The Gulag Archipelago was published in Sweden, Film censorship carried out by the government agency Finnish Board of Film Classification was abolished in 2001. However, the agency still rates all movies sold in Finland, in 2006, a new copyright law known as Lex Karpela set some restrictions on publishing information regarding copy protection schemes. Also in 2006, the government started Internet censorship by delivering Finnish ISPs a secret blocking list maintained by Finnish police, implementation of the block was voluntary, but some ISPs implemented it. The Ministry of Communications has commented that filtering is voluntary for ISPs as long as they do not refuse, the blacklist is provided by Finnish police and should contain only foreign sites. Technically filtering was planned to be URI based, like the United Kingdom’s Cleanfeed, a majority of these censored Internet sites, however, do not actually seem to be censored by the Finnish ISPs due to actual child pornography, but due to “normal” adult pornography instead. Most of the sites are also located in EU or United States where child pornography is strictly illegal anyway. On 12 February 2008, Nikki’s page was added to the National Bureau of Investigation’s blacklist. As the list was compiled using links from sites, this list does not tell anything about the last third of the blocked sites
Censorship in Finland
–
Lapsiporno.info block announcement as seen from the network maintained by ISP Welho
5.
Censorship in France
–
There was a strong governmental control over radio and television in the 1950-70s. Furthermore, other laws prohibit homophobic hate speech, and a 1970 law prohibits the advocacy of illegal drugs, each of these laws have been criticized by some groups, either from the left or from the far right. Although a fair amount of historians are opposed to such laws, few advocate their repeal insofar as they estimate that once they have been voted, repealing them would be a greater evil. Most recently, several events ordered by Nicolas Sarkozy, then-Interior Minister and former President of the Republic, have criticized as forms of censorship. Censorship in France may be traced to the middle ages, in 1275 Philip III of France put Parisian scriptoria under the control of the University of Paris which inspected manuscript books to verify that they were correctly copied. Correctness of text, not content, was the concern until the early 16th century, in 1526, the Parlement of Paris and the Sorbonne issued a ban on the publishing of the Bible in French. On January 13,1535, a statute was enacted forbidding all printing under threat of hanging and closing all bookshops. This law was abandoned, and Parlement formed a commission to review book printing. In 1536 it was ordered that all medical books must be approved by the Medical Faculty of the University, in 1544, the University banned the printing of any book not approved by the appropriate University officials. In 1543, the Faculty of Theology issued its first Index of prohibited books, all religious, the state control was strengthened in 1571 by the edict of Gaillon which placed enforcement of the censorship laws in the Chancellors office instead of the University. The concern of the censors was heresy, sedition and personal libel until 1629, the government was never so much concerned about looseness of morals as it was about freedom of thought. Manuscripts had to be approved by the Chancellor before publication and a register of permits was maintained, during the 17th century, the University and the state fought over control of censorship, which was haphazard. In 1653, the University was stripped of authority and replaced by royal censors, the royal censors office expanded in the 18th century and banned hundreds of titles. Books that were approved were required to include the censors name, censorship was eventually under the authority of the office of the Director of the Book Trade, the most famous of which was Lamoignon de Malesherbes. Penalties for violations ranged from confiscation of books often were burned, fines, imprisonment. In the later 18th century these rules were evaded by printers and booksellers. The new law swept away a swathe of earlier statutes, stating at the outset the principle that Printing, following Auguste Vaillants assassination attempt, the first anti-terrorist laws was voted in 1893, which were quickly denounced as lois scélérates. These laws severely restricted freedom of expression, the first one condemned apology of any felony or crime as a felony itself, permitting widespread censorship of the press
Censorship in France
–
A censor's approval in a play printed in Paris in 1746,
De Boissy's Le Medecin par Occasion
6.
Censorship in East Germany
–
As with many Soviet-allied countries prior to the fall of the Berlin Wall, the government of the former German Democratic Republic applied wide censorship during its existence from 1949 to 1990. Soviet Military Administration in Germany organised Censorship in East Germany in 1945 and its president was Sergei Ivanovich Tiulpanov. The list of banned books was published in 1946,1947 and 1948, the original 1949 version of the East German constitution did not provide for censorship of the press, but did guarantee in article 9, section 2 that censorship of the media is not to occur. The freedom of press, broadcasting and television is warranted, despite this, both official and unofficial censorship occurred throughout the history of the GDR, although to a lessened extent during its later years. All publications in the media, the arts, or culture were governmentally controlled, to ensure that the system of censorship was complete, potential publications had to pass through different instances of censorship. Two stages were the outer and the inner censorship, the outer censorship consisted of the pre-censorship of the publishing companies. The censor analyzed the manuscript in the aspect of the socialist ideology, afterwards the whole work was again analyzed for ideology hostile to the current governmental ideology by a committee of the publishing company. This kind of censorship was done and supervised by two organizations which supervised the censorship of literature. The first one has been the office for publishing companies and bookselling trade. The HV decided about the degree of censorship and the way of publishing and marketing the work. The Bureau for Copyright appraised the work, then decided if the book or another publication was allowed to be published in countries as well as the GDR. This censorship existed within all layers of the GDR, every business and organisation was affected by it. Party members were in all institutions and held key positions, sometimes censorship was done directly by the Politbüro, especially if it did not fit to the ideology of the day. All publishers, as well as all public venues and exhibitions of art, before a novel could be published or a play could be performed, it had to be submitted to censors for review. Content which was considered harmful to the regime, or to communist ideologies in general, was strictly forbidden, the definition of what could be harmful included a number of different categories. Most directly, criticism of communism was not tolerated and this included any criticisms of communism in general, as well as discussion of the contemporary regimes of the GDR and the Soviet Union, and usually of other Soviet-allied states. It also included discussion of the Stasis activities and methods, similarly, ideas which were sympathetic of capitalism or fascism, which were seen as the two enemies of communism, were not allowed. Any idea which encouraged resistance to the government, such as conscientious objection, was not to be discussed, negative portrayals of the GDR were censored as well
Censorship in East Germany
–
Media regulation
7.
Censorship in the Federal Republic of Germany
–
The Federal Republic of Germany guarantees freedom of speech, expression, and opinion to its citizens as per Article 5 of the constitution. In 2014 the Reporters Without Borders Press Freedom Index ranked Germany as 14th in the world in terms of press freedom, during the Allied occupation of Germany, the media was controlled by the occupying forces. The policy rationales differed among the powers, but there was resentment in literary. Undesired publishing efforts were blocked by the occupying forces. Since the publication of the German Grundgesetz, there have two kinds of censored media in Germany. The first is material that is considered offensive or indecent, such media are placed on the Index and restricted in their publication, the second is material that is considered anti-constitutional, dangerous to the state. The underlying concept is streitbare Demokratie that legally hinders the rise of all anti-constitutional, the media concerned are banned outright, with criminal penalties for infringements. An example is the ban on material which supports National Socialism. During Allied occupation of West Germany in the years following World War II, although no formal censorship process was in place, the Allies—particularly the Americans—carefully monitored emerging literature for content they considered harmful. Sympathy with the Nazi cause and criticism of the occupation were considered worthy of censorship, the U. S. Army took control of German media. Its main mission was democratization but the agenda included the prohibition on any criticism of the Allied occupation forces. In addition, on May 13,1946 the Allied Control council issued a directive for the confiscation of all media that could contribute to Nazism or militarism. As a consequence a list was drawn up of over 30,000 book titles, ranging from school textbooks to poetry, all copies of books on the list were confiscated and destroyed, the possession of a book on the list was made a punishable offense. All the millions of copies of books were to be confiscated and destroyed. The representative of the Military Directorate admitted that the order was in no different from the Nazi book burnings. The censorship in the U. S. zone was regulated by the occupation directive JCS1067 and in the May 1946 order valid for all zones,4, No.4 - Confiscation of Literature and Material of a Nazi and Militarist Nature. All confiscated literature was reduced to pulp instead of burning and it was also directed by Directive No. 30, Liquidation of German Military and Nazi Memorials and Museums, an exception was made for tombstones erected at the places where members of regular formations died on the field of battle
Censorship in the Federal Republic of Germany
–
Media regulation
8.
Censorship in India
–
In general, censorship in India, which involves the suppression of speech or other public communication, raises issues of freedom of speech, which is protected by the Indian constitution. In 2017, the Freedom in the World report by Freedom House gave India a freedom rating of 2.5, a civil liberties rating of 3, the rating scale runs from 1 to 7. Watching or possessing pornographic materials is legal, however distribution of such materials is strictly banned. The Central Board of Film Certification allows release of films with sexual content. Indias public television broadcaster, Doordarshan, has aired these films at late-night timeslots, films, television shows and music videos are prone to scene cuts or even bans, however if any literature is banned, it is not usually for pornographic reasons. Most non-Indian publications are usually harder to find, whether softcore or hardcore, mailing pornographic magazines to India from a country where they are legal is also illegal in India. In practice, the magazines are almost always confiscated by Customs and entered as evidence of law-breaking, the Official Secrets Act 1923 is used for the protection of official information, mainly related to national security. The Indian Press currently enjoys extensive freedom, the Freedom Of Speech, mandated by the constitution guarantees and safeguards the freedom of press. However, the freedom of press was not always as robust as today, in 1975, the Indira Gandhi government imposed censorship of press during The Emergency. It was removed at the end of rule in March 1977. In 1988 ‘defamation bill’ introduced by Rajiv Gandhi but it was withdrawn due to strong opposition to it. On 2 October 2016 the Srinagar-based Kashmiri newspaper, Kashmir Reader was asked to stop production by the Jammu and Kashmir government. Journalists have decried this as a clampdown on freedom of expression and democracy in Kashmir, hurriyat leaders, known to champion the cause of Kashmiri independence, also recorded their protests against the banning of the newspaper. The Supreme Court while delivering judgement in Sportsworld case in 2014 held that A picture of a nude/semi-nude woman, cannot per se be called obscene. The court decreed the cuts unconstitutional and the film was shown uncut. and he resigned within a year after taking charge of the censor board after facing widespread criticism of his moves. In 2003, the Indian Censor Board banned the film Gulabi Aaina, the censor board cited that the film was vulgar and offensive. The filmmaker appealed twice again unsuccessfully, the film still remains banned in India, but has screened at numerous festivals all over the world and won awards. The critics have applauded it for its sensitive and touching portrayal of marginalised community, in 2004, the documentary Final Solution, which looks at religious rioting between Hindus and Muslims, was banned
Censorship in India
–
Media regulation
9.
Censorship in the Republic of Ireland
–
In Ireland, the state retains laws that allow for censorship, including specific laws covering films, advertisements, newspapers and magazines, as well as terrorism and pornography. In the early years of the state, censorship was enforced, particularly in areas that were perceived to be in contradiction of Catholic dogma, including abortion. The Republic of Irelands Film Censors Office, renamed in 2008 as the Irish Film Classification Office, heavily cut films and videos for rental release, advertisements are regulated by the Advertising Standards Authority for Ireland, and must be truthful and factually accurate. In addition, adverts for illegal services are not allowed, the ASAI is a voluntary industry body which has no statutory powers and has no power to remove a publication from circulation. This power is vested in the Censorship of Publications Board, given the status of the ASAI some advertisers choose to continually ignore its rulings by running controversial advertisements purely to draw attention to their products and services. Whilst still theoretically censorable, newspapers and magazines are free to publish anything which does not break Irelands tough libel laws, the Censorship of Publications Board reviews newspapers and magazines referred to it by the Customs and Excise and by members of the public. In 2011, Paul Raymond Publications made an appeal against the ban on 5 of their publications, the appeal was upheld, meaning that these publications can be freely sold. Hardcore pornography, while legal in Ireland, is not allowed to any acts that are illegal in the state. This covers any participants being beneath the Irish age of consent, if any of these are in a video, DVD, film, photograph or website, use and possession of them is illegal. In the 1960s, the Roman Catholic Church via Archbishop John Charles McQuaid lobbied the Irish government to have pornography banned outright, the government-controlled IE Domain Registry currently has a ban on all domain names it considers offensive or contrary to public policy or generally accepted principles of morality. In particular, the domains Pornography. ie and Porn. ie are known to be banned and this Act was passed by 78–71 in December 2010 in partial response to the 2008–2010 Irish banking crisis. Section 60 provides that the Irish government may apply to the courts for an order made under the Act to be heard in private. Days after the Act was passed, an order was sought by minister Brian Lenihan, Jnr and approved allowing a transfer of over €3,700,000,000 into Allied Irish Bank, then an insolvent bank. Two Irish Times reporters were expelled from the court by judge Maureen Clark just before the hearing, blasphemy is required to be prohibited by Article 40.6.1. i. of the 1937 Constitution. The common law offence of blasphemous libel, applicable only to Christianity, since banning blasphemy is mandated by the Constitution, abolishing the offence would require a referendum. The law includes the offence of blasphemous libel and it has yet to be enforced. The continued existence of an offence is controversial, with proponents of freedom of speech. The government formed in 2016 has committed to holding a referendum on abolishing the constitutional offence, the advocacy group Atheist Ireland responded to the enactment by announcing the formation of the Church of Dermotology
Censorship in the Republic of Ireland
–
Envelope from Dublin to USA showing a bilingual Irish censor handstamp used 8 September 1939, just six days after the enabling legislation was enacted
10.
Censorship in Italy
–
In Italy, freedom of press is guaranteed by the Italian Constitution of 1948. Censorship in Italy has been applied especially during the Fascist Regime of Benito Mussolini, censorship in Italy was not created with Fascism, nor did it end with it, but it had heavy influence in the life of Italians under the Regime. The main goals were, concisely, Control over the appearance of the regime, also obtained with the deletion of any content that could allow opposition, suspicions. Constant check of the opinion as a measure of consensus. Censorship fought ideological and defeatist contents, and any work or content that could enforce disturbing cultural themes. This branch of the activity was mainly ruled by the Ministero della Cultura Popolare and this administration had competence on all the contents that could appear in newspapers, radio, literature, theatre, cinema, and generally any other form of communication or art. Reminiscences of this ban could be detected in the dubbing of all foreign movies broadcast on RAI, censorship did not however impose heavy limits on foreign literature, and many of the foreigner authors were freely readable. Those authors could freely frequent Italy and even write about it, the same happened for the books that were sequestrated. All these texts could be read under authorization for scientific or cultural purposes, to avoid police inspections, many librarians preferred to hide or privately sell the texts, which in many cases were found at the end of the war. It has been said that Italian press self-censored itself before the commission could do it. A well known Italian journalist writer, Ennio Flaiano, certainly an anti-fascist, independent press used clandestine print and distribution, and were mainly connected with the activities of local political groups. Fascist censorship promoted papers with wider attention to mere chronology of delicate political moments, Press then created monsters or focused on other terrifying figures. When needed, an image of a safe ordered State was instead to be stressed, then police were able to all the criminals and, as a famous topic says. All these maneuvers were commonly directed by MinCulPop directly, about satire and related press, Fascism was not more severe, and in fact a famous magazine, MarcAurelio, was able to live with little trouble. MarcAurelio however would have turned to a more integrated tone during the following years, quite obviously, any telephone call was at risk of being intercepted and, sometimes, interrupted by censors. Not all the letters were opened, but not all read by censors had the regular stamp that recorded the executed control. Most of the censorship was not declared, to secretly consent further police investigations. Consequently, after the first cases, people commonly avoided talking publicly, the greatest amount of documents about fascist censorship comes from the military commissions for censorship
Censorship in Italy
–
Synthesis of Freedom House annual data related to Italy about the freedom of press reports from 1980 to 2013.
11.
Censorship in Myanmar
–
Censorship in Myanmar results from government policies in controlling and regulating certain information, particularly on religious, ethnic, political, and moral grounds. Freedom of speech and the press are not guaranteed by law, many colonial-era laws regulating the press and information continue to be used. Until August 2012 every publication required pre-approval by the Press Scrutiny, Burma ranked 151st of 179 nations in the 2012–2013 worldwide Press Freedom Index from Reporters Without Borders. During the reign of King Mindon Min of Burmas last dynasty, the Konbaung dynasty, the Seventeen Articles, passed in 1873 safeguarded freedom of the press. In 1878, after Lower Burma was annexed by Great Britain, the Vernacular Press Act was passed, in 1898, the Criminal Procedure Code allowed the government to convict people for treason and sedition on grounds of disseminating false information against the state. Soon after, in 1908, the Unlawful Associations Act, was enacted to further freedom of expression. The Official Secrets Act was passed in 1923, which makes it unlawful for any person to possess classified information from the state, a decade later, the Burma Wireless Telegraphy Act was passed, criminalising possession of telegraphs without government permission. However, there were numerous publications in circulation during the colonial era, in 1911, there were 44 periodicals and newspapers in circulation, and 103 in 1921. By the end of the 1930s, there were over 200 newspapers and periodicals in circulation, the Constitution of the Union of Burma guaranteed freedom of expression, guaranteeing the liberties of thought and expression. Two years later, the Emergency Provisions Act, which criminalised the spreading of false news knowingly, despite the law, in the 1950s, Burma had one of the freest presses in Asia, with 30 daily newspapers. After the military coup détat by Ne Win in 1962, the Printers and Publishers Registration Law was enacted. This law, still in function, requires all printers and publishers to register and submit copies of their publications to the Press Scrutiny Board, under the Ministry of Home and Religious Affairs. The Memorandum to all Printers and Publishers Concerning the Submission of Manuscripts for Scrutiny was issued by the Printers and Publishers Central Registration Board. That same year, the State Protection Law was issued, allowing authorities to any persons who have been suspected of being a threat to national peace. This law has been the basis for the arrests of many journalists, martial law orders have since been repealed. In 1996, several laws were passed to control dissemination of information in Burma. In addition, it illegalised acts of demeaning the National Convention, films are subject to censorship by the Motion Picture Censor Board. In addition, The Computer Science Development Law was passed, under this law, all computer equipment must be approved by the Ministry of Communications, Posts, and Telegraphs
Censorship in Myanmar
–
The scanned image of a front page from a Burmese newspaper shows a censor's edits in red.
12.
Censorship in Pakistan
–
The Pakistani Constitution limits Censorship in Pakistan, but allows reasonable restrictions in the interests of the sovereignty and integrity of Pakistan or public order or morality. Press freedom in Pakistan is limited by official censorship that restricts critical reporting, the armed forces, the judiciary, and religion are topics that frequently attract the governments attention. Hence, it has several pro-Muslim laws in its Constitution, Freedom House ranked Pakistan 134th out of 196 countries in its 2010 Freedom of the Press Survey. Pakistans score was 61 on a scale from 1 to 100, reporters Without Borders put Pakistan 151st out of the 178 countries ranked in its 2010 Press Freedom Index and named Pakistan as one of ten countries where it is not good to be a journalist. These are among the most dangerous countries in the world, and the Close-up on Asia section of the same report, goes on to say, In Afghanistan and in Pakistan, Islamist groups bear much of the responsibility for their country’s pitifully low ranking. Suicide bombings and abductions make working as a journalist an increasingly dangerous occupation in this area of South Asia, and the State has not slackened its arrests of investigative journalists, which sometimes more closely resemble kidnappings. Newspapers, television, and radio are regulated by the Pakistan Electronic Media Regulatory Authority, the Blasphemy law can bring fines and prison sentences of up to three years, while defiling the Quran requires imprisonment for life, and defaming Muhammad requires a death sentence. While some journalists practice self-censorship, a range of privately owned daily and weekly newspapers and magazines provide diverse. The government controls the Pakistan Television and Radio Pakistan, the only free-to-air broadcast outlets with a national reach, private radio stations operate in some major cities, but are prohibited from broadcasting news programming. International television and radio broadcasts are available, with the important exception of a complete blockade of Indian television news channels. Authorities sometimes exert control over media content through unofficial “guidance” to newspaper editors on placement of stories or topics than may be covered and it is not unheard of to pay for favorable press coverage, a practice that is exacerbated by the low salary levels of many journalists. The government continues to restrict and censor some published material, foreign books need to pass government censors before being reprinted. Books and magazines can be imported freely, but are subject to censorship for objectionable sexual or religious content, obscene literature, a category the government defines broadly, is subject to seizure. Showing Indian films in Pakistan was banned starting with the 1965 war between the two countries until 2008 when the ban was partially lifted, in Pakistan’s restive Balochistan province reporters are caught between the Balochi nationalists and the government. On 22 April 2007 PEMRA threatened the private television channel AaJ TV with closure for airing news, talk shows, and other programs that discussed the then current judicial crisis. During March 2009 demonstrations demanding the reinstatement of Chief Justice Iftikhar Chaudhry, authorities shut down the cable service of Geo TV. In October 2009 four television channels were blocked for several hours in the wake of a terrorist attack on the army headquarters in October 2009. Following the takeover of the Swat Valley by Islamic militants, cable television broadcasting was banned, in August 2009, the Daily Asaap, Balochistan’s widely circulated Urdu-language newspaper, suspended publication, citing harassment from the security forces
Censorship in Pakistan
–
Internet users in Pakistan are prompted with this message when accessing blocked websites.
13.
Censorship in Paraguay
–
Paraguay has the lowest fixed-line telephone density in South America, with 5.6 lines per 100 residents, compared with 8.7 per 100 in Bolivia,21.9 in Brazil, and 24.9 in Argentina. The state-owned Corporación Paraguaya de Comunicaciones is known for inefficiency and overstaffing, privatization was attempted in 2002, but failed in the midst of the banking scandal. Individuals criticize the government publicly and privately, generally without reprisal or impediment, there are no government restrictions on access to the Internet or credible reports that the government monitored e-mail or Internet chat rooms. Individuals and groups could engage in the expression of views via the Internet and he also asked the telecoms watchdog CONATEL to withdraw the licences of all stations implicated in what he termed illegal acts, without specifying what they were. Media of Paraguay List of internet service providers in Paraguay List of radio stations in Paraguay Telephone numbers in Paraguay
Censorship in Paraguay
–
Media regulation
14.
Censorship in Portugal
–
Censorship has been a fundamental element of Portuguese national culture throughout the countrys history. From its earliest history Portugal was subject to laws limiting freedom of expression and this was mainly due to the influence of the Church since the time of Ferdinand I, who requested that Pope Gregory XI institute episcopal censorship. Later, the censorship would also apply to the publication of other written works, in fact, every political regime was very careful with the legislation related to the area of press freedom—in most cases restricting it. In the five centuries of the history of Portuguese press, four were marked by censorship, Portuguese history was marked by many forms of intellectual persecution. Those who dared to express thoughts that were contrary to official discourse were frequently punished with prison or public death. Later, there is mention of suppression by Manuel I of the distribution of Lutheran texts, three types of censorship thus became evident, ecclesiastical, royal, and ordinary. The earliest existing documentation of publication licences refer to the works of Baltasar Días in 1537 as well as to the Cartinha, an introduction to João de Barros Grammar, in 1539. In 1598, the General Inquisitor António de Matos Noronha conceded this privilege to other clerical orders, the Index virtually reproduced the lists of books proscribed by the Sorbonne in 1544 and by the Université catholique de Louvain in 1546. As a consequence of the Inquisitions discovery that foreign-born professors were in possession of prohibited books and they began to verify the orthodoxy of books entering the country in greater detail. Such severity, even for those times, brought a wave of panic to European booksellers, dealers, on October 21,1561, the Grand Inquisitor defined the duties of the Carrack inspectors, who would inspect the works brought from foreign lands by sea. Censorship efforts in Portugal were openly recognized by Pope Pius IV, the Portuguese friar was the author of the rules that preceded the Synods Index, published by Pope Paul V, and that would later be used in all upcoming Indexes. The Index of Trent was published in the Portuguese capital of Lisbon in the same year and this list would be added to all subsequent editions of the Index in Portugal. King Sebastian of Portugal, enacting a law on June 18,1571, had an important role in censorship legislation defining the civil penalties for Index infractors. He defined a fine of from a fourth to a half of the infractors legal possessions, death sentences were also not uncommon. Apprehended books were burned and burnings were supervised by clerics, in 1581, Jorge de Almeida, Archbishop of Lisbon, published a new Index in which the Tridentine document is reprinted. In 1596, Pope Clement VIII publishes an Index, the last one of the century, the Philippine Orders of 1603, from Philip IIs regency, reaffirm the mandatory character civil preventive censorship, as had been established by King Sebastian. This Index would be in use until the 18th century, a decree of April 29,1722 created a memorable and unique exception to this regulations, by freeing the Royal Academy of History from any kind of censorship, especially Inquisitional. With the establishment of the regime in Portugal, the Inquisition came to an end
Censorship in Portugal
–
Pope Paul V, promoter of the first Roman Index, known for his severity and inspired by Portuguese censorship regulations
Censorship in Portugal
–
Catalog of the books which are forbidden in this Kingdoms and Lordships of Portugal. 1581
Censorship in Portugal
–
The Vilafrancada, Led by
Miguel of Portugal would bring to an end the short period of freedom enjoyed during the
Liberalism.
Censorship in Portugal
–
Among the most outspoken intellectuals against censorship we find
Almeida Garrett,
Alexandre Herculano and José Estêvão de Magalhães.
15.
Censorship in the Soviet Union
–
Censorship in the Soviet Union was pervasive and strictly enforced. The Soviet government implemented mass destruction of pre-revolutionary and foreign books, only special collections, accessible by special permit granted by the KGB, contained old and politically incorrect material. Towards the end of Soviet rule, perestroika led to loosened restrictions on information, Soviet books and journals also disappeared from libraries according to changes in Soviet history. Often Soviet citizens preferred to destroy politically incorrect publications and photos, works of print such as the press, advertisements, product labels, and books were censored by Glavlit, an agency established on June—6,1922, to safeguard top secret information from foreign entities. From 1932 until 1952, the promulgation of socialist realism was the target of Glavlit in bowdlerizing works of print, while Anti-Westernization and nationalism were common tropes for that goal. To limit peasant revolts over the Holodomor, themes involving shortages of food were expunged. ”As peasant uprisings defined pre-World War II Soviet censorship, nationalism defined the period during the war. Defeats of the Red Army in literature were forbidden, as were depictions of trepidation in Soviet military characters. ”Since Stalin regularly read Pravda, which was itself censored by Glavlit, it was wise for an author to obey Pravda’s advice. Also, Joseph Stalin handpicked who received the Stalin Prize, further incentivizing an author’s pandering to Stalin’s tastes, besides the obvious risks involved with disregarding them. With the start of the Cold War a curse on the Anti-Westernization was proclaimed, religious intolerance and atheism was another goal of post-World War II censorship, and was an extension of Anti-Westernization. In the childrens novel Virgin Soil Upturned, references to God making mist out of tears shed by the poor, the “Khrushchev Thaw beginning in 1953 with Stalins death brought liberation of previously banned literature, and greater liberty to the authors writing during this time. Glavlit’s authority to censor literature decreased after they became attached to the USSR Council of Ministers in 1953. ”Anti-Westernization was also suppressed, however, censorship was not completely absent from this era. Emmanuil Kazakevich’s 1962 novel, Spring on the Oder, was injected in 1963 with descriptions of American bigotry, selfishness. These examples of Anti-Westernization indicate that works were still expurgated for propaganda, repressed persons were routinely removed not only from texts, but also from photos, posters and paintings. Censorship of film was commonplace since the USSR’s inception, beginning with the Russian Civil War, censoring film effectively advanced socialist realism, a mode of art production that positively portrays socialism and constituents of socialist nations. Film censorship peaked during the rule of Stalin, acting as the chief censor for films, Stalin was demanding meticulous revisions in a way befitting his interpretation, as if a co-author. One famous letter Stalin wrote to Alexander Dovzhenko pertained to The Great Citizen, Stalins letter made several intrusive revisions on the characters, props, and vital scenes such that the entire film needed restructuring. More moderate cases were recorded, such as a picture by Ivan Pyryev, however, movies which Stalin thought did not cohere with socialist realism were denied being released to the public, The Party Card was not such a film. This picture’s screenplay was written during the time of a campaign to renew individual party cards
Censorship in the Soviet Union
–
Nikolai Yezhov, the man strolling to
Joseph Stalin 's left, was executed in 1940. Soviet censors
edited him out of the photo. Such retouching occurred commonly during Stalin's rule.
Censorship in the Soviet Union
–
Soviet Union
Censorship in the Soviet Union
16.
Censorship in the Russian Empire
–
In the Russian Empire, government agencies exerted varying levels of control over the content and dissemination of books, periodicals, music, theatrical productions, works of art, and motion pictures. The agency in charge of censorship in the Russian Empire changed over time, in the early eighteenth century, the Russian emperor had direct control, but by the end of the eighteenth century, censorship was delegated to the Synod, the Senate, and the Academy of Sciences. Beginning in the century, it fell under the charge of the Ministry of Education. The history of censorship in the Russia began long before the emergence of the empire, the first book containing an index of prohibited works dates to the year 1073, in Kievan Rus. For several centuries these were translations of censorship lists from other languages. The number of indices increased steadily until the beginning of the sixteenth century, significant changes in censorship policy occurred over the course of the imperial period. The reforms of Peter I marked the beginning of the separation between ecclesiastical and secular censorship, a greater delineation of the responsibilities of censorship organizations took place in the reign of Empress Elizabeth. The period of Elizabeths reign is notable for the appearance of the first private journals. Paul I, Catherines son, continued the business of his predecessor, Alexander I, however, reversed some of these policies and weakened the censorship. In the second half of the century, under Alexander III. Many classics of Russian literature were affected by censorship, and the censor was regularly represented as a grotesque figure, Imperial censorship was followed by Soviet censorship, which adopted many of its features and continued until 1990. Censorship in Russia dates back to long before the codified legal censorship of the Russian Empire. The first known list of banned books is found in the Izbornik of 1073, when much of what is now European Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus was governed by a polity known as Rus, centered in Kiev. Most historians agree that the Russian version was made by order of Grand Duke Izyaslav Yaroslavich, the second translated work containing an index of prohibited books was the Taktikon by the monk Nikon Chernogorets. The historian D. Bulanin M. notes that work was so popular in Rus that rarely did a book or original medieval composition not contain excerpts from the Pandects or the Taktikon. Nikons articles were at an early date included in Slavic legal codes and they became especially popular in the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries, the writers of the time constantly refer to Nikon and include excerpts from his works. The first native Slavic list of banned books is thought to be the index included in the Pogodinsky Nomokanon and this was the first list to include works by a Slavic author, the Bulgarian priest Jeremiah, including his Story about a Red Tree and some other works. The index also prohibited religious texts that were popular among the so-called Judaizers, Shestokryl, Logic
Censorship in the Russian Empire
–
Page from the 1073 Izbornik
Censorship in the Russian Empire
–
The title page of the Stoglav
Censorship in the Russian Empire
–
Title page of the Ecclesiastical Regulations (Духовный регламент)
Censorship in the Russian Empire
–
"Review of correspondence from the theater of war by military censors", an illustration from the journal Priroda i liudi, May 28, 1915
17.
Censorship in Saudi Arabia
–
Books, newspapers, magazines, broadcast media and Internet access are censored in Saudi Arabia. The Royal Decree On Press and Publications set up the government regulation of Saudi books, newspapers and magazines. In 1992 the Basic Law of Governance was enacted as an informal Constitution and it is prohibited to commit acts leading to disorder and division, affecting the security of the state and its public relations, or undermining human dignity and rights. Details shall be specified in the Law, the Ministry of Interior has responsibility for all the Saudi media and other channels of information. The ministry has been called the agent of censorship in the kingdom. It is charged with the purification of culture prior to it being permitted circulation to the public, a special unit, the Management of Publications department, analyzes all publications and issues directives to newspapers and magazines stating that way in which a given topic must be treated. The main effect of this system has been to impose on journalists rigorous self- censorship, Saudi Arabia directs all international Internet traffic through a proxy farm located in King Abdulaziz City for Science & Technology. A content filter is implemented there, based on software by Secure Computing, since October 2006, the Communications and Information Technology Commission has been handling the DNS structure and filtering in Saudi Arabia in the place of KACST. An interesting feature of system is that citizens are encouraged to actively report immoral sites for blocking, using a provided web form. The initial legal basis for content filtering is the resolution by Council of Ministers dated 12 February 2001 and this resolution was subsequently modified and expanded into The Anti-Cyber Crime Law. On 11 July 2006 the Saudi government blocked access to Wikipedia and Google Translate, in 2011, the Saudi government introduced new Internet rules and regulations that require all online newspapers and bloggers to obtain a special license from the Ministry of Culture and Information. Many articles from the English and Arabic Wikipedia projects are censored in Saudi Arabia with no given explanation, as of 2014, Saudi Arabia has plans to regulate local companies producing input for YouTube. The General Authority for Audiovisual Media, a recently formed watchdog, any speech or public demonstration that is deemed to be immoral or critical of the government, especially the royal family, can lead to imprisonment or corporal punishment. Saudi and foreign newspapers and magazines, including advertising, are controlled by censorship officials to remove content that is offensive. Newspapers and magazines must not offend or criticize the Wahabi Muslims and especially The Royal family, censorship of foreign newspapers and magazines tends to focus on content of sexual nature. Even advertising for driving classes for women is banned, in keep with the ban in the kingdom, in 1994, all Saudi women magazines were banned by the Ministry of Information. This move was considered to be related to the pressures of the establishment or ulema. After this ban, nineteen of twenty-four magazines closed down since their major revenue was advertisement earnings paid by the Saudi companies, public cinemas have been illegal since the 1980s when conservative clerics deemed cinemas to be a waste of time and a corrupting influence
Censorship in Saudi Arabia
–
An
Arabic Wikipedia article regarding
evolution censored in Saudi Arabia
18.
Censorship in Somalia
–
Low literacy rates in Somalia, estimated at between 17% and 19%, also greatly impact the effect of propaganda within the country. But at least theres a window, islamists dismiss such allegations as Western propaganda, though some concede that the council is struggling to strike a balance between its moderate and fundamentalist factions. Al Qaeda, for their part, have not been silent on the issue, external powers such as Ethiopia and Eritrea have also been accused of propaganda to drum up domestic support for the conflict. Eritrea even claims the assertions it has involved in Somalia is part of a disinformation campaign being waged against it by Ethiopia. Most of these reports were alleged to be transmitted by Shabelle Media Network and other organizations controlled by the Habr Gidir Ayr sub-clan. One of the greatest debates has been over the presence or quantity of troops of the external powers involved. One claim by the ICU put the number of Ethiopian troops at 35,000, Ethiopia consistently insisted it had a few hundred advisors in the country until it increased its admission to 3,000 -4,000. Independent claims put Ethiopian strength at anywhere between 8,000 and 20,000, Eritrea consistently denies presence of any troops in the country, though the TFG and Ethiopia both consistently accuse it of having up to 2,000 troops in Somalia. Other assertions include a range of other nations contributing troops. Casualty reports have also conflicted, where one side might claim to have lost only a few troops while the opponent claimed to have inflicted hundreds. The positions of advance have also disputed, such as one report where the ICU claimed to be within 10 km of Baidoa. Such claims and counter-claims have been common in the conflict, Media manipulation, including the arrest of journalists and journalist union leaders, has been an issue in ICU-controlled areas of the country. The ICU also shut down East Africa and HornAfrik radio stations, in November 2007, the federal government and Ethiopian troops were crawing down of freedom of press. On January 15,2007, the TFG closed the stations for Shabelle Radio, Horn Afrik, IQK. They are using the media to undermine the government and they have been doing this for months. An employee of one of the broadcasters said the government doesnt want free media that really give people the real information and they dont want us to say the Ethiopian armies are supporting the government. The media ban was lifted the day, on January 16. Internet censorship and surveillance in Somalia List of journalists killed during the Somali civil war Media of Somalia Somali Civil War War in Somalia War in Somalia
Censorship in Somalia
–
v
19.
Censorship in Sweden
–
Sweden protects freedom of speech and was a pioneer in officially abolishing censorship. A number of restrictions such as child pornography, hate speech. Cinema films are subject of censorship, otherwise there is an afterwards legal process if applicable. Sweden was in 1766 the first country to introduce a law where censorship was abolished. The Law on the Freedom of Printing of 1766 was written by a committee of the parliament and this law was also the first in the world to make most documents of the state authorities open and available for the citizens. The most important founding father of this part of the Swedish constitution was Anders Chydenius who was a member of parliament in the ecclesiastical estate, the freedom of press is also guaranteed in the Free Press Statute of 1812. After an interlude between 1772-1809, with royal dictatorship and renewed suppression, the freedom of the press was reintroduced by the parliament in the Constitution of 1809-10. Not only is a censoring authority illegal, but also all forms of court injunctions. During the rule of king Charles XIV John the government had for a number of power to administratively prohibit the further publication of newspapers. This was relatively easily circumvented by the press by small changes of names. After the experiences during World War II a new Constitutional Law on the Freedom of Printing was decided by parliament in 1949. It gives a detailed constitutional protection of all steps in the way of a book or a newspaper from the protection of sources over the editing and printing to the distribution and the reading. It is not possible to take action against i. e. reporters, sources. The Swedish Constitution in this and a number of other ways gives very strong protection for the free word, Swedish law has a few criminal offences that concern misuse of the printed or spoken word. Among those is a law against hate speech, during World War II pressure from Germany caused the Swedish government to recommend Swedish publishers to not publish stories Germany may find biased. Minister of Justice Karl Gustaf Westman revived an old law, long considered obsolete, ture Nerman was sentenced to three months in jail in the winter of 1939 for an anti-Hitler column in his Trots allt. Another prominent anti-fascist Israel Holmgren was sentenced to jail by a Swedish court in 1942 for his book Nazisthelvetet, hermann Rauschnings book, The Voice of Destruction, was confiscated two hours after it left the press. These and other cases of suppression showed the need to strengthen the protection of the free press and this introduced a far stronger protection of the distribution of news, and it was with a few changes approved by parliament
Censorship in Sweden
–
Swedish sign for an officially designated
secure compound.
20.
Censorship in Thailand
–
Censorship in Thailand is very significant. Harassment, manipulation, and strict control of news was common under every government. Freedom of speech was guaranteed in the 1997 Constitution of Thailand, mechanisms for censorship have included strict lèse majesté laws, direct government/military control over the broadcast media, and the use of economic and political pressure. Criticism of the King is banned by the Constitution, although most lèse majesté cases have been directed at foreigners, Thailand ranked 59th out of 167 countries in 2004 and then fell to 107th out of 167 countries in 2005 in the worldwide Press Freedom Index from Reporters Without Borders. Thailands ranking fell to 153rd out of 178 in 2010 and rose to 137th out of 179 in 2011–2012, in the 2014 index, Thailand ranked 130 of 180 nations. Freedom of speech was guaranteed in the 1997 Constitution of Thailand and those guarantees continue in the 2007 Constitution, which states in part, Section 36, A person shall enjoy the liberty of communication by lawful means. Section 45, A person shall enjoy the liberty to express his or her opinion, make speeches, write, print, publicize, closure of a press house or radio or television station to deprive them of the liberty under this section shall not be made. Owner of a newspaper or other mass media business shall be a Thai national, No grant of money or other properties shall be given by the state as subsidies to private newspapers or other mass media. Section 26, In exercising powers of all authorities, regard shall be given to human dignity, rights. The first instance of censorship in Thailand occurred with the advent of the first printing press in the country, Thailands first law book was banned and all copies and the original manuscript were ordered destroyed. Many titles reflect their era of anti-communist fervor but were published both in Thailand and abroad in Thai, Chinese, Vietnamese, Korean, Bahasa, English, German, French, and Spanish. Historically, this and other acts have been used to restrict press freedom, especially during the military governments of Plaek Pibulsonggram, Sarit Dhanarajata. Books on Thai feudalism, the monarchy, and religion viewed by the Thai government as disruptive were banned, a student-led uprising in 1973 led to a brief period of press freedom, until a violent military crackdown in 1976 resulted in a major clamp-down. The 1980s saw the gradual thawing of press censorship, sarakadee Magazine has published a three part overview of book censorship in Thailand. Unless critical of the family, monarchy or sensitive government issues, foreign and domestic books normally are not censored. The Devils Discus by Rayne Kruger, a result of investigative reporting, curiously, neither the books Japanese or Thai translation have been banned. However, the first 16 pages of all extant copies of The Devils Discus in Thai have been excised, in addition, he was twice prime minister, a wartime underground hero who fought the Japanese occupation of Thailand, and the founder of Thammasat University. Vacharachais brother became the Thai translator of The Devils Discus in an attempt to clear his name, most Thais today have forgotten that Pridi Banomyong, the father of Thai democracy, died in exile
Censorship in Thailand
–
Censored character with bloodied face from
One Piece on Thai TV
Censorship in Thailand
–
The cover of
Tropico 5, a tropical dictator game banned by Thailand's Ministry of Culture in 2014.
21.
Censorship in Turkey
–
Media freedom in Turkey is regulated by domestic and international legislation, the latter taking precedence over domestic law, according to Article 90 of the Constitution. Despite legal provisions, media freedom in Turkey has steadily deteriorated from 2010 onwards, President Tayyip Erdogan has arrested hundreds of journalists, closed or taken over dozens of media outlets, and prevented journalists and their families from traveling. By some accounts, Turkey currently accounts for one-third of all journalists imprisoned around the world, since 2013, Freedom House ranks Turkey as Not Free. According to Freedom House, The government enacted new laws that expanded both the power to block websites and the surveillance capability of the National Intelligence Organization. Journalists faced unprecedented legal obstacles as the courts restricted reporting on corruption, the authorities also continued to aggressively use the penal code, criminal defamation laws, and the antiterrorism law to crack down on journalists and media outlets. Meanwhile, the government continued to use the financial and other leverage it holds over media owners to influence coverage of politically sensitive issues. In 2012 and 2013 the Committee to Protect Journalists ranked Turkey as the worst journalist jailer in the world, during its 12-year rule, the ruling AKP has gradually expanded its control over media. Today, numerous newspapers, TV channels and internet portals also dubbed as Yandaş Medya or Havuz Medyası continue their heavy pro-government propaganda, several media groups receive preferential treatment in exchange for AKP-friendly editorial policies. Some of these organizations were acquired by AKP-friendly businesses through questionable funds. Media not friendly to AKP, on the hand, are threatened with intimidation, inspections. These media group owners face similar threats to their other businesses, an increasing number of columnists have been fired for criticizing the AKP leadership. Regional censorship predates the establishment of the Republic of Turkey, on 15 February 1857, the Ottoman Empire issued law governing printing houses, books first had to be shown to the governor, who forwarded them to commission for education and the police. If no objection was made, the Sultanate would then inspect them, without censure from the Sultan books could not be legally issued. Between 1909 and 1913 four journalists were killed—Hasan Fehmi, Ahmet Samim, Zeki Bey, during World War II many newspapers were ordered shut, including the dailies Cumhuriyet, Tan, and Vatan. When the Democratic Party under Adnan Menderes came to power in 1950, the Press Law changed, sentences and fines were increased. Several newspapers were ordered shut, including the dailies Ulus, Hürriyet, Tercüman, in April 1960, a so-called investigation commission was established by the Grand National Assembly of Turkey. It was given the power to confiscate publications, close papers, anyone not following the decisions of the commission were subject to imprisonment, between one and three years. Freedom of speech was heavily restricted after the 1980 military coup headed by General Kenan Evren, during the 1980s and 1990s, broaching the topics of secularism, minority rights, and the role of the military in politics risked reprisal
Censorship in Turkey
–
2011 protests against internet censorship in Turkey
Censorship in Turkey
–
NTV broadcast van covered with protest graffiti during the
2013 protests in Turkey, in response to relative lack of coverage of mainstream media of the protests, 1 June 2013
Censorship in Turkey
–
The notification used by
TİB explaining why the particular website is blocked.
Censorship in Turkey
–
E2 television channel replaces tobacco products with a flower in order to avoid
RTÜK fines.
22.
Freedom of the press in Ukraine
–
Freedom of the press in Ukraine was considered in 2013 to be among the best of the post-Soviet states other than the Baltic states. Freedom House reported the status of freedom in Ukraine in 2015 as improving from Not Free to Partly Free. The level of government hostility and legal pressure faced by journalists decreased, the media also benefited from improvements to the law on access to information and the increased independence of the broadcasting regulator. As of September 2015, Freedom House classifies the Internet in Ukraine as partly free, Press freedom had significantly improved since the Orange Revolution of 2004. However, in 2010 Freedom House perceived negative trends in Ukraine, the Ukrainian legal framework on media freedom is deemed among the most progressive in eastern Europe, although implementation has been uneven. The Constitution of Ukraine and a 1991 law provide for freedom of speech, the entire staff of Ostrov left the occupied Donbass areas and relocated to Kiev. The report Freedom in the World rated Ukraine partly free since/from 1992 till 2003, since 2005 it is rated partly free again. According to Freedom House internet in Ukraine is Free and the press is Partly Free, Ukraines ranking in Reporters Without Borders´s Press Freedom Index has long been around the 90th spot, while it occupied the 112th spot in 2002 and even the 132nd spot in 2004. In 2013 Ukraine occupied the 126th spot, the worst record for the media since the Orange Revolution in 2004, in the 2014 World Press Freedom Index Ukraine was placed 127th. During an opinion poll by Research & Branding Group in October 200949. 2% of the stated that Ukraines level of freedom of speech was sufficient. Another 24. 2% said that there was too much of freedom of speech in Ukraine, in a late 2010 poll also conducted by the Research & Branding Group 56% of all Ukrainians trusted the media and 38. 5% didnt. After the term of office of the first Ukrainian President Leonid Kravchuk ended in 1994, during the presidency of Leonid Kuchma several news-outlets critical to the him were forcefully closed. In 1999 the Committee to Protect Journalists placed Kuchma on the list of worst enemys of the press, in 2003 and 2004 authorities interfered with the media by issuing written and oral instructions about what events to cover. Since the Orange Revolution Ukrainian media has become more pluralistic and independent, for instance, attempts by authorities to limit freedom of the press through tax inspections have ceased. Since then the Ukrainian press is considered to be among the freest of all post-Soviet states, after the 2005 Orange Revolution, Ukrainian television became more free. In 2007, in Ukraines provinces numerous, anonymous attacks and threats persisted against journalists, in Ukraines provinces numerous, anonymous attacks and threats persisted against journalists, who investigated or exposed corruption or other government misdeeds. Media watchdogs have stated attacks and pressure on journalists have increased since the February 2010 election of Viktor Yanukovych as President, Yanukovych responded that he deeply values press freedom and that free, independent media that must ensure societys unimpeded access to information. Anonymous journalists stated early May 2010 that they were voluntarily tailoring their coverage so as not to offend the Yanukovych administration, the Azarov Government denies censoring the media, so did the Presidential Administration and President Yanukovych himself
Freedom of the press in Ukraine
–
Georgiy Gongadze,
Ukrainian journalist, founder of a popular Internet newspaper
Ukrayinska Pravda, who was kidnapped and murdered in 2000.
Freedom of the press in Ukraine
–
Very serious situation Ukraine moved from "noticeable problems" (89th place) in 2009 to "difficult situation" (127th place) in 2014 in the
Press Freedom Index by
Reporters Without Borders.
Freedom of the press in Ukraine
–
Journalist documenting events at the Independence square. Clashes in Ukraine,
Kyiv. Events of February 18, 2014.
23.
Censorship in the United Kingdom
–
Censorship in the United Kingdom has a long history with variously stringent and lax laws in place at different times. British citizens have a right to freedom of expression under the common law. In 1998, the United Kingdom incorporated the European Convention, the Ministry of Information was created during the First World War and then reformed for the Second World War for propaganda purposes. In the Second World War it was located at the Senate House of the University of London, during the Second World War it was infamous for having a staff of 999. The Ministry was responsible for keeping much information out of the domain during the war years. It also censored many press reports that were not deemed to be sufficiently patriotic, the Ministry took over the General Post Office Film Unit, renaming it the Crown Film Unit. It produced documentaries such as Target for Tonight, Western Approaches and it also created a feature-length fictional film, 49th Parallel. Following this it solely created documentaries, although it also laid down guidelines for commercial films. The Ministry was disbanded following the end of the Second World War, a defence against the charge of obscenity on the grounds of literary merit was introduced in the Obscene Publications Act 1959. The OPA was tested in the obscenity trial brought against Penguin Books for publishing Lady Chatterleys Lover in 1960. The book was found to have merit, and Penguin Books was found not guilty – a ruling which granted far more freedom to publish explicit material. This trial did not establish the defence as an automatic right, several controversial books and publications were the subject of British court cases throughout the 1960s. Last Exit to Brooklyn, a 1964 novel by American author Hubert Selby, almost all adult stores in the UK are forbidden from having their goods in open display under the Indecent Displays Act 1981, which means the shop fronts are often boarded up or covered in posters. A warning sign must be shown at the entrance to the store. No customer can be under eighteen years old, censorship of stage plays was exercised by the Master of the Revels in England by about 1600 until the English Civil War in 1642. Plays had to be licensed by the Lord Chamberlain, in 1737, through the influence of the Duke of Grafton, the Shakespearian commentator Edward Capell was appointed with an annual salary of £200 as deputy-examiner of plays. This censorship by licensing requirement was abolished by the Theatres Act 1968. According to Rufus Osgood Mason, Charles Kemble, later in life and those that were approved were reported to the Lord Chamberlain who issued the license
Censorship in the United Kingdom
–
The Happy Land, before censorship, showing the singing, dancing members of Gladstone's government. Illustration by
D. H. Friston for
The Illustrated London News of 22 March 1873.
24.
Censorship in the United States
–
This freedom, though fundamental, has also been accompanied since its enshrinement with contest and controversy. For instance, restraints increased during periods of widespread anti-communist sentiment, according to Miller v. California, the U. S. Supreme Court found that the First Amendments freedom of speech does not apply to obscenity, which can, therefore, legally be censored. S. Legal expenses can sometimes be a significant unseen restraint where there may be fear of suit for libel, analysts from Reporters Without Borders ranked the United States 41st in the world out of 180 countries in terms in their Press Freedom Index from 2016. Certain forms of speech, such as obscenity and defamation, are restricted in major media outlets by the government or by the industry on its own. A celebrated legal case in 1734–1735 involved John Peter Zenger, a New York newspaper printer who regularly published material critical of corrupt then-Governor of New York and he was jailed eight months before being tried for seditious libel. Andrew Hamilton defended him and was famous for his speech, ending in. nature. While the judge ruled against his arguments, Hamilton invoked the concept of nullification in the cause of liberty. Beginning in the 1830s and until the American Civil War, the US Postmaster General refused to allow the mails to carry abolitionist pamphlets to the South, the Office of Censorship, an emergency wartime agency, heavily censored reporting during World War II. During World War I, and to an extent during World War II, war correspondents accompanied military forces. Byron Price was selected as the Director of Censorship, however, censorship was not limited to reporting, postal censorship also took place. Every letter that crossed international or U. S. territorial borders from December 1941 to August 1945 was subject to being opened and scoured for details, hundreds of Communists were prosecuted under this law between 1941 and 1957. Eleven leaders of the Communist Party were charged and convicted under the Smith Act in 1949, ten defendants were given sentences of five years and the eleventh was sentenced to three years. All of the attorneys were cited for contempt of court and were also given prison sentences. By 1957 over 140 leaders and members of the Communist Party had been charged under the law, in 1952, the Immigration and Nationality, or McCarran-Walter, Act was passed. This law allowed the government to deport immigrants or naturalized citizens engaged in subversive activities, the Communist Control Act of 1954 was passed with overwhelming support in both houses of Congress after very little debate. In later conflicts the degree to which war reporting was subject to censorship varied and this was particularly true during the Vietnam War and the invasion of Grenada. The newspaper prevailed in the famous New York Times Co. v. United States case, in 1991, during the Gulf War under the presidency of George H. W. Bush, The Pentagon placed restrictions on media coverage of the ground war to protect confidential military information. Censorship issues arose again during the 2003 Invasion of Iraq, when many embedded reporters accompanied soldiers as they made their way into the country and these reports were subject to censorship in that they were not allowed to reveal a units exact location
Censorship in the United States
–
WPA poster, 1943
Censorship in the United States
–
Free speech zone at the
2004 Democratic National Convention
25.
Censorship in Venezuela
–
Censorship in Venezuela refers to all actions which can be considered as suppression in speech in the country. Reporters Without Borders ranked Venezuela 137th out of 180 countries in its World Press Freedom Index 2015, the Constitution of Venezuela says that freedom of expression and press freedom are protected. It also states that Censorship restricting the ability of officials to report on matters for which they are responsible is prohibited. According to Article 58, Everyone has the right to timely, truthful and impartial information, Reporters Without Borders said that the media in Venezuela is almost entirely dominated by the government and its obligatory announcements, called cadenas. In 1998, independent television represented 88% of the 24 national television channels while the other 12% of channels were controlled by the Venezuelan government, Freedom House has also stated that there is systematic self-censorship encouraged toward the remaining private media due to pressure by the Venezuelan government. Both President Chávez and President Maduro would pressure media organizations until they failed by preventing them from acquiring necessary resources, the Venezuelan government would manipulate foreign exchange rates for media organizations so that they could no longer import their resources or fine them heavily. The government would use a front company to give the troubled organization a generous offer to purchase the company. Following the buyout, the front company would promise that the staff would not change but would release them. Shortly after, employees of the media organizations began to resign. In 2008, Reporters Without Borders reported that following years of war, Hugo Chavez. During the 2014 Venezuelan protests, Colombian news channel NTN24 was taken off the air by CONATEL for promoting violence, President Maduro then denounced the Agence France-Presse for manipulating information about the protests. The Venezuelan government published a statement replying to censorship allegations on Twitter and with images on Twitter, in 2013, Venezuelan President Nicolás Maduro banned several internet websites, including DolarToday, to prevent its citizens accessing the countrys exchange rates. Maduro, however, accused DolarToday of fueling an economic war against his government, in December 2010, the government of Venezuela approved a law named Social Responsibility in Radio, Television and Electronic Media. The law is intended to control over content that could entice felonies, create social distress. The fines for individuals who break the law will be of the 10% of the persons last years income, in November 2013 the Venezuelan telecommunications regulator, CONATEL, began ordering ISPs to block websites that provide the black market exchange rate. ISPs must comply within 24 hours or face sanctions, which could include the loss of their concessions, within a month ISPs had restricted access to more than 100 URLs. The order is based on Venezuelas 2004 media law which makes it illegal to disseminate information that could sow panic among the general public, El País also warns that Conatel could force ISPs to block web sites in opposition to the governments interests. It was also reported by El País that there will be possible automations of DirecTV, CANTV, Movistar and possible regulation of YouTube and Twitter
Censorship in Venezuela
–
A communication from General Director of
CONATEL, William Castillo Bolle, giving the
IP addresses and other information of Venezuelan Twitter users to
SEBIN General Commissioner
Gustavo González López.
Censorship in Venezuela
–
Annual
World Press Freedom Index rankings of Venezuela from
Reporters Without Borders. Source: Reporters Without Borders
26.
Freedom of speech by country
–
Freedom of speech is the concept of the inherent human right to voice ones opinion publicly without fear of censorship or punishment. Speech is not limited to public speaking and is taken to include other forms of expression. The right is preserved in the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights and is granted recognition by the laws of most nations. Nonetheless the degree to which the right is upheld in practice varies greatly from one nation to another, in many nations, particularly those with relatively authoritarian forms of government, overt government censorship is enforced. Technically, as a resolution of the United Nations General Assembly rather than a treaty, furthermore, whilst some of its provisions are considered to form part of customary international law, there is dispute as to which. Freedom of speech is granted unambiguous protection in law by the International Covenant on Civil. The majority of African constitutions provide legal protection for freedom of speech, however, these rights are exercised inconsistently in practice. The replacement of authoritarian regimes in Kenya and Ghana has substantially improved the situation in those countries, on the other hand, Eritrea allows no independent media and uses draft evasion as a pretext to crack down on any dissent, spoken or otherwise. One of the poorest and smallest nations in Africa, Eritrea is now the largest prison for journalists, since 2001, Sudan, Libya, and Equatorial Guinea also have repressive laws and practices. In addition, many radio stations are under tight control and programs. Also countries like Somalia and Egypt provide legal protection for freedom of speech, see also, Censorship in Algeria, Censorship in Tunisia. Freedom of speech and expression are protected and limited by a section in the South African Bill of Rights, chapter 2 of the Constitution. Section 16 makes the following provisions, §16 Freedom of expression 16, Blasphemy against religion is illegal in Sudan under Blasphemy laws. Despite the Tunisian revolution that led the Arab Spring, freedom of speech is still a controversial issue, artists, journalists, and citizens still face many kinds of harassment when they try to express their ideas freely. Making things more complicated is a lack of experience and traditions in the field of speech on the part of Tunisian justice. On 13 June 2013 Tunisian Rapper, Alaa Yacoubi, was imprisoned and given a jail sentence because his song El boulisia Kleb was considered an incitement to violence. The court judgement was the subject of an appeal and the decision was announced for 2 July 2013, several Asian countries provide formal legal guarantees of freedom of speech to their citizens. These are not, however, implemented in practice in some countries, barriers to freedom of speech are common and vary drastically between ASEAN countries
Freedom of speech by country
–
Protesters use freedom of speech to hold a vigil in front of the Zimbabwean Embassy in London, 2005.
Freedom of speech by country
–
Charitable organizations can use the freedom of speech to campaign and
lobby government ministers.
Freedom of speech by country
–
Local issues are often the subject of free speech.
Freedom of speech by country
–
Orthodox priest Libor Halík with a group of followers. Halík has been chanting daily for over five years against abortion via megaphone in front of a maternity hospital in
Brno,
Moravia.
27.
Internet censorship by country
–
This list of Internet censorship and surveillance by country provides information on the types and levels of Internet censorship and surveillance that is occurring in countries around the world. S. State Department Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, the ratings produced by several of these organizations are summarized below as well as in the Censorship by country article. Freedom House has produced five editions of its report Freedom on the Net, Freedom on the Net provides analytical reports and numerical ratings regarding the state of Internet freedom for countries worldwide. The results from the three areas are combined into a score for a country and countries are rated as free, partly free. In a series of reports issued between 2007 and 2013 the OpenNet Initiative classified the magnitude of censorship or filtering occurring in a country in four areas of activity. The magnitude or level of censorship was classified as follows, Pervasive, substantial, A number of categories are subject to a medium level of filtering or many categories are subject to a low level of filtering. Selective, A small number of sites are blocked or filtering targets a small number of categories or issues. Suspected, It is suspected, but not confirmed, that Web sites are being blocked, No evidence, No evidence of blocked Web sites, although other forms of controls may exist. Social, Views and information perceived as offensive or as sensitive, often related to sexuality, gambling, or illegal drugs. Conflict/security, Views and information related to armed conflicts, border disputes, separatist movements, Internet tools, e-mail, Internet hosting, search, translation, and Voice-over Internet Protocol services, and censorship or filtering circumvention methods. Through 2010 the OpenNet Initiative had documented Internet filtering by governments in over forty countries worldwide, the level of filtering was classified in 26 countries in 2007 and in 25 countries in 2009. Of the 10 countries classified in both 2007 and 2009, one reduced its level of filtering, five increased their level of filtering, and four maintained the same level of filtering. The ONI website, including all reports and data, will be maintained indefinitely to allow continued access to their entire archive of published work. ONIs summarized global Internet filtering data was last updated on 20 September 2013, in 2006, Reporters without Borders, a Paris-based international non-governmental organization that advocates freedom of the press, started publishing a list of Enemies of the Internet. In 2007 a second list of countries Under Surveillance was added, when the Enemies of the Internet list was introduced in 2006, it listed 13 countries. From 2006 to 2012 the number of countries listed fell to 10, the list was not updated in 2013. In 2014 the list grew to 19 with an emphasis on surveillance in addition to censorship. The list was not updated in 2015, when the Countries under surveillance list was introduced in 2008, it listed 10 countries
Internet censorship by country
–
Banner in
Bangkok, observed on the 30th of June 2014 during the
2014 Thai coup d'état, informing the
Thai public that 'like' or 'share' activity on social media could land them in prison.
Internet censorship by country
–
Internet censorship and surveillance by country Pervasive
Internet censorship by country
–
2011 protests against Internet censorship in Turkey
Internet censorship by country
–
Georgiy Gongadze,
Ukrainian journalist, founder of a popular Internet newspaper
Ukrayinska Pravda, who was kidnapped and murdered in 2000.
28.
Speech communication
–
Speech is the vocalized form of communication based upon the syntactic combination of lexicals and names that are drawn from very large vocabularies. Each spoken word is created out of the combination of a limited set of vowel. These vocabularies, the syntax that structures them, and their sets of speech sound units differ, creating thousands of different. Most human speakers are able to communicate in two or more of them, hence being polyglots, the vocal abilities that enable humans to produce speech also enable them to sing. A gestural form of human communication exists for the deaf in the form of sign language, speech in some cultures has become the basis of a written language, often one that differs in its vocabulary, syntax and phonetics from its associated spoken one, a situation called diglossia. Speech is researched in terms of the production and speech perception of the sounds used in vocal language. Several academic disciplines study these, including acoustics, psychology, speech pathology, linguistics, cognitive science, communication studies, otolaryngology, another area of research is how the human brain in its different areas such as the Brocas area and Wernickes area underlies speech. It is controversial how far human speech is unique, in animals also communicate with vocalizations. The origins of speech are unknown and subject to much debate, in linguistics, manner of articulation describes how the tongue, lips, jaw, vocal cords, and other speech organs used to produce sounds, make contact with each other. Often the concept is used for the production of consonants. For any place of articulation, there may be several manners of articulation, normal human speech is produced with pressure from the lungs, which creates phonation in the glottis in the larynx, which is then modified by the vocal tract into different vowels and consonants. However humans can pronounce words without the use of the lungs and glottis in alaryngeal speech, speech perception refers to the processes by which humans can interpret and understand the sounds used in language. The study of perception is closely linked to the fields of phonetics and phonology in linguistics and cognitive psychology. Research in speech perception seeks to understand how human listeners recognize speech sounds, speech research has applications in building computer systems that can recognize speech, as well as improving speech recognition for hearing- and language-impaired listeners. Spoken vocalizations are quickly turned from sensory inputs into motor instructions needed for their immediate or delayed vocal imitation and this occurs independently of speech perception. This type of mapping plays a key role in enabling children to expand their spoken vocabulary, speech is a complex activity, as a result, errors are often made in speech. Speech errors have been analyzed by scientists to understand the nature of the involved in the production of speech. There are several organic and psychological factors that can affect speech, among these are, Diseases and disorders of the lungs or the vocal cords, including paralysis, respiratory infections, vocal fold nodules and cancers of the lungs and throat
Speech communication
–
Paul Broca
Speech communication
–
Topics and terminology
29.
Organization
–
An organization or organisation is an entity comprising multiple people, such as an institution or an association, that has a collective goal and is linked to an external environment. The word is derived from the Greek word organon, which means organ, a hybrid organization is a body that operates in both the public sector and the private sector simultaneously, fulfilling public duties and developing commercial market activities. A voluntary association is an organization consisting of volunteers, such organizations may be able to operate without legal formalities, depending on jurisdiction, including informal clubs. Organizations may also operate in secret and/or illegally in the case of secret societies, criminal organizations, the study of organizations includes a focus on optimizing organizational structure. In common law countries, legal juries render decisions of guilt, liability and quantify damages, juries are used in athletic contests, book awards. Sometimes a selection committee functions like a jury, in the Middle Ages, juries in continental Europe were used to determine the law according to consensus among local notables. Committees are often the most reliable way to make decisions, condorcets jury theorem proved that if the average member votes better than a roll of dice, then adding more members increases the number of majorities that can come to a correct vote. The problem is that if the member is subsequently worse than a roll of dice. Parliamentary procedure, such as Roberts Rules of Order, helps prevent committees from engaging in discussions without reaching decisions. Bad parts of the organization starve, everybody is paid for what they actually do, and runs a tiny business that has to show a profit, or they are fired. Companies who utilize this organization type reflect a rather one-sided view of what goes on in ecology and it is also the case that a natural ecosystem has a natural border - ecoregions do not in general compete with one another in any way, but are very autonomous. The pharmaceutical company GlaxoSmithKline talks about functioning as this type of organization in this article from The Guardian. This organizational type assigns each worker two bosses in two different hierarchies, one hierarchy is functional and assures that each type of expert in the organization is well-trained, and measured by a boss who is super-expert in the same field. The other direction is executive and tries to get projects completed using the experts, projects might be organized by products, regions, customer types, or some other schema. As an example, a company might have an individual with overall responsibility for products X and Y, therefore, subordinates responsible for quality control of project X will have two reporting lines. A hierarchy exemplifies an arrangement with a leader who leads other individual members of the organization, so one can imagine that if the leader does not have the support of his subordinates, the entire structure will collapse. Hierarchies were satirized in The Peter Principle, a book that introduced hierarchiology, the broader analysis of organizations is commonly referred to as organizational structure, organizational studies, organizational behavior, or organization analysis. A number of different perspectives exist, some of which are compatible, From a functional perspective, from an institutional perspective, an organization is viewed as a purposeful structure within a social context
Organization
–
Diagram of the Federal Government and American Union, 1864.
Organization
–
Structure of the
United Nations.
30.
Insurrection
–
Rebellion, uprising, or insurrection is a refusal of obedience or order. It refers to the resistance against the orders of an established authority. The term comes from the Latin verb rebellō, I renew war (from re- + bellō, the rebel is the individual that partakes in rebellion or rebellious activities, particularly when armed. Thus, the rebellion also refers to the ensemble of rebels in a state of revolt. A rebellion originates from a sentiment of indignation and disapproval of a situation, Rebellion can be individual or collective, peaceful or violent In political terms, rebellion and revolt are often distinguished by their different aims. If rebellion generally seeks to evade an oppressive power, a revolt seeks to overthrow and destroy that power, the goal of rebellion is resistance while a revolt seeks a revolution. As power shifts relative to the adversary, or power shifts within a mixed coalition, or positions harden or soften on either side. The following theories broadly build on the Marxist interpretation of rebellion and they explore the causes of rebellion from a wide lens perspective. Marx writes about the structure of society that must be elucidated through an examination of the direct relationship of the owners of the conditions of production to the direct producers. The mismatch, between one mode of production, between the forces and the social ownership of the production, is at the origin of the revolution. The inner imbalance within these modes of production is derived from the modes of organization, such as capitalism within feudalism. The dynamics engineered by these class frictions help class consciousness root itself in the collective imaginary, for example, the development of the bourgeoisie class went from oppressed merchant class to urban independence, eventually gaining enough power to represent the state as a whole. Social movements, thus, are determined by a set of circumstances. The proletariat must also, according to Marx, go through the process of self-determination which can only be achieved by friction against the bourgeoisie. In Marxs theory revolutions are the locomotives of history, it is because rebellion has for ultimate goal to overthrow the ruling class and its antiquated mode of production. Later, rebellion attempts to replace it with a new system of political economy, one that is suited to the new ruling class. The cycle of rebellion, thus, replaces one mode of production by another through the constant class friction, in his book Why Men Rebel, Ted Gurr looks at the roots of political violence itself applied to a rebellion framework. He defines political violence as, all collective attacks within a political community against the political regime, the concept represents a set of events, a common property of which is the actual or threatened use of violence
Insurrection
–
"Rebellion for a hope" by Mexican artist
Mauricio García Vega
Insurrection
–
A generic symbol for an uprising
31.
Constitution
–
A constitution is a set of fundamental principles or established precedents according to which a state or other organization is governed. These rules together make up, i. e. constitute, some constitutions are uncodified, but written in numerous fundamental Acts of a legislature, court cases or treaties. Constitutions concern different levels of organizations, from states to companies. A treaty which establishes an international organization is also its constitution, within states, a constitution defines the principles upon which the state is based, the procedure in which laws are made and by whom. Some constitutions, especially codified constitutions, also act as limiters of state power, by establishing lines which a states rulers cannot cross, the term constitution comes through French from the Latin word constitutio, used for regulations and orders, such as the imperial enactments. Later, the term was used in canon law for an important determination, especially a decree issued by the Pope. The Latin term ultra vires describes activities of officials within an organization or polity that fall outside the constitutional or statutory authority of those officials. Ultra vires gives a justification for the forced cessation of such action. A violation of rights by an official would be ultra vires because a right is a restriction on the powers of government, and therefore that official would be exercising powers they do not have. It was never law, even though, if it had been a statute or statutory provision, in such a case, only the application may be ruled unconstitutional. Historically, the remedy for such violations have been petitions for common law writs, excavations in modern-day Iraq by Ernest de Sarzec in 1877 found evidence of the earliest known code of justice, issued by the Sumerian king Urukagina of Lagash ca 2300 BC. Perhaps the earliest prototype for a law of government, this document itself has not yet been discovered, for example, it is known that it relieved tax for widows and orphans, and protected the poor from the usury of the rich. After that, many governments ruled by codes of written laws. The oldest such document still known to exist seems to be the Code of Ur-Nammu of Ur, some of the better-known ancient law codes include the code of Lipit-Ishtar of Isin, the code of Hammurabi of Babylonia, the Hittite code, the Assyrian code and Mosaic law. In 621 BC a scribe named Draco codified the cruel oral laws of the city-state of Athens, in 594 BC Solon, the ruler of Athens, created the new Solonian Constitution. It eased the burden of the workers, and determined that membership of the class was to be based on wealth. Cleisthenes again reformed the Athenian constitution and set it on a footing in 508 BC. The most basic definition he used to describe a constitution in general terms was the arrangement of the offices in a state
Constitution
–
A painting depicting George Washington at the
Constitutional Convention of 1787 signing of the U.S. Constitution
Constitution
–
Detail from
Hammurabi 's
stele shows him receiving the laws of
Babylon from the seated
sun deity.
Constitution
–
The Bendery Constitution by Hetman
Pylyp Orlyk.
Constitution
–
May 3rd Constitution (painting by
Jan Matejko, 1891).
Polish King Stanisław August (left, in regal
ermine -trimmed cloak), enters
St. John's Cathedral, where
Sejm deputies will swear to uphold
the new Constitution; in background,
Warsaw's Royal Castle, where the Constitution has just been adopted.
32.
Rebellion
–
Rebellion, uprising, or insurrection is a refusal of obedience or order. It refers to the resistance against the orders of an established authority. The term comes from the Latin verb rebellō, I renew war (from re- + bellō, the rebel is the individual that partakes in rebellion or rebellious activities, particularly when armed. Thus, the rebellion also refers to the ensemble of rebels in a state of revolt. A rebellion originates from a sentiment of indignation and disapproval of a situation, Rebellion can be individual or collective, peaceful or violent In political terms, rebellion and revolt are often distinguished by their different aims. If rebellion generally seeks to evade an oppressive power, a revolt seeks to overthrow and destroy that power, the goal of rebellion is resistance while a revolt seeks a revolution. As power shifts relative to the adversary, or power shifts within a mixed coalition, or positions harden or soften on either side. The following theories broadly build on the Marxist interpretation of rebellion and they explore the causes of rebellion from a wide lens perspective. Marx writes about the structure of society that must be elucidated through an examination of the direct relationship of the owners of the conditions of production to the direct producers. The mismatch, between one mode of production, between the forces and the social ownership of the production, is at the origin of the revolution. The inner imbalance within these modes of production is derived from the modes of organization, such as capitalism within feudalism. The dynamics engineered by these class frictions help class consciousness root itself in the collective imaginary, for example, the development of the bourgeoisie class went from oppressed merchant class to urban independence, eventually gaining enough power to represent the state as a whole. Social movements, thus, are determined by a set of circumstances. The proletariat must also, according to Marx, go through the process of self-determination which can only be achieved by friction against the bourgeoisie. In Marxs theory revolutions are the locomotives of history, it is because rebellion has for ultimate goal to overthrow the ruling class and its antiquated mode of production. Later, rebellion attempts to replace it with a new system of political economy, one that is suited to the new ruling class. The cycle of rebellion, thus, replaces one mode of production by another through the constant class friction, in his book Why Men Rebel, Ted Gurr looks at the roots of political violence itself applied to a rebellion framework. He defines political violence as, all collective attacks within a political community against the political regime, the concept represents a set of events, a common property of which is the actual or threatened use of violence
Rebellion
–
"Rebellion for a hope" by Mexican artist
Mauricio García Vega
Rebellion
–
A generic symbol for an uprising
33.
Seditious libel
–
Sedition and seditious libel were criminal offences under English common law, and are still criminal offences in Canada. Libel denotes a printed form of such as writing or drawing. The American scholar, Leonard W. Levy, argues that seditious libel has always been an accordion-like concept, a person was only guilty of the offence if they had printed words or images and intend any of the above outcomes. Proving that the statement is true was not a defence, the common law offence was punishable in the UK with life imprisonment. Parliament abolished the offence of sedition and seditious libel in 2009, in Canada, seditious offences are defined by sections 59 to 61 of the Criminal Code. A seditious offence can be punished by imprisonment up to a term of 14 years. The crime of seditious libel was defined and established in England during the 1606 case De Libellis Famosis by the Star Chamber, the case defined seditious libel as criticism of public persons, the government, or King. The phrase seditious libel and blasphemous libel were used interchangeably at that time, Blasphemy was later made a separate offence, and finally abolished with the passing of the Racial and Religious Hatred Act 2006. Sedition and seditious libel were abolished by section 73 of the Coroners, sedition by an alien is still an offence under the Aliens Restriction Act 1919. John Peter Zenger was arrested and imprisoned for seditious libel in 1734 after his newspaper criticized the governor of New York. Zenger spent nearly 10 months in jail before being acquitted by a jury in August 1735, the liberty of the press cannot be carried to this extent without violating another equally sacred right, namely, the right of character. This right can only be attacked in a court of justice, sedition Libel Thoughtcrime Freedom of the press Blasphemy English defamation law
Seditious libel
–
Classes of crimes
34.
Sociology
–
Sociology is the study of social behaviour or society, including its origins, development, organisation, networks, and institutions. It is a science that uses various methods of empirical investigation and critical analysis to develop a body of knowledge about social order, disorder. Many sociologists aim to research that may be applied directly to social policy and welfare. Subject matter ranges from the level of individual agency and interaction to the macro level of systems. The traditional focuses of sociology include social stratification, social class, social mobility, religion, secularization, law, sexuality, the range of social scientific methods has also expanded. Social researchers draw upon a variety of qualitative and quantitative techniques, the linguistic and cultural turns of the mid-twentieth century led to increasingly interpretative, hermeneutic, and philosophic approaches towards the analysis of society. There is often a great deal of crossover between social research, market research, and other statistical fields, Sociology is distinguished from various general social studies courses, which bear little relation to sociological theory or to social-science research-methodology. The US National Science Foundation classifies sociology as a STEM field, Sociological reasoning pre-dates the foundation of the discipline. Social analysis has origins in the stock of Western knowledge and philosophy. The origin of the survey, i. e, there is evidence of early sociology in medieval Arab writings. The word sociology is derived from both Latin and Greek origins, the Latin word, socius, companion, the suffix -logy, the study of from Greek -λογία from λόγος, lógos, word, knowledge. It was first coined in 1780 by the French essayist Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès in an unpublished manuscript, Sociology was later defined independently by the French philosopher of science, Auguste Comte, in 1838. Comte used this term to describe a new way of looking at society, Comte had earlier used the term social physics, but that had subsequently been appropriated by others, most notably the Belgian statistician Adolphe Quetelet. Comte endeavoured to unify history, psychology and economics through the understanding of the social realm. Comte believed a positivist stage would mark the final era, after conjectural theological and metaphysical phases, Comte gave a powerful impetus to the development of sociology, an impetus which bore fruit in the later decades of the nineteenth century. To say this is not to claim that French sociologists such as Durkheim were devoted disciples of the high priest of positivism. To be sure, beginnings can be traced back well beyond Montesquieu, for example, Marx rejected Comtean positivism but in attempting to develop a science of society nevertheless came to be recognized as a founder of sociology as the word gained wider meaning. For Isaiah Berlin, Marx may be regarded as the father of modern sociology
Sociology
–
Ibn Khaldun statue in
Tunis,
Tunisia (1332–1406)
Sociology
–
Auguste Comte (1798–1857)
Sociology
–
Karl Marx (1818–1883)
Sociology
–
Émile Durkheim
35.
Elizabethan Era
–
The Elizabethan era is the epoch in English history marked by the reign of Queen Elizabeth I. Historians often depict it as the age in English history. In terms of the century, the historian John Guy argues that England was economically healthier, more expansive. This golden age represented the apogee of the English Renaissance and saw the flowering of poetry, music, the era is most famous for theatre, as William Shakespeare and many others composed plays that broke free of Englands past style of theatre. It was an age of exploration and expansion abroad, while back at home and it was also the end of the period when England was a separate realm before its royal union with Scotland. The Elizabethan Age may be viewed especially highly when considered in light of the failings of the periods preceding Elizabeths reign, the Protestant/Catholic divide was settled, for a time, by the Elizabethan Religious Settlement, and parliament was not yet strong enough to challenge royal absolutism. England was also compared to the other nations of Europe. The Italian Renaissance had come to an end under the weight of Spanish domination of the peninsula, France was embroiled in its own religious battles due to significant Spanish intervention, that would only be settled in 1598 with the Edict of Nantes. The one great rival was Spain, which England clashed both in Europe and the Americas in skirmishes that exploded into the Anglo-Spanish War of 1585–1604 and this drained both the English Exchequer and economy that had been so carefully restored under Elizabeths prudent guidance. English commercial and territorial expansion would be limited until the signing of the Treaty of London the year following Elizabeths death, economically, the country began to benefit greatly from the new era of trans-Atlantic trade, persistent theft of Spanish treasure, and the African slave trade. The Victorian era and the early 20th century idealised the Elizabethan era, the Encyclopædia Britannica maintains that he long reign of Elizabeth I, 1558–1603, was Englands Golden Age. Merry England, in love with life, expressed itself in music and literature, in architecture and this idealising tendency was shared by Britain and an Anglophilic America. In popular culture, the image of those adventurous Elizabethan seafarers was embodied in the films of Errol Flynn, in response and reaction to this hyperbole, modern historians and biographers have tended to take a more dispassionate view of the Tudor period. Elizabethan England was not particularly successful in a military sense during the period, having inherited a virtually bankrupt state from previous reigns, her frugal policies restored fiscal responsibility. Her fiscal restraint cleared the regime of debt by 1574, and this general peace and prosperity allowed the attractive developments that Golden Age advocates have stressed. The Elizabethan Age was also an age of plots and conspiracies, frequently political in nature, high officials in Madrid, Paris and Rome sought to kill Elizabeth, a Protestant, and replace her with Mary, Queen of Scots, a Catholic. That would be a prelude to the recovery of England for Catholicism. In 1570, the Ridolfi plot was thwarted, in 1584, the Throckmorton Plot was discovered, after Francis Throckmorton confessed his involvement in a plot to overthrow the Queen and restore the Catholic Church in England
Elizabethan Era
–
Queen Elizabeth
Elizabethan Era
–
The National Armada memorial in
Plymouth using the Britannia image to celebrate the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 (William Charles May, sculptor, 1888)
Elizabethan Era
–
Elizabeth ushers in Peace and Plenty. Detail from The Family of Henry VIII: An Allegory of the Tudor Succession, c. 1572, attributed to
Lucas de Heere.
Elizabethan Era
–
The Spanish Armada fighting the English navy at the
Battle of Gravelines in 1588.
36.
Society of Jesus
–
The Society of Jesus Latin, Societas Iesu, S. J. SJ or SI) is a religious congregation of the Catholic Church which originated in Spain. The society is engaged in evangelization and apostolic ministry in 112 nations on six continents, Jesuits work in education, intellectual research, and cultural pursuits. Jesuits also give retreats, minister in hospitals and parishes, and promote social justice, Ignatius of Loyola founded the society after being wounded in battle and experiencing a religious conversion. He composed the Spiritual Exercises to help others follow the teachings of Jesus Christ, ignatiuss plan of the orders organization was approved by Pope Paul III in 1540 by a bull containing the Formula of the Institute. Ignatius was a nobleman who had a background, and the members of the society were supposed to accept orders anywhere in the world. The Society participated in the Counter-Reformation and, later, in the implementation of the Second Vatican Council, the Society of Jesus is consecrated under the patronage of Madonna Della Strada, a title of the Blessed Virgin Mary, and it is led by a Superior General. The Society of Jesus on October 3,2016 announced that Superior General Adolfo Nicolás resignation was officially accepted, on October 14, the 36th General Congregation of the Society of Jesus elected Father Arturo Sosa as its thirty-first Superior General. The headquarters of the society, its General Curia, is in Rome, the historic curia of St. Ignatius is now part of the Collegio del Gesù attached to the Church of the Gesù, the Jesuit Mother Church. In 2013, Jorge Mario Bergoglio became the first Jesuit Pope, the Jesuits today form the largest single religious order of priests and brothers in the Catholic Church. As of 1 January 2015, Jesuits numbered 16,740,11,986 clerics regular,2,733 scholastics,1,268 brothers and 753 novices. In 2012, Mark Raper S. J. wrote, Our numbers have been in decline for the last 40 years—from over 30,000 in the 1960s to fewer than 18,000 today. The steep declines in Europe and North America and consistent decline in Latin America have not been offset by the significant increase in South Asia, the Society is divided into 83 Provinces with six Independent Regions and ten Dependent Regions. On 1 January 2007, members served in 112 nations on six continents with the largest number in India and their average age was 57.3 years,63.4 years for priests,29.9 years for scholastics, and 65.5 years for brothers. The current Superior General of the Jesuits is Arturo Sosa, the Society is characterized by its ministries in the fields of missionary work, human rights, social justice and, most notably, higher education. It operates colleges and universities in countries around the world and is particularly active in the Philippines. In the United States it maintains 28 colleges and universities and 58 high schools and he ensured that his formula was contained in two papal bulls signed by Pope Paul III in 1540 and by Pope Julius III in 1550. The formula expressed the nature, spirituality, community life and apostolate of the new religious order, the meeting is now commemorated in the Martyrium of Saint Denis, Montmartre
Society of Jesus
–
Ignatius of Loyola
Society of Jesus
–
Society of Jesus
Society of Jesus
–
Church of
Saint-Pierre de Montmartre, Paris.
Society of Jesus
–
Fresco of Approving of bylaw of Society of Jesus depicting
Ignatius of Loyola receiving papal bull
Regimini militantis Ecclesiae from
Pope Paul III. The fresco was created by
Johann Christoph Handke in the Church of Our Lady Of the Snow in
Olomouc after 1743.
37.
Australia
–
Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands. It is the worlds sixth-largest country by total area, the neighbouring countries are Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and East Timor to the north, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east, and New Zealand to the south-east. Australias capital is Canberra, and its largest urban area is Sydney, for about 50,000 years before the first British settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who spoke languages classifiable into roughly 250 groups. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades, and by the 1850s most of the continent had been explored, on 1 January 1901, the six colonies federated, forming the Commonwealth of Australia. Australia has since maintained a liberal democratic political system that functions as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy comprising six states. The population of 24 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard, Australia has the worlds 13th-largest economy and ninth-highest per capita income. With the second-highest human development index globally, the country highly in quality of life, health, education, economic freedom. The name Australia is derived from the Latin Terra Australis a name used for putative lands in the southern hemisphere since ancient times, the Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia in 1638, to refer to the newly discovered lands to the south. On 12 December 1817, Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted, in 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia. The first official published use of the term Australia came with the 1830 publication of The Australia Directory and these first inhabitants may have been ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians. The Torres Strait Islanders, ethnically Melanesian, were originally horticulturists, the northern coasts and waters of Australia were visited sporadically by fishermen from Maritime Southeast Asia. The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland, and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent, are attributed to the Dutch. The first ship and crew to chart the Australian coast and meet with Aboriginal people was the Duyfken captained by Dutch navigator, Willem Janszoon. He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula in early 1606, the Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent New Holland during the 17th century, but made no attempt at settlement. William Dampier, an English explorer and privateer, landed on the north-west coast of New Holland in 1688, in 1770, James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain. The first settlement led to the foundation of Sydney, and the exploration, a British settlement was established in Van Diemens Land, now known as Tasmania, in 1803, and it became a separate colony in 1825. The United Kingdom formally claimed the part of Western Australia in 1828. Separate colonies were carved from parts of New South Wales, South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, the Northern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised from South Australia
Australia
–
Aboriginal rock art in the
Kimberley region of Western Australia
Australia
Australia
–
Portrait of Captain
James Cook, the first European to map the eastern coastline of Australia in 1770
Australia
–
Tasmania's
Port Arthur penal settlement is one of eleven UNESCO World Heritage-listed
Australian Convict Sites.
38.
John Howard
–
John Winston Howard, OM, AC was the 25th Prime Minister of Australia, serving from 11 March 1996 to 3 December 2007. Only Sir Robert Menzies has served in the position longer, born in Sydney, Howard was a solicitor at Clayton Utz before entering politics, having studied law at the University of Sydney. A member of the Liberal Party and former president of the Young Liberals, he first stood for office at the 1968 New South Wales state election, but lost narrowly. At the 1974 federal election, Howard was elected to the Division of Bennelong and he was promoted to cabinet in 1977, and later in the year replaced Phillip Lynch as Treasurer of Australia, remaining in that position until the defeat of Malcolm Frasers government in 1983. In 1985, Howard was elected leader of the Liberal Party for the first time and he led the Liberal–National coalition to the 1987 federal election, but lost to Bob Hawkes Labor government, and was removed from the leadership in 1989. Remaining a key figure in the party, Howard was re-elected leader in 1995, after defeating Paul Keatings Labor government in 1996, the Howard Government was re-elected at the 1998,2001 and 2004 elections. Howards actions as prime minister included new gun laws, the introduction of a nationwide value-added tax, immigration reform, Australia also contributed troops to the War in Afghanistan and the Iraq War under his government, and led the International Force for East Timor. The Howard government was defeated at the 2007 federal election, with the Labor Partys Kevin Rudd succeeding him as prime minister, Howard also lost his own seat at the election, becoming only the second prime minister to do so. John Howard is the son of Mona and Lyall Howard. His parents were married in 1925 and his eldest brother Stanley was born in 1926, followed by Walter in 1929, and Robert in 1936. Lyall Howard was an admirer of Winston Churchill, and sympathetic to the New Guard during its early years, Howards ancestors were English, Scottish and Irish. Howard was born and raised in the Sydney suburb of Earlwood and his mother had been an office worker until her marriage. His father and his grandfather, Walter Howard, were both veterans of the First AIF in World War I. They also ran two Dulwich Hill petrol stations where Howard worked as a boy, Lyall Howard died in 1955 when John was sixteen, leaving his mother to take care of John. Howard suffered an impairment in his youth, leaving him with a slight speech impediment. It also influenced him in ways, limiting his early academic performance, encouraging a reliance on an excellent memory. Howard attended the state schools Earlwood Primary School and Canterbury Boys High School, Howard won a citizenship prize in his final year at Earlwood, and subsequently represented his secondary school at debating as well as cricket and rugby. In his final year at school he took part in a show hosted by Jack Davey, Give It a Go broadcast on the commercial radio station, 2GB
John Howard
–
The Honourable John Howard
OM,
AC
John Howard
–
John Howard as a boy, 1940s
John Howard
–
John Howard in June 1997, just over a year after becoming Prime Minister.
John Howard
–
John Howard and US Secretary of Defense
William Cohen in 1997
39.
Australian Senate
–
The Australian Senate is the upper house of the bicameral Parliament of Australia, the lower house being the House of Representatives. The composition and powers of the Senate are established in Chapter I, there are a total of 76 senators,12 senators are elected from each of the six states and two from each of the two autonomous internal territories. Senators are popularly elected under the single vote system of proportional representation. As a result of proportional representation, the features a multitude of parties vying for power. Senators normally serve fixed terms, unless the Senate is dissolved earlier in a double dissolution. Following a double half the state senators serve terms ending on the third 30 June following the election with the rest serving three years longer. The term of the territory senators expires at the time as there is an election for the House of Representatives. The Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act of 1900 established the Senate as part of the new system of government in newly federated Australia. From a comparative perspective, the Australian Senate exhibits distinctive characteristics. Unlike upper Houses in other Westminster system governments, the Senate is not a body with limited legislative power. Rather it was intended to play – and does play – an active role in legislation, the Constitution intended to give less populous states added voice in a Federal legislature, while also providing for the revising role of an upper house in the Westminster system. In practice, however, most legislation in the Australian Parliament is initiated by the Government and it is then passed to the Senate, which has the opportunity to amend the bill or refuse to pass it. In the majority of cases, voting takes place along party lines, since 2015, armed officers of the Australian Federal Police have been placed on duty to protect both chambers of the Federal Parliament. The system for electing senators has changed several times since Federation, the original arrangement involved a first-past-the-post block voting or winner takes all system, on a state-by-state basis. This was replaced in 1919 by preferential block voting, block voting tended to produce landslide majorities and even wipe-outs. For instance, from 1920 to 1923 the Nationalist Party of Australia had 35 of the 36 senators, and from 1947 to 1950, the Australian Labor Party had 33 of the 36 senators. From the 1984 election, group ticket voting was introduced in order to reduce a high rate of voting that arose from the requirement that each candidate be given a preference. As a result of the changes, voters may assign their preferences for parties above the line, or individual candidates below the line, both above and below the line voting now use optional preferential voting
Australian Senate
Australian Senate
–
Australian Senate
Australian Senate
–
Entrance to the Senate
40.
Australian military
–
The Australian Defence Force is the military organisation responsible for the defence of Australia. It consists of the Royal Australian Navy, Australian Army, Royal Australian Air Force, the ADF has a strength of just over 80,000 full-time personnel and active reservists, and is supported by the Department of Defence and several other civilian agencies. During the first decades of the 20th century, the Australian Government established the armed services as separate organisations, each service had an independent chain of command. In 1976, the government made a change and established the ADF to place the services under a single headquarters. Over time, the degree of integration has increased and tri-service headquarters, logistics, the ADF is technologically sophisticated but relatively small. Although the ADFs 58,061 full-time active-duty personnel and 19,338 active reservists make it the largest military in Oceania, nonetheless, the ADF is supported by a significant budget by worldwide standards and is able to deploy forces in multiple locations outside Australia. The ADFs legal standing draws on the executive government sections of the Australian Constitution, Section 51 gives the Commonwealth Government the power to make laws regarding Australias defence and defence forces. Section 68 of the Constitution sets out the ADFs command arrangements, the Section states that the command in chief of the naval and military forces of the Commonwealth is vested in the Governor-General as the Queens representative. In practice, the Governor-General does not play a part in the ADFs command structure. The Minister for Defence and several subordinate ministers exercise this control, the Minister acts on most matters alone, though the National Security Committee of Cabinet considers important matters. The Minister then advises the Governor-General who acts as advised in the form of executive government. The Commonwealth Government has never required by the Constitution or legislation to seek parliamentary approval for decisions to deploy military forces overseas or go to war. The ADFs current priorities are set out in the 2016 Defence White Paper, the first of these is to defend Australia from direct attack or coercion. The second priority is to contribute to the security of South East Asia, the third priority is to contribute to stability across the Indo-Pacific region and a rules-based global order which supports our interests. The white paper states that the government will place equal weight on the three priorities when developing the ADFs capabilities, Australia has maintained military forces since federation as a nation in January 1901. Shortly after Federation, the Australian Government established the Australian Army, in 1911, the Government established the Royal Australian Navy, which absorbed the Commonwealth Naval Force. The Army established the Australian Flying Corps in 1912 although this separated to form the Royal Australian Air Force in 1921, the services were not linked by a single chain of command, as they each reported to their own separate Minister and had separate administrative arrangements. The three services saw action around the world during World War I and World War II, the importance of joint warfare was made clear to the Australian military during World War II when Australian naval, ground and air units frequently served as part of single commands
Australian military
–
The retirement of
HMAS Melbourne without replacement in 1982 marked a shift away from the policy of 'forward defence'.
Australian military
–
The ADF Tri-Service Flag
Australian military
–
Australian soldiers lead a column of American troops during Exercise Kangaroo '89, which was held in northern Australia.
Australian military
–
A RAAF C-130 Hercules being unloaded at Tallil Air Base, Iraq, during April 2003
41.
Afghanistan
–
Afghanistan, officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, is a landlocked country located within South Asia and Central Asia. It has a population of approximately 32 million, making it the 42nd most populous country in the world. It is bordered by Pakistan in the south and east, Iran in the west, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan in the north and its territory covers 652,000 km2, making it the 41st largest country in the world. The land also served as the source from which the Kushans, Hephthalites, Samanids, Saffarids, Ghaznavids, Ghorids, Khiljis, Mughals, Hotaks, Durranis, the political history of the modern state of Afghanistan began with the Hotak and Durrani dynasties in the 18th century. In the late 19th century, Afghanistan became a state in the Great Game between British India and the Russian Empire. Following the Third Anglo-Afghan War in 1919, King Amanullah unsuccessfully attempted to modernize the country and it remained peaceful during Zahir Shahs forty years of monarchy. A series of coups in the 1970s was followed by a series of wars that devastated much of Afghanistan. The name Afghānistān is believed to be as old as the ethnonym Afghan, the root name Afghan was used historically in reference to a member of the ethnic Pashtuns, and the suffix -stan means place of in Persian. Therefore, Afghanistan translates to land of the Afghans or, more specifically in a historical sense, however, the modern Constitution of Afghanistan states that he word Afghan shall apply to every citizen of Afghanistan. An important site of historical activities, many believe that Afghanistan compares to Egypt in terms of the historical value of its archaeological sites. The country sits at a unique nexus point where numerous civilizations have interacted and it has been home to various peoples through the ages, among them the ancient Iranian peoples who established the dominant role of Indo-Iranian languages in the region. At multiple points, the land has been incorporated within large regional empires, among them the Achaemenid Empire, the Macedonian Empire, the Indian Maurya Empire, and the Islamic Empire. Archaeological exploration done in the 20th century suggests that the area of Afghanistan has been closely connected by culture and trade with its neighbors to the east, west. Artifacts typical of the Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic, Bronze, urban civilization is believed to have begun as early as 3000 BCE, and the early city of Mundigak may have been a colony of the nearby Indus Valley Civilization. More recent findings established that the Indus Valley Civilisation stretched up towards modern-day Afghanistan, making the ancient civilisation today part of Pakistan, Afghanistan, in more detail, it extended from what today is northwest Pakistan to northwest India and northeast Afghanistan. An Indus Valley site has found on the Oxus River at Shortugai in northern Afghanistan. There are several smaller IVC colonies to be found in Afghanistan as well, after 2000 BCE, successive waves of semi-nomadic people from Central Asia began moving south into Afghanistan, among them were many Indo-European-speaking Indo-Iranians. These tribes later migrated further into South Asia, Western Asia, the region at the time was referred to as Ariana
Afghanistan
–
History of Afghanistan
Afghanistan
–
Flag
Afghanistan
–
Bilingual (
Greek and
Aramaic)
edict by Emperor
Ashoka from the 3rd century BCE discovered in the southern city of
Kandahar
Afghanistan
–
One of the
Buddhas of Bamiyan.
Buddhism was widespread in the region before the
Islamic conquest of Afghanistan.
42.
Iraq
–
The capital, and largest city, is Baghdad. The main ethnic groups are Arabs and Kurds, others include Assyrians, Turkmen, Shabakis, Yazidis, Armenians, Mandeans, Circassians, around 95% of the countrys 36 million citizens are Muslims, with Christianity, Yarsan, Yezidism, and Mandeanism also present. The official languages of Iraq are Arabic and Kurdish, two major rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates, run south through Iraq and into the Shatt al-Arab near the Persian Gulf. These rivers provide Iraq with significant amounts of fertile land, the region between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, historically known as Mesopotamia, is often referred to as the cradle of civilisation. It was here that mankind first began to read, write, create laws, the area has been home to successive civilisations since the 6th millennium BC. Iraq was the centre of the Akkadian, Sumerian, Assyrian and it was also part of the Median, Achaemenid, Hellenistic, Parthian, Sassanid, Roman, Rashidun, Umayyad, Abbasid, Ayyubid, Mongol, Safavid, Afsharid, and Ottoman empires. Iraqs modern borders were mostly demarcated in 1920 by the League of Nations when the Ottoman Empire was divided by the Treaty of Sèvres, Iraq was placed under the authority of the United Kingdom as the British Mandate of Mesopotamia. A monarchy was established in 1921 and the Kingdom of Iraq gained independence from Britain in 1932, in 1958, the monarchy was overthrown and the Iraqi Republic created. Iraq was controlled by the Arab Socialist Baath Party from 1968 until 2003, after an invasion by the United States and its allies in 2003, Saddam Husseins Baath Party was removed from power and multi-party parliamentary elections were held in 2005. The American presence in Iraq ended in 2011, but the Iraqi insurgency continued and intensified as fighters from the Syrian Civil War spilled into the country, the Arabic name العراق al-ʿIrāq has been in use since before the 6th century. There are several suggested origins for the name, one dates to the Sumerian city of Uruk and is thus ultimately of Sumerian origin, as Uruk was the Akkadian name for the Sumerian city of Urug, containing the Sumerian word for city, UR. An Arabic folk etymology for the name is rooted, well-watered. During the medieval period, there was a region called ʿIrāq ʿArabī for Lower Mesopotamia and ʿIrāq ʿajamī, for the region now situated in Central and Western Iran. The term historically included the south of the Hamrin Mountains. The term Sawad was also used in early Islamic times for the region of the plain of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. In English, it is either /ɪˈrɑːk/ or /ɪˈræk/, the American Heritage Dictionary, the pronunciation /aɪˈræk/ is frequently heard in U. S. media. Since approximately 10,000 BC, Iraq was one of centres of a Caucasoid Neolithic culture where agriculture, the following Neolithic period is represented by rectangular houses. At the time of the pre-pottery Neolithic, people used vessels made of stone, gypsum, finds of obsidian tools from Anatolia are evidences of early trade relations
Iraq
–
Cylinder Seal, Old Babylonian Period, c.1800 BCE,
hematite. The king makes an animal offering to
Shamash. This seal was probably made in a workshop at
Sippar.
Iraq
–
Flag
Iraq
–
Victory stele of
Naram-Sin of Akkad
Iraq
–
Bill of sale of a male slave and a building in
Shuruppak, Sumerian tablet, circa 2600 BCE
43.
Asia-Pacific
–
Asia-Pacific or Asia Pacific is the part of the world in or near the Western Pacific Ocean. The region varies in size depending on context, but it typically includes much of East Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia. On the whole appears to be no clear cut definition of Asia Pacific. Though imprecise, the term has become popular since the late 1980s in commerce, finance, in fact, despite the heterogeneity of the regions economies, most individual nations within the zone are emerging markets experiencing rapid growth
Asia-Pacific
–
Map showing general definition of Asia-Pacific
44.
World War II
–
World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
World War II
–
Clockwise from top left: Chinese forces in the
Battle of Wanjialing, Australian
25-pounder guns during the
First Battle of El Alamein, German
Stuka dive bombers on the
Eastern Front in December 1943, a U.S. naval force in the
Lingayen Gulf,
Wilhelm Keitel signing the
German Instrument of Surrender, Soviet troops in the
Battle of Stalingrad
World War II
–
The
League of Nations assembly, held in
Geneva,
Switzerland, 1930
World War II
–
Adolf Hitler at a German
National Socialist political rally in
Weimar, October 1930
World War II
–
Italian soldiers recruited in 1935, on their way to fight the
Second Italo-Abyssinian War
45.
Montreal
–
Montreal, officially Montréal, is the most populous municipality in the Canadian province of Quebec and the 2nd-most populous in Canada as a whole. Originally called Ville-Marie, or City of Mary, it is believed to be named after Mount Royal, the city has a distinct four-season continental climate, with warm-to-hot summers and cold, snowy winters. In 2016, Montreal had a population of 1,704,694, Montreals metropolitan area had a population of 4,098,927 and a population of 1,958,257 in the urban agglomeration, with all of the municipalities on the Island of Montreal included. Legally a French-speaking city,60. 5% of Montrealers speak French at home,21. 2% speak English and 19. 8% speak neither, Montreal is one of the most bilingual cities in Quebec and Canada, with 56% of the population able to speak both official languages. Montreal is the second-largest primarily French-speaking city in the world after Paris, historically the commercial capital of Canada, it was surpassed in population and economic strength by Toronto in the 1970s. It remains an important centre of commerce, aerospace, finance, pharmaceuticals, technology, design, education, culture, tourism, gaming, film, Montreal was also named a UNESCO City of Design. In 2009, Montreal was named North Americas leading host city for international events, according to the 2009 preliminary rankings of the International Congress. According to the 2015 Global Liveability Ranking by the Economist Intelligence Unit, in the 2017 edition of their Best Student Cities ranking, Quacquarelli Symonds ranked Montreal as the worlds best city to study abroad. Also, Montreal has 11 universities with 170,000 students enrolled, the Greater Montréal region has the highest number of university students per capita among all metropolitan areas in North America. It is the only Canadian city to have held the Summer Olympics, currently, the city hosts the Canadian Grand Prix of Formula One, the Montreal International Jazz Festival and the Just for Laughs festival. In 2012, Montreal was ranked as a Beta+ world city, in Kanien’kéha, or Mohawk language, the island is called Tiohtià, ke Tsi or Ka-wé-no-te. In Anishinaabemowin, or Ojibwe language, the land is called Mooniyaang, though the city was first named by French colonizers Ville Marie, or City of Mary, its current name comes from Mount Royal, the triple-peaked hill in the heart of the city. The most popular theory is that the name derives from Mont Réal, Cartiers 1535 diary entry, naming the mountain, according to the Commission de toponymie du Québec and the Geographical Names Board of Canada, Canadian place names have only one official form. Thus, Montreal is officially spelled with an accent over the e in both English and French. In practice, this is limited to governmental uses. English-speaking Montrealers, including English-language media, regularly omit the accent when writing in English, archaeological evidence demonstrates that First Nations native people occupied the island of Montreal as early as 4,000 years ago. By the year AD1000, they had started to cultivate maize, within a few hundred years, they had built fortified villages. Archeologists have found evidence of their habitation there and at locations in the valley since at least the 14th century
Montreal
–
Clockwise from top:
Downtown Montreal as seen from the
Champlain Bridge;
McGill University;
Saint Joseph's Oratory; the
Old Montreal featuring the
Montreal Clock Tower and the
Jacques Cartier Bridge during the
Montreal Fireworks Festival; a view of the
Notre-Dame Basilica from
Place d'Armes; and the
Olympic Stadium.
Montreal
–
The Montreal Harbour in 1889.
Montreal
–
Saint Jacques Street (formerly St. James Street), in 1910
Montreal
–
Bonsecours Market in autumn.
46.
Camillien Houde
–
Camillien Houde CBE OStJ was a Quebec politician, a Member of Parliament, and a four-time mayor of Montreal – one of the few Canadian politicians to have served at all three levels of government. Houde was born in Montreal on 13 August 1889 and died there on 11 September 1958 and he was the only surviving child of Azade Houde and Josephine Frenette. He is descended from the first Houde ancestor, Louis Houde, Louis Houdes son was Louis H. who married Marie Lemay in 1685. He was first elected to the Legislative Assembly of Quebec as a member of the Conservative Party for the riding of Montréal–Sainte-Marie in the 1923 election and he was defeated in the 1927 election, but re-elected in a by-election on 24 October 1928. He was elected leader of the Conservative Party on 10 July 1929, led the party to defeat in the 1931 election and he resigned as Conservative leader on 19 September 1932. He moved to politics and lost in a bid for election as a Conservative candidate for the Canadian House of Commons in a 1938 by-election in the Montreal riding of St. Mary. In 1940, he was arrested and charged under the Defence of Canada Regulations and he was imprisoned at Camp Petawawa in Ontario until the end of the war. He ran again in St. Mary, this time as an independent candidate, in the 1945 federal election and he won a seat as an independent candidate in the riding of Papineau in the 1949 federal election by less than 100 votes. He did not run for re-election in the 1953 election, Houde became a figure of ridicule in parts of English Canada because of his conduct in opposition to conscription. The Star accused Drew of making a pact with Quebec Premier Maurice Duplessis to appoint Houde to the Cabinet as Drews Quebec lieutenant should the Tories win the election. The newspapers campaign reached its culmination the Saturday before the election with a front page headline reading. Concurrent to his career in provincial and federal politics, Houde was mayor of Montreal from 1928 to 1932, from 1934 to 1936, from 1938 to 1940, when World War II came, Houde then campaigned against conscription. On 2 August 1940, Houde publicly urged the men of Quebec to ignore the national registration measure introduced by the federal government. Upon his release on 18 August 1944, he was greeted by a crowd of 50,000 Montrealers. Houde was made Chevalier of the Légion dhonneur and Commander of the Order of the British Empire in 1935, on his death in 1958, Camillien Houde was interred in the Cimetière Notre-Dame-des-Neiges in Montreal, Quebec in an Italian marble replica of Napoleons tomb. Mayor Houde was a mayor in the areas of patronage, unemployment. He was also responsible for some of the public park improvements in Montreal including the park on Mont Royal with its man-made lake. Politics of Quebec List of Quebec general elections List of Quebec leaders of the Opposition Timeline of Quebec history Conscription Crisis of 1944 Tard, Camillien Houde, Le Cyrano de Montréal
Camillien Houde
–
Mayor Camillien Houde
Camillien Houde
–
As Montreal Mayor in 1945 at a Chamber of Commerce event.
Camillien Houde
–
Headstone at
Cimetière Notre-Dame-des-Neiges
