1.
Brown v. Board of Education
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The decision overturned the Plessy v. Ferguson decision of 1896, which allowed state-sponsored segregation, insofar as it applied to public education. Handed down on May 17,1954, the Warren Courts unanimous decision stated that educational facilities are inherently unequal. As a result, de jure segregation was ruled a violation of the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment of the United States Constitution. This ruling paved the way for integration and was a victory of the Civil Rights Movement. For much of the sixty years preceding the Brown case, race relations in the United States had been dominated by racial segregation, racial segregation in education varied widely from the 17 states that required racial segregation to the 16 in which it was prohibited. Brown was influenced by UNESCOs 1950 Statement, signed by a variety of internationally renowned scholars. This declaration denounced previous attempts at scientifically justifying racism as well as morally condemning racism, another work that the Supreme Court cited was Gunnar Myrdals An American Dilemma, The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy. Myrdal had been a signatory of the UNESCO declaration, the research performed by the educational psychologists Kenneth B. Clark and Mamie Phipps Clark also influenced the Courts decision. The Clarks doll test studies presented substantial arguments to the Supreme Court about how segregation affected black schoolchildrens mental status, the plaintiffs were thirteen Topeka parents on behalf of their 20 children. The suit called for the district to reverse its policy of racial segregation. The plaintiffs had been recruited by the leadership of the Topeka NAACP, notable among the Topeka NAACP leaders were the chairman McKinley Burnett, Charles Scott, one of three serving as legal counsel for the chapter, and Lucinda Todd. The named plaintiff, Oliver L. Brown, was a parent, a welder in the shops of the Santa Fe Railroad, an assistant pastor at his church. He was convinced to join the lawsuit by Scott, a childhood friend, as directed by the NAACP leadership, the parents each attempted to enroll their children in the closest neighborhood school in the fall of 1951. They were each refused enrollment and directed to the segregated schools, linda Brown Thompson later recalled the experience in a 2004 PBS documentary. Like I say, we lived in a neighborhood and I had all of these playmates of different nationalities. And so when I found out that day that I might be able to go to their school, I was just thrilled, you know. And I remember walking over to Sumner school with my dad that day and going up the steps of the school, and I remember going inside and my dad spoke with someone and then he went into the inner office with the principal and they left me out. To sit outside with the secretary, and while he was in the inner office, I could hear voices and hear his voice raised, you know, as the conversation went on
Brown v. Board of Education
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On May 17, 1954, these men, members of the U.S. Supreme Court, ruled unanimously that racial segregation in public schools is unconstitutional.
Brown v. Board of Education
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Educational segregation in the US prior to Brown
Brown v. Board of Education
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U.S. circuit judges Robert A. Katzmann,
Damon J. Keith, and
Sonia Sotomayor at a 2004 exhibit on the
Fourteenth Amendment,
Thurgood Marshall, and Brown v. Board of Education
2.
Separate but Equal (film)
–
Separate But Equal is a 1991 American television movie depicting the landmark Supreme Court desegregation case Brown v. Board of Education, based on the phrase Separate but equal. It was Burt Lancasters final movie before his death, in 1991, the Academy of Television Arts and Sciences rewarded the film Outstanding Miniseries award. The issue before the United States Supreme Court is whether the equal protection clause of the 14th Amendment of the U. S. Constitution mandates the states to desegregate public schools, that is, whether the nations separate. The issue is placed before the Court by Brown v. Board of Education and its companion case, many of the justices personally believe segregation is morally unacceptable, but have difficulty justifying the idea legally under the 14th Amendment. Marshall and Davis argue their respective cases, Marshall argues the equal protection clause extends far enough to the states to prohibit segregated schools. Davis counters that control of schools is a states rights issue that Congress never intended to be covered by the 14th Amendment when it was passed. In the interim, Chief Justice Fred M. Vinson dies and is replaced by a non-jurist, meanwhile, Marshall and his staff are fruitless in finding any research showing the Civil-War era crafters of the 14th Amendment in 1866 intended for schools to be desegregated. On the other hand, Davis and his Ivy League-educated staff find several examples of segregated schools having existed ever since the passage of the equal protection clause and they place it at the front of their brief. As the case is taken under advisement a second time, new Chief Justice Warren is taken on a tour of Gettysburg by his black chauffeur and he also realizes that his chauffeur must sleep in the car because there are no lodging places available for him because of his race. Warren discovers a majority of the Court agrees to strike down the separate but equal laws, however and he writes an opinion and takes copies to all of the dissenting justices trying to convince each one of the significance of unanimity. Warren reads his opinion which states that segregation has no place in American society, even opposing counsel, John W. Davis, privately agrees it is time for society to change. African-American Civil Rights Movement in popular culture Separate But Equal at the Internet Movie Database
Separate but Equal (film)
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VHS cover art
3.
Racial segregation
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Racial segregation is the separation of humans into racial or other ethnic groups in daily life. As a result, the act of separating oneself from other people on the basis of one of the enumerated grounds does not constitute segregation. Segregation may be maintained by means ranging from discrimination in hiring and in the rental, in the United States, segregation was mandated by law in some states and came with anti-miscegenation laws. Segregation, however, often allowed close contact in hierarchical situations, Segregation can involve spatial separation of the races, and mandatory use of different institutions, such as schools and hospitals by people of different races. Wherever there have been multiracial communities, there has been racial segregation, only areas with extensive miscegenation, or mixing, such as Hawaii and Brazil, despite some social stratification, seem to be exempt. Following its conquest of Ottoman controlled Algeria in 1830, for well over a century France maintained colonial rule in the territory which has described as quasi-apartheid. Camille Bonora-Waisman writes that, n contrast with the Moroccan and Tunisian protectorates and this internal system of apartheid met with considerable resistance from the Muslims affected by it, and is cited as one of the causes of the 1954 insurrection and ensuing independence war. In fifteenth-century north-east Germany, people of Wendish, i. e. Slavic, according to Wilhelm Raabe, down into the eighteenth century no German guild accepted a Wend. The ban on marriage was a part of the Nuremberg Laws. At first the laws were aimed primarily at Jews but were extended to Gypsies, Negroes. Aryans found guilty could face incarceration in a camp, while non-Aryans could face the death penalty. To preserve the purity of the German blood, after the war began. In an effort to split Polish identity they attempted to establish ethnic divisions of Kashubians and Gorals, based on these groups alleged Germanic component. During the 1930s and 1940s, Jews in Nazi-controlled states were made to wear yellow ribbons or stars of David, Jewish doctors were not allowed to treat Aryan patients nor were Jewish professors permitted to teach Aryan pupils. In addition, Jews were not allowed to use any public transportation, besides the ferry, after Kristallnacht, the Jews were fined 1,000,000 marks for damages done by the Nazi troops and SS members. Jews and Roma were subjected to genocide as undesirable racial groups in the Holocaust, the Nazis established ghettos to confine Jews and sometimes Romas into tightly packed areas of the cities of Eastern Europe, turning them into de facto concentration camps. The Warsaw Ghetto was the largest of these ghettos, with 400,000 people, the Łódź Ghetto was the second largest, holding about 160,000. Between 1939 and 1945, at least 1.5 million Polish citizens were transported to the Reich for forced labour, although Nazi Germany also used forced laborers from Western Europe, Poles, along with other Eastern Europeans viewed as racially inferior, were subject to deeper discriminatory measures
Racial segregation
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Nur für Deutsche ("Only for Germans") on the tram number 8 in German-occupied
Kraków, Poland.
Racial segregation
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German warning in occupied Poland 1939 – "No entrance for Poles!"
Racial segregation
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Young Polish girl wearing Letter "P" patch.
4.
Apartheid
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Apartheid was a system of institutionalised racial segregation and discrimination in South Africa between 1948 and 1991, when it was abolished. The countrys first multiracial elections under a universal franchise were held three years later in 1994, Apartheid as a policy was embraced by the South African government shortly after the ascension of the National Party during the countrys 1948 general elections. Apartheid was also enforced in South West Africa until it gained independence as Namibia in 1990, with the rapid growth and industrialisation of the British Cape Colony in the nineteenth century, racial policies and laws became increasingly rigid. Cape legislation that discriminated specifically against black Africans began appearing shortly before 1900, the policies of the Boer republics were also racially exclusive, for instance, the Transvaal constitution barred nonwhite participation in church and state. Places of residence were determined by racial classification, from 1960 to 1983,3.5 million nonwhite South Africans were removed from their homes, and forced into segregated neighbourhoods, in one of the largest mass removals in modern history. Most of these targeted removals were intended to restrict the population to ten designated tribal homelands, also known as bantustans. The government announced that relocated persons would lose their South African citizenship as they were absorbed into the bantustans, Apartheid sparked significant international and domestic opposition, resulting in some of the most influential global social movements of the twentieth century. It was the target of frequent condemnation in the United Nations, some reforms of the apartheid system were undertaken, including allowing for Indian and coloured political representation in parliament, but these measures failed in appeasing most activist groups. In 1990, prominent ANC leaders such as Nelson Mandela were released from detention, Apartheid legislation was abolished in mid-1991, pending multiracial elections set for April 1994. Apartheid is an Afrikaans word meaning separateness, or the state of being apart and its first recorded use was in 1929. The governors and assemblies that governed the process in the various colonies of South Africa were launched on a different and independent legislative path from the rest of the British Empire. In the days of slavery, slaves required passes to travel away from their masters, in 1797 the Landdrost and Heemraden of Swellendam and Graaff-Reinet extended pass laws beyond slaves and ordained that all Khoikhoi moving about the country for any purpose should carry passes. Ordinance No.49 of 1828 decreed that prospective black immigrants were to be granted passes for the purpose of seeking work. These passes were to be issued for Coloureds and Khoikhoi, but not for other Africans, the United Kingdoms Slavery Abolition Act 1833 abolished slavery throughout the British Empire and overrode the Cape Articles of Capitulation. To comply with the act the South African legislation was expanded to include Ordinance 1 in 1835 and this was followed by Ordinance 3 in 1848, which introduced an indenture system for Xhosa that was little different from slavery. The Glen Grey Act of 1894, instigated by the government of Prime Minister Cecil John Rhodes limited the amount of land Africans could hold, in 1905 the General Pass Regulations Act denied blacks the vote, limited them to fixed areas and inaugurated the infamous Pass System. The Asiatic Registration Act required all Indians to register and carry passes, one of the first pieces of segregating legislation enacted by Jan Smuts United Party government was the Asiatic Land Tenure Bill, which banned land sales to Indians. The United Party government began to move away from the enforcement of segregationist laws during World War II
Apartheid
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Daniel François Malan, the first apartheid prime minister (1948–1954)
Apartheid
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Cape Coloured children in
Bonteheuwel.
Apartheid
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Rural area in
Ciskei, one of the apartheid era
homelands
5.
Bantustan
–
A Bantustan was a territory set aside for black inhabitants of South Africa and South West Africa, as part of the policy of apartheid. The term was first used in the late 1940s and was coined from Bantu and it was regarded as a disparaging term by some critics of the apartheid-era governments homelands. Four of the South African Bantustans—Transkei, Bophuthatswana, Venda, and Ciskei —were declared independent, other South African Bantustans received partial autonomy but were never granted independence. In South West Africa, Ovamboland, Kavangoland, and East Caprivi were granted self-determination, the Bantustans were abolished with the end of apartheid and re-joined South Africa proper in 1994. The creation of the homelands or Bantustans was an element of this strategy. As a result, blacks would lose their South African citizenship and voting rights, the term Bantustan was used by apartheids apologists in reference to the partition of India in 1947. However, it quickly became pejorative in left and anti-apartheid usage, verwoerd argued that the Bantustans were the original homes of the black peoples of South Africa. In 1951, the government of Daniel François Malan introduced the Bantu Authorities Act to establish homelands allocated to the countrys ethnic groups. These amounted to 13% of the land, the remainder being reserved for the white population. The homelands were run by tribal leaders, while uncooperative chiefs were forcibly deposed. Over time, a ruling black élite emerged with a personal and financial interest in the preservation of the homelands, while this aided the homelands political stability to an extent, their position was still entirely dependent on South African support. The role of the homelands was expanded in 1959 with the passage of the Bantu Self-Government Act and this enabled the homelands to establish themselves as self-governing, quasi-independent states. This plan was stepped up under Verwoerds successor as minister, John Vorster. The homelands were encouraged to opt for independence, as this would reduce the number of black citizens of South Africa. In parallel with the creation of the homelands, South Africas black population was subjected to a programme of forced relocation. It has been estimated that 3.5 million people were forced from their homes from the 1960s through the 1980s, the government made clear that its ultimate aim was the total removal of the black population from South Africa. But this goal was not achieved, only about 55% of South Africas population lived in the Bantustans, the remainder lived in South Africa proper, many in townships, shanty-towns and slums on the outskirts of South African cities. Bantustans within the borders of South Africa were classified as self-governing or independent, in theory, self-governing Bantustans had control over many aspects of their internal functioning but were not yet sovereign nations
Bantustan
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Map of the black homelands in
Namibia as of 1978
Bantustan
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Racial-demographic map of South Africa published by the
CIA in 1979 with data from the 1970 South African census
6.
Bantu Education Act, 1953
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The Bantu Education Act,1953 was a South African segregation law which legalised several aspects of the apartheid system. Its major provision was enforcing racially separated educational facilities, even universities were made tribal, and all but three missionary schools chose to close down when the government no longer would help support their schools. Very few authorities continued using their own finances to support education for native Africans, the national authorities of the time is often said to have viewed education as having a rather pivotal position in their goal of eventually separating South Africa from the Bantustans entirely. The Minister of Native Affairs at the time, the Architect of Apartheid Hendrik Verwoerd, stated that, what is the use of teaching the Bantu child mathematics when it cannot use it in practice. The introduction of Bantu Education led to a increase of government funding to the learning institutions of black Africans. The law forced institutions under the control of the state. The National Party now had the power to employ and train teachers as they saw fit, black teachers salaries in 1953 were extremely low and resulted in a dramatic drop of trainee teachers. Only one third of the teachers were qualified. The schools reserved for the white children were of Western standards. 30% of the schools did not have electricity, 25% no running water. The education for Blacks, Indians and Coloureds was not free, in the 70s, the per capita governmental spending on black education was one-tenth of the spending on white. The act was repealed in 1979 by the Education and Training Act,1979, http, //nmmu. ac. za/documents/mward/Bantu%20Education%20Act%201953. pdf Article on apartheid and education that mentions the Bantu Act Text of the act
Bantu Education Act, 1953
–
Bantu Education Act, 1953
7.
Racial segregation in the United States
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Legal segregation of schools was stopped in the U. S. by federal enforcement of a series of Supreme Court decisions after Brown v. Board of Education in 1954. All legally enforced public segregation was abolished by the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and it passed after demonstrations during the Civil Rights Movement resulted in public opinion turning against enforced segregation. De facto segregation—segregation in fact, without sanction of law—persists in varying degrees to the present day, the contemporary racial segregation seen in the United States in residential neighborhoods has been shaped by public policies, mortgage discrimination, and redlining, among other factors. Hypersegregation is a form of segregation that consists of the geographical grouping of racial groups. Most often, this occurs in cities where the residents of the city are African Americans. As a result, Federal occupation troops in the South assured blacks the right to vote, the Reconstruction amendments asserted the supremacy of the national state and the formal equality under the law of everyone within it. However it did not prohibit segregation in schools, when the Republicans came to power in the Southern states after 1867, they created the first system of taxpayer-funded public schools. Southern Blacks wanted public schools for their children but they did not demand racially integrated schools, almost all the new public schools were segregated, apart from a few in New Orleans. After the Republicans lost power in the mid-1870s, conservative whites retained the school systems. Almost all private academies and colleges in the South were strictly segregated by race, the American Missionary Association supported the development and establishment of several historically black colleges, such as Fisk University and Shaw University. In this period, a handful of northern colleges accepted black students, Northern denominations and their missionary associations especially established private schools across the South to provide secondary education. They provided an amount of collegiate work. Tuition was minimal, so churches supported the colleges financially, in 1900 churches—mostly based in the North—operated 247 schools for blacks across the South, with a budget of about $1 million. They employed 1600 teachers and taught 46,000 students, prominent schools included Howard University, a federal institution based in Washington, Fisk University in Nashville, Atlanta University, Hampton Institute in Virginia, and many others. Most new colleges in the 19th century were founded in northern states, Jim Crow segregation began somewhat later, in the 1880s. Disfranchisement of the began in the 1890s. By 1910, Segregation was firmly established across the South and most of the border region, the legitimacy of laws requiring segregation of blacks was upheld by the U. S. Supreme Court in the 1896 case of Plessy v. Ferguson,163 U. S.537. Plessy thus allowed segregation, which became standard throughout the southern United States, everyone was supposed to receive the same public services, but with separate facilities for each race
Racial segregation in the United States
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An African-American man drinking at a "colored" drinking fountain in a streetcar terminal in
Oklahoma City, 1939.
Racial segregation in the United States
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A black man goes into the "colored" entrance of a
movie theater in
Belzoni, Mississippi, 1939.
Racial segregation in the United States
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Sign for "colored" waiting room at a
Greyhound bus terminal in
Rome, Georgia, 1943.
Racial segregation in the United States
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Graduating class of September 1944, SWPA OCS at
Camp Columbia, Australia, clearly showing an integrated population.
8.
Jim Crow laws
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Jim Crow laws were state and local laws enforcing racial segregation in the Southern United States. Enacted after the Reconstruction period, these continued in force until 1965. They mandated de jure segregation in all public facilities in the states of the former Confederate States of America, starting in 1890 with a separate. Facilities for African Americans were consistently inferior and underfunded compared to available to European Americans. This body of law institutionalized a number of economic, educational, the U. S. military was also segregated, as were federal workplaces, initiated in 1913 under President Woodrow Wilson. By requiring candidates to submit photos, his administration practiced racial discrimination in hiring and these Jim Crow laws followed the 1800–1866 Black Codes, which had previously restricted the civil rights and civil liberties of African Americans. The phrase Jim Crow Law can be found as early as 1892 in the title of a New York Times article about voting laws in the South, as a result of Rices fame, Jim Crow by 1838 had become a pejorative expression meaning Negro. When southern legislatures passed laws of racial segregation which were directed against blacks at the end of the 19th century, during the Reconstruction period of 1865–1877, federal laws provided civil rights protections in the U. S. South for freedmen, the African Americans who had formerly been slaves, extensive voter fraud was also used. Gubernatorial elections were close and had been disputed in Louisiana for years, in 1877, a national Democratic Party compromise to gain Southern support in the presidential election resulted in the governments withdrawing the last of the federal troops from the South. White Democrats had regained power in every Southern state. These Southern, white, Democratic Redeemer governments legislated Jim Crow laws, grandfather clauses temporarily permitted some illiterate whites to vote but gave no relief to most blacks. Voter turnout dropped drastically through the South as a result of such measures, in Louisiana, by 1900, black voters were reduced to 5,320 on the rolls, although they comprised the majority of the states population. By 1910, only 730 blacks were registered, less than 0. 5% of eligible black men, in 27 of the states 60 parishes, not a single black voter was registered any longer, in 9 more parishes, only one black voter was. The cumulative effect in North Carolina meant that voters were completely eliminated from voter rolls during the period from 1896–1904. The growth of their middle class was slowed. Alabama had tens of thousands of poor whites disenfranchised and those who could not vote were not eligible to serve on juries and could not run for local offices. They effectively disappeared from political life, as they could not influence the state legislatures, like schools, Jim Crow public libraries were underfunded and often stocked with secondhand books and other resources
Jim Crow laws
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Cover to an early edition of "
Jump Jim Crow " sheet music (c 1832)
Jim Crow laws
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Freedmen voting in New Orleans, 1867
Jim Crow laws
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Sign for the "colored" waiting room at a bus station in
Durham, North Carolina, 1940
Jim Crow laws
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1904 caricature of "White" and "Jim Crow" rail cars by
John T. McCutcheon. Despite Jim Crow's legal pretense that the races be "separate but equal" under the law, non-whites were given inferior facilities and treatment.
9.
Housing segregation in the United States
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Housing policy in the United States has influenced housing segregation trends throughout history. Key legislation include the National Housing Act of 1934, the GI Bill, factors such as socioeconomic status, spatial assimilation, and immigration contribute to perpetuating housing segregation. The effects of housing segregation include relocation, unequal living standards, however, there have been initiatives to combat housing segregation, such as the Section 8 housing program. In 1934 the practice of redlining neighborhoods came into existence through the National Housing Act of 1934, on these maps, high-risk areas were outlined in red. Many minority neighborhoods were redlined in these maps, meaning that banks would deny all mortgage capital to people living within them. Many urban historians point to redlining as one of the factors for urban disinvestment. This piece of legislation occurred during the New Deal era and provided the basis for public housing programs. This act allowed for the creation of around 160,000 units of public housing, most of these units were made to alleviate the housing difficulties of the poor and working class suffering from the Great Depression. Despite providing low budget housing options, this act created greater racial segregation in housing because the majority of the population at the time consisted of minorities. When millions of GIs returned home from overseas, they took advantage of the “Servicemen’s Readjustment Act and this important document was signed in 1944 by Franklin D. This law allowed millions of U. S. soldiers to purchase their first homes with inexpensive mortgages, which meant the growth of suburbs. African Americans were met with discrimination when trying to purchase a home in the overwhelmingly European American neighborhoods, the realtors would not show these houses to African Americans, and when they did, they would try and talk them out of buying the home. The overt discriminatory practices of refusal of sale and loans continued unabated until at least 1968, after this act was passed, outright refusal to sell property to African Americans became rare, given that that behavior could lead to prosecution under the Fair Housing Law. The Office of Fair Housing and Equal Opportunity is charged with administering and enforcing fair housing laws, any person who believes that they have faced housing discrimination based on their race can file a fair housing complaint. The most comprehensive federal fair housing act of its time, this piece of legislation mandated fair housing as a national policy and restricted discriminatory practices. Specifically, discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, sex, or national origin was prohibited in the rental, sale, financing, however, this act did not give the Department of Housing and Urban Development a lot of enforcing power. HUD was only allowed to mediate housing discrimination disputes between parties and it did not have the power to file lawsuits or take definitive legal action. During his presidential term, Nixons federal housing policy undermined the Fair Housing Act and his policy acknowledged that federal law requires nondiscriminatory practices in federal housing matters but did not provide presidential support
Housing segregation in the United States
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President Nixon and HUD secretary George Romney talk
Housing segregation in the United States
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Sign with American flag "We want white tenants in our white community," directly opposite the Sojourner Truth homes, a new U.S. federal housing project in Detroit, Michigan. A riot was caused by white neighbors' attempts to prevent African American tenants from moving in.
10.
Redlining
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During the heyday of redlining, the areas most frequently discriminated against were black inner city neighborhoods. In the academic literature, redlining falls under the category of credit rationing. Reverse redlining occurs when a lender or insurer targets nonwhite consumers, not to deny them loans or insurance, racial segregation and discrimination against minorities and minority communities pre-existed this policy. The assumptions in redlining resulted in an increase in residential racial segregation. Urban planning historians theorize that the maps were used by private, on the maps, the newest areas—those considered desirable for lending purposes—were outlined in green and known as Type A. These were typically affluent suburbs on the outskirts of cities, Type B neighborhoods, outlined in blue, were considered Still Desirable, whereas older Type C were labeled Declining and outlined in yellow. Type D neighborhoods were outlined in red and were considered the most risky for mortgage support and these neighborhoods tended to be the older districts in the center of cities, often they were also black neighborhoods. Some redlined maps were created by private organizations, such as J. M. Private organizations created maps designed to meet the requirements of the Federal Housing Administrations underwriting manual, the lenders had to consider FHA standards if they wanted to receive FHA insurance for their loans. FHA appraisal manuals instructed banks to clear of areas with inharmonious racial groups. NPA embarked on an effort to build a coalition of urban community organizations to pass a national disclosure regulation or law to require banks to reveal their lending patterns. These actions addressed the issues of neighborhood decline. Neighborhood leaders began to learn that these issues and conditions were symptoms of a disinvestment that was the true and they changed their strategy as more data was gathered. With the help of NPA, a coalition of loosely affiliated community organizations began to form, at the Third Annual Housing Conference held in Chicago in 1974, eight hundred delegates representing 25 states and 35 cities attended. The strategy focused on the Federal Home Loan Bank Board, which oversaw S&Ls in cities all over the country, in Massachusetts, organizers allied with NPA confronted a unique situation. Over 90% of home mortgages were held by state-chartered savings banks, a Jamaica Plain neighborhood organization pushed the disinvestment issue into the statewide gubernatorial race. After Dukakis was elected, his new Banking Commissioner ordered banks to disclose mortgage-lending patterns by zip code, NPA and its affiliates achieved disclosure of lending practices with the passage of The Home Mortgage Disclosure Act of 1975. The required transparency and review of loan practices began to change lending practices, NPA began to work on reinvestment in areas that had been neglected
Redlining
–
A
HOLC 1936 security map of
Philadelphia showing redlining of lower income neighborhoods. Households and businesses in the red zones could not get mortgages or business loans.
11.
School segregation in the United States
–
School segregation in the United States began in its de jure form with the passage of Jim Crow laws in the American South in the late th century. The formal segregation of blacks and whites in the United States began with the passage of Jim Crow laws following the end of the Reconstruction Era in 1877, in some areas, Native Americans were classified with blacks and similarly excluded from white facilities. The obstacles for Mexican Americans was not greater than for blacks, the fact that separate facilities for blacks and other minorities were chronically underfunded and of lesser quality was not successfully challenged in court for decades. This decision was overturned in 1954, when the Supreme Court ruling in Brown v. Board of Education ended de jure segregation in the United States. In the decade following Brown, the South resisted enforcement of the Court’s decision, States and school districts did little to reduce segregation, and schools remained almost completely segregated until 1968, after Congressional passage of civil rights legislation. Desegregation efforts reached their peak in the late 1960s and early 1970s, parents of both African-American and Mexican-American students challenged school segregation in coordination with civil rights organizations such as the NAACP, ACLU, and LULAC. Both groups challenged discriminatory policies through litigation in courts, with varying success, Segregation can be defined in terms of two different measures, racial isolation, and racial unevenness. Measures of exposure define segregation according to the proportion of various races and ethnicities present in a school. According to this measure, a student attending a school with a very high proportion of other blacks students would be considered “racially isolated. ”Critics of measures of exposure point out that these are highly sensitive to changes in the demographic composition of schools. As the share of minority students in an area increases, these students will necessarily attend schools with smaller proportions of white students. Because of this, some prefer to define segregation according to measures of racial imbalance, or the extent to which racial. Measures of imbalance are independent of the changes in the composition of a larger population. From 1968-1980, segregation between blacks and whites in schools declined according to measures of both isolation and imbalance, measures of isolation within school districts show that school integration peaked in the 1980s and then gradually declined over the course of the 1990s, as income differences increased. In the 1990s and early 2000s, minority students attended schools with a proportion of white students. The study found that minority students became more isolated and less exposed to whites, another 2013 study found that segregation measured as exposure increased over the previous 25 years due to changing demographics. The study did not, however, find an increase in racial balance, rather, fiel believes that increasing interdistrict segregation will exacerbate racial isolation. Residential segregation is related to growing income inequality in the United States, because the two variables moved in opposite directions, changes in residential patterns are not responsible for changes in school segregation trends. By 2000, however, racial composition of schools had more closely correlated to neighborhood composition
School segregation in the United States
–
Jim Crow laws formalized school segregation in the United States, 1877-1954
12.
Segregation academy
–
While these schools were established chiefly in the Southern United States, private schools existed nationwide that were heavily segregated in practice, though perhaps not intentionally. Since the late 20th century, as patterns in United States have changed, many of these private schools began to admit minority students. Still others, in poor, majority-black regions such as the Mississippi Delta, continue to operate with few, if any, because the ruling did not apply to private schools, founding new academies provided parents a way to continue to educate their children separately from blacks. At this time, most adult blacks were disfranchised in the South, excluded from politics. Private academies operated outside the scope of the Brown v. Board of Education ruling, scholars estimate that across the nation, at least half a million white students were withdrawn from public schools between 1964 and 1975 to avoid mandatory desegregation. But in the 21st century, it did not practice any type of discrimination, in their suit, Allen v. Wright, the plaintiffs named a number of Southern schools as representative of segregation academies. In Mississippi and Arkansas, many of the academies were first established in the black-majority Mississippi Delta region in northwestern Mississippi. The Delta has historically had a very large population, related to the history of the use of slave labor on cotton plantations. The potential for integration resulted in white parents establishing segregation academies in every county in the Delta, many academies are still operating, from Indianola, Mississippi to Humphreys County. These schools began to accept black students late in the 20th century, in a region with low incomes among blacks, many African-American parents cannot afford the private schools. At least one school in Mississippi, Carroll Academy, receives funding from the segregationist Council of Conservative Citizens. In Virginia, segregation academies were part of a policy of massive resistance declared by U. S and he worked to unite other white Virginia politicians and leaders in taking action to prevent school desegregation after the Brown v. Board of Education Supreme Court ruling in 1954. In its September/October 1956 special session, the Virginia General Assembly passed a series of known as the Stanley plan to implement massive resistance. In January, Virginias voters had approved an amendment to the constitution to allow tuition grants to parents enrolling their children in private schools. In practice, this meant state support of newly established private schools which became known as segregation academies. On February 18,1958, the General Assembly passed additional legislation protecting segregation, since new segregation academy facilities often failed to meet construction, health and safety standards for public schools, these were also loosened. Segregation academies opened in various Virginia cities and counties subject to lawsuits, including Arlington, Charlottesville. Arlington and Norfolk desegregated peacefully in February 1959, in Arlington, many white students remained in the desegregated schools
Segregation academy
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Central Delta Academy in
Inverness, Mississippi was a segregation academy
13.
United States constitutional law
–
United States constitutional law is the body of law governing the interpretation and implementation of the United States Constitution. United States constitutional law defines the scope and application of the terms of the Constitution and it is a field of law that is broad and complex. Some constitutional scholars maintain that the authors of the Constitution intended that it be vague, others maintain that the provisions of the Constitution should be strictly construed and their provisions applied in a very literal manner. Early in its history, in Marbury v. Madison,5 U. S.137, according to this jurisprudence, when the Court measures a law against the Constitution and finds the law wanting, the Court is empowered and indeed obligated to strike down that law. This system of binding interpretations or precedents evolved from the law system. Before deciding a constitutional question, the Supreme Court may consider whether the court can avoid the question by basing its decision on a non-constitutional issue at dispute. Or, when reviewing a decision of a states highest court, Federal courts consider other doctrines before allowing a lawsuit to go forward, Actual dispute - the lawsuit concerns a case or controversy under the meaning of Article III, Section 2 of the U. S. Consistent with these doctrines, the Court considers itself prohibited from issuing advisory opinions where there is no case or controversy before them. These doctrines, because they apply to all federal cases whether of constitutional dimension or not, are discussed separately in the article on federal jurisdiction, other Justices have taken a more instrumentalist approach, believing it is the role of the Supreme Court to reflect societal changes. They often see the Constitution as a living, changing and adaptable document, compare, for example, the differing opinions of Justices Scalia and Ruth Bader Ginsburg, who is a more instrumentalist justice. Finally, there are some Justices who do not have a judicial philosophy. Debate continues over which, if any, of these strategies is better. Complicating the analysis is the lack of correspondence between the various interpretive strategies and contemporary notions of conservatism or liberalism. The balance reached was the model of federalism, a structure of management composed of divided powers between the governments of each of the states and a centralized federal government. The framers felt the states were in the best position to such movements. Accordingly, the Constitution explicitly enumerates the powers given to the federal government, in order to create a cohesive government, the framers felt certain powers must have belonged to a centralized authority. Conducting foreign affairs, for example, would be curtailed if not embarked upon in a nationally uniform manner. Similarly, a currency was of prime importance for a robust
United States constitutional law
–
Constitutional Law of the United States
14.
Confederate States of America
–
The Confederate States, officially the Confederate States of America, commonly referred to as the Confederacy, was a breakaway country of 11 secessionist slave states existing from 1861 to 1865. It was never recognized as an Independent country, although it achieved belligerent status by Britain. A new Confederate government was established in February 1861 before Lincoln took office in March, after the Civil War began in April, four slave states of the Upper South – Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina – also declared their secession and joined the Confederacy. The government of the United States rejected the claims of secession, the Civil War began with the April 12,1861, Confederate attack upon Fort Sumter, a Union fort in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina. In spring 1865, after four years of fighting which led to an estimated 620,000 military deaths, all the Confederate forces surrendered. Jefferson Davis later lamented that the Confederacy had disappeared in 1865, Missouri and Kentucky were represented by partisan factions from those states, while the legitimate governments of those two states retained formal adherence to the Union. Also fighting for the Confederacy were two of the Five Civilized Tribes located in Indian Territory and a new, but uncontrolled, Confederate Territory of Arizona. Efforts by certain factions in Maryland to secede were halted by federal imposition of law, while Delaware, though of divided loyalty. A Unionist government in parts of Virginia organized the new state of West Virginia. With the Emancipation Proclamation on January 1,1863, the Union made abolition of slavery a war goal, as Union forces moved southward, large numbers of plantation slaves were freed. Many joined the Union lines, enrolling in service as soldiers, teamsters and laborers, the most notable advance was Shermans March to the Sea in late 1864. Much of the Confederacys infrastructure was destroyed, including telegraphs, railroads, plantations in the path of Shermans forces were severely damaged. Internal movement became increasingly difficult for Southerners, weakening the economy and these losses created an insurmountable disadvantage in men, materiel, and finance. Public support for Confederate President Jefferson Daviss administration eroded over time due to repeated military reverses, economic hardships, after four years of campaigning, Richmond was captured by Union forces in April 1865. Shortly afterward, Confederate General Robert E. Lee surrendered to Union General Ulysses S. Grant, President Davis was captured on May 10,1865, and jailed in preparation for a treason trial that was ultimately never held. The U. S. government began a process known as Reconstruction which attempted to resolve the political and constitutional issues of the Civil War. By 1877, the Compromise of 1877 ended Reconstruction in the former Confederate states, Confederate veterans had been temporarily disenfranchised by Reconstruction policy. The prewar South had many areas, the war left the entire region economically devastated by military action, ruined infrastructure
Confederate States of America
–
Alexander Stephens CSA Vice President; old Whig friend of Lincoln; author of 'Cornerstone Speech'
Confederate States of America
–
Flag (1861–1863)
Confederate States of America
–
William L. Yancey, Alabama Fire-Eater, "The Orator of Secession".
Confederate States of America
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William Henry Gist, Governor of South Carolina, called the Secessionist Convention.
15.
Plessy v. Ferguson
–
Plessy v. Ferguson,163 US537 was a landmark constitutional law case of the US Supreme Court. It upheld state racial segregation laws for public facilities under the doctrine of separate, the decision was handed down by a vote of 7 to 1 with the majority opinion written by Justice Henry Billings Brown and the dissent written by Justice John Marshall Harlan. Separate but equal remained standard doctrine in U. S. law until its repudiation in the 1954 Supreme Court decision Brown v. Board of Education. In 1890, the state of Louisiana passed a law that required separate accommodations for blacks and whites on railroads, concerned, a group of prominent black, creole, and white New Orleans residents formed the Comité des Citoyens dedicated to repeal the law or fight its effect. They persuaded Homer Plessy, a man of mixed race, to participate in an orchestrated test case, Plessy was born a free man and was an octoroon. However, under Louisiana law, he was classified as black, on June 7,1892, Plessy bought a first-class ticket at the Press Street Depot and boarded a whites only car of the East Louisiana Railroad in New Orleans, Louisiana, bound for Covington, Louisiana. After Plessy took a seat in the railway car, he was asked to vacate it. Plessy refused and was arrested immediately by the detective, as planned, the train was stopped, and Plessy was taken off the train at Press and Royal streets. Plessy was remanded for trial in Orleans Parish, Plessy was convicted and sentenced to pay a $25 fine. Plessy immediately sought a writ of prohibition, the Committee of Citizens took Plessys appeal to the Supreme Court of Louisiana, where he again found an unreceptive ear, as the state Supreme Court upheld Judge Fergusons ruling. The Massachusetts Supreme Court had ruled as early as 1849 that segregated schools were constitutional, in answering the charge that segregation perpetuated race prejudice, the Massachusetts court stated, This prejudice, if it exists, is not created by law and cannot be changed by law. Similarly, in commenting on a Pennsylvania law mandating separate railcars for different races the Pennsylvania Supreme Court stated and it is simply to say that following the order of Divine Providence, human authority ought not to compel these widely separated races to intermix. Undaunted, the Committee appealed to the United States Supreme Court in 1896, two legal briefs were submitted on Plessys behalf. One was signed by Albion W. Tourgée and James C. Walker, oral arguments were held before the Supreme Court on April 13,1896. Tourgée and Phillips appeared in the courtroom to speak on behalf of Plessy, Tourgée argued that the reputation of being a black man was property, which, by the law, implied the inferiority of African Americans as compared to whites. The state legal brief was prepared by Attorney General Milton Joseph Cunningham of Natchitoches, earlier, Cunningham had fought to restore white supremacy during Reconstruction. Justice Edward Douglass White of Louisiana was one of the majority, in the seven-to-one decision handed down on May 18,1896, the Court rejected Plessys arguments based on the Fourteenth Amendment, seeing no way in which the Louisiana statute violated it. In addition, the rejected the view that the Louisiana law implied any inferiority of blacks
Plessy v. Ferguson
–
Marker placed at Press and Royal Streets in New Orleans on February 12, 2009, commemorating the arrest of Homer Plessy on June 7, 1892, for violating the Louisiana 1890 Separate Car Act
Plessy v. Ferguson
–
John Marshall Harlan, became known as the "Great Dissenter" for his fiery dissent in Plessy and other early civil rights cases
16.
Civil rights
–
Civil and political rights are a class of rights that protect individuals freedom from infringement by governments, social organizations, and private individuals. They ensure ones ability to participate in the civil and political life of the society, Civil and political rights form the original and main part of international human rights. They comprise the first portion of the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the phrase civil rights is a translation of Latin ius civis. Roman citizens could be either free or servile, but they all had rights in law. After the Edict of Milan in 313, these included the freedom of religion. Roman legal doctrine was lost during the Middle Ages, but claims of rights could still be made based on religious doctrine. According to the leaders of Ketts Rebellion, all men may be made free. In the 17th century, English common law judge Sir Edward Coke revived the idea of rights based on citizenship by arguing that Englishmen had historically enjoyed such rights, the Parliament of England adopted the English Bill of Rights in 1689. The Virginia Declaration of Rights, by George Mason and James Madison, was adopted in 1776, the Virginia declaration is the direct ancestor and model for the U. S. Bill of Rights. The removal by legislation of a civil right constitutes a civil disability, in early 19th century Britain, the phrase civil rights most commonly referred to the issue of such legal discrimination against Catholics. In the House of Commons support for civil rights was divided, the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829 restored their civil rights. In the 1860s, Americans adapted this usage to newly freed blacks, congress enacted civil rights acts in 1866,1871,1875,1957,1960,1964,1968, and 1991. Marshall notes that civil rights were among the first to be recognized and codified, followed later by political rights, in many countries, they are constitutional rights and are included in a bill of rights or similar document. They are also defined in human rights instruments, such as the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Civil and political rights need not be codified to be protected, although most democracies worldwide do have formal written guarantees of civil, Civil rights are considered to be natural rights. Thomas Jefferson wrote in his A Summary View of the Rights of British America that a free people their rights as derived from the laws of nature, the question of to whom civil and political rights apply is a subject of controversy. According to political scientist Salvador Santino F. Regilme Jr. Custom also plays a role, the United States Declaration of Independence states that people have unalienable rights including Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. It is considered by some that the purpose of government is the protection of life. Ideas of self-ownership and cognitive liberty affirm rights to choose the food one eats, the one takes
Civil rights
–
Savka Dabčević-Kučar,
Croatian Spring participant; Europe's first female prime minister
17.
Civil liberties
–
Civil liberties or personal freedoms are personal guarantees and freedoms that the government cannot abridge, either by law or by judicial interpretation, without due process. Other civil liberties include the right to own property, the right to defend oneself, within the distinctions between civil liberties and other types of liberty, distinctions exist between positive liberty/positive rights and negative liberty/negative rights. Many contemporary states have a constitution, a bill of rights, or similar constitutional documents that enumerate, the existence of some claimed civil liberties is a matter of dispute, as are the extent of most civil rights. Controversial examples include property rights, reproductive rights, and civil marriage, whether the existence of victimless crimes infringes upon civil liberties is a matter of dispute. Another matter of debate is the suspension or alteration of certain civil liberties in times of war or state of emergency, including whether and to what extent this should occur. The formal concept of civil liberties is often dated back to Magna Carta, the Constitution of Peoples Republic of China, especially its Fundamental Rights and Duties of Citizens, claims to protect many civil liberties. Taiwan, which is separated from China, has its own Constitution, the Fundamental Rights—embodied in Part III of the constitution—guarantee liberties such that all Indians can lead their lives in peace as citizens of India. The six fundamental rights are right to equality, right to freedom, right against exploitation, right to freedom of religion, cultural and educational rights and right to constitutional remedies. These include individual rights common to most liberal democracies, incorporated in the law of the land and are enforceable in a court of law. Violations of these result in punishments as prescribed in the Indian Penal Code. These rights are neither absolute nor immune from constitutional amendments and they have been aimed at overturning the inequalities of pre-independence social practices. Specifically, they resulted in abolishment of un-touchability and prohibit discrimination on the grounds of religion, race, caste, sex and they forbid human trafficking and unfree labour. They protect cultural and educational rights of ethnic and religious minorities by allowing them to preserve their languages, all people, irrespective of race, religion, caste or sex, have the right to approach the High Courts or the Supreme Court for the enforcement of their fundamental rights. It is not necessary that the party has to be the one to do so. In public interest, anyone can initiate litigation in the court on their behalf and this is known as Public interest litigation. High Court and Supreme Court judges can also act on their own on the basis of media reports, the Fundamental Rights emphasize equality by guaranteeing to all citizens the access and use of public institutions and protections, irrespective of their background. The rights to life and personal liberty apply for persons of any nationality, while others, such as the freedom of speech, the right to equality in matters of public employment cannot be conferred to overseas citizens of India. Fundamental Rights primarily protect individuals from any arbitrary State actions, for instance, the constitution abolishes untouchability and prohibits begar
Civil liberties
–
Broken Liberty:
Istanbul Archaeology Museum
Civil liberties
–
Huge rallies like this one in
Kolkata are commonplace in
India.
18.
Reconstruction Era
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Johnson followed a lenient policy toward ex-Confederates. Lincolns last speeches show that he was leaning toward supporting the enfranchisement of all freedmen, whereas Johnson was opposed to this. A Republican coalition came to power in all the southern states and set out to transform the society by setting up a free labor economy, using the U. S. Army. The Bureau protected the rights of freedmen, negotiated labor contracts. Thousands of Northerners came South as missionaries, teachers, businessmen, rebuilding the rundown railroad system was a major strategy, but it collapsed when a nationwide depression struck the economy. The Radicals in the House of Representatives, frustrated by Johnsons opposition to Congressional Reconstruction, filed impeachment charges, in early 1866, Congress passed the Freedmens Bureau and Civil Rights Bills and sent them to Johnson for his signature. Meanwhile, self-styled Conservatives strongly opposed reconstruction and they alleged widespread corruption by the Carpetbaggers, excessive state spending and ruinous taxes. Southern democrats and conservatives violently counterattacked and had regained power in each redeemed Southern state by 1877, meanwhile, public support for Reconstruction policies, requiring continued supervision of the South, faded in the North, as voters decided that the Civil War and years of conflict should stop. Reconstruction was a significant chapter in the history of civil rights in the United States, in the different states Reconstruction began and ended at different times, federal Reconstruction ended with the Compromise of 1877. In recent decades most historians follow Foner in dating the Reconstruction of the south as starting in 1863 rather than 1865, Reconstruction policies were debated in the North when the war began, and commenced in earnest after Lincolns Emancipation Proclamation, issued on January 1,1863. As Confederate states came back under control of the US Army, President Abraham Lincoln set up reconstructed governments in Tennessee, Arkansas and he experimented by giving land to blacks in South Carolina. By fall 1865, the new President Andrew Johnson declared the war goals of national unity, Republicans in Congress, refusing to accept Johnsons lenient terms, rejected new members of Congress, some of whom had been high-ranking Confederate officials a few months before. Johnson broke with the Republicans after vetoing two key bills that supported the Freedmens Bureau and provided federal civil rights to the freedmen and that same year, Congress removed civilian governments in the South, and placed the former Confederacy under the rule of the U. S. Army. In ten states, coalitions of freedmen, recent black and white arrivals from the North, Conservative opponents called the Republican regimes corrupt and instigated violence toward freedmen and whites who supported Reconstruction. Most of the violence was carried out by members of the Ku Klux Klan, Klan members attacked and intimidated blacks seeking to exercise their new civil rights, as well as Republican politicians in the south favoring those civil rights. One such politician murdered by the Klan on the eve of the 1868 presidential election was Republican Congressman James M. Hinds of Arkansas, widespread violence in the south led to federal intervention by President Ulysses S. Grant in 1871, which suppressed the Klan. Nevertheless, white Democrats, calling themselves Redeemers, regained control of the state by state, sometimes using fraud. The end of Reconstruction was a process, and the period of Republican control ended at different times in different states
Reconstruction Era
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The southern economy had been ruined by the war. Charleston, South Carolina: Broad Street, 1865
Reconstruction Era
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The ruins of
Richmond, Virginia after the
American Civil War, newly freed
African Americans voting for the first time in 1867, Office of the
Freedmen's Bureau in
Memphis, Tennessee,
Memphis Riots of 1866
Reconstruction Era
–
A political cartoon of Andrew Johnson and Abraham Lincoln, 1865, entitled "The Rail Splitter At Work Repairing the Union." The caption reads (Johnson): Take it quietly Uncle Abe and I will draw it closer than ever. (Lincoln): A few more stitches Andy and the good old Union will be mended.
Reconstruction Era
–
Monument in honor of the Grand Army of the Republic, organized after the war
19.
United States Supreme Court
–
The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest federal court of the United States. In the legal system of the United States, the Supreme Court is the interpreter of federal constitutional law. The Court normally consists of the Chief Justice of the United States and eight justices who are nominated by the President. Once appointed, justices have life tenure unless they resign, retire, in modern discourse, the justices are often categorized as having conservative, moderate, or liberal philosophies of law and of judicial interpretation. Each justice has one vote, and while many cases are decided unanimously, the Court meets in the United States Supreme Court Building in Washington, D. C. The Supreme Court is sometimes referred to as SCOTUS, in analogy to other acronyms such as POTUS. The ratification of the United States Constitution established the Supreme Court in 1789 and its powers are detailed in Article Three of the Constitution. The Supreme Court is the court specifically established by the Constitution. The Court first convened on February 2,1790, by which five of its six initial positions had been filled. According to historian Fergus Bordewich, in its first session, he Supreme Court convened for the first time at the Royal Exchange Building on Broad Street and they had no cases to consider. After a week of inactivity, they adjourned until September, the sixth member was not confirmed until May 12,1790. Because the full Court had only six members, every decision that it made by a majority was made by two-thirds. However, Congress has always allowed less than the Courts full membership to make decisions, under Chief Justices Jay, Rutledge, and Ellsworth, the Court heard few cases, its first decision was West v. Barnes, a case involving a procedural issue. The Courts power and prestige grew substantially during the Marshall Court, the Marshall Court also ended the practice of each justice issuing his opinion seriatim, a remnant of British tradition, and instead issuing a single majority opinion. Also during Marshalls tenure, although beyond the Courts control, the impeachment, the Taney Court made several important rulings, such as Sheldon v. Nevertheless, it is primarily remembered for its ruling in Dred Scott v. Sandford, which helped precipitate the Civil War. In the Reconstruction era, the Chase, Waite, and Fuller Courts interpreted the new Civil War amendments to the Constitution, during World War II, the Court continued to favor government power, upholding the internment of Japanese citizens and the mandatory pledge of allegiance. Nevertheless, Gobitis was soon repudiated, and the Steel Seizure Case restricted the pro-government trend, the Warren Court dramatically expanded the force of Constitutional civil liberties. It held that segregation in public schools violates equal protection and that traditional legislative district boundaries violated the right to vote
United States Supreme Court
–
Chief Justice Marshall
United States Supreme Court
–
Supreme Court of the United States
United States Supreme Court
–
The Roberts Court, October 2010 Back row (left to right):
Sonia Sotomayor,
Stephen G. Breyer,
Samuel A. Alito, and
Elena Kagan. Front row (left to right):
Clarence Thomas,
Antonin Scalia,
Chief Justice John Roberts,
Anthony Kennedy, and
Ruth Bader Ginsburg
United States Supreme Court
–
Roberts, John
John Roberts (
Chief Justice)
20.
Civil Rights Act of 1964
–
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 is a landmark civil rights and US labor law in the United States that outlaws discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. It ended unequal application of voter registration requirements and racial segregation in schools, at the workplace, powers given to enforce the act were initially weak, but were supplemented during later years. The Act was signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson on July 2,1964, Kennedy was moved to action following the elevated racial tensions and wave of black riots in the spring 1963. On June 11,1963, President Kennedy met with the Republican leaders to discuss the legislation before his television address to the nation that evening and this led to several Republican Congressmen drafting a compromise bill to be considered. On June 19, the president sent his bill to Congress as it was originally written, the presidents bill went first to the House of Representatives, where it was referred to the Judiciary Committee, chaired by Emanuel Celler, a Democrat from New York. They also added authorization for the Attorney General to file lawsuits to protect individuals against the deprivation of any rights secured by the Constitution or U. S. law, in essence, this was the controversial Title III that had been removed from the 1957 and 1960 Acts. Civil rights organizations pressed hard for this provision because it could be used to protect peaceful protesters and black voters from police brutality, Kennedy called the congressional leaders to the White House in late October,1963 to line up the necessary votes in the House for passage. The assassination of John F. Kennedy on November 22,1963, kennedys successor as president, Lyndon Johnson, made use of his experience in legislative politics, along with the bully pulpit he wielded as president, in support of the bill. Judiciary Committee chairman Celler filed a petition to discharge the bill from the Rules Committee, by the time of the 1963 winter recess,50 signatures were still needed. After the return of Congress from its winter recess, however, it was apparent that public opinion in the North favored the bill, to avert the humiliation of a successful discharge petition, Chairman Smith relented and allowed the bill to pass through the Rules Committee. Johnson, who wanted the bill passed as soon as possible, normally, the bill would have been referred to the Senate Judiciary Committee, chaired by Senator James O. Eastland, Democrat from Mississippi. Given Eastlands firm opposition, it seemed impossible that the bill would reach the Senate floor, Senate Majority Leader Mike Mansfield took a novel approach to prevent the bill from being relegated to Judiciary Committee limbo. Said Russell, We will resist to the bitter end any measure or any movement which would have a tendency to bring about equality and intermingling. This is the worst civil-rights package ever presented to the Congress and is reminiscent of the Reconstruction proposals, on the morning of June 10,1964, Senator Robert Byrd completed a filibustering address that he had begun 14 hours and 13 minutes earlier opposing the legislation. Until then, the measure had occupied the Senate for 60 working days, a day earlier, Democratic Whip Hubert Humphrey of Minnesota, the bills manager, concluded he had the 67 votes required at that time to end the debate and end the filibuster. With six wavering senators providing a four-vote victory margin, the tally stood at 71 to 29. Never in history had the Senate been able to muster enough votes to cut off a filibuster on a civil rights bill, and only once in the 37 years since 1927 had it agreed to cloture for any measure. On June 19, the bill passed the Senate by a vote of 73–27, and quickly passed through the House-Senate conference committee
Civil Rights Act of 1964
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First page of the Civil Rights Act of 1964
Civil Rights Act of 1964
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Civil Rights Act of 1964
Civil Rights Act of 1964
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John F. Kennedy addresses the nation about Civil Rights on June 11, 1963
Civil Rights Act of 1964
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Lyndon B. Johnson signs the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Among the guests behind him is
Martin Luther King, Jr.
21.
American Civil War
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The American Civil War was an internal conflict fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The Union faced secessionists in eleven Southern states grouped together as the Confederate States of America, the Union won the war, which remains the bloodiest in U. S. history. Among the 34 U. S. states in February 1861, War broke out in April 1861 when Confederates attacked the U. S. fortress of Fort Sumter. The Confederacy grew to eleven states, it claimed two more states, the Indian Territory, and the southern portions of the western territories of Arizona. The Confederacy was never recognized by the United States government nor by any foreign country. The states that remained loyal, including border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North, the war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the dissolution of the Confederate government in the spring of 1865. The war had its origin in the issue of slavery. The Confederacy collapsed and 4 million slaves were freed, but before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, the first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession, outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincolns March 4,1861 inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war, speaking directly to the Southern States, he reaffirmed, I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed, the Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on King Cotton that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12,1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter, while in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive in 1861–62. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaigns into Maryland and Kentucky failed, dissuading British intervention, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, the 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lees Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg, Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grants command of all Union armies in 1864
American Civil War
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New Orleans the largest cotton exporting port for New England and Great Britain textile mills, shipping Mississippi River Valley goods from North, South and Border states.
American Civil War
–
Clockwise from top:
Battle of Gettysburg,
Union Captain John Tidball's artillery,
Confederate prisoners,
ironclad USS Atlanta, ruins of
Richmond, Virginia,
Battle of Franklin
American Civil War
–
Sen. Stephen Douglas, author of the
Kansas–Nebraska Act of 1854
American Civil War
–
Sen. John J. Crittenden, of the 1860
Crittenden Compromise
22.
History of slavery in the United States
–
Slavery had been practiced in British North America from early colonial days, and was legal in all Thirteen Colonies at the time of the Declaration of Independence in 1776. By the time of the American Revolution, the status of slave had been institutionalized as a racial caste associated with African ancestry, when the United States Constitution was ratified, a relatively small number of free people of color were among the voting citizens. During and immediately following the Revolutionary War, abolitionist laws were passed in most Northern states, most of these states had a higher proportion of free labor than in the South and economies based on different industries. They abolished slavery by the end of the 18th century, some with gradual systems that kept adults as slaves for two decades. But the rapid expansion of the industry in the Deep South after the invention of the cotton gin greatly increased demand for slave labor. Congress during the Jefferson administration prohibited the importation of slaves, effective in 1808, domestic slave trading, however, continued at a rapid pace, driven by labor demands from the development of cotton plantations in the Deep South. More than one million slaves were sold from the Upper South, which had a surplus of labor, New communities of African-American culture were developed in the Deep South, and the total slave population in the South eventually reached 4 million before liberation. As the West was developed for settlement, the Southern state governments wanted to keep a balance between the number of slave and free states to maintain a balance of power in Congress. The new territories acquired from Britain, France, and Mexico were the subject of major political compromises, by 1850, the newly rich cotton-growing South was threatening to secede from the Union, and tensions continued to rise. When Abraham Lincoln won the 1860 election on a platform of halting the expansion of slavery, the first six states to secede held the greatest number of slaves in the South. Shortly after, the Civil War began when Confederate forces attacked the US Armys Fort Sumter, four additional slave states then seceded. In the early years of the Chesapeake Bay settlements, colonial officials found it difficult to attract and retain laborers under the frontier conditions. Most laborers came from Britain as indentured servants, having signed contracts of indenture to pay with work for their passage, their upkeep and training and these indentured servants were young people who intended to become permanent residents. In some cases, convicted criminals were transported to the colonies as indentured servants, the indentured servants were not slaves, but were required to work for four to seven years in Virginia to pay the cost of their passage and maintenance. Historians estimate that more than half of all immigrants to the English colonies of North America during the 17th and 18th centuries came as indentured servants. The number of indentured servants among immigrants was particularly high in the South, many Germans, Scots-Irish, and Irish came to the colonies in the 18th century, settling in the backcountry of Pennsylvania and further south. The planters in the South found that the problem with indentured servants was that many left after several years, just when they had become skilled. In addition, an economy in England in the late 17th
History of slavery in the United States
–
Slave auction block, Green Hill Plantation,
Campbell County, Virginia,
Historic American Buildings Survey
History of slavery in the United States
–
An animation showing when United States territories and states forbade or allowed slavery, 1789–1861.
History of slavery in the United States
–
Slaves processing tobacco in 17th-century Virginia
History of slavery in the United States
–
Slaves on a South Carolina plantation (
The Old Plantation, c. 1790)
23.
Emancipation Proclamation
–
The Emancipation Proclamation was a presidential proclamation and executive order issued by President Abraham Lincoln on January 1,1863. It purported to change the legal status of more than 3 million enslaved people in the designated areas of the South from slave to free. It had the effect that as soon as a slave escaped the control of the Confederate government, by running away or through advances of federal troops. Eventually it reached and liberated all of the designated slaves and it was issued as a war measure during the American Civil War, directed to all of the areas in rebellion and all segments of the executive branch of the United States. It proclaimed the freedom of slaves in ten states, because it was issued under the Presidents authority to suppress rebellion, it necessarily excluded areas not in rebellion – it applied to more than 3 million of the 4 million slaves at the time. The Proclamation was based on the constitutional authority as commander in chief of the armed forces. The Proclamation was issued in January 1863 after U, the Proclamation did not compensate the owners, did not outlaw slavery, and did not grant citizenship to the ex-slaves. It made the eradication of slavery a war goal, in addition to the goal of reuniting the Union. Around 20,000 to 50,000 slaves in regions where rebellion had already been subdued were immediately emancipated. Prior to the Proclamation, in accordance with the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850, also specifically excluded were some regions already controlled by the Union army. On September 22,1862, Lincoln issued a warning that he would order the emancipation of all slaves in any state that did not end its rebellion against the Union by January 1,1863. None of the Confederate states restored themselves to the Union, and Lincolns order was signed, the Emancipation Proclamation outraged white Southerners who envisioned a race war. It angered some Northern Democrats, energized anti-slavery forces, and undermined elements in Europe that wanted to intervene to help the Confederacy, the Proclamation lifted the spirits of African Americans both free and slave. It led many slaves to escape from their masters and get to Union lines to obtain their freedom, the Emancipation Proclamation broadened the goals of the Civil War. While slavery had been an issue that led to the war. The Proclamation made freeing the slaves an explicit goal of the Union war effort, establishing the abolition of slavery as one of the two primary war goals served to deter intervention by Britain and France. The Emancipation Proclamation was never challenged in court, to ensure the abolition of slavery in all of the U. S. Lincoln pushed for passage of the Thirteenth Amendment. Congress passed it by the necessary two-thirds vote on January 31,1865, the United States Constitution of 1787 did not use the word slavery but included several provisions about unfree persons
Emancipation Proclamation
–
Henry Louis Stephens, untitled watercolor (c. 1863) of a black man reading a newspaper with headline "Presidential Proclamation/Slavery".
Emancipation Proclamation
Emancipation Proclamation
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Abraham Lincoln,
Brooklyn Museum
Emancipation Proclamation
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The moment portrayed by
Lee Lawrie in
Lincoln, Nebraska
24.
Thirteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution
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The Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution abolished slavery and involuntary servitude, except as punishment for a crime. In Congress, it was passed by the Senate on April 8,1864, the amendment was ratified by the required number of states on December 6,1865. On December 18,1865, Secretary of State William H. Seward proclaimed its adoption and it was the first of the three Reconstruction Amendments adopted following the American Civil War. Since the American Revolution, states had divided into states that allowed, though many slaves had been declared free by President Abraham Lincolns 1863 Emancipation Proclamation, their post-war status was uncertain. On April 8,1864, the Senate passed an amendment to abolish slavery, after one unsuccessful vote and extensive legislative maneuvering by the Lincoln administration, the House followed suit on January 31,1865. The measure was swiftly ratified by nearly all Northern states, along with a sufficient number of border and reconstructed Southern states, the Thirteenth Amendment applies to the actions of private citizens, while the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments apply only to state actors. The amendment also enables Congress to pass laws against sex trafficking, Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. The institution of slavery existed in all of the original thirteen British North American colonies, prior to the Thirteenth Amendment, the United States Constitution did not expressly use the words slave or slavery but included several provisions about unfree persons. The Three-Fifths Compromise allocated Congressional representation based on the whole Number of free Persons, under the Fugitive Slave Clause, No person held to Service or Labour in one State would be freed by escaping to another. Article I, Section 9, Clause 1 allowed Congress to pass legislation outlawing the Importation of Persons, however, for purposes of the Fifth Amendment—which states that, No person shall. Be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law—slaves were understood as property, although abolitionists used the Fifth Amendment to argue against slavery, it became part of the legal basis in Dred Scott v. Sandford for treating slaves as property. Stimulated by the philosophy of the Declaration of Independence between 1777 and 1804, every Northern state provided for the immediate or gradual abolition of slavery, most of the slaves involved were household servants. No Southern state did so, and the population of the South continued to grow. An abolitionist movement headed by figures as William Lloyd Garrison grew in strength in the North, calling for the end of slavery nationwide. Its views were endorsed by such as Henry Clay, who feared that the main abolitionist movement would provoke a civil war. Proposals to eliminate slavery by constitutional amendment were introduced by Representative Arthur Livermore in 1818 and by John Quincy Adams in 1839, as the country continued to expand, the issue of slavery in its new territories became the dominant national issue. The Southern position was that slaves were property and therefore could be moved to the territories like all forms of property. The 1820 Missouri Compromise provided for the admission of Missouri as a state and Maine as a free state
Thirteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution
–
Abolitionist imagery focused on atrocities against slaves. (1863 photo of
Gordon)
Thirteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution
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Representative
James Mitchell Ashley proposed an amendment abolishing slavery in 1863.
Thirteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution
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Celebration erupts after the amendment is passed by the House of Representatives.
25.
Reconstruction era of the United States
–
Johnson followed a lenient policy toward ex-Confederates. Lincolns last speeches show that he was leaning toward supporting the enfranchisement of all freedmen, whereas Johnson was opposed to this. A Republican coalition came to power in all the southern states and set out to transform the society by setting up a free labor economy, using the U. S. Army. The Bureau protected the rights of freedmen, negotiated labor contracts. Thousands of Northerners came South as missionaries, teachers, businessmen, rebuilding the rundown railroad system was a major strategy, but it collapsed when a nationwide depression struck the economy. The Radicals in the House of Representatives, frustrated by Johnsons opposition to Congressional Reconstruction, filed impeachment charges, in early 1866, Congress passed the Freedmens Bureau and Civil Rights Bills and sent them to Johnson for his signature. Meanwhile, self-styled Conservatives strongly opposed reconstruction and they alleged widespread corruption by the Carpetbaggers, excessive state spending and ruinous taxes. Southern democrats and conservatives violently counterattacked and had regained power in each redeemed Southern state by 1877, meanwhile, public support for Reconstruction policies, requiring continued supervision of the South, faded in the North, as voters decided that the Civil War and years of conflict should stop. Reconstruction was a significant chapter in the history of civil rights in the United States, in the different states Reconstruction began and ended at different times, federal Reconstruction ended with the Compromise of 1877. In recent decades most historians follow Foner in dating the Reconstruction of the south as starting in 1863 rather than 1865, Reconstruction policies were debated in the North when the war began, and commenced in earnest after Lincolns Emancipation Proclamation, issued on January 1,1863. As Confederate states came back under control of the US Army, President Abraham Lincoln set up reconstructed governments in Tennessee, Arkansas and he experimented by giving land to blacks in South Carolina. By fall 1865, the new President Andrew Johnson declared the war goals of national unity, Republicans in Congress, refusing to accept Johnsons lenient terms, rejected new members of Congress, some of whom had been high-ranking Confederate officials a few months before. Johnson broke with the Republicans after vetoing two key bills that supported the Freedmens Bureau and provided federal civil rights to the freedmen and that same year, Congress removed civilian governments in the South, and placed the former Confederacy under the rule of the U. S. Army. In ten states, coalitions of freedmen, recent black and white arrivals from the North, Conservative opponents called the Republican regimes corrupt and instigated violence toward freedmen and whites who supported Reconstruction. Most of the violence was carried out by members of the Ku Klux Klan, Klan members attacked and intimidated blacks seeking to exercise their new civil rights, as well as Republican politicians in the south favoring those civil rights. One such politician murdered by the Klan on the eve of the 1868 presidential election was Republican Congressman James M. Hinds of Arkansas, widespread violence in the south led to federal intervention by President Ulysses S. Grant in 1871, which suppressed the Klan. Nevertheless, white Democrats, calling themselves Redeemers, regained control of the state by state, sometimes using fraud. The end of Reconstruction was a process, and the period of Republican control ended at different times in different states
Reconstruction era of the United States
–
The southern economy had been ruined by the war. Charleston, South Carolina: Broad Street, 1865
Reconstruction era of the United States
–
The ruins of
Richmond, Virginia after the
American Civil War, newly freed
African Americans voting for the first time in 1867, Office of the
Freedmen's Bureau in
Memphis, Tennessee,
Memphis Riots of 1866
Reconstruction era of the United States
–
A political cartoon of Andrew Johnson and Abraham Lincoln, 1865, entitled "The Rail Splitter At Work Repairing the Union." The caption reads (Johnson): Take it quietly Uncle Abe and I will draw it closer than ever. (Lincoln): A few more stitches Andy and the good old Union will be mended.
Reconstruction era of the United States
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Monument in honor of the Grand Army of the Republic, organized after the war
26.
Compromise of 1877
–
The Compromise of 1877 was a purported informal, unwritten deal that settled the intensely disputed 1876 U. S. presidential election. It resulted in the United States federal government pulling the last troops out of the South, the compromise involved Democrats who controlled the House of Representatives allowing the decision of the Electoral Commission to take effect. The outgoing president, Republican Ulysses S. Grant, removed the soldiers from Florida, as president, Hayes removed the remaining troops from South Carolina and Louisiana. As soon as the left, many white Republicans also left. They already dominated most other governments in the South. What was exactly agreed is somewhat contested as the documentation is scanty, black Republicans felt betrayed as they lost power and were subject to discrimination and harassment to suppress their voting. At the turn of the 20th century, most black people were effectively disenfranchised by state legislatures in every state, despite being a majority in some. The compromise essentially stated that Southern Democrats would acknowledge Hayes as president, the following elements are generally said to be the points of the compromise, The removal of all U. S. military forces from the former Confederate states. At the time, U. S. troops remained in only Louisiana, South Carolina, and Florida, the appointment of at least one Southern Democrat to Hayes cabinet. The construction of another transcontinental railroad using the Texas and Pacific in the South, legislation to help industrialize the South and restore its economy following Reconstruction and the Civil War. In exchange, Democrats would accept the Republican Hayes as president by not employing the filibuster during the joint session of Congress needed to confirm the election, after the Compromise, a few Democrats complained loudly that Tilden had been cheated. There was talk of forming armed units that would march on Washington and he tightened military security, and nobody marched on Washington. Points 1 and 2 of the compromise took effect, Hayes had already announced his support for the restoration of home rule, which would involve federal troop removal, before the election. It was not unusual, nor unexpected, for a president, especially one so narrowly elected, points 3 and 4 were never enacted, it is possible there was no firm agreement about them. Whether by informal deal or simply reassurances already in line with Hayess announced plans and this prevented a Congressional filibuster that had threatened to extend resolution of the election dispute beyond Inauguration Day 1877. They met secretly at Wormleys Hotel in Washington to forge a compromise with aid to internal improvements, bridges, canals, but Peskin notes that no serious federal effort was made after Hayes took office to fund a railroad or provide other federal aid for improvements. An opposing interest group representing the Southern Pacific actually thwarted Scotts proposed Texas and Pacific scheme, Peskin admits that Woodwards interpretation had become almost universally accepted in the nearly quarter century since he had published it. As not all terms of the agreement were met, Peskin believes there was no deal between the North and South in 1877
Compromise of 1877
–
A political cartoon by
Joseph Keppler depicts
Roscoe Conkling as a character
Mephistopheles (the devil) while
Rutherford B. Hayes strolls off with the prize of the "
Solid South " depicted as a woman. The caption quotes
Goethe: "Unto that Power he doth belong Which only doeth Right while ever willing Wrong."
27.
Slaughter-House Cases
–
The Slaughter-House Cases,83 U. S.36, was the first United States Supreme Court interpretation of the U. S. Constitutions Fourteenth Amendment which had recently been enacted. In effect, the amendment was interpreted to convey limited protection pertinent to a minority of rights. The decision consolidated three cases, The Butchers Benevolent Association of New Orleans v. The Crescent City Live-Stock Landing and Slaughter-House Company Paul Esteben, L. Ruch, J. P. Rouede, W. Maylie, S. Firmberg, B. Beaubay, William Fagan, J. D. Broderick, N. Seibel, M. Lannes, J. Gitzinger, J. P. Aycock, D. Verges, The Live-Stock Dealers and Butchers Association of New Orleans, and Charles Cavaroc v. Animal entrails, dung, blood, and urine were a part of New Orleanss drinking water, the city then appealed to the state legislature. At the time, New York City, San Francisco, Boston, Milwaukee, Crescent City would not slaughter beef itself but act as a franchise corporation, by renting out space to other butchers in the city for a fee, under a designated maximum. Penalties are enacted for infractions of this provision, and prices fixed for the charges of the company for each steamboat. The exclusivity would last for a period of 25 years, all other slaughterhouses would be closed up, forcing butchers to slaughter within the operation set up by Crescent City. The statute forbade Crescent City from favoring one butcher over another by promising harsh penalties for refusal to sell space to any butcher, all animals on the premises would be inspected by an officer appointed by the governor of the state. Over 400 members of the Butchers Benevolent Association joined together to sue to stop Crescent Citys takeover of the slaughterhouse industry, the lower courts found in favor of Crescent City in all cases. Six cases were appealed to the Supreme Court, the butchers based their claims on the due process, privileges or immunities, and equal protection clauses in the Fourteenth Amendment, which had been ratified by the states only five years earlier. Although the Fourteenth Amendment was passed mainly to protect the freedmen in the South, campbell was thus able to argue for a new, broad reading of the Fourteenth Amendment to allow butchers of any race to sustain their lives through labor. In a 5–4 decision issued on April 14,1873, by Justice Miller, at the time, the Court viewed due process in a procedural light rather than substantively. Also, The next observation is important in view of the arguments of counsel in the present case. It is, that the distinction between citizenship of the United States and citizenship of a state is recognized and established. The argument, however, in favor of the plaintiffs, rests wholly on the assumption that the citizenship is the same, Miller believed that the first sentence of the Fourteenth Amendment differentiated between two citizenships, one of the US and another of the state. Furthermore, the sentence, forbidding states from making any law which shall abridge
Slaughter-House Cases
–
John A. Campbell, attorney for the butchers
28.
Civil Rights Cases
–
The Civil Rights Cases,109 US3 were a group of five US Supreme Court constitutional law cases. The Civil Rights Act of 1875 had banned race discrimination in access to services offered to the public, the decision was effectively reversed in the jurisprudence of the Supreme Court from 1937, and finally by legislation under the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Black American plaintiffs, in five cases from courts, sued theaters, hotels and transit companies that refused to admit them. The Civil Rights Act of 1875 had been passed by Congress and entitled everyone to access accommodation, public transport, and theatres regardless of race or color. The business owners contended that the Civil Rights Act of 1875 was itself unconstitutional, the Supreme Court, in an 8-1 decision by Justice Joseph P. Section five empowers Congress only to enforce the prohibition on state action, legislation by Congress on subjects which are within the domain of the state were, apparently, not authorized by the Fourteenth Amendment. Private acts of discrimination were simply private wrongs that the national government was powerless to correct. Bradley J said the following, holding the Constitution did ‘not authorize Congress to create a code of law for the regulation of private rights’. In effect, only bodies were sufficiently ‘public’ so as to be regulated. Justice Harlan dissented against the Courts narrow interpretation of the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Amendments for all five of the cases and he argued Congress was attempting to overcome the refusal of the states to protect the rights denied to African Americans that white citizens took as their birthright. He also found that the lack of protection from the 1875 Civil Rights Act would result in the violation of the Privileges or Immunities Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, largely on the same grounds. Harlan J would have held the Civil Rights Act of 1875 valid, because people were left ‘practically at the mercy of corporations, the decision met with public protest across the country, and led to regular indignation meetings held in numerous cities. The Supreme Court decision severely restricted the power of the government to guarantee equal status under the law to blacks. The courts decision thus ultimately led to the enactment of laws, such as Jim Crow Laws. Several northern and western states however did not follow suit and began instead enacting their own bans on discrimination in public places. Morrison,529 U. S.598, in which it held that Congress did not have the authority to enact parts of the Violence Against Women Act, the Court has, however, upheld more recent civil rights laws based on other powers of Congress. US labor law List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 109 Plessy v. Ferguson Constantine v Imperial Hotels Ltd KB693 Tushnet, I dissent, Great Opposing Opinions in Landmark Supreme Court Cases. Texts on Wikisource, Civil Rights Cases Civil Rights Cases
Civil Rights Cases
–
Joseph P. Bradley authored the opinion of the court.
Civil Rights Cases
–
Supreme Court of the United States
Civil Rights Cases
–
John Marshall Harlan, became known as the "Great Dissenter" for his fiery dissent in Civil Rights Cases and other early civil rights cases
29.
Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act
–
The Morrill Land-Grant Acts are United States statutes that allowed for the creation of land-grant colleges in U. S. states using the proceeds of federal land sales. The Morrill Act of 1862 was enacted during the American Civil War, for 20 years prior to the first introduction of the bill in 1857, there was a political movement calling for the creation of agriculture colleges. The movement was led by Professor Jonathan Baldwin Turner of Illinois College, for example, the Michigan Constitution of 1850 called for the creation of an agricultural school, though it was not until February 12,1855, that Michigan Governor Kinsley S. Unlike the Turner Plan, which provided a grant to each state. This was more advantageous to the populous eastern states. The Morrill Act was first proposed in 1857, and was passed by Congress in 1859, in 1861, Morrill resubmitted the act with the amendment that the proposed institutions would teach military tactics as well as engineering and agriculture. Aided by the secession of states that did not support the plans. The previous day Lincoln signed a bill financing the railroad with land grants. Less than two months earlier he signed the Homestead Act encouraging western settlement, together these actions, taken at a time when the Union Army was poorly performing, did much to define post-Civil War America. Under the act, each state received a total of 30,000 acres of federal land, either within or contiguous to its boundaries. This land, or the proceeds from its sale, was to be used toward establishing and funding the educational institutions described above. After the war, however, the 1862 Act was extended to the former Confederate states, it was extended to every state and territory. 8 On September 11,1862, the state of Iowa was the first to accept the terms of the Morrill Act which provided the funding boost needed for the fledgling State Agricultural College and Model Farm. The first land-grant institution actually created under the Act was Kansas State University, which was established on February 16,1863, before the Civil War American engineers were mostly educated at West Point. While the Congressional debate associated with the Morrill Act was largely focused on benefits to agriculture, after the Civil War, as the German University model began to replace the English College, with the encouragement of the Morrill Act the engineering discipline was gradually defined. Because the Morrill Act excluded spending on buildings, engineering specific infrastructure such as textbooks, in 1866 there were around 300 American men with engineering degrees and six reputable colleges granting them. By 1911 the United States was graduating 3000 engineers a year, the Morrill Act coincided with the establishment of engineering in the American university. With a few exceptions, nearly all of the Land-Grant Colleges are public, to maintain their status as land-grant colleges, a number of programs are required to be maintained by the college
Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act
–
Justin Smith Morrill
Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act
–
Morrill Hall, on the campus of the
University of Maryland, College Park (a land-grant university), is named for Senator
Justin Morrill, in honor of the act he sponsored.
Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act
–
Beaumont Tower at
Michigan State University marks the site of
College Hall which is the first building in the United States to teach agricultural science.
Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act
–
Celebration of the 150th Anniversary of the Morrill Act, at the
Library of Congress, June 23, 2012
30.
Land grant colleges
–
A land-grant university is an institution of higher education in the United States designated by a state to receive the benefits of the Morrill Acts of 1862 and 1890. The Morrill Acts funded educational institutions by granting federally controlled land to the states for them to sell, to funds, to establish. This mission was in contrast to the practice of higher education to focus on an abstract liberal arts curriculum. Ultimately, most land-grant colleges became large public universities that offer a full spectrum of educational opportunities. However, some land-grant colleges are schools, including Cornell University. The concept of publicly funded agricultural and technical educational institutions first rose to attention through the efforts of Jonathan Baldwin Turner in the late 1840s. The first land-grant bill was introduced in Congress by Representative Justin Smith Morrill of Vermont in 1857, the bill passed in 1859, but was vetoed by President James Buchanan. Morrill resubmitted his bill in 1861, and it was enacted into law in 1862. Upon passage of the federal land-grant law in 1862, Iowa was the first state legislature to accept the provisions of the Morrill Act, Iowa subsequently designated the State Agricultural College as the land grant college on March 29,1864. The first land-grant institution actually created under the Act was Kansas State University, which was established on February 16,1863, the oldest school that currently holds land-grant status is Rutgers University, founded in 1766 and designated the land-grant college of New Jersey in 1864. The oldest school to ever hold land-grant status was Yale University and this designation was later stripped by the Connecticut legislature under populist pressure and transferred to what would become the University of Connecticut. A second Morrill Act was passed in 1890, aimed at the former Confederate states and this act required each state to show that race was not an admissions criterion, or else to designate a separate land-grant institution for persons of color. Among the seventy colleges and universities which eventually evolved from the Morrill Acts are several of historically black colleges and universities. In imitation of the land-grant colleges focus on agricultural and mechanical research, Congress later established programs of sea grant colleges, space grant colleges and it is also the smallest land-grant university in the country. The Farmers High School of Pennsylvania, later to become The Pennsylvania State University, michigan State and Penn State were subsequently designated as the federal land-grant colleges for their states in 1863. Older state universities – such as the University of Georgia, which was established with a grant of land in 1784 – were also funded through the use of land grants. Indeed, land grants to institutions are a practice inherited from Europe. These earlier examples, however, offered a different mission than the education offered by land-grant institutions established under the Morrill Act
Land grant colleges
–
Painting of an early land grant college (
Kansas State University) from the Westward Expansion Corridor at the
U.S. Capitol
Land grant colleges
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Contents
Land grant colleges
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United States Postal Service commemorative
stamp
