1.
Racial segregation
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Racial segregation is the separation of humans into racial or other ethnic groups in daily life. As a result, the act of separating oneself from other people on the basis of one of the enumerated grounds does not constitute segregation. Segregation may be maintained by means ranging from discrimination in hiring and in the rental, in the United States, segregation was mandated by law in some states and came with anti-miscegenation laws. Segregation, however, often allowed close contact in hierarchical situations, Segregation can involve spatial separation of the races, and mandatory use of different institutions, such as schools and hospitals by people of different races. Wherever there have been multiracial communities, there has been racial segregation, only areas with extensive miscegenation, or mixing, such as Hawaii and Brazil, despite some social stratification, seem to be exempt. Following its conquest of Ottoman controlled Algeria in 1830, for well over a century France maintained colonial rule in the territory which has described as quasi-apartheid. Camille Bonora-Waisman writes that, n contrast with the Moroccan and Tunisian protectorates and this internal system of apartheid met with considerable resistance from the Muslims affected by it, and is cited as one of the causes of the 1954 insurrection and ensuing independence war. In fifteenth-century north-east Germany, people of Wendish, i. e. Slavic, according to Wilhelm Raabe, down into the eighteenth century no German guild accepted a Wend. The ban on marriage was a part of the Nuremberg Laws. At first the laws were aimed primarily at Jews but were extended to Gypsies, Negroes. Aryans found guilty could face incarceration in a camp, while non-Aryans could face the death penalty. To preserve the purity of the German blood, after the war began. In an effort to split Polish identity they attempted to establish ethnic divisions of Kashubians and Gorals, based on these groups alleged Germanic component. During the 1930s and 1940s, Jews in Nazi-controlled states were made to wear yellow ribbons or stars of David, Jewish doctors were not allowed to treat Aryan patients nor were Jewish professors permitted to teach Aryan pupils. In addition, Jews were not allowed to use any public transportation, besides the ferry, after Kristallnacht, the Jews were fined 1,000,000 marks for damages done by the Nazi troops and SS members. Jews and Roma were subjected to genocide as undesirable racial groups in the Holocaust, the Nazis established ghettos to confine Jews and sometimes Romas into tightly packed areas of the cities of Eastern Europe, turning them into de facto concentration camps. The Warsaw Ghetto was the largest of these ghettos, with 400,000 people, the Łódź Ghetto was the second largest, holding about 160,000. Between 1939 and 1945, at least 1.5 million Polish citizens were transported to the Reich for forced labour, although Nazi Germany also used forced laborers from Western Europe, Poles, along with other Eastern Europeans viewed as racially inferior, were subject to deeper discriminatory measures
Racial segregation
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Nur für Deutsche ("Only for Germans") on the tram number 8 in German-occupied
Kraków, Poland.
Racial segregation
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German warning in occupied Poland 1939 – "No entrance for Poles!"
Racial segregation
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Young Polish girl wearing Letter "P" patch.
2.
Apartheid
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Apartheid was a system of institutionalised racial segregation and discrimination in South Africa between 1948 and 1991, when it was abolished. The countrys first multiracial elections under a universal franchise were held three years later in 1994, Apartheid as a policy was embraced by the South African government shortly after the ascension of the National Party during the countrys 1948 general elections. Apartheid was also enforced in South West Africa until it gained independence as Namibia in 1990, with the rapid growth and industrialisation of the British Cape Colony in the nineteenth century, racial policies and laws became increasingly rigid. Cape legislation that discriminated specifically against black Africans began appearing shortly before 1900, the policies of the Boer republics were also racially exclusive, for instance, the Transvaal constitution barred nonwhite participation in church and state. Places of residence were determined by racial classification, from 1960 to 1983,3.5 million nonwhite South Africans were removed from their homes, and forced into segregated neighbourhoods, in one of the largest mass removals in modern history. Most of these targeted removals were intended to restrict the population to ten designated tribal homelands, also known as bantustans. The government announced that relocated persons would lose their South African citizenship as they were absorbed into the bantustans, Apartheid sparked significant international and domestic opposition, resulting in some of the most influential global social movements of the twentieth century. It was the target of frequent condemnation in the United Nations, some reforms of the apartheid system were undertaken, including allowing for Indian and coloured political representation in parliament, but these measures failed in appeasing most activist groups. In 1990, prominent ANC leaders such as Nelson Mandela were released from detention, Apartheid legislation was abolished in mid-1991, pending multiracial elections set for April 1994. Apartheid is an Afrikaans word meaning separateness, or the state of being apart and its first recorded use was in 1929. The governors and assemblies that governed the process in the various colonies of South Africa were launched on a different and independent legislative path from the rest of the British Empire. In the days of slavery, slaves required passes to travel away from their masters, in 1797 the Landdrost and Heemraden of Swellendam and Graaff-Reinet extended pass laws beyond slaves and ordained that all Khoikhoi moving about the country for any purpose should carry passes. Ordinance No.49 of 1828 decreed that prospective black immigrants were to be granted passes for the purpose of seeking work. These passes were to be issued for Coloureds and Khoikhoi, but not for other Africans, the United Kingdoms Slavery Abolition Act 1833 abolished slavery throughout the British Empire and overrode the Cape Articles of Capitulation. To comply with the act the South African legislation was expanded to include Ordinance 1 in 1835 and this was followed by Ordinance 3 in 1848, which introduced an indenture system for Xhosa that was little different from slavery. The Glen Grey Act of 1894, instigated by the government of Prime Minister Cecil John Rhodes limited the amount of land Africans could hold, in 1905 the General Pass Regulations Act denied blacks the vote, limited them to fixed areas and inaugurated the infamous Pass System. The Asiatic Registration Act required all Indians to register and carry passes, one of the first pieces of segregating legislation enacted by Jan Smuts United Party government was the Asiatic Land Tenure Bill, which banned land sales to Indians. The United Party government began to move away from the enforcement of segregationist laws during World War II
Apartheid
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Daniel François Malan, the first apartheid prime minister (1948–1954)
Apartheid
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Cape Coloured children in
Bonteheuwel.
Apartheid
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Rural area in
Ciskei, one of the apartheid era
homelands
3.
Bantustan
–
A Bantustan was a territory set aside for black inhabitants of South Africa and South West Africa, as part of the policy of apartheid. The term was first used in the late 1940s and was coined from Bantu and it was regarded as a disparaging term by some critics of the apartheid-era governments homelands. Four of the South African Bantustans—Transkei, Bophuthatswana, Venda, and Ciskei —were declared independent, other South African Bantustans received partial autonomy but were never granted independence. In South West Africa, Ovamboland, Kavangoland, and East Caprivi were granted self-determination, the Bantustans were abolished with the end of apartheid and re-joined South Africa proper in 1994. The creation of the homelands or Bantustans was an element of this strategy. As a result, blacks would lose their South African citizenship and voting rights, the term Bantustan was used by apartheids apologists in reference to the partition of India in 1947. However, it quickly became pejorative in left and anti-apartheid usage, verwoerd argued that the Bantustans were the original homes of the black peoples of South Africa. In 1951, the government of Daniel François Malan introduced the Bantu Authorities Act to establish homelands allocated to the countrys ethnic groups. These amounted to 13% of the land, the remainder being reserved for the white population. The homelands were run by tribal leaders, while uncooperative chiefs were forcibly deposed. Over time, a ruling black élite emerged with a personal and financial interest in the preservation of the homelands, while this aided the homelands political stability to an extent, their position was still entirely dependent on South African support. The role of the homelands was expanded in 1959 with the passage of the Bantu Self-Government Act and this enabled the homelands to establish themselves as self-governing, quasi-independent states. This plan was stepped up under Verwoerds successor as minister, John Vorster. The homelands were encouraged to opt for independence, as this would reduce the number of black citizens of South Africa. In parallel with the creation of the homelands, South Africas black population was subjected to a programme of forced relocation. It has been estimated that 3.5 million people were forced from their homes from the 1960s through the 1980s, the government made clear that its ultimate aim was the total removal of the black population from South Africa. But this goal was not achieved, only about 55% of South Africas population lived in the Bantustans, the remainder lived in South Africa proper, many in townships, shanty-towns and slums on the outskirts of South African cities. Bantustans within the borders of South Africa were classified as self-governing or independent, in theory, self-governing Bantustans had control over many aspects of their internal functioning but were not yet sovereign nations
Bantustan
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Map of the black homelands in
Namibia as of 1978
Bantustan
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Racial-demographic map of South Africa published by the
CIA in 1979 with data from the 1970 South African census
4.
Bantu Education Act, 1953
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The Bantu Education Act,1953 was a South African segregation law which legalised several aspects of the apartheid system. Its major provision was enforcing racially separated educational facilities, even universities were made tribal, and all but three missionary schools chose to close down when the government no longer would help support their schools. Very few authorities continued using their own finances to support education for native Africans, the national authorities of the time is often said to have viewed education as having a rather pivotal position in their goal of eventually separating South Africa from the Bantustans entirely. The Minister of Native Affairs at the time, the Architect of Apartheid Hendrik Verwoerd, stated that, what is the use of teaching the Bantu child mathematics when it cannot use it in practice. The introduction of Bantu Education led to a increase of government funding to the learning institutions of black Africans. The law forced institutions under the control of the state. The National Party now had the power to employ and train teachers as they saw fit, black teachers salaries in 1953 were extremely low and resulted in a dramatic drop of trainee teachers. Only one third of the teachers were qualified. The schools reserved for the white children were of Western standards. 30% of the schools did not have electricity, 25% no running water. The education for Blacks, Indians and Coloureds was not free, in the 70s, the per capita governmental spending on black education was one-tenth of the spending on white. The act was repealed in 1979 by the Education and Training Act,1979, http, //nmmu. ac. za/documents/mward/Bantu%20Education%20Act%201953. pdf Article on apartheid and education that mentions the Bantu Act Text of the act
Bantu Education Act, 1953
–
Bantu Education Act, 1953
5.
Racial segregation in the United States
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Legal segregation of schools was stopped in the U. S. by federal enforcement of a series of Supreme Court decisions after Brown v. Board of Education in 1954. All legally enforced public segregation was abolished by the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and it passed after demonstrations during the Civil Rights Movement resulted in public opinion turning against enforced segregation. De facto segregation—segregation in fact, without sanction of law—persists in varying degrees to the present day, the contemporary racial segregation seen in the United States in residential neighborhoods has been shaped by public policies, mortgage discrimination, and redlining, among other factors. Hypersegregation is a form of segregation that consists of the geographical grouping of racial groups. Most often, this occurs in cities where the residents of the city are African Americans. As a result, Federal occupation troops in the South assured blacks the right to vote, the Reconstruction amendments asserted the supremacy of the national state and the formal equality under the law of everyone within it. However it did not prohibit segregation in schools, when the Republicans came to power in the Southern states after 1867, they created the first system of taxpayer-funded public schools. Southern Blacks wanted public schools for their children but they did not demand racially integrated schools, almost all the new public schools were segregated, apart from a few in New Orleans. After the Republicans lost power in the mid-1870s, conservative whites retained the school systems. Almost all private academies and colleges in the South were strictly segregated by race, the American Missionary Association supported the development and establishment of several historically black colleges, such as Fisk University and Shaw University. In this period, a handful of northern colleges accepted black students, Northern denominations and their missionary associations especially established private schools across the South to provide secondary education. They provided an amount of collegiate work. Tuition was minimal, so churches supported the colleges financially, in 1900 churches—mostly based in the North—operated 247 schools for blacks across the South, with a budget of about $1 million. They employed 1600 teachers and taught 46,000 students, prominent schools included Howard University, a federal institution based in Washington, Fisk University in Nashville, Atlanta University, Hampton Institute in Virginia, and many others. Most new colleges in the 19th century were founded in northern states, Jim Crow segregation began somewhat later, in the 1880s. Disfranchisement of the began in the 1890s. By 1910, Segregation was firmly established across the South and most of the border region, the legitimacy of laws requiring segregation of blacks was upheld by the U. S. Supreme Court in the 1896 case of Plessy v. Ferguson,163 U. S.537. Plessy thus allowed segregation, which became standard throughout the southern United States, everyone was supposed to receive the same public services, but with separate facilities for each race
Racial segregation in the United States
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An African-American man drinking at a "colored" drinking fountain in a streetcar terminal in
Oklahoma City, 1939.
Racial segregation in the United States
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A black man goes into the "colored" entrance of a
movie theater in
Belzoni, Mississippi, 1939.
Racial segregation in the United States
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Sign for "colored" waiting room at a
Greyhound bus terminal in
Rome, Georgia, 1943.
Racial segregation in the United States
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Graduating class of September 1944, SWPA OCS at
Camp Columbia, Australia, clearly showing an integrated population.
6.
Separate but equal
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The phrase was derived from a Louisiana law of 1890, although the law actually used the phrase equal but separate. The doctrine was confirmed in the Plessy v. Ferguson Supreme Court decision of 1896, in practice the separate facilities provided to African Americans were rarely equal, usually they were not even close to equal, or they did not exist at all. The doctrine was overturned by a series of Supreme Court decisions, however, the overturning of segregation laws in the United States was a long process that lasted through much of the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s, involving federal legislation, and many court cases. However Southern states contended that the requirement of equality could be met in a manner that kept the races separate and this rejection is evident in the Slaughter-House Cases and Civil Rights Cases. After the end of Reconstruction, the government adopted a general policy of leaving racial segregation up to the individual states. One example of policy was the second Morrill Act. Before the end of the war, the Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act had provided funding for higher education by each state with the details left to the state legislatures. The 1890 Act which implicitly accepted the concept of separate. Prior to the Second Morrill Act,17 states excluded blacks from access to the land grant colleges without providing similar educational opportunities. In response to the Second Morrill Act,17 states established separate land grant colleges for blacks which are now referred to as public historically black colleges and universities. In fact, some states adopted laws prohibiting schools from educating blacks and whites together, the legitimacy of such laws under the 14th Amendment was upheld by the U. S. Supreme Court in the 1896 case of Plessy v. Ferguson,163 U. S.537. The Plessy doctrine was extended to the schools in Cumming v. Richmond County Board of Education,175 U. S.528. In Texas, the established a state-funded law school for white students without any law school for black students. In 1892, Homer Plessy, who was of mixed ancestry and appeared to be white, the conductor of the train collected passenger tickets at their seats. When Plessy told the conductor he was 7/8ths white and 1/8th black, Plessy said he resented sitting in a coloreds-only car and was arrested immediately. One month after his arrest, Plessy appeared in court before Judge John Howard Ferguson, plessys lawyer, Albion Tourgee, claimed Plessy’s 13th and 14th amendment rights were violated. The 13th amendment abolished slavery, and the 14th amendment granted equal protection to all under the law, the Supreme Court decision in Plessy v. Ferguson established the phrase separate but equal. The ruling railway companies carrying passengers in their coaches in that State to provide equal, accommodations provided on each railroad car were required to be the same as those provided on the others
Separate but equal
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A restaurant in
Lancaster, Ohio, in 1938.
7.
Jim Crow laws
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Jim Crow laws were state and local laws enforcing racial segregation in the Southern United States. Enacted after the Reconstruction period, these continued in force until 1965. They mandated de jure segregation in all public facilities in the states of the former Confederate States of America, starting in 1890 with a separate. Facilities for African Americans were consistently inferior and underfunded compared to available to European Americans. This body of law institutionalized a number of economic, educational, the U. S. military was also segregated, as were federal workplaces, initiated in 1913 under President Woodrow Wilson. By requiring candidates to submit photos, his administration practiced racial discrimination in hiring and these Jim Crow laws followed the 1800–1866 Black Codes, which had previously restricted the civil rights and civil liberties of African Americans. The phrase Jim Crow Law can be found as early as 1892 in the title of a New York Times article about voting laws in the South, as a result of Rices fame, Jim Crow by 1838 had become a pejorative expression meaning Negro. When southern legislatures passed laws of racial segregation which were directed against blacks at the end of the 19th century, during the Reconstruction period of 1865–1877, federal laws provided civil rights protections in the U. S. South for freedmen, the African Americans who had formerly been slaves, extensive voter fraud was also used. Gubernatorial elections were close and had been disputed in Louisiana for years, in 1877, a national Democratic Party compromise to gain Southern support in the presidential election resulted in the governments withdrawing the last of the federal troops from the South. White Democrats had regained power in every Southern state. These Southern, white, Democratic Redeemer governments legislated Jim Crow laws, grandfather clauses temporarily permitted some illiterate whites to vote but gave no relief to most blacks. Voter turnout dropped drastically through the South as a result of such measures, in Louisiana, by 1900, black voters were reduced to 5,320 on the rolls, although they comprised the majority of the states population. By 1910, only 730 blacks were registered, less than 0. 5% of eligible black men, in 27 of the states 60 parishes, not a single black voter was registered any longer, in 9 more parishes, only one black voter was. The cumulative effect in North Carolina meant that voters were completely eliminated from voter rolls during the period from 1896–1904. The growth of their middle class was slowed. Alabama had tens of thousands of poor whites disenfranchised and those who could not vote were not eligible to serve on juries and could not run for local offices. They effectively disappeared from political life, as they could not influence the state legislatures, like schools, Jim Crow public libraries were underfunded and often stocked with secondhand books and other resources
Jim Crow laws
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Cover to an early edition of "
Jump Jim Crow " sheet music (c 1832)
Jim Crow laws
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Freedmen voting in New Orleans, 1867
Jim Crow laws
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Sign for the "colored" waiting room at a bus station in
Durham, North Carolina, 1940
Jim Crow laws
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1904 caricature of "White" and "Jim Crow" rail cars by
John T. McCutcheon. Despite Jim Crow's legal pretense that the races be "separate but equal" under the law, non-whites were given inferior facilities and treatment.
8.
Housing segregation in the United States
–
Housing policy in the United States has influenced housing segregation trends throughout history. Key legislation include the National Housing Act of 1934, the GI Bill, factors such as socioeconomic status, spatial assimilation, and immigration contribute to perpetuating housing segregation. The effects of housing segregation include relocation, unequal living standards, however, there have been initiatives to combat housing segregation, such as the Section 8 housing program. In 1934 the practice of redlining neighborhoods came into existence through the National Housing Act of 1934, on these maps, high-risk areas were outlined in red. Many minority neighborhoods were redlined in these maps, meaning that banks would deny all mortgage capital to people living within them. Many urban historians point to redlining as one of the factors for urban disinvestment. This piece of legislation occurred during the New Deal era and provided the basis for public housing programs. This act allowed for the creation of around 160,000 units of public housing, most of these units were made to alleviate the housing difficulties of the poor and working class suffering from the Great Depression. Despite providing low budget housing options, this act created greater racial segregation in housing because the majority of the population at the time consisted of minorities. When millions of GIs returned home from overseas, they took advantage of the “Servicemen’s Readjustment Act and this important document was signed in 1944 by Franklin D. This law allowed millions of U. S. soldiers to purchase their first homes with inexpensive mortgages, which meant the growth of suburbs. African Americans were met with discrimination when trying to purchase a home in the overwhelmingly European American neighborhoods, the realtors would not show these houses to African Americans, and when they did, they would try and talk them out of buying the home. The overt discriminatory practices of refusal of sale and loans continued unabated until at least 1968, after this act was passed, outright refusal to sell property to African Americans became rare, given that that behavior could lead to prosecution under the Fair Housing Law. The Office of Fair Housing and Equal Opportunity is charged with administering and enforcing fair housing laws, any person who believes that they have faced housing discrimination based on their race can file a fair housing complaint. The most comprehensive federal fair housing act of its time, this piece of legislation mandated fair housing as a national policy and restricted discriminatory practices. Specifically, discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, sex, or national origin was prohibited in the rental, sale, financing, however, this act did not give the Department of Housing and Urban Development a lot of enforcing power. HUD was only allowed to mediate housing discrimination disputes between parties and it did not have the power to file lawsuits or take definitive legal action. During his presidential term, Nixons federal housing policy undermined the Fair Housing Act and his policy acknowledged that federal law requires nondiscriminatory practices in federal housing matters but did not provide presidential support
Housing segregation in the United States
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President Nixon and HUD secretary George Romney talk
Housing segregation in the United States
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Sign with American flag "We want white tenants in our white community," directly opposite the Sojourner Truth homes, a new U.S. federal housing project in Detroit, Michigan. A riot was caused by white neighbors' attempts to prevent African American tenants from moving in.
9.
Redlining
–
During the heyday of redlining, the areas most frequently discriminated against were black inner city neighborhoods. In the academic literature, redlining falls under the category of credit rationing. Reverse redlining occurs when a lender or insurer targets nonwhite consumers, not to deny them loans or insurance, racial segregation and discrimination against minorities and minority communities pre-existed this policy. The assumptions in redlining resulted in an increase in residential racial segregation. Urban planning historians theorize that the maps were used by private, on the maps, the newest areas—those considered desirable for lending purposes—were outlined in green and known as Type A. These were typically affluent suburbs on the outskirts of cities, Type B neighborhoods, outlined in blue, were considered Still Desirable, whereas older Type C were labeled Declining and outlined in yellow. Type D neighborhoods were outlined in red and were considered the most risky for mortgage support and these neighborhoods tended to be the older districts in the center of cities, often they were also black neighborhoods. Some redlined maps were created by private organizations, such as J. M. Private organizations created maps designed to meet the requirements of the Federal Housing Administrations underwriting manual, the lenders had to consider FHA standards if they wanted to receive FHA insurance for their loans. FHA appraisal manuals instructed banks to clear of areas with inharmonious racial groups. NPA embarked on an effort to build a coalition of urban community organizations to pass a national disclosure regulation or law to require banks to reveal their lending patterns. These actions addressed the issues of neighborhood decline. Neighborhood leaders began to learn that these issues and conditions were symptoms of a disinvestment that was the true and they changed their strategy as more data was gathered. With the help of NPA, a coalition of loosely affiliated community organizations began to form, at the Third Annual Housing Conference held in Chicago in 1974, eight hundred delegates representing 25 states and 35 cities attended. The strategy focused on the Federal Home Loan Bank Board, which oversaw S&Ls in cities all over the country, in Massachusetts, organizers allied with NPA confronted a unique situation. Over 90% of home mortgages were held by state-chartered savings banks, a Jamaica Plain neighborhood organization pushed the disinvestment issue into the statewide gubernatorial race. After Dukakis was elected, his new Banking Commissioner ordered banks to disclose mortgage-lending patterns by zip code, NPA and its affiliates achieved disclosure of lending practices with the passage of The Home Mortgage Disclosure Act of 1975. The required transparency and review of loan practices began to change lending practices, NPA began to work on reinvestment in areas that had been neglected
Redlining
–
A
HOLC 1936 security map of
Philadelphia showing redlining of lower income neighborhoods. Households and businesses in the red zones could not get mortgages or business loans.
10.
School segregation in the United States
–
School segregation in the United States began in its de jure form with the passage of Jim Crow laws in the American South in the late th century. The formal segregation of blacks and whites in the United States began with the passage of Jim Crow laws following the end of the Reconstruction Era in 1877, in some areas, Native Americans were classified with blacks and similarly excluded from white facilities. The obstacles for Mexican Americans was not greater than for blacks, the fact that separate facilities for blacks and other minorities were chronically underfunded and of lesser quality was not successfully challenged in court for decades. This decision was overturned in 1954, when the Supreme Court ruling in Brown v. Board of Education ended de jure segregation in the United States. In the decade following Brown, the South resisted enforcement of the Court’s decision, States and school districts did little to reduce segregation, and schools remained almost completely segregated until 1968, after Congressional passage of civil rights legislation. Desegregation efforts reached their peak in the late 1960s and early 1970s, parents of both African-American and Mexican-American students challenged school segregation in coordination with civil rights organizations such as the NAACP, ACLU, and LULAC. Both groups challenged discriminatory policies through litigation in courts, with varying success, Segregation can be defined in terms of two different measures, racial isolation, and racial unevenness. Measures of exposure define segregation according to the proportion of various races and ethnicities present in a school. According to this measure, a student attending a school with a very high proportion of other blacks students would be considered “racially isolated. ”Critics of measures of exposure point out that these are highly sensitive to changes in the demographic composition of schools. As the share of minority students in an area increases, these students will necessarily attend schools with smaller proportions of white students. Because of this, some prefer to define segregation according to measures of racial imbalance, or the extent to which racial. Measures of imbalance are independent of the changes in the composition of a larger population. From 1968-1980, segregation between blacks and whites in schools declined according to measures of both isolation and imbalance, measures of isolation within school districts show that school integration peaked in the 1980s and then gradually declined over the course of the 1990s, as income differences increased. In the 1990s and early 2000s, minority students attended schools with a proportion of white students. The study found that minority students became more isolated and less exposed to whites, another 2013 study found that segregation measured as exposure increased over the previous 25 years due to changing demographics. The study did not, however, find an increase in racial balance, rather, fiel believes that increasing interdistrict segregation will exacerbate racial isolation. Residential segregation is related to growing income inequality in the United States, because the two variables moved in opposite directions, changes in residential patterns are not responsible for changes in school segregation trends. By 2000, however, racial composition of schools had more closely correlated to neighborhood composition
School segregation in the United States
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Jim Crow laws formalized school segregation in the United States, 1877-1954
11.
Segregation academy
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While these schools were established chiefly in the Southern United States, private schools existed nationwide that were heavily segregated in practice, though perhaps not intentionally. Since the late 20th century, as patterns in United States have changed, many of these private schools began to admit minority students. Still others, in poor, majority-black regions such as the Mississippi Delta, continue to operate with few, if any, because the ruling did not apply to private schools, founding new academies provided parents a way to continue to educate their children separately from blacks. At this time, most adult blacks were disfranchised in the South, excluded from politics. Private academies operated outside the scope of the Brown v. Board of Education ruling, scholars estimate that across the nation, at least half a million white students were withdrawn from public schools between 1964 and 1975 to avoid mandatory desegregation. But in the 21st century, it did not practice any type of discrimination, in their suit, Allen v. Wright, the plaintiffs named a number of Southern schools as representative of segregation academies. In Mississippi and Arkansas, many of the academies were first established in the black-majority Mississippi Delta region in northwestern Mississippi. The Delta has historically had a very large population, related to the history of the use of slave labor on cotton plantations. The potential for integration resulted in white parents establishing segregation academies in every county in the Delta, many academies are still operating, from Indianola, Mississippi to Humphreys County. These schools began to accept black students late in the 20th century, in a region with low incomes among blacks, many African-American parents cannot afford the private schools. At least one school in Mississippi, Carroll Academy, receives funding from the segregationist Council of Conservative Citizens. In Virginia, segregation academies were part of a policy of massive resistance declared by U. S and he worked to unite other white Virginia politicians and leaders in taking action to prevent school desegregation after the Brown v. Board of Education Supreme Court ruling in 1954. In its September/October 1956 special session, the Virginia General Assembly passed a series of known as the Stanley plan to implement massive resistance. In January, Virginias voters had approved an amendment to the constitution to allow tuition grants to parents enrolling their children in private schools. In practice, this meant state support of newly established private schools which became known as segregation academies. On February 18,1958, the General Assembly passed additional legislation protecting segregation, since new segregation academy facilities often failed to meet construction, health and safety standards for public schools, these were also loosened. Segregation academies opened in various Virginia cities and counties subject to lawsuits, including Arlington, Charlottesville. Arlington and Norfolk desegregated peacefully in February 1959, in Arlington, many white students remained in the desegregated schools
Segregation academy
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Central Delta Academy in
Inverness, Mississippi was a segregation academy
12.
Peace lines
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The peace lines or peace walls are a series of separation barriers in Northern Ireland that separate Catholic and Protestant neighbourhoods. They have been built at urban areas in Belfast, Derry, Portadown. The stated purpose of the lines is to minimise inter-communal violence between Catholics and Protestants. The peace lines range in length from a few hundred yards to over three miles and they may be made of iron, brick, and/or steel and are up to 25 feet high. Some have gates in them that allow passage during daylight but are closed at night, the majority of peace walls are located in Belfast, but they also exist in Derry, Portadown, and Lurgan. The first peace lines were built in 1969, following the outbreak of the 1969 Northern Ireland riots and they were built as temporary structures meant to last only six months, but due to their effective nature they have become wider, longer and more permanent. Originally few in number, they have multiplied over the years, from 18 in the early 1990s to 48 today, in total they stretch over 21 miles and they have been increased in both height and number since the Good Friday Agreement of 1998. In recent years, they have become locations for tourism. Black taxis now take groups of tourists around Belfasts peace lines, trouble spots, in 2008, a public discussion began about how and when the peace lines could be removed. At the end of 2011, several local community resulted in the opening of a number of interface structures for a trial period. In January 2012, the International Fund for Ireland launched a Peace Walls funding programme to local communities who want to work towards beginning to remove the peace walls. In May 2013, the Northern Ireland Executive committed to the removal of all lines by mutual consent by 2023. Interface area Defensive wall Gated Community Segregation in Northern Ireland Paul Brown, Peace but no love as Northern Ireland divide grows ever wider. Belfasts Peacelines, An Analysis of Urban Borders, Design and Social Space in a Divided City, archived from the original on 20 August 2008. A discussion paper proposing a five phase process for the removal of walls in Northern Ireland. Despite peace, Belfast walls are growing in size and number, peacewall Archive Belfast Interface Project Cluster Map Peace Lines Ethnic Interface in North Belfast Forty years of peace lines
Peace lines
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An 18-foot-high (5.5 m) Peace Line along Springmartin Road in Belfast, with a fortified police station at one end
Peace lines
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The peace line along Cupar Way in Belfast, seen from the Protestant side
Peace lines
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The peace line at Bombay Street/Cupar Way in Belfast, seen from the Catholic side.
Peace lines
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Gates in a peace line in West Belfast.
13.
Belfast
–
Belfast is the capital and largest city of Northern Ireland, the second largest on the island of Ireland, and the heart of the tenth largest Primary Urban Area in the United Kingdom. On the River Lagan, it had a population of 286,000 at the 2011 census and 333,871 after the 2015 council reform, Belfast was granted city status in 1888. Belfast played a key role in the Industrial Revolution, and was an industrial centre until the latter half of the 20th century. It has sustained a major aerospace and missiles industry since the mid 1930s, industrialisation and the inward migration it brought made Belfast Irelands biggest city at the beginning of the 20th century. Today, Belfast remains a centre for industry, as well as the arts, higher education, business, and law, additionally, Belfast city centre has undergone considerable expansion and regeneration in recent years, notably around Victoria Square. Belfast is served by two airports, George Best Belfast City Airport in the city, and Belfast International Airport 15 miles west of the city. Although the county borough of Belfast was created when it was granted city status by Queen Victoria in 1888, the site of Belfast has been occupied since the Bronze Age. The Giants Ring, a 5, 000-year-old henge, is located near the city, Belfast remained a small settlement of little importance during the Middle Ages. The ONeill clan had a presence in the area, in the 14th century, Cloinne Aodha Buidhe, descendants of Aodh Buidhe ONeill built Grey Castle at Castlereagh, now in the east of the city. Conn ONeill of the Clannaboy ONeills owned vast lands in the area and was the last inhabitant of Grey Castle, evidence of this period of Belfasts growth can still be seen in the oldest areas of the city, known as the Entries. Belfast blossomed as a commercial and industrial centre in the 18th and 19th centuries, industries thrived, including linen, rope-making, tobacco, heavy engineering and shipbuilding, and at the end of the 19th century, Belfast briefly overtook Dublin as the largest city in Ireland. The Harland and Wolff shipyards became one of the largest shipbuilders in the world, in 1886 the city suffered intense riots over the issue of home rule, which had divided the city. In 1920–22, Belfast became the capital of the new entity of Northern Ireland as the island of Ireland was partitioned, the accompanying conflict cost up to 500 lives in Belfast, the bloodiest sectarian strife in the city until the Troubles of the late 1960s onwards. Belfast was heavily bombed during World War II, in one raid, in 1941, German bombers killed around one thousand people and left tens of thousands homeless. Apart from London, this was the greatest loss of life in a raid during the Blitz. Belfast has been the capital of Northern Ireland since its establishment in 1921 following the Government of Ireland Act 1920 and it had been the scene of various episodes of sectarian conflict between its Catholic and Protestant populations. These opposing groups in conflict are now often termed republican and loyalist respectively. The most recent example of conflict was known as the Troubles – a civil conflict that raged from around 1969 to 1998
Belfast
–
Top: Skyline of Belfast Middle top left to right,
Queen's University Belfast,
Albert Memorial Clock, Belfast, The Boat,
Titanic Belfast Bottom left to right:
Belfast City Hall, view of Belfast with
Samson and Goliath.
Belfast
–
Belfast Castle
Belfast
–
Donegall Square in the early 1900s
Belfast
–
Aftermath of the Blitz in May 1941
14.
Religious segregation
–
Religious segregation is the separation of people according to their religion. The term has been applied to cases of religious-based segregation occurring as a phenomenon, as well as to segregation arising from laws. The similar term religious apartheid has also used for situations where people are separated based on religion. In 2012 Foreign Policy reported that The number of walls, physical barriers separating Catholic. Most people in the region cannot envisage the barriers being removed and this figure has remained stubbornly low despite the cessation of violence. Jonathan Steele of The Guardian has argued that Bosnia and Herzegovina is a dependent, stifled, in his view, the U. N. Shia Islam has been the state religion of Iran since the Iranian Revolution in 1979. The U. S. State Department has claimed that religious minorities have been subject to harassment, other religious minorities like the Baháí are not recognized by the government and thus do not have any legal protections nor the constitutional right to practice their religion. The Muslim Network for Baháí Rights has reported cases of Baháí students being expelled from university due to their religion, according to the Times Higher Education, Baháí educators are required to renounce their faith in order to teach in Iranian universities. Pakistan is officially an Islamic country and defines who and who is not a Muslim, under these conditions, Ahmadi Muslims are declared non-Muslim by law of the land and cannot practice their faith freely. They are not permitted to call their mosques as mosques, or meet with people with the Islamic greeting of Peace, Ahmadi Muslims are excluded from government and any other high-profile positions within Pakistan. There have been cases when the Ahmadi Muslims have been expelled from schools, colleges and Universities, once the entire population of Rabwah, the Pakistani headquarters of Ahmadi Muslims was charged under Anti-Ahmadiyya laws. Prior to March 1,2004, the official Saudi government website stated that Jews were forbidden from entering the country, however, in the City of Mecca, only Muslims are allowed. Non-Muslims may not enter or travel through Mecca, attempting to enter Mecca as a non-Muslim can result in such as a fine. In the City of Medina, both Muslims and Non-Muslims are allowed in, the exception are non-Muslims entering the Nabawi Square, where the Al-Masjid Al-Nabawi is located. On the banks of the Bagmati River in Kathmandu, Nepal is a Pashupatinath Temple dedicated to Pashupatinath and this temple complex which is on the UNESCO World Heritage Sitess list since 1979 was erected anew in the 15th century by King kirat Yalamber. Entry into the courtyard is strictly monitored by the temple security. Practicing Hindus and Buddhists of Indian and Tibetan descendant are only allowed into temple courtyard, practicing Hindus of western descent are not allowed into the temple complex along with other non Hindu visitors. Others can look at the temple from adjacent side of the river
Religious segregation
–
Road sign on a highway into Mecca, stating that one direction is "Muslims only" while another direction is "obligatory for non-Muslims".
Religious police are stationed beyond the turnoff on the main road to prevent non-Muslims from proceeding into Mecca.
15.
Irish nationalist
–
Irish nationalism asserts that the Irish people are a nation. Since the partition of Ireland, the term refers to support for a united Ireland. Irish nationalists assert that rule from London has been to the detriment of Irish interests and this vision sought to overcome the old ethnic divide between Gaeil and Gaill which had been a feature of Irish life since the 12th century. Protestantism in England introduced an element to the 16th century Tudor conquest of Ireland, as many of the native Gaels. The Plantations of Ireland dispossessed many native Catholic landowners in favour of Protestant settlers from England and Scotland, in addition, the Plantation of Ulster, begun in 1609, planted a sizeable colony of English and Scottish Protestant settlers into the north of Ireland. Irish aristocrats waged many campaigns against the English presence, a prime example is the rebellion of Hugh ONeill which became known as the Nine Years War of 1594–1603, which aimed to expel the English and make Ireland a Spanish protectorate. The Confederate Catholics of Ireland, also known as the Confederation of Kilkenny, emphasised the idea of Ireland as a Kingdom independent from England and they demanded autonomy for the Irish Parliament, full rights for Catholics and an end to the confiscation of Catholic-owned land. The Cromwellian conquest of Ireland destroyed the Confederate cause and resulted in the permanent dispossession of the old Catholic landowning class. A similar Irish Catholic monarchist movement emerged in the 1680s and 1690s, the Jacobites demanded that Irish Catholics have a majority in an autonomous Irish Parliament, the restoration of confiscated Catholic land, and an Irish-born Lord Deputy of Ireland. Like the Confederates, they suffered defeat, in the Williamite War in Ireland. Thereafter, the largely English Protestant Ascendancy dominated Irish government and landholding, the Penal Laws discriminated against non-Anglicans. However, the Irish Catholic movements of the 16th century were led by a small landed. Professor Kevin Whelan has traced the emergence of the modern Catholic-nationalist identity that formed in 1760–1830, parliamentarians who wanted more self-government formed the Irish Patriot Party, led by Henry Grattan, who achieved substantial legislative independence in 1782–83. Grattan and radical elements of the Irish Whig party campaigned in the 1790s for Catholic political equality and he wanted useful links with Britain to remain, best understood by his comment, The channel forbids union, the ocean forbids separation. Grattans movement was notable for being both inclusive and nationalist as many of its members were descended from the Anglo/Irish minority, many other nationalists such as Samuel Neilson, Theobald Wolfe Tone and Robert Emmet were also descended from plantation families which had arrived in Ireland since 1600. From Grattan in the 1770s to Parnell up to 1890, nearly all the leaders of Irish separatism were Protestant nationalists, modern Irish nationalism with democratic aspirations began in the 1790s with the founding of the Society of the United Irishmen. It sought to end discrimination against Catholics and Presbyterians and to found an independent Irish republic and they were sponsored by the French Republic, which was then the enemy of the Holy See. The United Irishmen led the Irish Rebellion of 1798, which was repressed with great bloodshed, as a result, the Irish Parliament voted to abolish itself in the Act of Union of 1800–01 and thereafter Irish MPs sat in London
Irish nationalist
–
Government Buildings in
Dublin
Irish nationalist
–
The
national flag of the
Republic of Ireland, considered by Irish nationalists to be the flag of all of
Ireland
Irish nationalist
–
"Daniel O'Connell: The Champion of Liberty" poster published in Pennsylvania, 1847.
16.
Irish republicanism
–
Irish republicanism is an ideology based on the belief that all of Ireland should be an independent republic. This followed hundreds of years of British conquest and Irish resistance through rebellion and it launched the 1798 Rebellion with the help of French troops. The rebellion had some success, especially in County Wexford, before it was suppressed, a second rising in 1803, led by Robert Emmet, was quickly put down, and Emmet was hanged. The Young Ireland movement, formed in the 1830s, was initially a part of the Repeal Association of Daniel OConnell, primarily a political and cultural organisation, some members of Young Ireland staged an abortive rising, the Young Irelander Rebellion of 1848. Its leaders were transported to Van Diemens Land, some of these escaped to the United States, where they linked up with other Irish exiles to form the Fenian Brotherhood. They staged another rising, the Fenian Rising, in 1867, in the early 20th century IRB members, in particular Tom Clarke and Seán MacDermott, began planning another rising. The execution of the Risings leaders, including Clarke, MacDermott, Patrick Pearse and James Connolly, the elected members did not take their seats but instead set up the First Dáil. Between 1919 and 1921 the Irish Republican Army, who were loyal to the Dáil, fought the British Army and Royal Irish Constabulary in the Irish War of Independence. Talks between the British and Irish in late 1921 led to a treaty by which the British conceded, not a 32-county Irish Republic and this led to the Irish Civil War, in which the republicans were defeated by their former comrades. That same year, the movement took the decision to focus on Northern Ireland thereafter. The Border Campaign, which lasted from 1956 to 1962, involved bombings, the failure of this campaign led the republican leadership to concentrate on political action, and to move to the left. Following the outbreak of The Troubles in 1968-9, the movement split between Officials and Provisionals at the beginning of 1970. The Provisional IRA, except during brief ceasefires in 1972 and 1975, kept up a campaign of violence for nearly thirty years, directed against security forces and civilian targets. This began to change with a speech by Danny Morrison in 1981, advocating what became known as the Armalite. Under the leadership of Gerry Adams, Sinn Féin began to focus on the search for a political settlement. When the party voted in 1986 to take seats in legislative bodies within Ireland, there was a walk-out of die-hard republicans, who set up Republican Sinn Féin and the Continuity IRA. Following the Hume–Adams dialogue, Sinn Féin took part in the Northern Ireland peace process led to the IRA ceasefires of 1994 and 1997. However, another split occurred, with anti-Agreement republicans setting up the 32 County Sovereignty Movement, today, Irish republicanism is divided between those who support the institutions set up under the Good Friday Agreement and the later St Andrews Agreement, and those who oppose them
Irish republicanism
–
The
Battle of Killala marked the end of
the rising
Irish republicanism
–
Wolfe Tone circa 1794. Tone is considered by many as the father of Irish Republicanism
Irish republicanism
–
Michael Dwyer
Irish republicanism
–
Depiction of
Robert Emmet 's trial
17.
Roman Catholic
–
The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church or the Universal Church, is the largest Christian church, with more than 1.28 billion members worldwide. As one of the oldest religious institutions in the world, it has played a prominent role in the history, headed by the Bishop of Rome, known as the Pope, the churchs doctrines are summarised in the Nicene Creed and the Apostles Creed. Its central administration is located in Vatican City, enclaved within Rome, the Catholic Church is notable within Western Christianity for its sacred tradition and seven sacraments. It teaches that it is the one church founded by Jesus Christ, that its bishops are the successors of Christs apostles. The Catholic Church maintains that the doctrine on faith and morals that it declares as definitive is infallible. The Latin Church, the Eastern Catholic Churches, as well as such as mendicant orders and enclosed monastic orders. Among the sacraments, the one is the Eucharist, celebrated liturgically in the Mass. The church teaches that through consecration by a priest the sacrificial bread and wine become the body, the Catholic Church practises closed communion, with only baptised members in a state of grace ordinarily permitted to receive the Eucharist. The Virgin Mary is venerated in the Catholic Church as Queen of Heaven and is honoured in numerous Marian devotions. The Catholic Church has influenced Western philosophy, science, art and culture, Catholic spiritual teaching includes spreading the Gospel while Catholic social teaching emphasises support for the sick, the poor and the afflicted through the corporal and spiritual works of mercy. The Catholic Church is the largest non-government provider of education and medical services in the world, from the late 20th century, the Catholic Church has been criticised for its doctrines on sexuality, its refusal to ordain women and its handling of sexual abuse cases. Catholic was first used to describe the church in the early 2nd century, the first known use of the phrase the catholic church occurred in the letter from Saint Ignatius of Antioch to the Smyrnaeans, written about 110 AD. In the Catechetical Discourses of Saint Cyril of Jerusalem, the name Catholic Church was used to distinguish it from other groups that call themselves the church. The use of the adjective Roman to describe the Church as governed especially by the Bishop of Rome became more widespread after the Fall of the Western Roman Empire and into the Early Middle Ages. Catholic Church is the name used in the Catechism of the Catholic Church. The Catholic Church follows an episcopal polity, led by bishops who have received the sacrament of Holy Orders who are given formal jurisdictions of governance within the church. Ultimately leading the entire Catholic Church is the Bishop of Rome, commonly called the pope, in parallel to the diocesan structure are a variety of religious institutes that function autonomously, often subject only to the authority of the pope, though sometimes subject to the local bishop. Most religious institutes only have male or female members but some have both, additionally, lay members aid many liturgical functions during worship services
Roman Catholic
–
Saint Peter's Basilica,
Vatican City
Roman Catholic
–
St. Peter's Basilica,
Vatican City
Roman Catholic
–
Pope Francis, elected in the
papal conclave, 2013
Roman Catholic
–
Traditional graphic representation of the Trinity: The earliest attested version of the diagram, from a manuscript of
Peter of Poitiers ' writings, c. 1210
18.
Unionism in Ireland
–
Unionism in Ireland is a political ideology that favours the continuation of some form of political union between the islands of Ireland and Great Britain. Since the partition of Ireland, unionism in Ireland has focused on maintaining and preserving the place of Northern Ireland within the United Kingdom, in this context, a distinction may be made between the unionism in the province of Ulster and unionism elsewhere in Ireland. Irish nationalism is opposed to the ideology of unionism, most unionists come from Protestant backgrounds, most nationalists come from a Roman Catholic background. Exceptions to these generalisations exist, there are Protestant nationalists and there are Catholic unionists, the political relationship between England and Ireland dates from the 12th century with the establishment of the Lordship of Ireland. In 1542, the Crown of Ireland Act was passed by both the English and Irish Parliaments, the Act established a sovereign Kingdom of Ireland with Henry VIII as King of Ireland. Both parliaments later passed the Act of Union 1800 by which a new state was created - the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922, twenty-six counties of Ireland gained autonomy from the U. K. as the Irish Free State, in 1949, the State was declared to be a Republic, the Republic of Ireland left the Commonwealth of Nations organisation. The remaining six counties of the island of Ireland constituted the territory of Northern Ireland, in 1927, the realm, consisting of combined territories of Northern Ireland and Great Britain, was renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Today, unionism is almost exclusively an issue for Northern Ireland and it is concerned with the governance of and relationship between Northern Ireland and Great Britain. Unionism emerged as a force in opposition to William Ewart Gladstones Home Rule Bill of 1886. Irish nationalists believed in separation from Great Britain, whether through repeal of the 1800 Act of Union, home rule, Unionists believed in maintaining and deepening the relationship between the various nations of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. They expressed pride in symbols of Britishness, a key symbol for unionists is the Union Flag. Unionist areas of Northern Ireland often display this and other symbols to show the loyalty, Unionism is also known for its allegiance to the person of the British monarch, both historically and today. Historically, most unionists in Ireland have been Protestants and most nationalists have been Catholics, however, a significant number of Protestants have adhered to the nationalist cause, and likewise with Catholics and unionism. These phenomena continue to exist in Northern Ireland, both unionism and nationalism have had sectarian and anti-sectarian elements. While nationalism has had a number of Protestant leaders, unionism was invariably always led by Protestant leaders, newe, served in the Government of Northern Ireland. UUP leader and Nobel Peace Prize-winner David Trimble suggested that Northern Ireland had been a house for Catholics in the past. People espousing unionist beliefs are sometimes referred to as loyalists, the two words are sometimes used interchangeably, but the latter is more often associated with particularly hardline forms of unionism
Unionism in Ireland
–
The political union is symbolised by the Westminster Parliament
Unionism in Ireland
–
Unionists today want Northern Ireland to remain a part of the United Kingdom with England, Scotland and Wales
Unionism in Ireland
–
Sir Edward Carson signing the
Ulster Covenant
Unionism in Ireland
–
Ulster Defence Association mural in
Shankill, Belfast
19.
Ulster loyalism
–
Ulster loyalism is a political ideology found primarily among working class Ulster Protestants in Northern Ireland, whose status as a part of the United Kingdom has remained controversial. Most Ulster Protestants are descendants of settlers from Great Britain in the 17th and 18th centuries, like unionists, loyalists are attached to the British monarchy, support the continued existence of Northern Ireland, and oppose a united Ireland. Ulster loyalism has been described as a kind of ethnic nationalism and it is strongly associated with paramilitarism. Ulster loyalism emerged in the late 19th century, as a response to the Irish Home Rule movement, although most of Ireland was Catholic, in the province of Ulster, Protestants were the majority. Ulster was also more industrialized than other parts of Ireland and was dependent on trade with Britain. Loyalism began as a movement among Ulster Protestants who did not want to become part of an autonomous Ireland. While some Irish Catholics were also unionist, loyalism emphasized a Protestant, loyalists often use Ulster as an alternative name for Northern Ireland. Since partition, most loyalists have supported upholding Northern Irelands status as a part of the United Kingdom, i. e. unionism. Historically, the terms unionist and loyalist were often used interchangeably, however, since the resurgence of loyalist paramilitarism in the 1960s, a distinction between the two is made more often. The term loyalist is now used to describe working class unionists who are willing to use, or tacitly support. Loyalists are also described as being loyal primarily to the Protestant British monarchy rather than to the British government, garret FitzGerald argued that loyalists are loyal primarily to Ulster rather than to the Union. A small minority of loyalists have called for an independent Ulster Protestant state, in Northern Ireland there is a long tradition of militaristic loyalist Protestant marching bands. There are hundreds of bands who hold numerous parades each year. The yearly Eleventh Night bonfires and The Twelfth parades are strongly associated with loyalism, the term loyalist was first used in Irish politics in the 1790s to refer to Protestants who opposed Catholic Emancipation and Irish independence from Great Britain. Upon the partition of Ireland in 1921, six of the nine counties in the province of Ulster didnt join the new independent Irish Free State and remained a part of the United Kingdom. Academically cited records from 1926 indicate that at that stage 33. 5% of the Northern Ireland population was Roman Catholic, tensions between Northern Irelands Catholic population and its Protestant population led to a long-running bloody conflict known as the Troubles from the late 1960s to the late 1990s. This includes the British National Front, the British Peoples Party, bigger and more moderate right-wing unionist parties like the Ulster Unionists or Democratic Unionists usually seek to distance themselves from loyalist paramilitary activity. Loyalist paramilitary and vigilante groups have been active since the early 20th century, in 1912, the Ulster Volunteers were formed to stop the British Government granting self-rule to Ireland, or to exclude Ulster from it
Ulster loyalism
–
The
Union Flag,
Ulster Banner and
Orange Order flags are often flown by loyalists in Northern Ireland
Ulster loyalism
–
Loyalist graffiti and banner on a building in a side street off the
Shankill Road, Belfast (1970)
Ulster loyalism
–
A UVF mural in Belfast
Ulster loyalism
–
A republican mural in Belfast with the slogan "Collusion Is Not An Illusion"
20.
Protestant
–
Protestantism is a form of Christianity which originated with the Reformation, a movement against what its followers considered to be errors in the Roman Catholic Church. It is one of the three divisions of Christendom, together with Roman Catholicism and Orthodoxy. The term derives from the letter of protestation from German Lutheran princes in 1529 against an edict of the Diet of Speyer condemning the teachings of Martin Luther as heretical. Although there were earlier breaks from or attempts to reform the Roman Catholic Church—notably by Peter Waldo, John Wycliffe, Protestants reject the notion of papal supremacy and deny the Roman Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation, but disagree among themselves regarding the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist. The Five solae summarize the reformers basic differences in theological beliefs, in the 16th century, Lutheranism spread from Germany into Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland, the Baltic states, and Iceland. Reformed churches were founded in Germany, Hungary, the Netherlands, Scotland, Switzerland and France by such reformers as John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli, the political separation of the Church of England from Rome under King Henry VIII brought England and Wales into this broad Reformation movement. Protestants developed their own culture, which made major contributions in education, the humanities and sciences, the political and social order, the economy and the arts, some Protestant denominations do have a worldwide scope and distribution of membership, while others are confined to a single country. A majority of Protestants are members of a handful of families, Adventism, Anglicanism, Baptist churches, Reformed churches, Lutheranism, Methodism. Nondenominational, evangelical, charismatic, independent and other churches are on the rise, and constitute a significant part of Protestant Christianity. Six princes of the Holy Roman Empire and rulers of fourteen Imperial Free Cities, the edict reversed concessions made to the Lutherans with the approval of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V three years earlier. During the Reformation, the term was used outside of the German politics. The word evangelical, which refers to the gospel, was more widely used for those involved in the religious movement. Nowadays, this word is still preferred among some of the historical Protestant denominations in the Lutheran and Calvinist traditions in Europe, above all the term is used by Protestant bodies in the German-speaking area, such as the EKD. In continental Europe, an Evangelical is either a Lutheran or a Calvinist, the German word evangelisch means Protestant, and is different from the German evangelikal, which refers to churches shaped by Evangelicalism. The English word evangelical usually refers to Evangelical Protestant churches, and it traces its roots back to the Puritans in England, where Evangelicalism originated, and then was brought to the United States. Protestantism as a term is now used in contradistinction to the other major Christian traditions, i. e. Roman Catholicism. Initially, Protestant became a term to mean any adherent to the Reformation movement in Germany and was taken up by Lutherans. Even though Martin Luther himself insisted on Christian or Evangelical as the only acceptable names for individuals who professed Christ, French and Swiss Protestants preferred the word reformed, which became a popular, neutral and alternative name for Calvinists
Protestant
–
(
The Ninety-Five Theses)
Protestant
–
The Memorial Church in
Speyer, Germany
Protestant
–
Key figures of the Protestant Reformation: Martin Luther and John Calvin depicted on a church
pulpit. These reformers emphasised preaching and made it a centerpiece of worship.
Protestant
–
The Bible translated into
vernacular by Martin Luther. The supreme authority of
scripture is a fundamental principle of Protestantism.
21.
Troubles
–
The Troubles is the common name for the ethno-nationalist conflict in Northern Ireland during the late 20th century. Also known internationally as the Northern Ireland conflict, it is described as a guerrilla war or low-level war. The most recent instalment of violence began in the late 1960s and is deemed to have ended with the Good Friday Belfast Agreement of 1998. Although the Troubles mainly took place in Northern Ireland, violence spilled over at times parts of the Republic of Ireland, England and mainland Europe. The conflict was political and nationalistic, fuelled by historical events. It also had an ethnic or sectarian dimension, although it was not a religious conflict, a key issue was the constitutional status of Northern Ireland. Unionists/loyalists, who are mostly Protestants and consider themselves British, want Northern Ireland to remain within the United Kingdom, Irish nationalists/republicans, who are predominantly Catholics, want Northern Ireland to be reunited with the 26 counties which make up the Republic of Ireland in an independent united Ireland. This campaign was met with violence by loyalists who viewed the campaign as a stalking horse. This eventually led to the deployment of British troops, initially to protect Catholic civilians, the security forces of the Republic played a smaller role. More than 3,500 people were killed in the conflict, of whom 52% were civilians, 32% were members of the British security forces, there has been sporadic violence since the Good Friday Agreement was signed, including a campaign by anti-ceasefire republicans. The Troubles refers to the recent three-decade conflict between nationalists and unionists, the term the Troubles was previously used to refer to the Irish revolutionary period, it was adopted to refer to the escalating violence in Northern Ireland after 1969. The violence was characterised by the campaigns of Irish republican and Ulster loyalist paramilitary groups. It thus became the focus for the longest major campaign in the history of the British Army, nationalists regard the state forces as forces of occupation or partisan combatants in the conflict. One part of the Agreement is that Northern Ireland will remain within the United Kingdom unless a majority of the Northern Irish electorate vote otherwise and it also established the Northern Ireland Executive, a devolved power-sharing government, which must consist of both unionist and nationalist parties. In 1609, Scottish and English settlers, known as planters, were given land escheated from the native Irish in the Plantation of Ulster. As the Penal Laws started to be phased out in the part of the 18th century, there was more competition for land. With Roman Catholics allowed to buy land and enter trades from which they had formerly been banned, tensions arose resulting in the Protestant Peep ODay Boys and Catholic Defenders. This created polarisation between the communities and a reduction in reformers among Protestants, many of whom had been growing more receptive to democratic reform
Troubles
–
2009: the
Ulster Banner flying over an
Ulster loyalist area (foreground) of
Derry, and the
Irish tricolour flying over an
Irish republican area (background) of the same city
Troubles
–
Political map of Ireland
Troubles
–
The fencing on the Belfast "
peace line ". The peace lines are a series of high
border barriers in
Northern Ireland that separate
Irish nationalist and
unionist neighbourhoods. They have been built at urban
interface areas in
Belfast, Derry,
Portadown and elsewhere. The stated purpose of the peace lines is to minimise inter-communal violence.
Troubles
–
The
Battle of the Boyne (12 July 1690) by
Jan van Huchtenburg
22.
Education in Northern Ireland
–
Education in Northern Ireland differs from systems used elsewhere in the United Kingdom, although it is relatively similar to Wales. A childs age on 1 July determines the point of entry into the relevant stage of education, unlike England, Northern Irelands results at GCSE and A-Level are consistently top in the UK. At A-Level and BTEC level 3, one third of students in Northern Ireland achieved A and distinction grades in 2007 and its primary statutory duty is to promote the education of the people of Northern Ireland and to ensure the effective implementation of education policy. These services were delivered by the five Education and Library Boards until the creation of the Education Authority. Classroom 2000, on behalf of the authority, is responsible for the provision of information, all schools in Northern Ireland follow the Northern Ireland Curriculum which is based on the National Curriculum used in England and Wales. At age 11, on entering secondary education, all pupils study a broad base of subjects which include geography, English, mathematics, science, physical education, music, at age 14, pupils select which subjects to continue to study for General Certificate of Secondary Education examinations. Currently it is compulsory to study English, mathematics and religious studies, in addition, pupils usually elect to continue with other subjects and many study for eight or nine GCSEs but possibly up to ten or eleven. GCSEs mark the end of education in Northern Ireland. At age 16, some pupils stay at school and choose to study Advanced Level AS and those choosing AS and A2 levels normally pick three or four subjects and success in these can determine acceptance into higher education courses at university. Northern Ireland formerly ran a transfer test at a level to decide which primary school students qualified for a place at a Grammar School. This system was abolished by Martin McGuinness during his time as Minister of Education and this policy was continued by subsequent ministers Caitríona Ruane and John ODowd. The majority of schools did, however, decide to set their own entrance exams a situation which continues to this day. There are two types in Northern Ireland, – AQE and GL assessment, controlled schools are under the management of the schools board of governors and the employing authority is the Education Authority. The three largest Protestant churches, known as the transferors, maintain a link with the schools through church representation on controlled school boards of governors and this statutory representational role on boards of governors is set out in schedules 4 and 5 of the Education & Library Board Order 1986. Under this order, for example, transferor governors comprise four out of nine members on a primary school. This right of representation on controlled schools is being re-examined under the Review of Public Administration, the RPA has proposed the removal of this statutory role for transferors on the ground that it purportedly contravenes the equality requirements of the Northern Ireland Act 1998. The Transferors Representative Council, speaking on behalf of the three churches, argues that this proposal will remove the Christian ethos from the sector of education. There are 533 Roman Catholic-managed schools in Northern Ireland, according to figures from the Department of Education for 2009/2010, the number of pupils registered at school in Northern Ireland is 321,830
Education in Northern Ireland
–
Royal Belfast Academical Institution
Education in Northern Ireland
–
1.
Education in Northern Ireland
–
Lumen Christi College,
Derry
23.
Integrated education
–
The Northern Ireland Council for Integrated Education, a voluntary organisation, promotes, develops and supports integrated education in Northern Ireland. The *Integrated Education Fund is a foundation for the development. The IEF seeks to bridge the gap between starting integrated schools and securing full government funding and support. The Fund financially supports the establishment of new schools, the growth of existing schools, funding is generally seed corn and projects are ‘pump primed’ with the objective of eventually securing full government funding and support. Education in Northern Ireland is highly segregated, with 95% of pupils attending either a maintained school or a controlled school. Teaching a balanced view of subjects is difficult in these conditions. The churches in Northern Ireland have not been involved in the development of integrated schools, the schools have been established by the voluntary efforts of parents. The first integrated school, Lagan College, was established in Belfast in 1981 by the parent group All Children Together. In 1985, three more integrated schools opened in Belfast offering parents in the city an alternative to the segregated schools. There are currently 62 integrated schools comprising 20 second-level colleges, and 42 primary schools, in addition, there are 19 integrated nursery schools, most of which are linked to primary schools. Initially, such schools met with opposition from certain local politicians who were angry at an alleged favouritism in funding being shown to them by the Government. Speaking out against integrated education, the Free Presbyterian Church described it as a front for ecumenism and the secular lobby
Integrated education
–
Administration
24.
Portadown Integrated Primary
–
Portadown is a town in County Armagh, Northern Ireland. The town sits on the River Bann in the north of the county and it is in the Armagh, Banbridge and Craigavon Borough Council area and had a population of about 22,000 at the 2011 Census. For some purposes, Portadown is treated as part of the Craigavon Urban Area, alongside Craigavon and Lurgan. Although Portadown can trace its origins to the early 17th century Plantation of Ulster, it was not until the Victorian era and the arrival of the railway that it became a major town. It earned the nickname hub of the North due to it being a railway junction. In the 19th and 20th centuries Portadown was also a centre for the production of textiles. Of its population, about 61% are from a Protestant background, Portadown is the site of the long-running Drumcree dispute, over yearly Orange marches through the mainly Catholic part of town, which has often led to violence. In the 1990s, the dispute intensified and drew attention to Portadown. The Portadown area had long been populated by Irish Gaels, at the beginning of the 1600s, it lay within the district of Clancann, which was part of the larger territory of Oneilland. This district was named after the dominant local clan—the McCanns —who had been in the area since before the 13th century, the McCanns were then a vassal September of the ONeills. On the eastern banks of the River Bann was the district of Clanbrasil, the towns name comes from the Irish Port a Dúnáin, meaning the port or landing place of the small fort. This was likely a fort of the McCanns, from 1594 until 1603, the ONeills and an alliance of other clans fought in the Nine Years War against the English conquest of Ireland. This ended in defeat for the Irish clans, and much of their land was seized by the English, in 1608, James I of England began the Plantation of Ulster – the organised colonisation of this land by settlers from Great Britain. In 1610, as part of the Plantation, the lands of Portadown were granted to William Powell, in 1611, he sold his grant of land to Reverend Richard Rolleston, who in turn sold it in two portions to Richard Cope and Michael Obins. Obins built a large Elizabethan-style mansion for himself and his family, and this mansion was in the area of the present-day Woodside estate, and todays Peoples Park was part of its grounds. The park is now bounded on either side by Obins Street and Castle Street, in 1631, Obins was granted a licence for a fair and market, which led to the building of the first bridge across the River Bann shortly thereafter. During the Irish Rebellion of 1641, Obins Castle was captured by a force of dispossessed Irish led by the McCanns, the Magennises and the ONeills. In one of the worst atrocities of the rebellion, in November 1641, Irish rebels forced about 100 captured English and Scottish settlers off the Bann bridge and they either drowned or were shot
Portadown Integrated Primary
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St Mark's Church of Ireland in central Portadown
Portadown Integrated Primary
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Portadown High Street on market day (c.1900)
Portadown Integrated Primary
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The Edenderry area of Portadown in the early 1900s
Portadown Integrated Primary
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The old railway station in Edenderry (c.1879)
25.
Field trips
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A field trip or excursion is a journey by a group of people to a place away from their normal environment. When done for students, it is known as school trip in the UK, New Zealand, school tour in the Philippines. The aim of this research is to observe the subject in its natural state, Field trips are also used to produce civilized young men and women who appreciate culture and the arts. Field trips are most often done in 3 steps, preparation, activities, preparation applies to both the student and the teacher. Teachers often take the time to learn about the destination and the subject before the trip, activities that happen on the field trips often include, lectures, tours, worksheets, videos and demonstrations. Follow-up activities are generally discussions that occur in the once the field trip is completed. In Western culture people first come across this method during school years when classes are taken on trips to visit a geological or geographical feature of the landscape. Much of the research into the natural sciences was of this form. Charles Darwin is an important example of someone who has contributed to science through the use of field trips. Popular field trip sites include zoos, nature centers, community agencies such as stations and hospitals, government agencies, local businesses, amusement parks, science museums. Not only do field trips provide alternative educational opportunities for children, Field trips also provide students the opportunity to take a break from their normal routine and experience more hands on learning. Places like zoos and nature centers often have an interactive displays that allow children to touch plants or animals, today, culturally enriching field trips are in decline. Museums across the country report a steep drop in school tours, for example, the Field Museum in Chicago at one time welcomed more than 300,000 students every year. Recently the number is below 200,000, between 2002 and 2007, Cincinnati arts organizations saw a 30 percent decrease in student attendance. A survey by the American Association of School Administrators found that more than half of schools eliminated planned field trips in 2010–11. School bus Museum education Excursion Ensoku Kaushik, R.2005, Effectiveness of Indian science centres as learning environments, a study of educational objectives in the design of museum experiences
Field trips
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Biology students on a field trip to Waiake Beach in
Torbay, New Zealand
26.
Economy of Northern Ireland
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The economy of Northern Ireland is the smallest of the four countries of the United Kingdom. Northern Ireland previously had an industrial economy, most notably in shipbuilding, rope manufacture and textiles. To this day, Northern Ireland still suffers from the results of the Troubles, which occurred between the late 1960s until the mid-1990s. Northern Ireland has the smallest economy of any of the twelve NUTS1 regions of the United Kingdom, at £27. 4bn, or about two-thirds of the size of the next smallest, North East England. However, this is partly because Northern Ireland has the smallest population, in April 2007 a Halifax survey found Northern Irelands average house price to one of the highest in the UK, behind London, the South East and the South West. It also found Northern Ireland to have all of the top ten property hot spots, with the Craigavon, unemployment in Northern Ireland has decreased substantially in recent years, and is now roughly at 6. 1%, down from a peak of 17. 2% in 1986. Youth unemployment and long-term unemployment have fallen most quickly, working-age economic inactivity is 28%, which is the highest of any UK region. Northern Irelands macroeconomy is also characterised by considerably longer actual working hours, during the Troubles, Northern Ireland received little foreign investment. Since the signing of the Good Friday Agreement, investment in Northern Ireland has increased significantly, most investment has been focused in Greater Belfast and to a lesser extent Greater Derry. Major projects include the £400 million Victoria Square retail development in Belfast City Centre, the city will hosts the largest waterfront development in Europe with the Titanic Quarter scheme, costing over £1 billion and taking seven years to complete. The Cathedral Quarter has also seen substantial investment, in Londonderry/Derry, the ILEX Urban Regeneration Company has responsibility for driving forward the regeneration of the city. It is currently charged with redeveloping Ebrington Square and Fort George, the Culture Company is charged with running events and programmes during the citys stint as City of Culture in 2013. The Matrix Panel aims to grow NIs wealth by encouraging the exploitation of its science, the work has shown that there is still a need for greater exploitation of science and technology and a step-change in innovation in the economy and workplaces. The Panel’s recommendations are the result of an effort of technology industry leaders. Agriculture in Northern Ireland is heavily mechanised, thanks to high costs and heavy capital investment. In 2000, agriculture accounted for 2. 4% of economic output in Northern Ireland, as in the rest of the United Kingdom, livestock and dairy account for the majority of agricultural output. The main crops are potatoes, barley, and wheat, heavy industry is concentrated in and around Belfast, although other major towns and cities also have heavy manufacturing areas. Machinery and equipment manufacturing, food processing, textile and electronics manufacturing are the leading industries, other industries such as papermaking, furniture manufacturing, aerospace and shipbuilding are also important, concentrated mostly in the eastern parts of Northern Ireland
Economy of Northern Ireland
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Harland and Wolff cranes in
Belfast
Economy of Northern Ireland
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George Best Belfast City Airport
Economy of Northern Ireland
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The
Enterprise passing
Poyntzpass.
27.
Peace line
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The peace lines or peace walls are a series of separation barriers in Northern Ireland that separate Catholic and Protestant neighbourhoods. They have been built at urban areas in Belfast, Derry, Portadown. The stated purpose of the lines is to minimise inter-communal violence between Catholics and Protestants. The peace lines range in length from a few hundred yards to over three miles and they may be made of iron, brick, and/or steel and are up to 25 feet high. Some have gates in them that allow passage during daylight but are closed at night, the majority of peace walls are located in Belfast, but they also exist in Derry, Portadown, and Lurgan. The first peace lines were built in 1969, following the outbreak of the 1969 Northern Ireland riots and they were built as temporary structures meant to last only six months, but due to their effective nature they have become wider, longer and more permanent. Originally few in number, they have multiplied over the years, from 18 in the early 1990s to 48 today, in total they stretch over 21 miles and they have been increased in both height and number since the Good Friday Agreement of 1998. In recent years, they have become locations for tourism. Black taxis now take groups of tourists around Belfasts peace lines, trouble spots, in 2008, a public discussion began about how and when the peace lines could be removed. At the end of 2011, several local community resulted in the opening of a number of interface structures for a trial period. In January 2012, the International Fund for Ireland launched a Peace Walls funding programme to local communities who want to work towards beginning to remove the peace walls. In May 2013, the Northern Ireland Executive committed to the removal of all lines by mutual consent by 2023. Interface area Defensive wall Gated Community Segregation in Northern Ireland Paul Brown, Peace but no love as Northern Ireland divide grows ever wider. Belfasts Peacelines, An Analysis of Urban Borders, Design and Social Space in a Divided City, archived from the original on 20 August 2008. A discussion paper proposing a five phase process for the removal of walls in Northern Ireland. Despite peace, Belfast walls are growing in size and number, peacewall Archive Belfast Interface Project Cluster Map Peace Lines Ethnic Interface in North Belfast Forty years of peace lines
Peace line
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An 18-foot-high (5.5 m) Peace Line along Springmartin Road in Belfast, with a fortified police station at one end
Peace line
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The peace line along Cupar Way in Belfast, seen from the Protestant side
Peace line
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The peace line at Bombay Street/Cupar Way in Belfast, seen from the Catholic side.
Peace line
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Gates in a peace line in West Belfast.
28.
The Troubles
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The Troubles is the common name for the ethno-nationalist conflict in Northern Ireland during the late 20th century. Also known internationally as the Northern Ireland conflict, it is described as a guerrilla war or low-level war. The most recent instalment of violence began in the late 1960s and is deemed to have ended with the Good Friday Belfast Agreement of 1998. Although the Troubles mainly took place in Northern Ireland, violence spilled over at times parts of the Republic of Ireland, England and mainland Europe. The conflict was political and nationalistic, fuelled by historical events. It also had an ethnic or sectarian dimension, although it was not a religious conflict, a key issue was the constitutional status of Northern Ireland. Unionists/loyalists, who are mostly Protestants and consider themselves British, want Northern Ireland to remain within the United Kingdom, Irish nationalists/republicans, who are predominantly Catholics, want Northern Ireland to be reunited with the 26 counties which make up the Republic of Ireland in an independent united Ireland. This campaign was met with violence by loyalists who viewed the campaign as a stalking horse. This eventually led to the deployment of British troops, initially to protect Catholic civilians, the security forces of the Republic played a smaller role. More than 3,500 people were killed in the conflict, of whom 52% were civilians, 32% were members of the British security forces, there has been sporadic violence since the Good Friday Agreement was signed, including a campaign by anti-ceasefire republicans. The Troubles refers to the recent three-decade conflict between nationalists and unionists, the term the Troubles was previously used to refer to the Irish revolutionary period, it was adopted to refer to the escalating violence in Northern Ireland after 1969. The violence was characterised by the campaigns of Irish republican and Ulster loyalist paramilitary groups. It thus became the focus for the longest major campaign in the history of the British Army, nationalists regard the state forces as forces of occupation or partisan combatants in the conflict. One part of the Agreement is that Northern Ireland will remain within the United Kingdom unless a majority of the Northern Irish electorate vote otherwise and it also established the Northern Ireland Executive, a devolved power-sharing government, which must consist of both unionist and nationalist parties. In 1609, Scottish and English settlers, known as planters, were given land escheated from the native Irish in the Plantation of Ulster. As the Penal Laws started to be phased out in the part of the 18th century, there was more competition for land. With Roman Catholics allowed to buy land and enter trades from which they had formerly been banned, tensions arose resulting in the Protestant Peep ODay Boys and Catholic Defenders. This created polarisation between the communities and a reduction in reformers among Protestants, many of whom had been growing more receptive to democratic reform
The Troubles
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2009: the
Ulster Banner flying over an
Ulster loyalist area (foreground) of
Derry, and the
Irish tricolour flying over an
Irish republican area (background) of the same city
The Troubles
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Political map of Ireland
The Troubles
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The fencing on the Belfast "
peace line ". The peace lines are a series of high
border barriers in
Northern Ireland that separate
Irish nationalist and
unionist neighbourhoods. They have been built at urban
interface areas in
Belfast, Derry,
Portadown and elsewhere. The stated purpose of the peace lines is to minimise inter-communal violence.
The Troubles
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The
Battle of the Boyne (12 July 1690) by
Jan van Huchtenburg
29.
Northern Ireland peace process
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In 1994, talks between the leaders of the two main Irish nationalist parties in Northern Ireland, John Hume of the Social Democratic and Labour Party, and Gerry Adams of Sinn Féin, continued. These talks led to a series of joint statements on how the violence might be brought to an end, the talks had been going on since the late 1980s and had secured the backing of the Irish Government through an intermediary, Father Alec Reid. In November it was revealed that the British government had also been in talks with the Provisional IRA and this included statements that, The British government had no selfish strategic or economic interest in Northern Ireland. This statement would lead, eventually, to the repeal of the Government of Ireland Act 1920, the British government would uphold the right of the people of Northern Ireland to decide between the Union with Great Britain or a united Ireland. The people of the island of Ireland, North and South, had the right to solve the issues between North and South by mutual consent. The Irish government would try to address unionist fears of a united Ireland by amending the Irish Constitution according to the principle of consent and this would lead, eventually, to the modification of the Articles 2 and 3. A united Ireland could only be brought about by peaceful means, Peace must involve a permanent end to the use of, or support for, paramilitary violence. On 6 April 1994 the Provisional IRA announced a temporary cessation of hostilities to run from Wednesday 6 April – Friday 8 April 1994. Five months later, on Wednesday 31 August 1994, the Provisional IRA announced a cessation of operations from midnight. Albert Reynolds, the Irish Taoiseach, said that he accepted the IRA statement as implying a permanent ceasefire, UUP leader James Molyneaux, in a rare slip, declared This is the worst thing that has ever happened to us. Loyalist bombings and shootings, and punishment beatings from both sides, continued, Friday 15 December 1994, Albert Reynolds resigned as Taoiseach of the Republic of Ireland following the collapse of his Fianna Fáil/Labour coalition. He was succeeded by John Bruton, heading a Rainbow Coalition of Fine Gael, Labour, the proposals were not welcomed by unionists and the DUP described it as a one-way street to Dublin and a joint government programme for Irish unity. Sunday 13 August 1995, Gerry Adams, Sinn Féin President, a member of the crowd called out to Adams to, bring back the IRA. In reply Adams said, They havent gone away, you know, Friday 8 September 1995, David Trimble was elected leader of the UUP, replacing James Molyneaux. Friday 24 November 1995, a referendum in the Republic of Ireland to change the constitution to allow divorce was narrowly approved, divorce had long been available north of the border. Preparatory talks were to lead to all-party negotiations beginning by the end of February 1996, US Senator George Mitchell was to lead an international body to provide an independent assessment of the decommissioning issue. Thursday 30 November 1995, Bill Clinton, then President of the United States, visited Northern Ireland, Wednesday 20 December 1995, blaming the Provisional IRA for recent killings of drug dealers, the Irish government decided not to give permanent release to a further ten republican prisoners. The main conclusion was that decommissioning of paramilitary arms should take place during all-party talks, the report was welcomed by the Irish government and the main opposition parties in Britain and the Republic, as well as the Social Democratic and Labour Party and the Alliance Party
Northern Ireland peace process
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Martin McGuinness,
George W. Bush and
Ian Paisley in December 2007
30.
British Army
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The British Army is the principal land warfare force of the United Kingdom. As of 2017 the British Army comprises just over 80,000 trained Regular, or full-time, personnel and just over 26,500 trained Reserve, or part-time personnel. Therefore, the UK Parliament approves the continued existence of the Army by passing an Armed Forces Act at least once every five years, day to day the Army comes under administration of the Ministry of Defence and is commanded by the Chief of the General Staff. Repeatedly emerging victorious from these decisive wars allowed Britain to influence world events with its policies and establish itself as one of the leading military. In 1660 the English, Scottish and Irish monarchies were restored under Charles II, Charles favoured the foundation of a new army under royal control and began work towards its establishment by August 1660. The Royal Scots Army and the Irish Army were financed by the Parliament of Scotland, the order of seniority of the most senior line regiments in the British Army is based on the order of seniority in the English army. At that time there was only one English regiment of dragoons, after William and Marys accession to the throne, England involved itself in the War of the Grand Alliance, primarily to prevent a French invasion restoring Marys father, James II. Spain, in the two centuries, had been the dominant global power, and the chief threat to Englands early transatlantic ambitions. The territorial ambitions of the French, however, led to the War of the Spanish Succession and the Napoleonic Wars. From the time of the end of the Seven Years War in 1763, Great Britain was the naval power. As had its predecessor, the English Army, the British Army fought the Kingdoms of Spain, France, and the Netherlands for supremacy in North America and the West Indies. With native and provincial assistance, the Army conquered New France in the North American theatre of the Seven Years War, the British Army suffered defeat in the American War of Independence, losing the Thirteen Colonies but holding on to Canada. The British Army was heavily involved in the Napoleonic Wars and served in campaigns across Europe. The war between the British and the First French Empire of Napoleon Bonaparte stretched around the world and at its peak, in 1813, the regular army contained over 250,000 men. A Coalition of Anglo-Dutch and Prussian Armies under the Duke of Wellington, the English had been involved, both politically and militarily, in Ireland since being given the Lordship of Ireland by the Pope in 1171. The campaign of the English republican Protector, Oliver Cromwell, involved uncompromising treatment of the Irish towns that had supported the Royalists during the English Civil War, the English Army stayed in Ireland primarily to suppress numerous Irish revolts and campaigns for independence. Having learnt from their experience in America, the British government sought a political solution, the British Army found itself fighting Irish rebels, both Protestant and Catholic, primarily in Ulster and Leinster in the 1798 rebellion. The Haldane Reforms of 1907 formally created the Territorial Force as the Armys volunteer reserve component by merging and reorganising the Volunteer Force, Militia, Great Britains dominance of the world had been challenged by numerous other powers, in the 20th century, most notably Germany
British Army
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Men of the
Welsh Guards Trooping the Colour 2007.
British Army
British Army
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John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough, was one of the first generals in the British Army, fighting campaigns in the
War of the Spanish Succession.
British Army
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The extinction of the
Scottish clan system came with the defeat of the clansmen at the
Battle of Culloden in 1746
