1.
Black-crowned night heron
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The Black-crowned night heron, commonly shortened to just night heron in Eurasia, is a medium-sized heron found throughout a large part of the world, except in the coldest regions and Australasia. Adults are approximately 64 cm long and weigh 800 g and they have a black crown and back with the remainder of the body white or grey, red eyes, and short yellow legs. They have pale grey wings and white under parts, two or three long white plumes, erected in greeting and courtship displays, extend from the back of the head. The sexes are similar in appearance although the males are slightly larger, Black-crowned night herons do not fit the typical body form of the heron family. They are relatively stocky with shorter bills, legs, and necks than their more familiar cousins and their resting posture is normally somewhat hunched but when hunting they extend their necks and look more like other wading birds. Immature birds have dull grey-brown plumage on their heads, wings and their underparts are paler and streaked with brown. The young birds have orange eyes and duller yellowish-green legs and they are very noisy birds in their nesting colonies, with calls that are commonly transcribed as quok or woc. The breeding habitat is fresh and salt-water wetlands throughout much of the world, Black-crowned night herons nest in colonies on platforms of sticks in a group of trees, or on the ground in protected locations such as islands or reedbeds. Three to eight eggs are laid and this heron is migratory in the northernmost part of its range, but otherwise resident. The North American population winters in Mexico, the southern United States, Central America, and the West Indies, a colony of the herons has regularly summered at the National Zoo in Washington, D. C. for more than a century. These birds stand still at the edge and wait to ambush prey. They primarily eat small fish, crustaceans, frogs, aquatic insects, small mammals, during the day they rest in trees or bushes. N. n. hoactli is more gregarious outside the season than the nominate race. A thorough study performed by J. Sitko and P. Heneberg in the Czech Republic in 1962–2013 suggested that the central European black-crowned night herons host 8 helminth species, the dominant species consisted of Neogryporhynchus cheilancristrotus, Contracaecum microcephalum and Opistorchis longissimus. The mean number of species recorded per host individual reached 1.41. Nycticorax means night raven and derives from the Ancient Greek nuktos night and korax and it refers to the largely nocturnal feeding habits and croaking crow-like call of this species. Black-crowned night heron on Animal Diversity Web Stiles, F. Gary, Skutch, a Guide to the Birds of Costa Rica. Herons and Egrets of the World, ISBN 978-0-679-45122-8. com Field Guide on Flickr Images and information of the black-crowned night heron from Portugal Black-crowned night-heron media
2.
Pileated woodpecker
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The pileated woodpecker is a large woodpecker native to North America. This crow-sized bird normally inhabits deciduous forests in eastern North America, the Great Lakes, the forests of Canada. It is the second-largest woodpecker in the United States, after the critically endangered, adults are 40 to 49 cm long, span 66 to 75 cm across the wings, and weigh 250 to 400 g, with an average weight of 300 g. Each wing measures 21.4 to 25.3 cm, the tail measures 14.0 to 17.4 cm, the bill is 4.1 to 6.0 cm and the tarsus measures 3.1 to 3.8 cm. They are mainly black with a red crest, and have a line down the sides of the throat. They show white on the wings in flight, the flight of these birds is strong and direct, but has an undulating quality, similar to the relatively unique flight-style of all woodpeckers. Adult males have a red line from the bill to the throat, the only North American birds of similar plumage and size are the ivory-billed woodpecker of the Southeastern United States and Cuba, and the related imperial woodpecker of Mexico. However, unlike the pileated, both of those species are rare, if not extinct. Most reports of the ivory-billed woodpecker are believed to be reports of the far more common pileated. The call is a loud, far-carrying laugh, sometimes described as a bird call due to its wild. The northern flicker, which is very different-looking and weighs half as much as a pileated, has a similar-sounding call. Its drumming can be loud, often sounding like someone striking a tree with a hammer. The drum sounds like 10 fast and hard taps, rather than the 10 slow, up to four subspecies of pileated woodpeckers have been recognized historically. Generally, pileated woodpeckers follow Bergmanns rule being smaller and more compact in the south, the ranges of the potential four subspecies are described below. Southern pileated woodpecker – the southeastern U. S and this bird favors mature forests and heavily wooded parks. They specifically prefer mesic habitats with large, mature hardwood trees, however, they also inhabit smaller woodlots as long as they have a scattering of tall trees. These birds mainly eat insects, especially ants and wood-boring beetle larvae. They also eat fruits, nuts, and berries, including poison ivy berries, pileated woodpeckers often chip out large and roughly rectangular holes in trees while searching out insects, especially ant galleries
3.
Horace Walpole
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Horatio Walpole, 4th Earl of Orford — also known as Horace Walpole — was an English art historian, man of letters, antiquarian and Whig politician. He had Strawberry Hill House built in Twickenham, south-west London and his literary reputation rests on his Gothic novel, The Castle of Otranto and his Letters, which are of significant social and political interest. He was the son of the first British Prime Minister Sir Robert Walpole, as Horace Walpole was childless, on his death his barony descended to his cousin of the same surname, who was created the new Earl of Orford. Walpole was born in London, the youngest son of British Prime Minister Sir Robert Walpole, like his father, he received early education in Bexley, he was also educated at Eton College and Kings College, Cambridge. Walpoles first friends were probably his cousins Francis and Henry Conway, to whom Walpole became strongly attached, at Eton he formed with Charles Lyttelton and George Montagu the Triumvirate, a schoolboy confederacy. More important were another group of friends dubbed the Quadruple Alliance, Walpole, Thomas Gray, Richard West, at Cambridge Walpole came under the influence of Conyers Middleton, an unorthodox theologian. Walpole came to accept the nature of Middletons attitude to some essential Christian doctrines for the rest of his life, including a hatred of superstition. Walpole ceased to reside at Cambridge at the end of 1738, according to one biographer his love for his mother was the most powerful emotion of his entire life. the whole of his psychological history was dominated by it. Walpole did not have any relationships with women, he has been called a natural celibate. Walpoles sexual orientation has been the subject of speculation, many contemporaries described him as effeminate. Biographers such as Timothy Mowl explore his possible homosexuality, including a passionate, some previous biographers such as Lewis, Fothergill, and Robert Wyndham Ketton-Cremer, however, have interpreted Walpole as asexual. Upon coming of age he became Comptroller of the Pipe and Clerk of the Estreats which gave him an income of £300 per annum, Walpole decided to go travelling with Thomas Gray and wrote a will whereby he left Gray all his belongings. They left Dover on 29 March and arrived at Calais later that day and they then travelled through Boulogne, Amiens and Saint-Denis, arriving at Paris on 4 April. Here they met many aristocratic Englishmen, in early June they left Paris for Rheims, then in September going to Dijon, Lyons, Dauphiné, Savoy, Aix-les-Bains, Geneva, and then back to Lyons. In October they left for Italy, arriving in Turin in November, then going to Genoa, Piacenza, Parma, Reggio, Modena, Bologna, and in December arriving at Florence. Here he struck up a friendship with Horace Mann, an assistant to the British Minister at the Court of Tuscany and wrote Epistle from Florence to Thomas Ashton, tutor to the Earl of Plymouth, a mixture of Whig history and Middletons teachings. In February 1740 Walpole and Gray left for Rome with the intention of witnessing the papal conclave upon the death of Pope Clement XII, Walpole wanted to attend fashionable parties and Gray wanted to visit all the antiquities. At social occasions in Rome he saw the Old Pretender James Francis Edward Stuart, Walpole and Gray returned to Florence in July
4.
Sir Horace Mann, 1st Baronet
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Sir Horace Mann, 1st Baronet KB, diplomat, was a long-standing British resident in Florence. Mann was the son of Robert Mann, a successful London merchant. He was brought up at Chelsea, and educated at Eton College and later, briefly, suffering from poor health, he travelled on the continent in the 1730s. In February 1737, he was appointed as secretary to Charles Fane and he then served as British diplomatic representative there to the Grand Dukes of Tuscany for the rest of his life. As Great Britain had no representation at Rome, Manns duties included reporting on the activities of the exiled Stuarts, the Old Pretender. Mann kept a house for British visitors at Palazzo Manetti, Florence. His generosity and kindness was universally acknowledged, although his friendship with the painter Thomas Patch reflected on his reputation. He met Horace Walpole in 1739, and conducted a correspondence with him over forty years. The correspondence was published by Lord Dover in 1833, in recognition of his service he was created a baronet on 3 March 1755. and made a Knight of the Bath on 26 October 1768. In 1775, on the death of his brother, Edward Louisa Mann, he inherited the Linton Park estate which his father had bought at Linton. He died unmarried in Florence on 6 November 1786 and his nephew Horace inherited his baronetcy by special remainder and also acted as Chargé daffaires until the arrival of his replacement. Sir Horace Mann, 1st Baronet at Find a Grave
5.
Bianca Cappello
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Bianca Cappello was an Italian noblewoman who was the mistress, and afterward the second wife, of Francesco I de Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany. Her husband officially made her his consort and she was born in Venice, in 1548, the daughter of Bartolomeo Cappello and Pellegrina Morosini, a member of one of the richest and noblest Venetian families, and was noted for her great beauty. At the age of fifteen she fell in love with Pietro Bonaventuri, a young Florentine clerk in the firm of Salviati, and on 28 November 1563 escaped with him to Florence, in 1564 she had a daughter named Virginia, or, according to other sources, Pellegrina. The Venetian government made every effort to have Bianca arrested and brought back but the Grand Duke Cosimo I intervened in her favour, although already married to Joanna of Austria, Francesco seduced Bianca and gave her jewels, money and other presents. Bonaventuri, Biancas husband, was given employment and consoled himself with other ladies until, in 1572. It is possible that Bianca and Francesco were involved, on the death of Cosimo in 1574 Francesco succeeded to the grand duchy, he now installed Bianca in a palace close to his own and outraged his wife by flaunting his mistress before her. At this point, Francesco had no son to inherit the duchy, a child by Bianca, though illegitimate, would be a potential heir. In 1576 she duly gave birth to Don Antonio de Medici, in 1578 Joanna died, a few months later Francesco secretly married Bianca, and on 10 June 1579, the marriage was publicly announced, and Antonio acknowledged as the Dukes son. Two days later, on the 12 June, Bianca was crowned the Grand Duchess of Tuscany at the Palazzo Vecchio in Florence, Biancas position, however, was still not secure. The heir remained the young Grand Prince Philip, her own son by Francesco, though acknowledged, remained illegitimate, in 1582, however, Grand Prince Philip died. Francesco immediately began working on securing the succession for his son, Antonio, having him legitimated and declared heir apparent. In October 1587, at the Villa Medici in Poggio a Caiano, Francesco and Bianca died on 19 and 20 October, possibly poisoned, or as some historians believe, from malarial fever. As Bianca wasnt a member of the Medici family, Cardinal Ferdinand didnt allow her body to be buried in the Medici family tombs. Instead, Bianca was buried in a grave under the church of St. Lorenzo. The biography of Bianca Cappello was used by Thomas Middleton for his tragedy Women Beware Women. James Chater, Bianca Cappello and Music, in Renaissance Studies in Honor of Craig Hugh Smyth, vol. i, 569–79 Samuele Romanin, Lezioni di storia Veneta, thurston, H. T. Colby, F. M. eds. article name needed
6.
Giorgio Vasari
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Vasari was born in Arezzo, Tuscany. Recommended at an age by his cousin Luca Signorelli, he became a pupil of Guglielmo da Marsiglia. He was befriended by Michelangelo whose painting style would influence his own, in 1529, he visited Rome where he studied the works of Raphael and other artists of the Roman High Renaissance. Vasaris own Mannerist paintings were admired in his lifetime than afterwards. In 1547 he completed the hall of the chancery in Palazzo della Cancelleria in Rome with frescoes that received the name Sala dei Cento Giorni and he was consistently employed by members of the Medici family in Florence and Rome, and worked in Naples, Arezzo and other places. He also helped to organize the decoration of the Studiolo, now reassembled in the Palazzo Vecchio, aside from his career as a painter, Vasari was also successful as an architect. In Florence, Vasari also built the long passage, now called Vasari Corridor, the enclosed corridor passes alongside the River Arno on an arcade, crosses the Ponte Vecchio and winds around the exterior of several buildings. He also renovated the medieval churches of Santa Maria Novella and Santa Croce, at both he removed the original rood screen and loft, and remodelled the retro-choirs in the Mannerist taste of his time. In Santa Croce, he was responsible for the painting of The Adoration of the Magi which was commissioned by Pope Pius V in 1566 and it was recently restored, before being put on exhibition in 2011 in Rome and in Naples. Eventually it is planned to return it to the church of Santa Croce in Bosco Marengo, in 1562 Vasari built the octagonal dome on the Basilica of Our Lady of Humility in Pistoia, an important example of high Renaissance architecture. In Rome, Vasari worked with Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola and Bartolomeo Ammanati at Pope Julius IIIs Villa Giulia, the Lives also included a novel treatise on the technical methods employed in the arts. The book was rewritten and enlarged in 1568, with the addition of woodcut portraits of artists. The work has a consistent and notorious bias in favour of Florentines, and tends to attribute to them all the developments in Renaissance art – for example, Venetian art in particular, is systematically ignored in the first edition. Between the first and second editions, Vasari visited Venice and while the edition gave more attention to Venetian art. Vasaris biographies are interspersed with amusing gossip, with a few exceptions, however, Vasaris aesthetic judgement was acute and unbiased. He did not research archives for exact dates, as art historians do, and naturally his biographies are most dependable for the painters of his own generation. Modern criticism – with new materials opened up by research – has corrected many of his traditional dates and attributions. Vasari includes a sketch of his own biography at the end of the Lives, according to the historian Richard Goldthwaite, Vasari was one of the earliest authors to use the term competition in its economic sense
7.
The Three Princes of Serendip
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The Three Princes of Serendip is the English version of the story Peregrinaggio di tre giovani figliuoli del re di Serendippo published by Michele Tramezzino in Venice in 1557. Tramezzino claimed to have heard the story from one Christophero Armeno, the story first came to English via a French translation, and now exists in several out-of-print translations. Serendip is the Perso-Arabic name for Sri Lanka, in ancient times there existed in the country of Serendippo, in the Far East, a great and powerful king by the name of Giaffer. He had three sons who were dear to him. The father searches out the best possible tutors, when the tutors are pleased with the excellent progress that the three princes make in the arts and sciences, they report it to the king. He, however, still doubts their training, and summoning each in turn, each politely declines, affirming the fathers superior wisdom and fitness to rule. The king is pleased, but fearing that his sons education may have been too sheltered and privileged, feigns anger at them for refusing the throne, no sooner do the three princes arrive abroad than they trace clues to identify precisely a camel they have never seen. They conclude that the camel is lame, blind in one eye, missing a tooth, carrying a pregnant woman, when they later encounter the merchant who has lost the camel, they report their observations to him. He accuses them of stealing the camel and takes them to the Emperor Beramo, Beramo asks how they are able to give such an accurate description of the camel if they have never seen it. It is clear from the replies that they have used small clues to infer cleverly the nature of the camel. Grass had been eaten from the side of the road where it was less green, because there were lumps of chewed grass on the road that were the size of a camel’s tooth, they inferred they had fallen through the gap left by a missing tooth. The tracks showed the prints of three feet, the fourth being dragged, indicating that the animal was lame. That butter was carried on one side of the camel and honey on the other was evident because ants had been attracted to melted butter on one side of the road and flies to spilled honey on the other. Because some urine was nearby, I wet my fingers and as a reaction to its odour I felt a sort of carnal concupiscence, at this moment, a traveller enters the scene to say that he has just found a missing camel wandering in the desert. Beramo spares the lives of the three princes, lavishes rich rewards on them, and appoints them to be his advisors. The three princes have many adventures, where they continue to display their sagacity, stories-within-stories are told. The fairy tale The Three Princes of Serendip is based upon the life of Persian King Bahram V, with the exception of the well-known camel story, English translations are very hard to come by. He then turned back, and. after complimenting the two slaves for their shrewdness, he at once gave them their liberty. ”T. H. Edgar Allan Poe in his turn was inspired by Zadig when he created C
8.
Alexander Fleming
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Sir Alexander Fleming FRS FRSE FRCS was a Scottish biologist, pharmacologist and botanist. He wrote many articles on bacteriology, immunology, and chemotherapy, Fleming was knighted for his scientific achievements in 1944. In 1999, he was named in Time magazines list of the 100 Most Important People of the 20th century, hugh Fleming had four surviving children from his first marriage. He was 59 at the time of his marriage. Fleming went to Loudoun Moor School and Darvel School, and earned a scholarship to Kilmarnock Academy before moving to London. After working in an office for four years, the twenty-year-old Fleming inherited some money from an uncle. Fleming had been a private in the London Scottish Regiment of the Volunteer Force since 1900, in 1908, he gained a BSc degree with Gold Medal in Bacteriology, and became a lecturer at St Marys until 1914. Fleming served throughout World War I as a captain in the Royal Army Medical Corps and he and many of his colleagues worked in battlefield hospitals at the Western Front in France. In 1918 he returned to St Marys Hospital, where he was elected Professor of Bacteriology of the University of London in 1928, in 1951 he was elected the Rector of the University of Edinburgh for a term of three years. During World War I, Fleming witnessed the death of soldiers from sepsis resulting from infected wounds. Antiseptics, which were used at the time to treat infected wounds, at St Mary’s Hospital Fleming continued his investigations into antibacterial substances. Testing the nasal secretions from a patient with a heavy cold and this was the first recorded discovery of lysozyme, an enzyme present in many secretions including tears, saliva, skin, hair and nails as well as mucus. Although he was able to obtain larger amounts of lysozyme from egg whites, the enzyme was only effective against small counts of harmless bacteria, by 1927, Fleming had been investigating the properties of staphylococci. He was already well-known from his work, and had developed a reputation as a brilliant researcher. On 3 September 1928, Fleming returned to his laboratory having spent August on holiday with his family, before leaving, he had stacked all his cultures of staphylococci on a bench in a corner of his laboratory. Fleming showed the culture to his former assistant Merlin Price. Fleming grew the mould in a culture and found that it produced a substance that killed a number of disease-causing bacteria. He identified the mould as being from the Penicillium genus, and, after months of calling it mould juice
9.
Penicillin
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Penicillin is a group of antibiotics which include penicillin G, penicillin V, procaine penicillin, and benzathine penicillin. Penicillin antibiotics were among the first medications to be effective against many bacterial infections caused by staphylococci and streptococci, penicillins are still widely used today, though many types of bacteria have developed resistance following extensive use. About 10% of people report that they are allergic to penicillin, however, serious allergies only occur in about 0. 03%. Penicillin was discovered in 1928 by Scottish scientist Alexander Fleming, people began using it to treat infections in 1942. There are several enhanced penicillin families which are effective against additional bacteria, these include the penicillins, aminopenicillins. They are derived from Penicillium fungi, the term penicillin is often used generically to refer to benzylpenicillin, procaine benzylpenicillin, benzathine benzylpenicillin, and phenoxymethylpenicillin. Procaine penicillin and benzathine penicillin have the same activity as benzylpenicillin. Phenoxymethylpenicillin is less active against gram-negative bacteria than benzylpenicillin, infrequent adverse effects include fever, vomiting, erythema, dermatitis, angioedema, seizures, and pseudomembranous colitis. About 10% of people report that they are allergic to penicillin, however, serious allergies only occur in about 0. 03%. Penicillin can also induce serum sickness or a serum sickness-like reaction in some individuals, serum sickness is a type III hypersensitivity reaction that occurs one to three weeks after exposure to drugs including penicillin. It is not a drug allergy, because allergies are type I hypersensitivity reactions. Pain and inflammation at the site is also common for parenterally administered benzathine benzylpenicillin, benzylpenicillin. Significantly, there is a reaction to Streptolysin S, a toxin released by certain killed bacteria and associated with Penicillin injection. Allergic reactions to any β-lactam antibiotic may occur in up to 1% of patients receiving that agent, the allergic reaction is a Type I hypersensitivity reaction. Anaphylaxis will occur in approximately 0. 01% of patients and it has previously been accepted that there was up to a 10% cross-sensitivity between penicillin-derivatives, cephalosporins, and carbapenems, due to the sharing of the β-lactam ring. Assessments in 2006 found no risk for cross-allergy for second-generation or later cephalosporins than the first generation. However, as a risk, research shows that all beta lactams have the intrinsic hazard of very serious hazardous reactions in susceptible patients. Only the frequency of these reactions vary, based on the structure, bacteria constantly remodel their peptidoglycan cell walls, simultaneously building and breaking down portions of the cell wall as they grow and divide
10.
Microwave oven
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A microwave oven is a kitchen appliance that heats and cooks food by exposing it to microwave radiation in the electromagnetic spectrum. This induces polar molecules in the food to rotate and produce energy in a process known as dielectric heating. Percy Spencer is generally credited with inventing the microwave oven after World War II from radar technology developed during the war. Named the Radarange, it was first sold in 1946, Raytheon later licensed its patents for a home-use microwave oven that was first introduced by Tappan in 1955, but these units were still too large and expensive for general home use. The countertop microwave oven was first introduced in 1967 by the Amana Corporation, Microwave ovens are popular for reheating previously cooked foods and cooking a variety of foods. They are also useful for heating of otherwise slowly prepared cooking items, such as hot butter, fats. Unlike conventional ovens, microwave ovens usually do not directly brown or caramelize food, exceptions occur in rare cases where the oven is used to heat frying-oil and other very oily items, which attain far higher temperatures than that of boiling water. Some modern microwave ovens are part of units with built-in extractor hoods. The exploitation of high-frequency radio waves for heating substances was possible by the development of vacuum tube radio transmitters around 1920. By 1930 the application of waves to heat human tissue had developed into the medical therapy of diathermy. At the 1933 Chicago Worlds Fair, Westinghouse demonstrated the cooking of foods between two metal plates attached to a 10 kW,60 MHz shortwave transmitter. The Westinghouse team, led by I. F. Mouromtseff, found that foods like steaks and this patent proposed radio frequency heating, at 10 to 20 megahertz. The invention of the cavity magnetron made possible the production of waves of a small enough wavelength. The magnetron was originally a component in the development of short wavelength radar during World War II. A more high-powered microwave generator that worked at shorter wavelengths was needed, sir Henry Tizard travelled to the U. S. in late September 1940 to offer the magnetron in exchange for their financial and industrial help. An early 6 kW version, built in England by the General Electric Company Research Laboratories, Wembley, contracts were awarded to Raytheon and other companies for mass production of the magnetron. In 1945, the heating effect of a high-power microwave beam was accidentally discovered by Percy Spencer. Employed by Raytheon at the time, he noticed that microwaves from a radar set he was working on started to melt a candy bar he had in his pocket
11.
Post-it note
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A Post-It note is a small piece of paper with a re-adherable strip of glue on its back, made for temporarily attaching notes to documents and other surfaces. A unique low-tack pressure-sensitive adhesive allows the notes to be attached, removed. Originally small yellow squares, Post-It Notes and related products are now available in an array of colors, despite this, the name has become genericized for all such products in many countries. In 1968, a scientist at 3M in the United States, instead he accidentally created a low-tack, reusable, pressure-sensitive adhesive. For five years, Silver promoted his solution without a problem within 3M both informally and through seminars but failed to gain acceptance. In 1974 a colleague who had attended one of his seminars, Art Fry, Fry then utilized 3Ms officially sanctioned permitted bootlegging policy to develop the idea. The original notes yellow color was chosen by accident, as the lab next-door to the Post-It team had only yellow scrap paper to use, 3M launched the product as Press n Peel in stores in four cities in 1977, but results were disappointing. A year later 3M instead issued free samples directly to consumers in Boise, Idaho, the product was sold as Post-Its in 1979 when the rollout introduction began, and was sold across the United States from April 6,1980. The following year they were launched in Canada and Europe, in 2003, the company came out with Post-It Brand Super Sticky Notes, with a stronger glue that adheres better to vertical and non-smooth surfaces. Until 3Ms patent expired in the 1990s, Post-It type notes were produced only in the plant in Cynthiana. Inventor Alan Amron has made claims to be the inventor of the used on the Post-It note. His 1997 suit against 3M was settled in the light of an invention by a Swiss inventor. As part of the settlement, Amron undertook not to make claims against the company. However, in 2016, he launched a suit against 3M, asserting that 3M were wrongly claiming to be the inventors. At a preliminary hearing, a judge ordered the parties to undergo mediation. Printed with archival inks on paper, the reproductions include stickee sized framed prints and enlargements of the original drawings. In 2012, Turkish artist Ardan Özmenoğlu was selected to have an exhibition at Bertrand Delacroix Gallery in the art district of Chelsea. The exhibition, titled E Pluribus Unum, opened November 15,2012, in 2004, Paola Antonelli, a curator of architecture and design, included Post-It notes in a show entitled Humble Masterpieces
12.
English language
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English /ˈɪŋɡlɪʃ/ is a West Germanic language that was first spoken in early medieval England and is now the global lingua franca. Named after the Angles, one of the Germanic tribes that migrated to England, English is either the official language or one of the official languages in almost 60 sovereign states. It is the third most common language in the world, after Mandarin. It is the most widely learned second language and a language of the United Nations, of the European Union. It is the most widely spoken Germanic language, accounting for at least 70% of speakers of this Indo-European branch, English has developed over the course of more than 1,400 years. The earliest forms of English, a set of Anglo-Frisian dialects brought to Great Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlers in the century, are called Old English. Middle English began in the late 11th century with the Norman conquest of England, Early Modern English began in the late 15th century with the introduction of the printing press to London and the King James Bible, and the start of the Great Vowel Shift. Through the worldwide influence of the British Empire, modern English spread around the world from the 17th to mid-20th centuries, English is an Indo-European language, and belongs to the West Germanic group of the Germanic languages. Most closely related to English are the Frisian languages, and English, Old Saxon and its descendent Low German languages are also closely related, and sometimes Low German, English, and Frisian are grouped together as the Ingvaeonic or North Sea Germanic languages. Modern English descends from Middle English, which in turn descends from Old English, particular dialects of Old and Middle English also developed into a number of other English languages, including Scots and the extinct Fingallian and Forth and Bargy dialects of Ireland. English is classified as a Germanic language because it shares new language features with other Germanic languages such as Dutch, German and these shared innovations show that the languages have descended from a single common ancestor, which linguists call Proto-Germanic. Through Grimms law, the word for foot begins with /f/ in Germanic languages, English is classified as an Anglo-Frisian language because Frisian and English share other features, such as the palatalisation of consonants that were velar consonants in Proto-Germanic. The earliest form of English is called Old English or Anglo-Saxon, in the fifth century, the Anglo-Saxons settled Britain and the Romans withdrew from Britain. England and English are named after the Angles, Old English was divided into four dialects, the Anglian dialects, Mercian and Northumbrian, and the Saxon dialects, Kentish and West Saxon. Through the educational reforms of King Alfred in the century and the influence of the kingdom of Wessex. The epic poem Beowulf is written in West Saxon, and the earliest English poem, Modern English developed mainly from Mercian, but the Scots language developed from Northumbrian. A few short inscriptions from the period of Old English were written using a runic script. By the sixth century, a Latin alphabet was adopted, written with half-uncial letterforms and it included the runic letters wynn ⟨ƿ⟩ and thorn ⟨þ⟩, and the modified Latin letters eth ⟨ð⟩, and ash ⟨æ⟩
13.
Sri Lanka
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Sri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, is an island country in South Asia near south-east India. Sri Lanka has maritime borders with India to the northwest and the Maldives to the southwest, Sri Lankas documented history spans 3,000 years, with evidence of pre-historic human settlements dating back to at least 125,000 years. Its geographic location and deep harbours made it of strategic importance from the time of the ancient Silk Road through to World War II. Sri Lanka was known from the beginning of British colonial rule until 1972 as Ceylon, Sri Lankas recent history has been marred by a thirty-year civil war which decisively ended when the Sri Lankan military defeated the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam in 2009. A diverse and multicultural country, Sri Lanka is home to many religions, ethnic groups, in addition to the majority Sinhalese, it is home to large groups of Sri Lankan and Indian Tamils, Moors, Burghers, Malays, Kaffirs and the aboriginal Vedda. Sri Lanka has a rich Buddhist heritage, and the first known Buddhist writings of Sri Lanka, Sri Lanka is a republic and a unitary state governed by a semi-presidential system. The legislative capital, Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte, is a suburb of the capital and largest city. Along with the Maldives, Sri Lanka is one of the two countries in South Asia that are rated among high human development on the Human Development Index. In antiquity, Sri Lanka was known to travellers by a variety of names, according to the Mahavamsa, the legendary Prince Vijaya named the land Tambapanni, because his followers hands were reddened by the red soil of the area. In Hindu mythology, such as the Mahabharata, the island was referred to as Lankā, in Tamil, the island is referred to as Eelam. Ancient Greek geographers called it Taprobanā or Taprobanē from the word Tambapanni, as a British crown colony, the island was known as Ceylon, it achieved independence as the Dominion of Ceylon in 1948. The country is known in Sinhalese as Śrī Laṃkā and in Tamil as Ilaṅkai, in 1972, its formal name was changed to Free, Sovereign and Independent Republic of Sri Lanka. Later in 1978 it was changed to the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, as the name Ceylon still appears in the names of a number of organisations, the Sri Lankan government announced in 2011 a plan to rename all those over which it has authority. The pre-history of Sri Lanka goes back 125,000 years, the era spans the Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and early Iron Ages. Among the Paleolithic human settlements discovered in Sri Lanka, Pahiyangala and it is said that Kubera was overthrown by his demon stepbrother Ravana, the powerful emperor who built a mythical flying machine named Dandu Monara. The modern city of Wariyapola is described as Ravanas airport, early inhabitants of Sri Lanka were probably ancestors of the Vedda people, an indigenous people numbering approximately 2,500 living in modern-day Sri Lanka. According to the Mahāvamsa, a written in Pāḷi, the original inhabitants of Sri Lanka are the Yakshas and Nagas. Ancient cemeteries that were used before 600BC and other signs of advanced civilization has also discovered in Sri Lanka
14.
New Oxford Dictionary of English
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The Oxford Dictionary of English is a single-volume English dictionary published by Oxford University Press, first published in 1998 as The New Oxford Dictionary of English. The word new was dropped from the title with the Second Edition in 2003 and this dictionary is not based on the Oxford English Dictionary and should not be mistaken for a new or updated version of the OED. It is a new dictionary which strives to represent as faithfully as possible the current usage of English words. The Revised Second Edition contains 355,000 words, phrases, the Third Edition was published in August 2010, with some new words, including vuvuzela. It is currently the largest single-volume English-language dictionary published by Oxford University Press, the first editor, Judy Pearsall, wrote in the introduction that it is based on a modern understanding of language and is derived from a corpus of contemporary English usage. For example, the editors did not discourage split infinitives, the first edition was based on bodies of texts such as the British National Corpus and the citation database of the Oxford Reading Programme. The dictionary views the language from the perspective that English is a world language, a network of consultants provide extensive coverage of English usage from the United States to the Caribbean and New Zealand. A more unusual decision was to omit pronunciations of common, everyday words, the International Phonetic Alphabet is used to present pronunciations, which are in turn based on the Received Pronunciation. The Second Edition added over 3,000 new words, senses and phrases drawn from the Oxford English Corpus, the New Oxford American Dictionary is the American version of the Oxford Dictionary of English, with substantial editing and uses a diacritical respelling scheme rather than the IPA system. CD-ROM supports Windows 95/NT and above, impression Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press paperback edition 1st. Impression CD edition, Includes iFinger version 2.0, impression New edition edition Hardcover edition, 1st. The online version is updated every three months, Oxford Dictionaries Online also includes the New Oxford American Dictionary, Oxford Thesaurus of English, Oxford American Writer’s Thesaurus and grammar and usage resources. The online version added more than 80,000 words from the OED in August 2015, Includes nearly 100,000 headwords, with 11,000 proper names, over 350,000 words and phrases and definitions,11,000 encyclopaedic entries,68,000 explanations. Hardcover edition, Includes 12-month access to Oxford Dictionaries Online, impression Android version, Published by MobiSystems, Inc. Premium version includes audio pronunciation, offline mode, priority support, Version 7.0.177, Support split screen for Android 7. Version 7.1.195, Support Shortcut Items for Android 7.1 Version 7.1.208, Includes over 350,000 words, phrases, premium version includes 75,000 audio pronunciations of both common and rare words. IOS free version, Published by MobiSystems, Inc, Version 8.2.9, Includes iOS10 optimization. Version 8.5.6, Supports voice over, voice search in iOS10, OS X paid version, Published by WordWeb Software
15.
Paul Flory
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Paul John Flory was an American chemist and Nobel laureate who was known for his work in the field of polymers, or macromolecules. After graduating from Elgin High School in Elgin, Illinois in 1927, Flory received a degree from Manchester College in 1931. His first position was at DuPont with Wallace Carothers, florys earliest work in polymer science was in the area of polymerization kinetics at the DuPont Experimental Station. In addition polymerization, he introduced the important concept of transfer to improve the kinetic equations. In 1938, after Carothers death, Flory moved to the Basic Science Research Laboratory at the University of Cincinnati, there he developed a mathematical theory for the polymerization of compounds with more than two functional groups and the theory of polymer networks or gels. In 1940 he joined the Linden, NJ laboratory of the Standard Oil Development Company where he developed a mechanical theory for polymer mixtures. In 1943 he left to join the research laboratories of Goodyear as head of a group on polymer fundamentals, in the Spring of 1948 Peter Debye, then chairman of the chemistry department at Cornell University, invited Flory to give the annual Baker Lectures. He then was offered a position with the faculty in the Fall of the same year and he was initiated into the Tau Chapter of Alpha Chi Sigma at Cornell in 1949. At Cornell he elaborated and refined his Baker Lectures into his magnum opus and this quickly became a standard text for all workers in the field of polymers, and is still widely used to this day. Flory introduced the concept of excluded volume, coined by Werner Kuhn in 1934, excluded volume refers to the idea that one part of a long chain molecule can not occupy space that is already occupied by another part of the same molecule. Excluded volume causes the ends of a chain in a solution to be further apart than they would be were there no excluded volume. It also led to the concept of the point, the set of conditions at which an experiment can be conducted that causes the excluded volume effect to be neutralized. In modeling the position vectors of atoms in macromolecules it is necessary to convert from Cartesian coordinates to generalized coordinates. The Flory convention for defining the variables involved is usually employed, for an example, a peptide bond can be described by the x, y, z positions of every atom in this bond or the Flory convention can be used. Here one must know the bond lengths l i, bond angles θ i, applying a vector conversion from the Cartesian coordinates to the generalized coordinates will describe the same three-dimensional structure using the Flory convention. He accepted a professorship at Stanford University in 1961, became the Jackson-Wood Professor there in 1966 and he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1974 for his fundamental achievements, both theoretical and experimental, in the physical chemistry of macromolecules. He remained active after his retirement, and consulted for IBM for some years and he and his wife Emily Catherine Tabor had three children, Susan, Melinda and John. Susan has two children, Elizabeth and Mary, Elizabeth has three children, Katy Greer, Margaret Greer, and Sam Greer
16.
Role of chance in scientific discoveries
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The role of chance, or luck, in science comprises all ways in which unexpected discoveries are made. Many domains, especially psychology, are concerned with the way science interacts with chance — particularly serendipity, psychologist Kevin Dunbar and colleagues estimate that between 30% and 50% of all scientific discoveries are accidental in some sense. Psychologist Alan A. Baumeister says a scientist must be sagacious to benefit from an accident, Dunbar quotes Louis Pasteurs saying that Chance favors only the prepared mind. The prepared mind, Dunbar suggests, is one trained for observational rigor, Dunbar adds that there is a great deal of writing about the role that serendipity plays in the scientific method. Research suggests that scientists are taught various heuristics and practices that allow their investigations to benefit, first, careful control conditions allow scientists to properly identify something as unexpected. Accidental discoveries have been a topic of discussion especially from the 20th century onwards, Kevin Dunbar and Jonathan Fugelsang say that somewhere between 33% and 50% of all scientific discoveries are unexpected. This helps explain why scientists often call their discoveries lucky, Dunbar and Fugelsang believe scientific discoveries are the result of carefully prepared experiments, but also prepared minds. The author Nassim Nicholas Taleb calls science anti-fragile and that is, science can actually use — and benefit from — the chaos of the real world. While some methods of investigation are fragile in the face of human error and randomness, Taleb believes that the more anti-fragile the system, the more it will flourish in the real world. According to M. K. Stoskopf, it is in way that serendipity is often the foundation for important intellectual leaps of understanding in science. Thus Dunbar and Fugelsang talk about, not just luck or chance in science, Dunbar and Fugelsang suggest that the process of discovery often starts when a researcher finds bugs in their experiment. These unexpected results lead a researcher to self-doubt, and to try, the first recourse is to explain the error using local hypotheses. This process is also local in the sense that the scientist is relatively independent or else working with one partner, eventually, the researcher decides that the error is too persistent and systematic to be a coincidence. The highly controlled, cautious, curious and even aspects of the scientific method are what make it well suited for identifying persistent systematic errors. In contrast, the mind can be prepared in ways that obstruct serendipity — making new knowledge difficult or impossible to take in, psychologist Alan A. Baumeister describes at least one such instance, Researcher Roy Heath failed to recognize evidence of pleasure brain circuits. When Heath stimulated the brains of his patients, some of them reported feeling pleasure — a finding that Heath could have explored. Heath, however, was prepared for patients to report alertness, Heath failed to realize he had seen something unexpected and unexplained. Fugelsang and Dunbar observe scientists while they work together in labs or analyze data, FMRI investigation found that unexpected findings were associated with particular brain activity
17.
Sociology
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Sociology is the study of social behaviour or society, including its origins, development, organisation, networks, and institutions. It is a science that uses various methods of empirical investigation and critical analysis to develop a body of knowledge about social order, disorder. Many sociologists aim to research that may be applied directly to social policy and welfare. Subject matter ranges from the level of individual agency and interaction to the macro level of systems. The traditional focuses of sociology include social stratification, social class, social mobility, religion, secularization, law, sexuality, the range of social scientific methods has also expanded. Social researchers draw upon a variety of qualitative and quantitative techniques, the linguistic and cultural turns of the mid-twentieth century led to increasingly interpretative, hermeneutic, and philosophic approaches towards the analysis of society. There is often a great deal of crossover between social research, market research, and other statistical fields, Sociology is distinguished from various general social studies courses, which bear little relation to sociological theory or to social-science research-methodology. The US National Science Foundation classifies sociology as a STEM field, Sociological reasoning pre-dates the foundation of the discipline. Social analysis has origins in the stock of Western knowledge and philosophy. The origin of the survey, i. e, there is evidence of early sociology in medieval Arab writings. The word sociology is derived from both Latin and Greek origins, the Latin word, socius, companion, the suffix -logy, the study of from Greek -λογία from λόγος, lógos, word, knowledge. It was first coined in 1780 by the French essayist Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès in an unpublished manuscript, Sociology was later defined independently by the French philosopher of science, Auguste Comte, in 1838. Comte used this term to describe a new way of looking at society, Comte had earlier used the term social physics, but that had subsequently been appropriated by others, most notably the Belgian statistician Adolphe Quetelet. Comte endeavoured to unify history, psychology and economics through the understanding of the social realm. Comte believed a positivist stage would mark the final era, after conjectural theological and metaphysical phases, Comte gave a powerful impetus to the development of sociology, an impetus which bore fruit in the later decades of the nineteenth century. To say this is not to claim that French sociologists such as Durkheim were devoted disciples of the high priest of positivism. To be sure, beginnings can be traced back well beyond Montesquieu, for example, Marx rejected Comtean positivism but in attempting to develop a science of society nevertheless came to be recognized as a founder of sociology as the word gained wider meaning. For Isaiah Berlin, Marx may be regarded as the father of modern sociology
18.
Barney G. Glaser
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Barney G. Glaser is an American sociologist and one of the founders of the grounded theory methodology. Glaser was born in San Francisco, California and lives in nearby Mill Valley and he received his BA degree at Stanford in 1952. He pursued academic studies at the University of Paris where he studied contemporary literature and he also studied literature at University of Freiburg for two years during off-hours from his military service. At Columbia he was a student of Paul Lazarsfeld and Robert K. Merton, the dissertation was published in the book Organizational Scientists, Their Professional Careers. Post-doc Glaser started a collaboration with Anselm Strauss at the University of California. Together they wrote Awareness of Dying based on a study of dying in Californian hospitals, as a response to the many methodological questions on the dying study the first grounded theory methodology appeared in 1967 co-authored with Strauss, The Discovery of Grounded Theory. In 1970 Glaser started the publishing company Sociology Press specializing in grounded theory methodologies, the second grounded theory methodology was written by Glaser in 1978. Thereafter, Glaser has published several readers of grounded theory and four more methodologies and he has traveled throughout the world giving workshops and seminars to many researchers. In 1998 Glaser received a doctorate from Stockholm University. In 1999 Glaser founded the web based organization Grounded Theory Institute. He owned Cascade Acceptance Corporation, which filed for bankruptcy in November 2009, in July 2010, the bankruptcy trustee declared that the company had been insolvent for at least two years, and the case was converted from a reorganization to a liquidation. The Grounded Theory Institute The Grounded Theory Review Sociology Press Grounded Theory Online
19.
Robert K. Merton
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Robert King Merton was an American sociologist. He spent most of his teaching at Columbia University, where he attained the rank of University Professor. In 1994 he was awarded the National Medal of Science for his contributions to the field and he is considered a founding father of modern sociology. Merton developed notable concepts such as unintended consequences, the group, and role strain. Mertons work on the model first appeared in a study on the socialization of medical students at Columbia University. The term grew from his theory of the group, the group to which individuals compare themselves. Social roles were central to Mertons theory of social groups, Merton emphasized that, rather than a person assuming one role and one status, they have a status set in the social structure that has, attached to it, a whole set of expected behaviors. Robert K. Merton was born on 4 July 1910 in Philadelphia as Meyer Robert Schkolnick into a family of Yiddish-speaking Russian Jews who had immigrated to the United States in 1904 and his mother was Ida Rasovskaya, an unsynagogued socialist who had freethinking radical sympathies. His father was Aaron Schkolnickoff, a tailor who had officially registered at his United States port of entry as Harrie Skolnick. Mertons family lived in straitened circumstances after his father’s uninsured dairy-product shop in South Philadelphia burned down, the father later became a carpenter’s assistant to support the family. Even though Merton grew up poor, however, he believed that he had been afforded many opportunities. He adopted the name Robert K. Merton initially as a name for his magic performances. Young Merton developed a strong interest in magic, heavily influenced by his sister’s boyfriend, for his magic acts he initially chose the stage name “Merlin”, but he eventually settled on the surname “Merton” in order to further Americanize his immigrant-family name. He picked the given name Robert in honor of the 19th-century French magician Jean Eugène Robert-Houdin, thus his stage name became Robert Merton, and he kept it as his personal name on receiving a scholarship to Temple University. He started his career under the guidance of George E. Simpson at Philadelphias Temple University. Mertons work as Simpsons research assistant on a project dealing with race, under Simpsons leadership, Merton attended an American Sociological Association annual meeting where he met Pitrim A. Sorokin, the founding chair of the Harvard University Sociology Department. Merton applied to Harvard and went to work as an assistant to Sorokin. Many had doubted that Merton would be accepted into Harvard after graduating from Temple, after completing these, Merton went on to graduate from Harvard with an M. A. and Ph. D. in sociology
20.
William Boyd (writer)
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William Boyd, CBE is a Scottish novelist and screenwriter. Boyd was born in Accra, Ghana to Scottish parents, both from Fife, and has two younger sisters. A. in English & Philosophy, and finally Jesus College, Oxford and his father died of a rare disease when Boyd was 26. Between 1980 and 1983 he was a lecturer in English at St Hildas College, Oxford and he was also the New Statesmans television critic between 1981 and 1983. Boyd is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature and an Officier de lOrdre des Arts et des Lettres. He has been presented with honorary Doctorates in Literature from the universities of St. Andrews, Stirling, Glasgow and Dundee and is a fellow of Jesus College. He met his wife Susan, an editor and now a screenwriter. He has a house in Chelsea, London and a farmhouse and he was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire in 2005 for services to literature. In August 2014 Boyd was one of 200 public figures who were signatories to a letter to The Guardian opposing Scottish independence in the run-up to Septembers referendum on that issue, Boyd is a member of the Chelsea Arts Club. Although his novels have been short-listed for major prizes, he has never had the same publicity as his contemporaries, Boyd was selected in 1983 as one of the 20 Best of Young British Novelists in a promotion run by Granta magazine and the Book Marketing Council. Boyd published Waiting for Sunrise, A Novel in early 2012, following Solo in 2013 he published Sweet Caress in 2015, his fourth novel written from a womans viewpoint. On 11 April 2012 it was announced that Boyd was to write the next James Bond novel, the book, Solo, is set in 1969, it was published in the UK by Jonathan Cape in September 2013. Boyd used Bond creator Ian Fleming as a character in his novel Any Human Heart, Fleming recruits the books protagonist, Logan Mountstuart, to naval intelligence during World War Two. Boyd has also worked with three of the actors who have portrayed Bond in the series, Sean Connery, Pierce Brosnan. As a screenwriter Boyd has written a number of feature film and he was one of a number of writers who worked on Chaplin. It caused quite a stir once the truth was revealed, the name Nat Tate is derived from the names of the two leading British art galleries, the National Gallery and the Tate Gallery. Boyd, who paints, made a drawing artwork under the pseudonym of Nat Tate. Nat Tate also appears in Any Human Heart, also by Boyd, Boyd adapted two Anton Chekhov short stories—A Visit to Friends and My Life —to create the play Longing. The play, directed by Nina Raine, stars Jonathan Bailey, Tamsin Greig, Natasha Little, Eve Ponsonby, John Sessions, previews began 28 February 2013, press night was 7 March 2013
21.
Novaya Zemlya
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Administratively, it is incorporated as Novaya Zemlya District, one of the twenty-one in Arkhangelsk Oblast, Russia. Municipally, it is incorporated as Novaya Zemlya Urban Okrug and its population as of the 2010 Census was 2,429, of which 1,972 resided in Belushya Guba, an urban-type settlement that is the administrative center of Novaya Zemlya District. The population in 2002 was 2, 716 , the indigenous population consisted of about 50–300 Nenetses who subsisted mainly on fishing, trapping, reindeer herding, polar bear hunting and seal hunting. Natural resources include copper, lead, and zinc, Novaya Zemlya was a sensitive military area during the Cold War years and it is still used today. The Soviet Air Force maintained a presence at Rogachevo on the part of the island. It was used primarily for aircraft operations but also provided logistical support for the nearby nuclear test area. Novaya Zemlya is an extension of the Northern part of the Ural Mountains, and it is separated from the mainland by the Kara Strait. Novaya Zemlya consists of two islands, separated by the narrow Matochkin Strait, as well as a number of smaller islands. The two main islands are, Severny —which has an ice cap, the Severny Island ice cap. Yuzhny, which is largely unglaciated and has a tundra landscape, the coast of Novaya Zemlya is very indented, and it is the area with the largest number of fjords in the Russian Federation. Novaya Zemlya separates the Barents Sea from the Kara Sea, the total area is about 90,650 square kilometers. The highest mountain is located on the Northern island and is 1,547 meters high, the ecology of Novaya Zemlya is influenced by its severe climate, but the region nevertheless supports a diversity of biota. One of the most notable species present is the polar bear, the Russians knew of Novaya Zemlya from the 11th century, when hunters from Novgorod visited the area. For western Europeans, the search for the Northern Sea Route in the 16th century led to its exploration, the first visit from a west European was by Hugh Willoughby in 1553, and he met Russian ships from the already established hunting trade. Dutch explorer Willem Barentsz reached the west coast of Novaya Zemlya in 1594, during a later voyage by Fyodor Litke in 1821–1824, the west coast was mapped. Henry Hudson was another explorer who passed through Novaya Zemlya while searching for the Northeast Passage, the island was systematically surveyed by Pyotr Pakhtusov and Avgust Tsivolko in the early 1830s. The first permanent settlement was established in 1870 at Malye Karmakuly, later the administrative center was transferred to Belushya Guba, in 1935 to Lagernoe, but then returned to Belushya Guba. Small numbers of Nenets were resettled to Novaya Zemlya in the 1870s in a bid by Russia to keep out the Norwegians and this population, then numbering 298, was removed to the mainland in 1957 before nuclear testing began
22.
Willem Barents
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Willem Barentsz was a Dutch navigator, cartographer, and Arctic explorer. He went on three expeditions to the far north in search for a Northeast passage, during his third expedition, the crew was stranded on Novaya Zemlya for almost a year. Barentsz died on the voyage in 1597. In the 19th century, the Barents Sea was named after him, Willem Barentsz was born around 1550 on the island Terschelling in the Seventeen Provinces, present-day Netherlands. Barentsz was not his surname but rather his name, short for Barentszoon Barents son. A cartographer by trade, Barentsz sailed to Spain and the Mediterranean to complete an atlas of the Mediterranean region, between 23 and 29 June, Barentsz stayed at Kildin Island. On 9 July, the crew encountered a bear for the first time. After shooting it with a musket when it tried to climb aboard the ship, once leashed and brought aboard the ship however, the bear rampaged and had to be killed. This occurred in Bear Creek, Williams Island, upon discovering the Orange Islands, the crew came across a herd of approximately 200 walruses and tried to kill them with hatchets and pikes. Finding the task more difficult than imagined, they left with only a few ivory tusks. Barentsz reached the west coast of Novaya Zemlya, and followed it northward before being forced to back in the face of large icebergs. Although they did not reach their goal, the trip was considered a success. Setting out on 2 June 1595, the voyage went between the Siberian coast and Vaygach Island, on 30 August, the party came across approximately 20 Samoyed wild men with whom they were able to speak, due to a crewmember speaking their language. 4 September saw a crew sent to States Island to search for a type of crystal that had been noticed earlier. The party was attacked by a bear, and two sailors were killed. Eventually, the turned back upon discovering that unexpected weather had left the Kara Sea frozen. This expedition was considered to be a failure. The Town Council of Amsterdam purchased and outfitted two small ships, captained by Jan Rijp and Jacob van Heemskerk, to search for the channel under the command of Barentsz
23.
Bahram V
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Bahram V was the fifteenth Sasanian King of Persia. Also called Bahram Gōr or Bahram Gūr, he was a son of Yazdegerd I, after his fathers assassination, Bahram V gained the crown against the opposition of the grandees by the help of Al-Mundhir I ibn al-Numan, the king of the Lakhmid dynasty. Bahram V began his reign with a persecution of the Christians. His chief mōbed Mihr-Shabūr ordered Christian tombs and gravesites exhumed, among those executed was James Intercisus, which led to a war with the Eastern Romans. In the year 421, the Romans sent their general Ardaburius with an extensive contingent into Armenia, Ardaburius defeated the Persian commander Narseh and proceeded to plunder the province of Arzanene and lay siege to Nisibis. Ardaburius abandoned the siege in the face of an army under Bahram. Peace was then concluded between the Persians and Romans with a return to status quo ante bellum, the situation in Armenia occupied Bahram immediately after the conclusion of peace with Rome. Armenia had been without a king since Bahrams brother Shapur had vacated the country in 418, Bahram now desired that a descendant of the royal line of kings, a scion of the Arshakunis, should be on the throne of Armenia. With this intention in mind, he selected an Arshakuni named Artaxias IV, a son of Vramshapuh, but the newly appointed king did not have a good character. The frustrated nobles petitioned Bahramgur to remove Artaxias IV and admit Armenia into the Persian Empire so that the province would be under the control of the Sassanian Empire. Despite his strong protests, however, Armenia was annexed by Bahram, during the later part of Bahram Vs reign, Persia was invaded from the northeast by Hephthalite hordes who ravaged northern Iran under the command of their leader. They crossed the Elburz into Khorasan and proceeded as far as the ancient town of Rey, unprepared, Bahram initially made an offer of peace and submission which was well received by the Khan of the Hephthalites. But crossing Tabaristan, Hyrcania and Nishapur by night, he took the Huns unawares and massacred them along with their Khan, the retreating Huns were pursued and slaughtered up to the Oxus. One of Bahrams generals followed the Huns deep into Hun territory and his portrait which survived for centuries on the coinage of Bukhara is considered to be an evidence of his victory over the Huns. Bahram V has left behind a rich and colorful legacy, with numerous legends and his fame has survived the downplay of Zoroastrianism and the anti-Iranian measures of the Umayyads and the Mongols, and many of the stories have been incorporated in contemporary Islamic lore. His legacy even survives outside Iran and he is the king who receives the Three Princes of Serendip in the tale that gave rise to the word Serendipity. He is believed to be the inspiration for the legend of Bahramgur prevalent in the Punjab and he is called Bahram Gur, Onager, on account of his love for hunting, and in particular, hunting onagers. The ruins of three of these towers are yet shown by the peasantry, as also the swamp in which Bahram sunk while pursuing his Gur, some have judged Bahram V to have been rather a weak monarch, after the heart of the grandees and the priests
24.
Coincidence
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A coincidence is a remarkable concurrence of events or circumstances which have no apparent causal connection with each other. The perception of remarkable coincidences may lead to supernatural, occult, or it may lead to belief in fatalism, which is a doctrine that events will happen in the exact manner of a predetermined plan. From a statistical perspective, coincidences are inevitable and often less remarkable than they may appear intuitively, an example is the birthday problem, which shows that the probability of two persons having the same birthday already exceeds 50% in a group of only 23 persons. The first known usage of the word is from c.1605 with the exact correspondence in substance or nature from the French coincidence, from coincider. Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung developed a theory which states that remarkable coincidences occur because of what he called synchronicity, one of Kammerers passions was collecting coincidences. He published a book titled Das Gesetz der Serie, which has not been translated into English, in this book he recounted 100 or so anecdotes of coincidences that had led him to formulate his theory of seriality. He postulated that all events are connected by waves of seriality, kammerer was known to make notes in public parks of how many people were passing by, how many of them carried umbrellas, etc. Albert Einstein called the idea of seriality interesting and by no means absurd, Carl Jung drew upon Kammerers work in his book Synchronicity. A coincidence lacks an apparent causal connection, a coincidence may be synchronicity, that being the experience of events which are causally unrelated, and yet their occurrence together has meaning for the person who observes them. To be counted as synchronicity, the events should be unlikely to occur together by chance, some skeptics perceive synchronicity as merely an instance of apophenia. They say that probability and statistics theorems suffice to explain remarkable coincidences, charles Fort compiled hundreds of accounts of interesting coincidences and anomalous phenomena. Measuring the probability of a series of coincidences is the most common method of distinguishing a coincidence from causally connected events, to establish cause and effect is notoriously difficult, as is expressed by the commonly heard statement that correlation does not imply causation. In statistics, it is accepted that observational studies can give hints but can never establish cause. Mathematical coincidence Synchronicity Synchronism The Roots of Coincidence Alignments of random points Ley line Bible code David Marks, fluke, The Maths and Myths of Coincidences, London, Oneworld Publications
25.
Insight
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Insight is the understanding of a specific cause and effect in a specific context. The term was coined by the German psychologist and theoretical linguist Karl Bühler and it is also known as an epiphany. In psychology, insight occurs when a solution to a problem presents itself quickly and it is the sudden discovery of the correct solution following incorrect attempts based on trial and error. Solutions via Insight have been proven to be accurate than non-insight solutions. Insight was first studied by Gestalt Psychology, in the part of the 20th century, during the search for an alternative to associationism. Generally, methodological approaches to the study of insight in the laboratory involve presenting participants with problems, problems of insight commonly fall into three types. The first type of problem forces participants to use objects in a way they are not accustomed to, in the Duncker candle problem, individuals are given matches and a box of tacks and asked to find a way to attach a candle to the wall to light the room. The solution requires the participants to empty the box of tacks, set the candle inside the box, tack the box to the wall, the second type of insight problem requires spatial ability to solve, like the Nine-dot Problem. The famous Nine-dot problem requires participants to draw four lines, through nine dots, the third and final type of problem requires verbal ability to solve, like the Remote Associates Test. In the RAT, individuals must think of a word that three, seemingly unrelated, words. RAT are often used in experiments, because they can be solved both with and without insight, two clusters of problems, those solvable by insight and those not requiring insight to solve, have been observed. An individual’s cognitive flexibility, fluency, and vocabulary ability are predictive of performance on insight problems, in contrast, fluid intelligence is mildly predictive of performance on non-insight problems, but not on insight problems. People in a mood are more likely to solve problems by insight. Research demonstrated that positive affect of participants uniquely increased insight before and during the solving of a problem. People experiencing anxiety showed the effect, and solved fewer problems by insight. Using a geometric and spatial insight problem, it was found that participants with breaks improved their performance as compared to participants who did not receive a break. However, the length of incubation between problems did not matter, thus, participants performance on insight problems improved just as much with a short break as it did with a long break. Research has shown sleep to help produce insight, individuals were initially trained on insight problems
26.
Multiple discovery
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The concept of multiple discovery is the hypothesis that most scientific discoveries and inventions are made independently and more or less simultaneously by multiple scientists and inventors. The concept of multiple discovery opposes a traditional view—the heroic theory of invention, historians and sociologists have remarked on the occurrence, in science, of multiple independent discovery. Robert K. Merton defined such multiples as instances in which similar discoveries are made by working independently of each other. Merton contrasted a multiple with a singleton — a discovery that has been made uniquely by a single scientist or group of working together. As Merton said, Sometimes the discoveries are simultaneous or almost so, sometimes a scientist will make a new discovery which, unknown to him, somebody else has made years before. Commonly cited examples of multiple independent discovery are the 17th-century independent formulation of calculus by Isaac Newton, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz and others, what holds for discoveries, also goes for inventions. Examples are the blast furnace, the crossbow, and magnetism, Multiple independent discovery, however, is not limited to only a few historic instances involving giants of scientific research. Merton believed that it is multiple discoveries, rather than unique ones, Multiple discoveries in the history of science provide evidence for evolutionary models of science and technology, such as memetics, evolutionary epistemology, and cultural selection theory. A recombinant-DNA-inspired paradigm of paradigms has been posited, that describes a mechanism of recombinant conceptualization and this paradigm predicates that a new concept arises through the crossing of pre-existing concepts and facts. This is what is meant when one says that a scientist or artist has been influenced by another—etymologically, not every new concept so formed will be viable, adapting social Darwinist Herbert Spencers phrase, only the fittest concepts survive. Gutenbergs invention of printing substantially facilitated the transition from the Middle Ages to modern times, all these communication developments have catalyzed and accelerated the process of recombinant conceptualization, and thus also of multiple independent discovery. Multiple independent discoveries show an increased incidence beginning in the 17th century and it is the recurrence of patterns that lends a degree of prognostic power—and, thus, additional scientific validity—to the findings of history. Lamb and Easton, and others, have argued that science, discoverers understandably take pleasure in their accomplishments and generally seek to claim primacy to their discoveries. When it transpires that a discovery has multiple originators, they may agree to share the credit or insist on their own exclusive primacy. In 1699, however, a Swiss mathematician suggested to Britains Royal Society that Leibniz had borrowed his calculus from Newton, in 1705 Leibniz, in an anonymous review of Newtons Opticks, implied that Newtons fluxions were an adaptation of Leibnizs calculus. In 1712 the Royal Society appointed a committee to examine the documents in question, the same year and it is now accepted that Newton and Leibniz discovered calculus independently of each other. In another classic case of discovery, the two discoverers showed more civility. The letter summarized Wallaces theory of selection, with conclusions identical to Darwins own
27.
Portuguese language
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Portuguese is a Romance language and the sole official language of Portugal, Brazil, Cape Verde, Guinea-Bissau, Mozambique, Angola, and São Tomé and Príncipe. It also has co-official language status in East Timor, Equatorial Guinea, Portuguese is part of the Ibero-Romance group that evolved from several dialects of Vulgar Latin in the medieval Kingdom of Galicia, and has kept some Celtic phonology. Portuguese is also termed the language of Camões, after Luís Vaz de Camões, one of the greatest literary figures in the Portuguese language and author of the Portuguese epic poem, the museum is the first of its kind in the world. In 2015 the museum was destroyed in a fire, but there are plans to reconstruct it, when the Romans arrived in the Iberian Peninsula in 216 BCE, they brought the Latin language with them, from which all Romance languages descend. Between 409 CE and 711 CE, as the Roman Empire collapsed in Western Europe, Portuguese evolved from the medieval language, known today by linguists as Galician-Portuguese, Old Portuguese or Old Galician, of the northwestern medieval Kingdom of Galicia. It is in Latin administrative documents of the 9th century that written Galician-Portuguese words and this phase is known as Proto-Portuguese, which lasted from the 9th century until the 12th-century independence of the County of Portugal from the Kingdom of León, by then reigning over Galicia. In the first part of the Galician-Portuguese period, the language was used for documents. For some time, it was the language of preference for poetry in Christian Hispania. Portugal became an independent kingdom in 1139, under King Afonso I of Portugal, in the second period of Old Portuguese, in the 15th and 16th centuries, with the Portuguese discoveries, the language was taken to many regions of Africa, Asia and the Americas. The language continued to be popular in parts of Asia until the 19th century, some Portuguese-speaking Christian communities in India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, and Indonesia preserved their language even after they were isolated from Portugal. The end of the Old Portuguese period was marked by the publication of the Cancioneiro Geral by Garcia de Resende, Most literate Portuguese speakers were also literate in Latin, and thus they easily adopted Latin words into their writing—and eventually speech—in Portuguese. Portuguese is the language of the majority of people in Brazil and Portugal, perhaps 75% of the population of Angola speaks Portuguese natively, and 85% are fluent. Just over 40% of the population of Mozambique are native speakers of Portuguese, Portuguese is also spoken natively by 30% of the population in Guinea-Bissau, and a Portuguese-based creole is understood by all. No data is available for Cape Verde, but almost all the population is bilingual, there are also significant Portuguese speaking immigrant communities in many countries including Andorra, Bermuda, Canada, France, Japan, Jersey, Namibia, Paraguay, Macau, Switzerland, Venezuela. In some parts of former Portuguese India, namely Goa and Daman and Diu, in 2014, an estimated 1,500 students were learning Portuguese in Goa. Equatorial Guinea made an application for full membership to the CPLP in June 2010. In 2011, Portuguese became its official language and, in July 2014. Portuguese is a subject in The school curriculum in Uruguay
28.
Dutch language
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It is the third most widely spoken Germanic language, after English and German. Dutch is one of the closest relatives of both German and English and is said to be roughly in between them, Dutch vocabulary is mostly Germanic and incorporates more Romance loans than German but far fewer than English. In both Belgium and the Netherlands, the official name for Dutch is Nederlands, and its dialects have their own names, e. g. Hollands, West-Vlaams. The use of the word Vlaams to describe Standard Dutch for the variations prevalent in Flanders and used there, however, is common in the Netherlands, the Dutch language has been known under a variety of names. It derived from the Old Germanic word theudisk, one of the first names used for the non-Romance languages of Western Europe. It literarily means the language of the people, that is. The term was used as opposed to Latin, the language of writing. In the first text in which it is found, dating from 784, later, theudisca appeared also in the Oaths of Strasbourg to refer to the Germanic portion of the oath. This led inevitably to confusion since similar terms referred to different languages, owing to Dutch commercial and colonial rivalry in the 16th and 17th centuries, the English term came to refer exclusively to the Dutch. A notable exception is Pennsylvania Dutch, which is a West Central German variety called Deitsch by its speakers, Jersey Dutch, on the other hand, as spoken until the 1950s in New Jersey, is a Dutch-based creole. In Dutch itself, Diets went out of common use - although Platdiets is still used for the transitional Limburgish-Ripuarian Low Dietsch dialects in northeast Belgium, Nederlands, the official Dutch word for Dutch, did not become firmly established until the 19th century. This designation had been in use as far back as the end of the 15th century, one of them was it reflected a distinction with Hoogduits, High Dutch, meaning the language spoken in Germany. The Hoog was later dropped, and thus, Duits narrowed down in meaning to refer to the German language. g, in English, too, Netherlandic is regarded as a more accurate term for the Dutch language, but is hardly ever used. Old Dutch branched off more or less around the same time Old English, Old High German, Old Frisian and Old Saxon did. During that period, it forced Old Frisian back from the western coast to the north of the Low Countries, on the other hand, Dutch has been replaced in adjacent lands in nowadays France and Germany. The division in Old, Middle and Modern Dutch is mostly conventional, one of the few moments linguists can detect somewhat of a revolution is when the Dutch standard language emerged and quickly established itself. This is assumed to have taken place in approximately the mid-first millennium BCE in the pre-Roman Northern European Iron Age, the Germanic languages are traditionally divided into three groups, East, West, and North Germanic. They remained mutually intelligible throughout the Migration Period, Dutch is part of the West Germanic group, which also includes English, Scots, Frisian, Low German and High German
29.
Swedish language
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Swedish is a North Germanic language, spoken natively by more than 9 million people predominantly in Sweden and parts of Finland, where it has equal legal standing with Finnish. It is largely mutually intelligible with Norwegian and Danish, along with the other North Germanic languages, Swedish is a descendant of Old Norse, the common language of the Germanic peoples living in Scandinavia during the Viking Era. It is currently the largest of the North Germanic languages by number of speakers, Standard Swedish, spoken by most Swedes, is the national language that evolved from the Central Swedish dialects in the 19th century and was well established by the beginning of the 20th century. While distinct regional varieties descended from the rural dialects still exist. The standard word order is, as in most Germanic languages, V2, Swedish morphology is similar to English, that is, words have comparatively few inflections. There are two genders, no cases, and a distinction between plural and singular. Older analyses posit the cases nominative and genitive and there are remains of distinct accusative and dative forms as well. Adjectives are compared as in English, and are inflected according to gender, number. The definiteness of nouns is marked primarily through suffixes, complemented with separate definite and indefinite articles, the prosody features both stress and in most dialects tonal qualities. The language has a large vowel inventory. Swedish is also notable for the voiceless velar fricative, a highly variable consonant phoneme. Swedish is an Indo-European language belonging to the North Germanic branch of the Germanic languages, by many general criteria of mutual intelligibility, the Continental Scandinavian languages could very well be considered dialects of a common Scandinavian language. In the 8th century, the common Germanic language of Scandinavia, Proto-Norse, had some changes. This language began to undergo new changes that did not spread to all of Scandinavia, the dialects of Old East Norse that were spoken in Sweden are called Runic Swedish while the dialects of Denmark are referred to as Runic Danish. The dialects are described as runic because the body of text appears in the runic alphabet. Unlike Proto-Norse, which was written with the Elder Futhark alphabet, Old Norse was written with the Younger Futhark alphabet, from 1200 onwards, the dialects in Denmark began to diverge from those of Sweden. An early change that separated Runic Danish from the dialects of Old East Norse was the change of the diphthong æi to the monophthong é. This is reflected in runic inscriptions where the older read stain, there was also a change of au as in dauðr into a long open ø as in døðr dead
30.
Danish language
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There are also minor Danish-speaking communities in Norway, Sweden, Spain, the United States, Canada, Brazil and Argentina. Due to immigration and language shift in urban areas, around 15–20% of the population of Greenland speak Danish as their home language. Along with the other North Germanic languages, Danish is a descendant of Old Norse, until the 16th century, Danish was a continuum of dialects spoken from Schleswig to Scania with no standard variety or spelling conventions. With the Protestant Reformation and the introduction of printing, a language was developed which was based on the educated Copenhagen dialect. It spread through use in the system and administration though German. Today, traditional Danish dialects have all but disappeared, though there are variants of the standard language. The main differences in language are between generations, with youth language being particularly innovative, Danish has a very large vowel inventory comprising 27 phonemically distinctive vowels, and its prosody is characterized by the distinctive phenomenon stød, a kind of laryngeal phonation type. The grammar is moderately inflective with strong and weak conjugations and inflections, nouns and demonstrative pronouns distinguish common and neutral gender. As in English, Danish only has remnants of a case system, particularly in the pronouns. Its syntax is V2, with the verb always occupying the second slot in the sentence. Danish is a Germanic language of the North Germanic branch, other names for this group are the Nordic or Scandinavian languages. Along with Swedish, Danish descends from the Eastern dialects of the Old Norse language, Scandinavian languages are often considered a dialect continuum, where there are no sharp dividing lines between the different vernacular languages. Like Norwegian and Swedish, Danish was significantly influenced by Low German in the Middle Ages, Danish itself can be divided into three main dialect areas, West Danish, Insular Danish, and East Danish. Danish is largely mutually intelligible with Norwegian and Swedish, both Swedes and Danes also understand Norwegian better than they understand each others languages. By the 8th century, the common Germanic language of Scandinavia, Proto-Norse, had some changes. This language was called the Danish tongue, or Norse language. Norse was written in the alphabet, first with the elder futhark. From the 7th century the common Norse language began to undergo changes that did not spread to all of Scandinavia, most of the changes separating East Norse from West Norse started as innovations in Denmark, that spread through Scania into Sweden and by maritime contact to southern Norway
31.
Norwegian language
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Norwegian is a North Germanic language spoken mainly in Norway, where it is the official language. Along with Swedish and Danish, Norwegian forms a continuum of more or less mutually intelligible local and regional variants. These Scandinavian languages, together with Faroese and Icelandic as well as extinct languages. Faroese and Icelandic are hardly mutually intelligible with Norwegian in their spoken form because continental Scandinavian has diverged from them, as established by law and governmental policy, the two official forms of written Norwegian are Bokmål and Nynorsk. The official Norwegian Language Council is responsible for regulating the two forms, and recommends the terms Norwegian Bokmål and Norwegian Nynorsk in English. Two other written forms without official status also exist, one and it is regulated by the unofficial Norwegian Academy, which translates the name as Standard Norwegian. Nynorsk and Bokmål provide standards for how to write Norwegian, no standard of spoken Norwegian is officially sanctioned, and most Norwegians speak their own dialects in all circumstances. Thus, unlike in other countries, the use of any Norwegian dialect. Outside Eastern Norway, this variation is not used. From the 16th to the 19th centuries, Danish was the written language of Norway. As a result, the development of modern written Norwegian has been subject to strong controversy related to nationalism, rural versus urban discourse, historically, Bokmål is a Norwegianised variety of Danish, while Nynorsk is a language form based on Norwegian dialects and puristic opposition to Danish. The unofficial form known as Riksmål is considered more conservative than Bokmål, Norwegians are educated in both Bokmål and Nynorsk. A2005 poll indicates that 86. 3% use primarily Bokmål as their written language,5. 5% use both Bokmål and Nynorsk, and 7. 5% use primarily Nynorsk. Thus, 13% are frequently writing Nynorsk, though the majority speak dialects that resemble Nynorsk more closely than Bokmål. Broadly speaking, Nynorsk writing is widespread in western Norway, though not in major urban areas, examples are Setesdal, the western part of Telemark county and several municipalities in Hallingdal, Valdres, and Gudbrandsdalen. It is little used elsewhere, but 30–40 years ago, it also had strongholds in rural parts of Trøndelag. Today, not only is Nynorsk the official language of four of the 19 Norwegian counties, NRK, the Norwegian broadcasting corporation, broadcasts in both Bokmål and Nynorsk, and all governmental agencies are required to support both written languages. Bokmål is used in 92% of all publications, and Nynorsk in 8%
32.
Romanian language
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Romanian is a Romance language spoken by around 24 million people as a native language, primarily in Romania and Moldova, and by another 4 million people as a second language. It has official status in Romania and the Republic of Moldova and it is one of the official languages of the European Union and the Latin Union. Romanian is a part of the Balkan-Romance group that evolved from several dialects of Vulgar Latin separated from the Western Romance during the 5th–8th centuries. To distinguish it within that group in comparative linguistics it is called Daco-Romanian as opposed to its closest relatives, Aromanian, Megleno-Romanian, and Istro-Romanian. Eastern Romance languages, like the branches of Romance languages, descend from Vulgar Latin. These vestiges of military usage are unique to Romanian in its language family. s. o, sat village, șes plain, a supune, tindă veranda, țară homeland a. s. o. This linguistic evidence challenges the Roeslerian theory, the vestiges from sermo castrensis particularize the Romanian language in the neolatin area, together with its isolated history. e. With Rom. māgurā and Alb. magulë etc, the Roman Empire withdrew from Dacia in 271–272 AD, leaving it to the Goths. The history of Eastern Romance between the 3rd century and the development of Proto-Romanian by the 10th century, when the area came under the influence of the Byzantine Empire, is unknown. It is a matter of debate whether Proto-Romanian developed among Romanized people who were left behind in Dacia by the Roman withdrawal or among Latin-speakers in the Balkans south of the Danube, during the Middle Ages, Romanian became influenced by the Slavic languages and to some degree by Greek. Romanian remains unattested throughout the Middle Ages, and only enters the record in the early 16th century. The use of the denomination Romanian for our language and use of the demonym Romanians for speakers of this language predates the foundation of the modern Romanian state. In 1534, Tranquillo Andronico notes, Valachi nunc se Romanos vocant, francesco della Valle writes in 1532 that Romanians are calling themselves Romans in their own language, and he subsequently quotes the expression, Știi Românește. After travelling through Wallachia, Moldavia and Transylvania Ferrante Capecci accounts in 1575 that the population of these regions call themselves românești. Pierre Lescalopier writes in 1574 that those who live in Moldavia, Wallachia, the Transylvanian Saxon Johann Lebel writes in 1542 that Vlachi se numeau între ei Romuini and the Polish chronicler Stanislaw Orzechowski notes in 1554 that în limba lor walachii se numesc romini. In Palia de la Orăștie stands written «, că văzum cum toate limbile au și înfluresc întru cuvintele slăvite a lui Dumnezeu numai noi românii pre limbă nu avem. și le-au dăruit voo fraților români. », nevertheless, the oldest extant document written in Romanian remains Neacșus letter and was written using Cyrillic letters. There are no records of any documents written in Romanian from before 1521
33.
Finnish language
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Finnish is the language spoken by the majority of the population in Finland and by ethnic Finns outside Finland. It is one of the two languages of Finland and an official minority language in Sweden. In Sweden, both standard Finnish and Meänkieli, a Finnish dialect, are spoken, the Kven language, a dialect of Finnish, is spoken in Northern Norway by a minority group of Finnish descent. Finnish is the member of the Finnic language family and is typologically between fusional and agglutinative languages. It modifies and inflects nouns, adjectives, pronouns, numerals and verbs, Finnish is a member of the Finnic group of the Uralic family of languages. The Finnic group also includes Estonian and a few minority languages spoken around the Baltic Sea, several theories exist as to the geographic origin of Finnish and the other Uralic languages. The most widely held view is that they originated as a Proto-Uralic language somewhere in the boreal forest belt around the Ural Mountains region and/or the bend of the middle Volga. The Finns are more similar to their Indo-European-speaking neighbours than to the speakers of the geographically close Uralic language Sami. It has been argued that a native Finnic-speaking population absorbed northward migrating Indo-European speakers who adopted the Finnic language, the Defense Language Institute in Monterey, California, United States classifies Finnish as a level III language in terms of learning difficulty for native English speakers. Finnish is spoken by five million people, most of whom reside in Finland. There are also notable Finnish-speaking minorities in Sweden, Norway, Russia, Estonia, Brazil, Canada, the majority of the population of Finland,90. 37% as of 2010, speak Finnish as their first language. The remainder speak Swedish, Sami and other languages and it has achieved some popularity as a second language in Estonia. Finnish is one of two languages of Finland and one of the official languages in the European Union since 1995. Finnish language started to gain its role during the Grand Duchy of Finland, along with the nationalistic Fennoman movement and it enjoys the status of an official minority language in Sweden. The Finnic languages evolved from the Proto-Finnic language after Sámi was separated from it around 1500–1000 BCE, current models assume three or more hypothetical Proto-Finnic proto-dialects evolving over the first millennium BCE. During the Middle Ages, Finnish was solely an oral language, the first known written example of Finnish comes from this era and was found in a German travel journal dating back to c.1450, Mÿnna tachton gernast spuho somen gelen emÿna daÿda. According to the journal, a Finnish bishop, whose name is unknown, was behind the above quotation. Finnish priestdom at the time was largely Swedish-speaking, the first comprehensive writing system for Finnish was created by Mikael Agricola, a Finnish bishop, in the 16th century
34.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
35.
Harvard Business Review
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The Harvard Business Review is a general management magazine published by Harvard Business Publishing, a wholly owned subsidiary of Harvard University. It is published 6 times a year and is headquartered in Brighton, HBRs articles cover a wide range of topics that are relevant to various industries, management functions, and geographic locations. These focus on areas including leadership, organizational change, negotiation, strategy, operations, marketing, finance, prahalad, Vijay Govindarajan, Robert S. Kaplan, Rita Gunther McGrath and others. Harvard Business Reviews worldwide English-language circulation is 250,000, HBR licenses its content for publication in thirteen languages besides English, Arabic, Chinese, French, German, Hebrew, Hungarian, Italian, Japanese, Polish, Portuguese, Russian, Spanish, Taiwanese. Harvard Business Reviews mission is to improve the practice of management in a changing world, Harvard Business Review began in 1922 as a magazine for Harvard Business School. Founded under the auspices of Dean Wallace Donham, HBR was meant to be more than just a school publication. The paper is intended to be the highest type of business journal that we can make it, and for use by the student and it is not a school paper, Donham wrote. Initially, HBRs focus was on macroeconomic trends, as well as on important developments within specific industries, following World War II, HBR emphasized the cutting-edge management techniques that were developed in large corporations, like General Motors, during that time period. Over the next three decades, the continued to refine its focus on general management issues that affect business leaders. Prominent articles published during this period include, Marketing Myopia by Theodore Levitt and Barriers and Gateways to Communication by Carl R. Rogers, in the 1980s, Theodore Levitt became the editor of Harvard Business Review and changed the magazine to make it more accessible to general audiences. Articles were shortened and the scope of the magazine was expanded to include a range of topics. In 1994, Harvard Business School formed Harvard Business Publishing as an independent entity, in 2009, HBR brought on Adi Ignatius, the former deputy managing editor of Time magazine, to be its editor-in-chief. Ignatius oversees all operations for Harvard Business Review Group. At the time that Ignatius was hired, the U. S. was going through an economic recession, the world was desperate for new approaches. Business-as-usual was not a response, Ignatius has recalled. As a result, Ignatius re-aligned HBRs focus and goals to make sure that it delivers information in the zeitgeist that our readers are living in. Since 1959, the magazines annual McKinsey Award has recognized the two most significant Harvard Business Review articles published each year, as determined by a group of independent judges. Past winners have included Peter F. Drucker, who was honored seven times, Clayton M. Christensen, Theodore Levitt, Michael Porter, Rosabeth Moss Kanter, John Hagel III, and C. K
