1.
Zhytomyr
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Zhytomyr is a city in the north of the western half of Ukraine. It is the center of Zhytomyr Oblast, as well as the administrative center of the surrounding Zhytomyr Raion. Zhytomyr occupies an area of 65 square kilometres, Zhytomyr is a major transportation hub. The city lies on a route linking the city of Kiev with the west through Brest. Today it links Warsaw with Kiev, Minsk with Izmail, Zhytomyr was also the location of Ozerne airbase, a key Cold War strategic aircraft base located 11 kilometres southeast of the city. Important economic activities of Zhytomyr include lumber milling, food processing, granite quarrying, metalworking, and the manufacture of musical instruments. Zhytomyr Oblast is the center of the Polish minority in Ukraine. It is regarded as the third biggest Polish cemetery outside Poland, after the Lychakivskiy Cemetery in Lviv, legend holds that Zhytomyr was established about 884 by Zhytomyr, prince of a Slavic tribe of Drevlians. This date,884, is cut in the stone of the ice age times. Zhytomyr was one of the prominent cities of Kievan Rus, the first records of the town date from 1240, when it was sacked by the Mongol hordes of Batu Khan. In 1320 Zhytomyr was captured by the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, after the Union of Lublin the city was incorporated into the Crown of the Polish Kingdom and in 1667, following the Treaty of Andrusovo, it became the capital of the Kiev Voivodeship. In the Second Partition of Poland in 1793 it passed to Imperial Russia, following the Union of Lublin, Zhytomyr became an important center of local administration, seat of the starosta, and capital of Żytomierz County. Here, sejmiks of Kiev Voivodeship took place, in 1572, the town had 142 buildings, a manor house of the starosta and a castle. Following the privilege of King Sigismund III Vasa, Zhytomyr had the right for two fairs a year, the town, which enjoyed royal protection of Polish kings, prospered until the Khmelnytsky Uprising, when it was captured by Zaporozhian Cossacks and their allies, Crimean Tatars. Its residents were murdered, Zhytomyr was burned to the ground, in 1667, Zhytomyr became capital of Kiev Voivodeship, and in 1724, a Jesuit school and monastery were opened here. By 1765, Zhytomyr had five churches, including 3 Roman Catholic and 2 Orthodox, in 1793 Zhytomyr was annexed by the Russian Empire, and in 1804 was named capital of the Volhynian Governorate. In 1798, a Roman Catholic Diocese of Zhytomyr was established, during the January Uprising, the town was a stronghold of Polish rebels. During a brief period of Ukrainian independence in 1918 the city was for a few weeks the national capital, nicolas Werth claims that armed units of the Ukrainian Peoples Republic were also responsible for rapes, looting, and massacres in Zhytomyr, in which 500–700 Jews lost their lives
2.
Russian Empire
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The Russian Empire was a state that existed from 1721 until it was overthrown by the short-lived February Revolution in 1917. One of the largest empires in history, stretching over three continents, the Russian Empire was surpassed in landmass only by the British and Mongol empires. The rise of the Russian Empire happened in association with the decline of neighboring powers, the Swedish Empire, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Persia. It played a role in 1812–14 in defeating Napoleons ambitions to control Europe. The House of Romanov ruled the Russian Empire from 1721 until 1762, and its German-descended cadet branch, with 125.6 million subjects registered by the 1897 census, it had the third-largest population in the world at the time, after Qing China and India. Like all empires, it included a large disparity in terms of economics, ethnicity, there were numerous dissident elements, who launched numerous rebellions and assassination attempts, they were closely watched by the secret police, with thousands exiled to Siberia. Economically, the empire had an agricultural base, with low productivity on large estates worked by serfs. The economy slowly industrialized with the help of foreign investments in railways, the land was ruled by a nobility from the 10th through the 17th centuries, and subsequently by an emperor. Tsar Ivan III laid the groundwork for the empire that later emerged and he tripled the territory of his state, ended the dominance of the Golden Horde, renovated the Moscow Kremlin, and laid the foundations of the Russian state. Tsar Peter the Great fought numerous wars and expanded an already huge empire into a major European power, Catherine the Great presided over a golden age. She expanded the state by conquest, colonization and diplomacy, continuing Peter the Greats policy of modernisation along West European lines, Tsar Alexander II promoted numerous reforms, most dramatically the emancipation of all 23 million serfs in 1861. His policy in Eastern Europe involved protecting the Orthodox Christians under the rule of the Ottoman Empire and that connection by 1914 led to Russias entry into the First World War on the side of France, Britain, and Serbia, against the German, Austrian and Ottoman empires. The Russian Empire functioned as a monarchy until the Revolution of 1905. The empire collapsed during the February Revolution of 1917, largely as a result of failures in its participation in the First World War. Perhaps the latter was done to make Europe recognize Russia as more of a European country, Poland was divided in the 1790-1815 era, with much of the land and population going to Russia. Most of the 19th century growth came from adding territory in Asia, Peter I the Great introduced autocracy in Russia and played a major role in introducing his country to the European state system. However, this vast land had a population of 14 million, grain yields trailed behind those of agriculture in the West, compelling nearly the entire population to farm. Only a small percentage lived in towns, the class of kholops, close to the one of slavery, remained a major institution in Russia until 1723, when Peter I converted household kholops into house serfs, thus including them in poll taxation
3.
Moscow Kremlin
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It is the best known of the kremlins and includes five palaces, four cathedrals, and the enclosing Kremlin Wall with Kremlin towers. Also within this complex is the Grand Kremlin Palace, the complex serves as the official residence of the President of the Russian Federation. It had previously used to refer to the government of the Soviet Union. Kremlinology refers to the study of Soviet and Russian politics, the site has been continuously inhabited by Finno-Ugric peoples since the 2nd century BC. Vyatichi built a structure on the hill where the Neglinnaya River flowed into the Moskva River. Up to the 14th century, the site was known as the grad of Moscow, the word Kremlin was first recorded in 1331. The grad was greatly extended by Prince Yuri Dolgorukiy in 1156, destroyed by the Mongols in 1237, dmitri Donskoi replaced the oak walls with a strong citadel of white limestone in 1366–1368 on the basic foundations of the current walls, this fortification withstood a siege by Khan Tokhtamysh. Dmitris son Vasily I resumed construction of churches and cloisters in the Kremlin, the newly built Annunciation Cathedral was painted by Theophanes the Greek, Andrei Rublev, and Prokhor in 1406. The Chudov Monastery was founded by Dmitris tutor, Metropolitan Alexis, while his widow, Eudoxia and it was during his reign that three extant cathedrals of the Kremlin, the Deposition Church, and the Palace of Facets were constructed. The highest building of the city and Muscovite Russia was the Ivan the Great Bell Tower, built in 1505–08, the Kremlin walls as they now appear were built between 1485 and 1495. Spasskie gates of the wall bear a dedication in Latin praising Petrus Antonius Solarius for the design. After construction of the new walls and churches was complete. The Kremlin was separated from the merchant town by a 30-meter-wide moat. The same tsar also renovated some of his grandfathers palaces, added a new palace and cathedral for his sons, and endowed the Trinity metochion inside the Kremlin. The metochion was administrated by the Trinity Monastery and boasted the graceful tower church of St. Sergius, during the Time of Troubles, the Kremlin was held by the Polish forces for two years, between 21 September 1610 and 26 October 1612. The Kremlins liberation by the army of prince Dmitry Pozharsky. During his reign and that of his son Alexis, the eleven-domed Upper Saviour Cathedral, Armorial Gate, Terem Palace, Amusement Palace, following the death of Alexis, the Kremlin witnessed the Moscow Uprising of 1682, from which czar Peter barely escaped. As a result, both of them disliked the Kremlin, three decades later, Peter abandoned the residence of his forefathers for his new capital, Saint Petersburg
4.
Moscow
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Moscow is the capital and most populous city of Russia, with 13.2 million residents within the city limits and 17.8 million within the urban area. Moscow has the status of a Russian federal city, Moscow is a major political, economic, cultural, and scientific center of Russia and Eastern Europe, as well as the largest city entirely on the European continent. Moscow is the northernmost and coldest megacity and metropolis on Earth and it is home to the Ostankino Tower, the tallest free standing structure in Europe, the Federation Tower, the tallest skyscraper in Europe, and the Moscow International Business Center. Moscow is situated on the Moskva River in the Central Federal District of European Russia, the city is well known for its architecture, particularly its historic buildings such as Saint Basils Cathedral with its brightly colored domes. Moscow is the seat of power of the Government of Russia, being the site of the Moscow Kremlin, the Moscow Kremlin and Red Square are also one of several World Heritage Sites in the city. Both chambers of the Russian parliament also sit in the city and it is recognized as one of the citys landmarks due to the rich architecture of its 200 stations. In old Russian the word also meant a church administrative district. The demonym for a Moscow resident is москвич for male or москвичка for female, the name of the city is thought to be derived from the name of the Moskva River. There have been proposed several theories of the origin of the name of the river and its cognates include Russian, музга, muzga pool, puddle, Lithuanian, mazgoti and Latvian, mazgāt to wash, Sanskrit, majjati to drown, Latin, mergō to dip, immerse. There exist as well similar place names in Poland like Mozgawa, the original Old Russian form of the name is reconstructed as *Москы, *Mosky, hence it was one of a few Slavic ū-stem nouns. From the latter forms came the modern Russian name Москва, Moskva, in a similar manner the Latin name Moscovia has been formed, later it became a colloquial name for Russia used in Western Europe in the 16th–17th centuries. From it as well came English Muscovy, various other theories, having little or no scientific ground, are now largely rejected by contemporary linguists. The surface similarity of the name Russia with Rosh, an obscure biblical tribe or country, the oldest evidence of humans on the territory of Moscow dates from the Neolithic. Within the modern bounds of the city other late evidence was discovered, on the territory of the Kremlin, Sparrow Hills, Setun River and Kuntsevskiy forest park, etc. The earliest East Slavic tribes recorded as having expanded to the upper Volga in the 9th to 10th centuries are the Vyatichi and Krivichi, the Moskva River was incorporated as part of Rostov-Suzdal into the Kievan Rus in the 11th century. By AD1100, a settlement had appeared on the mouth of the Neglinnaya River. The first known reference to Moscow dates from 1147 as a place of Yuri Dolgoruky. At the time it was a town on the western border of Vladimir-Suzdal Principality
5.
Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic
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The Republic comprised sixteen autonomous republics, five autonomous oblasts, ten autonomous okrugs, six krais, and forty oblasts. Russians formed the largest ethnic group, the capital of the Russian SFSR was Moscow and the other major urban centers included Leningrad, Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg, Nizhny Novgorod and Samara. The Russian Soviet Republic was proclaimed on November 7,1917 as a sovereign state, the first Constitution was adopted in 1918. In 1922 the Russian SFSR signed the Treaty on the Creation of the USSR, the economy of Russia became heavily industrialized, accounting for about two-thirds of the electricity produced in the USSR. It was, by 1961, the third largest producer of petroleum due to new discoveries in the Volga-Urals region and Siberia, trailing only the United States and Saudi Arabia. In 1974, there were 475 institutes of education in the republic providing education in 47 languages to some 23,941,000 students. A network of territorially organized public-health services provided health care, the effects of market policies led to the failure of many enterprises and total instability by 1990. On June 12,1990, the Congress of Peoples Deputies adopted the Declaration of State Sovereignty, on June 12,1991, Boris Yeltsin was elected the first President. On December 8,1991, heads of Russia, Ukraine, the agreement declared dissolution of the USSR by its founder states and established the Commonwealth of Independent States. On December 12, the agreement was ratified by the Russian Parliament, therefore Russian SFSR denounced the Treaty on the Creation of the USSR and de facto declared Russias independence from the USSR. On December 25,1991, following the resignation of Mikhail Gorbachev as president of the Soviet Union, on December 26,1991, the USSR was self-dissolved by the Soviet of Nationalities, which by that time was the only functioning house of the Supreme Soviet. After dissolution of the USSR, Russia declared that it assumed the rights and obligations of the dissolved central Soviet government, the new Russian constitution, adopted on December 12,1993 after a constitutional crisis, abolished the Soviet system of government in its entirety. Initially, the state did not have a name and wasnt recognized by neighboring countries for five months. Meanwhile, anti-Bolsheviks coined the mocking label Sovdepia for the nascent state of the Soviets of Workers, on January 25,1918 the third meeting of the All-Russian Congress of Soviets renamed the unrecognized state the Soviet Russian Republic. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was signed on March 3,1918, on July 10,1918, the Russian Constitution of 1918 renamed the country the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic. By 1918, during the Russian Civil War, several states within the former Russian Empire seceded, internationally, in 1920, the RSFSR was recognized as an independent state only by Estonia, Finland, Latvia and Lithuania in the Treaty of Tartu and by the short-lived Irish Republic. On December 30,1922, with the creation of the Soviet Union, the final Soviet name for the republic, the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, was adopted in the Soviet Constitution of 1936. By that time, Soviet Russia had gained roughly the same borders of the old Tsardom of Russia before the Great Northern War of 1700
6.
Soviet Union
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The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
7.
Soviet space program
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The Soviet space program comprised the rocketry and space exploration programs conducted by the former Soviet Union from the 1930s until its dissolution in 1991. Sergey Korolev was the head of the design group, his official title was chief designer. Because of the programs classified status, and for value, announcements of the outcomes of missions were delayed until success was certain. Ultimately, as a result of Mikhail Gorbachevs policy of glasnost in the 1980s, with the collapse of the Soviet Union, Russia and Ukraine inherited the program. Russia created the Russian Aviation and Space Agency, now known as the Roscosmos State Corporation, on August 18,1933, GIRD launched the first Soviet liquid-fueled rocket Gird-09, and on November 25,1933, the first hybrid-fueled rocket GIRD-X. In 1940-41 another advance in the reactive propulsion field took place, during the 1930s Soviet rocket technology was comparable to Germanys, but Joseph Stalins Great Purge severely damaged its progress. Many leading engineers were killed, and Korolev and others were imprisoned in the Gulag, under the direction of Dimitri Ustinov, Korolev and others inspected the drawings. Korolevs OKB-1 design bureau was dedicated to the liquid-fueled cryogenic rockets he had been experimenting with in the late 1930s, ultimately, this work resulted in the design of the R-7 Semyorka intercontinental ballistic missile which was successfully tested in August 1957. The Soviet space program was tied to the USSRs Five-Year Plans, nonetheless, the first Soviet rocket with animals aboard launched in July 1951, the two dogs were recovered alive after reaching 101 km in altitude. Two months ahead of Americas first such achievement, this and subsequent flights gave the Soviets valuable experience with space medicine, Plans were approved for Earth-orbiting satellites to gain knowledge of space, and four unmanned military reconnaissance satellites, Zenit. Further planned developments called for a manned Earth orbit flight by 1964, with closed-loop life support systems and electrical rocket engines, and launched from large orbiting space stations, these plans were much more ambitious than Americas goal of landing on the moon. The Soviet space program was secondary in military funding to the Strategic Rocket Forces ICBMs, missions were planned based on rocket availability or ad hoc reasons, rather than scientific purposes. Korolev planned to move forward with the Soyuz craft and N-1 heavy booster that would be the basis of a permanent manned space station and manned exploration of the Moon. Yangel had been Korolevs assistant but with the support of the military he was given his own bureau in 1954 to work primarily on the military space program. This had the rocket engine design team including the use of hypergolic fuels. He also continued to develop his own heavy booster designs similar to Korolevs N-1 both for applications and for cargo flights into space to build future space stations. Glushko was the rocket engine designer but he had a personal friction with Korolev. Chelomei benefited from the patronage of Khrushchev and in 1960 was given the job of developing a rocket to send a manned craft around the moon
8.
Red Army
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The Workers and Peasants Red Army was the army and the air force of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, and after 1922 the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. The army was established immediately after the 1917 October Revolution, the Bolsheviks raised an army to oppose the military confederations of their adversaries during the Russian Civil War. The Red Army is credited as being the land force in the Allied victory in the European theatre of World War II. During operations on the Eastern Front, it fought 75%–80% of the German land forces deployed in the war, inflicting the vast majority of all German losses and ultimately capturing the German capital. In September 1917, Vladimir Lenin wrote, There is only one way to prevent the restoration of the police, at the time, the Imperial Russian Army had started to collapse. The Tsarist general Nikolay Dukhonin estimated that there had been 2 million deserters,1.8 million dead,5 million wounded and 2 million prisoners and he estimated the remaining troops as numbering 10 million. Therefore, the Council of Peoples Commissars decided to form the Red Army on 28 January 1918 and they envisioned a body formed from the class-conscious and best elements of the working classes. All citizens of the Russian republic aged 18 or older were eligible, in the event of an entire unit wanting to join the Red Army, a collective guarantee and the affirmative vote of all its members would be necessary. Because the Red Army was composed mainly of peasants, the families of those who served were guaranteed rations, some peasants who remained at home yearned to join the Army, men, along with some women, flooded the recruitment centres. If they were turned away they would collect scrap metal and prepare care-packages, in some cases the money they earned would go towards tanks for the Army. Nikolai Krylenko was the supreme commander-in-chief, with Aleksandr Myasnikyan as deputy, Nikolai Podvoisky became the commissar for war, Pavel Dybenko, commissar for the fleet. Proshyan, Samoisky, Steinberg were also specified as peoples commissars as well as Vladimir Bonch-Bruyevich from the Bureau of Commissars, at a joint meeting of Bolsheviks and Left Socialist-Revolutionaries, held on 22 February 1918, Krylenko remarked, We have no army. The Red Guard units are brushed aside like flies and we have no power to stay the enemy, only an immediate signing of the peace treaty will save us from destruction. This provoked the insurrection of General Alexey Maximovich Kaledins Volunteer Army in the River Don region, the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk aggravated Russian internal politics. The situation encouraged direct Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War, a series of engagements resulted, involving, amongst others, the Czechoslovak Legion, the Polish 5th Rifle Division, and the pro-Bolshevik Red Latvian Riflemen. The Whites defeated the Red Army on each front, Leon Trotsky reformed and counterattacked, the Red Army repelled Admiral Kolchaks army in June, and the armies of General Denikin and General Yudenich in October. By mid-November the White armies were all almost completely exhausted, in January 1920, Budennys First Cavalry Army entered Rostov-on-Don. 1919 to 1923 At the wars start, the Red Army consisted of 299 infantry regiments, Civil war intensified after Lenin dissolved the Russian Constituent Assembly and the Soviet government signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, removing Russia from the Great War
9.
Polkovnik
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This article is about the OF-5 rank Polkovnik in mostly Slavophone countries. For the equivalent rank in Anglophone armed forces see Colonel, in Austria, Polkovnik is a military rank in Slavic countries mostly which corresponds to a colonel in English-speaking states, and oberst in several German-speaking and Scandinavian countries. The term originates from an ancient Slavic word for a group of soldiers, however, in Cossack Hetmanate and Slobozhanshchyna, polkovnyk was an administrative rank similar to a governor. Usually this word is translated as colonel, however the transliteration is also in common usage, Polkovnik began as a commander of a distinct group of troops, arranged for battle. The rank of polkovnik was also used in the Estonian army until 1924, the rank was legalized by Table of Ranks that placed it in the 6th grade as the second-top field officer, right under the brigadier. A promotion to the rank of polkovnik gave a privilege of hereditary nobility, the Red Army reintroduced the polkovnik rank in 1935, together with a number of other former Russian ranks, and it has been used in many ex-USSR countries, including Russia, to the present day. The Rank insignia to Polkovnik is as follows, Ranks and rank insignia of the Russian armed forces until 1917 Ranks and rank insignia of the Red Army 1935–1940, 1940–1943 Ranks and rank insignia of the Soviet Army 1943–1955, and. By the end of the 17th century, the title of the assignment became a de facto rank as such and started to denote the commanding officer of the entire regiment. During the rule of Sanacja in the period between World War I and World War II, a number of officers were promoted to the rank. During the Invasion of Poland in 1939, the Polish divisions were commanded by officers of many grades, in fact 22 divisions out of 42 were commanded by colonels in 1939. The pułkownicy also commanded units of all sizes, from divisions down to mere battalions, in the 18th century, a polkovnyk was a leader of a palanka, a territorial unit of the Zaporozhian Host. The military council elected a palanka polkovnyk to serve for a term of one year and he represented the Kosh Otaman in the palanka and had significant powers, including the right to condemn Cossacks to the death penalty. At the time of liquidation of the Zaporozhian Host by the Russian government in 1775, as symbol of office a polkovnyk wore a pernach in his belt. In the Registered Cossack Army of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the 16th and 17th centuries, a polkovnyk commanded a regiment, after the reform of the Cossack army by hetman Mykhailo Doroshenko in the 1620s there were six Cossack regiments, each comprising one thousand Cossacks. Polkovnyks were elected by the Cossack Council subject to the approval of the Polish government, a polkovnyk obtained a salary for his service, and enjoyed considerable privileges. After the Sejm of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth adopted the Ordination of 1638, during Khmelnytsky Uprising and in the Cossack Hetmanate, a polkovnyk headed a territorial administrative unit, the regiment. In modern Ukraine, the rank of polkovnyk resembles the similar rank of the former Soviet Army. Історія України в особах, термінах, назвах і поняттях. -Луцьк, Вежа,2000
10.
Soviet crewed lunar programs
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The Proton-based Zond program was canceled in 1970, and the N1 / L3 program was terminated de facto in 1974 and officially canceled in 1976. Details of both Soviet programs were kept secret until 1990 when the government allowed them to be published under the policy of glasnost. As early as 1961, the Soviet leadership had made public pronouncements about landing a man on the Moon and establishing a lunar base, sergei Korolev, the senior Soviet rocket engineer, was more interested in launching a heavy orbital station and in manned flights to Mars and Venus. With this in mind, Korolev began the development of the super-heavy N-1 rocket with a 75-ton payload, the components would then be delivered by the proven middle R-7 rocket. After developing the N1, beginning in 1963, Korolev began to plan a Moon landing mission using two launches and docking, later Korolev managed to increase the payload of the N1 to 92-93 tons, providing enough power to accomplish the mission with a single launch. Another main space design bureau headed by Vladimir Chelomei proposed a competing cislunar orbiting mission using a heavy UR-500K rocket, later, Chelomei also proposed a Moon landing program with a super-heavy UR-700 rocket and a LK-700 spacecraft. The Soviet government issued a response to the American Apollo challenge after three years, Korolev organized full scale development of both programs, but died after surgery in January 1966. According to a government decree of February 1967, the first manned flyby was scheduled for mid-1967, korolevs death, along with various technical and administrative reasons, as well as a lack of financial support, resulted in both programs being delayed. One group was commanded by Vladimir Komarov and included Yuri Gagarin, and was to prepare for qualification flights of the Soyuz in Earth orbit, Komarov later died in the Soyuz 1 spaceflight when his parachute malfunctioned causing his capsule to smash into the earth at high speed. The second group was led by Alexei Leonov and concentrated on the landing mission, as a result, Leonov has the strongest claim to have been the Soviets first choice for the first man on the Moon. After Komarovs death in Soyuz 1 in 1967, Gagarin was taken out of training, a total of 18 missions were related to the N1-L3 project. Launched by a 3-staged Proton rocket, the L1 was a spacecraft from the Soyuz family, planned for 8 December 1968 for priority over the US, a first manned mission of the L1 was canceled due to the insufficient readiness of the capsule and rocket. After Apollo 8 won the first phase of the Moon Race at the end of 1968, a few reserve units of L1 made unpiloted flights, but by the end of 1970, this program was canceled. The manned landing plan adopted a method to the single launch. The Lunokhods were also equipped with controls for the cosmonauts. The N1 rocket would carry the L3 Moon expedition complex. A variant of the Soyuz craft, the Lunniy Orbitalny Korabl command ship, the 7K-OK was half the mass of the three-man Apollo orbital command ship. The Lunniy Korabl accommodated only one cosmonaut, so in the Soviet plan, the mass of the LK was 40% of the mass of the Apollo lunar lander
11.
Luna programme
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The Luna programme, occasionally called Lunik or Lunnik by western media, was a series of robotic spacecraft missions sent to the Moon by the Soviet Union between 1959 and 1976. Fifteen were successful, each designed as either an orbiter or lander and they also performed many experiments, studying the Moons chemical composition, gravity, temperature, and radiation. Twenty-four spacecraft were formally given the Luna designation, although more were launched and those that failed to reach orbit were not publicly acknowledged at the time, and not assigned a Luna number. Those that failed in low Earth orbit were usually given Cosmos designations, the estimated cost of the Luna programme was about $4.5 billion. Luna 1 missed its intended impact with the Moon and became the first spacecraft to fall into orbit around the Sun, Luna 2 mission successfully hit the Moons surface, becoming the first man-made object to reach the Moon. Luna 3 rounded the Moon later that year, and returned the first photographs of its far side, Luna 9 became the first probe to achieve a soft landing on another planetary body. It returned five black and white stereoscopic circular panoramas, which were the first close-up shots of the Lunar surface, Luna 10 became the first artificial satellite of the Moon. Luna 17 and Luna 21 carried the Lunokhod vehicles, which roamed around on the Moons terrain, another major achievement of the Luna programme, with Luna 16, Luna 20 and Luna 24, was the ability to collect samples of lunar soil and return them to Earth. The programme returned 0.326 kg of lunar samples, the Luna missions were the first space-exploration sample return missions to rely solely on advanced robotics. Luna 15, also designed to return samples from the lunar surface. Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin were already on the surface when Luna 15 began its descent. While the programme was active, it was Soviet practice not to any details of missions which had failed to achieve orbit. When details of Soviet launches were later disclosed, no launches of Luna spacecraft were found to have occurred on those dates
12.
Roscosmos
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The Roscosmos State Corporation for Space Activities, commonly known as Roscosmos, is the governmental body responsible for the space science program of Russia and general aerospace research. The Corporation was established on the basis of the now-defunct Federal Space Agency on December 28,2015, Roscosmos was previously known as the Russian Aviation and Space Agency. The headquarters of Roscosmos are located in Moscow, while the main Mission Control space center is located in the city of Korolev. The Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center is in Star City, the Launch facilities used are Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan, and Vostochny Cosmodrome being built in the Russian Far East in Amur Oblast. The current Director since January 2015 is Igor Komarov, in 2015 the Russian government merged Roscosmos with the United Rocket and Space Corporation, the re-nationalized Russian space industry, to create the Roscosmos State Corporation. The Soviet space program did not have central executive agencies, instead, its organizational architecture was multi-centered, it was the design bureaus and the council of designers that had the most say, not the political leadership. The creation of a central agency after the separation of Russia from the Soviet Union was therefore a new development, Russian Space Agency was formed on February 25,1992, by a decree of President Yeltsin. Yuri Koptev, who had worked with designing Mars landers at NPO Lavochkin. In the early years, the agency suffered from lack of authority as the design bureaus fought to protect their own spheres of operation. For example, the decision to keep Mir in operation beyond 1999 was not taken by the agency, instead, another example is that the decision to develop the new Angara rocket was rather a function of Khrunichevs ability to attract resources than a conscious long-term decision by the agency. The 1990s saw serious financial problems because of decreased cash flow and this resulted in Roscosmos leading role in commercial satellite launches and space tourism. In March 2004, director Yuri Koptev was replaced by Anatoly Perminov, the Russian economy boomed throughout 2005 from high prices for exports, such as oil and gas, the outlook for future funding in 2006 appeared more favorable. The budget for 2006 was as high as 25 billion rubles, under the current 10-year budget approved, the budget of the Space Agency shall increase 5–10% per year, providing the space agency with a constant influx of money. In addition to the budget, Roscosmos plans to have over 130 billion rubles flowing into its budget by other means, such as industry investments and it is around the time US-based The Planetary Society entered a partnership with Roscosmos. In 2011, the government spent 115 billion rubles in the space programs. The proposed project core budget for 2013 to be around 128.3 billion rubles, the budget for the whole space program is,169.8 billion rubles. By 2015, the amount of the budget can be increased to 199.2 billion rubles, priorities of the Russian space program include the new Angara rocket family and development of new communications, navigation and remote Earth sensing spacecraft. The GLONASS global navigation system has for many years been one of the top priorities and has been given its own budget line in the federal space budget
13.
Vostok programme
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The Vostok programme was a Soviet human spaceflight project to put the first Soviet citizens into low Earth orbit and return them safely. Competing with the United States Project Mercury, it succeeded in placing the first human, Yuri Gagarin, into space, the Vostok capsule was developed from the Zenit spy satellite project and adapted the Vostok launch rocket from the existing R-7 Semyorka intercontinental ballistic missile design. The name Vostok was treated as classified information until Gagarins flight was first publicly disclosed to the world press, the programme carried out six manned spaceflights between 1961 and 1963. The longest flight lasted five days, and the last four were launched in pairs. This exceeded Project Mercurys demonstrated capability of just over 34 hours longest flight, Vostok was succeeded by two Voskhod programme flights in 1964 and 1965, which used three- and two-man modifications of the Vostok capsule and a larger launch rocket. The worlds first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, had put into orbit by the Soviets in 1957. The next milestone in the history of exploration would be to put a human in space. By January 1959, the Soviets had begun preparations for human spaceflight, the candidates had to be intelligent, comfortable in high-stress situations, and physically fit. Chief designer of the Soviet space program, Sergei Korolev, decided that the cosmonauts must be male, the final specifications for cosmonauts were approved in June 1959. By September interviews with potential cosmonauts had begun, although the pilots were not told they might be flying into space, one of the physicians in charge of the selection process believed that some pilots had figured this out. By the end of 1959,20 men had been selected, Korolev insisted on having a larger group than NASAs seven astronaut team. Of these 20, five were outside the age range. Unlike NASAs astronaut group, this group did not particularly consist of experienced pilots, the Soviet spacecraft were more automated than the American counterparts, so significant piloting experience was not necessary. Vershinin assigned the already famous aviator Nikolai Kamanin to supervise operations at the facility, by March, most of the cosmonauts had arrived at the training facility, on March 7 Vershinin gave a welcome speech, and those who were present were formally inducted into the cosmonaut group. By mid-June all twenty were permanently stationed at the center, in March the cosmonauts were started on a daily fitness regime, and were taught classes on topics such as rocket space systems, navigation, geophysics, and astronomy. The move officially took place on June 29,1960, at the Gromov Flight Research Institute, a spacecraft simulator had been built, and it was called the TDK-1. Due to the inefficiency of training all 20 cosmonauts in the simulator and this group, which would be known as The Vanguard Six, was decided on May 30,1960, and initially consisted of Gagarin, Kartashov, Nikolayev, Popovich, Titov, and Varlamov. Alexei Leonov recalls that these six were the shortest six out of the group of 20, in July, shortly after relocation to Star City, two of the six would be replaced, on medical grounds
14.
Voskhod programme
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The Voskhod program was the second Soviet human spaceflight project. Two one-day manned missions were flown using the Voskhod spacecraft and rocket, one in 1964 and one in 1965, Voskhod development was both a follow-on to the Vostok program and a recycling of components left over from that programs cancellation following its first six flights. The Voskhod program was superseded by the Soyuz program, the Voskhod spacecraft was basically a Vostok spacecraft that had a backup, solid-fueled retrorocket added to the top of the descent module. As it was heavier, the launch vehicle would be the 11A57. The ejection seat was removed and two or three crew couches were added to the interior at a 90-degree angle to that of the Vostok crew position. However, the position of the controls was not changed. In the case of Voskhod 2, an inflatable exterior airlock was also added to the descent module opposite the entry hatch, the airlock was jettisoned after use. This apparatus was needed because the vehicle avionics and environmental systems were air-cooled, a solid-fueled braking rocket was also added to the parachute lines to provide for a softer landing at touchdown. This was necessary because, unlike the Vostok, the Voskhod descent module landed with the crewmen still inside, unlike Vostok and the later Soyuz, Voskhod had no launch abort system, meaning that the crew lacked any means of escape from a malfunctioning launch vehicle. Voskhod had a backup retrorocket on top of the capsule in case the main one failed. While Vostok lacked this feature, it was not considered a problem since the spacecraft would decay from orbit within 10 days, relatively lightweight Voskhod was well below the 11A57 boosters lift capacity, meaning that it launched into a much higher orbit and would not decay as quickly. The Voskhod flights, with dates, Kosmos 47 – Unmanned test flight of the Voskhod hardware. Kosmos 57 – Unmanned test flight, unsuccessful, Kosmos 110 – Unmanned, sent two dogs, Veterok and Ugolyok, on a 22-day flight, launched 22 February 1966 and landed 16 March. Although achieving the first EVA became the success of the program. After those goals were realized, the program planned to focus on other advances the spacecraft could accomplish, such as longer duration, however, there were delays preparing for Voskhod 3, and during that time the Gemini program accomplished most of what had been planned for future Voskhods. Voskhod manned space project on Encyclopedia Astronautica
15.
Soyuz programme
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It was the third Soviet human spaceflight programme after the Vostok and Voskhod programme. The programme consists of the Soyuz spacecraft and the Soyuz rocket and is now the responsibility of the Russian Federal Space Agency, since the retirement of the Space Shuttle in 2011, all human spaceflights to and from the International Space Station have been carried out using Soyuz. The launch vehicles used in the Soyuz expendable launch system are manufactured at the Progress State Research and Production Rocket Space Center in Samara, there were 11 Soyuz launches in 2001 and 9 in 2002. The Spaceport’s new Soyuz launch site has been handling Soyuz launches since 21 October 2011, as of July 2014,8 Soyuz launches had been made from French Guiana, all successful. The basic Soyuz spacecraft design was the basis for many projects and this and the initial civilian designs were done under the Soviet Chief Designer Sergei Pavlovich Korolev, who did not live to see the craft take flight. Several military derivatives took precedence in the Soviet design process, though they never came to pass, finally, the Progress series of unmanned cargo ships for the Salyut and Mir space laboratories used the automatic navigation and docking mechanism of Soyuz. While not a derivative, the Chinese Shenzhou spacecraft follows the basic template originally pioneered by Soyuz. See List of Soviet manned space missions and List of Russian manned space missions Shenzhou, a Chinese spacecraft influenced by Soyuz Space Shuttle Buran Space accidents and incidents
16.
Salyut programme
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The Salyut programme was the first space station programme undertaken by the Soviet Union. It involved a series of four crewed scientific research space stations, Salyut 1, the first station in the program, became the worlds first crewed space station. Mir-2, the spacecraft from the Salyut series, became one of the first modules of the ISS. The first module of the ISS, the Russian-made Zarya, relied heavily on technologies developed in the Salyut programme, for Salyut, small modifications had to be made to the docking port of the OPS to accommodate Soyuz spacecraft in addition to TKS spacecraft. In an effort by OKB-1 to catch up with OKB-52, they took Chelomeis Almaz-OPS hull design and this was done beginning with conceptual work in August 1969. Initially the space stations were to be named Zarya, the Russian word for Dawn, out of the total of 1,697 days of occupancy that all Salyut crews achieved, Salyut 6 and 7 accounted for 1,499. Furthermore, the Functional Cargo Block space station modules were derived from the Almaz programme, Salyut 1 was launched on 19 April 1971. It was the first space station to orbit the Earth and its first crew launched in Soyuz 10 but were unable to board due to a failure in the docking mechanism, its second crew launched in Soyuz 11 and remained on board for 23 productive days. Salyut 1 was moved to an orbit between July and August 1971 to ensure that it would not be destroyed prematurely through orbital decay. In the meantime, Soyuz capsules were being substantially re-designed to allow suits to be worn during launch, docking maneuvers. After 175 days in space, the first real space station came to an end, DOS-2 was launched on 29 July 1972. It was similar in design to Salyut 1, the second stage of its Proton rocket failed, DOS-2 never reached orbit and crashed into the Pacific Ocean. Salyut 2 was launched on 4 April 1973, on 11 April 1973, seven days after launch, an unexplainable accident caused both solar panels to be torn loose from the space station, cutting off all power. Salyut 2 re-entered on 28 May 1973, the module DOS-3 was launched on 11 May 1973 – three days before the launch of Skylab – and was slated to become the next civilian space station with a Salyut designation. Due to errors in the control system while out of range from ground control. Since the spacecraft was already in orbit and had registered by Western radar. It re-entered Earths atmosphere a week later, and burned up on re-entry, Salyut 3 was launched on 25 June 1974. Like Salyut 2, it was another Almaz military space station, although unlike its predecessor and it was used to test a wide variety of reconnaissance sensors, returning a canister of film for analysis
17.
Mir
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Mir was a space station that operated in low Earth orbit from 1986 to 2001, run by the Soviet Union and later by Russia. Mir was the first modular space station and was assembled in orbit from 1986 to 1996 and it had a greater mass than any previous spacecraft. At the time it was the largest artificial satellite in orbit and it holds the record for the longest single human spaceflight, with Valeri Polyakov spending 437 days and 18 hours on the station between 1994 and 1995. Mir was occupied for a total of twelve and a half out of its fifteen-year lifespan. Following the success of the Salyut programme, Mir represented the stage in the Soviet Unions space station programme. The first module of the station, known as the module or base block, was launched in 1986. Proton rockets were used to all of its components except for the docking module. When complete, the station consisted of seven pressurised modules and several unpressurised components, power was provided by several photovoltaic arrays attached directly to the modules. The station was maintained at an orbit between 296 km and 421 km altitude and traveled at an speed of 27,700 km/h. Mir was deorbited in March 2001 after funding was cut off, the cost of the Mir programme was estimated by former RKA General Director Yuri Koptev in 2001 as $4.2 billion over its lifetime. Mir was authorized on a 17 February 1976 decree, to design a model of the Salyut DOS-17K space stations. Four Salyut space stations had been launched since 1971, with three more being launched during Mirs development, by August 1978, this had evolved to the final configuration of one aft port and five ports in a spherical compartment at the forward end of the station. It was originally planned that the ports would connect to 7. 5-tonne modules derived from the Soyuz spacecraft and these modules would have used a Soyuz propulsion module, as in Soyuz and Progress, and the descent and orbital modules would have been replaced with a long laboratory module. However, following a February 1979 governmental resolution, the programme was consolidated with Vladimir Chelomeis manned Almaz military space station programme, the docking ports were reinforced to accommodate 20-tonne space station modules based on the TKS spacecraft. NPO Energia was responsible for the space station, with work subcontracted to KB Salyut, due to ongoing work on the Energia rocket and Salyut 7, Soyuz-T. KB Salyut began work in 1979, and drawings were released in 1982 and 1983, by early 1984, work on Mir had halted while all resources were being put into the Buran programme in order to prepare the Buran spacecraft for flight testing. Funding resumed in early 1984 when Valentin Glushko was ordered by the Central Committees Secretary for Space and Defence to orbit Mir by early 1986 and it was clear that the planned processing flow could not be followed and still meet the 1986 launch date. It was decided on Cosmonauts Day 1985 to ship the flight model of the block to the Baikonur cosmodrome and conduct the systems testing
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Zond program
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Zond was the name given to two distinct series of Soviet unmanned space program undertaken from 1964 to 1970. The first series based on 3MV planetary probe was intended to gather information about nearby planets, the first three missions were based on the model 3MV planetary probe, intended to explore Venus and Mars. After two failures, Zond 3 was sent on a test mission, becoming the second spacecraft to photograph the far side of the Moon and it then continued out to the orbit of Mars in order to test telemetry and spacecraft systems. The missions 4 through 8 were test flights under for the Soviet Moonshot during the Moon race, the Soyuz 7K-L1 spacecraft was used for the Moon-aimed missions, stripped down to make it possible to launch around the Moon from the Earth. They were launched on the Proton rocket which was just powerful enough to send the Zond on a return trajectory around the Moon without going into lunar orbit. With minor modification, Zond was capable of carrying two cosmonauts, in the beginning there were serious reliability problems with both the new Proton rocket and the similarly new Soyuz spacecraft, but the test flights pressed ahead with some glitches. The majority of test flights from 1967–1970 showed problems during re-entry, the Zond spacecraft made only unmanned automatic flights. Four of these suffered malfunctions that would have injured or killed any crew, instrumentation flown on these missions gathered data on micrometeor flux, solar and cosmic rays, magnetic fields, radio emissions, and solar wind. Many photographs were taken and biological payloads were also flown, cosmos 154 Launched 8 April 1967 Prototype Soyuz 7K-L1P launched by Proton and failed to go into planned translunar trajectory. Zond 1967A Launched 28 September 1967 Fell off course 60 seconds after launch, escape tower took Zond capsule safely away. Attempted Lunar flyby Zond 1967B Launched 22 November 1967 Second stage failure, attempted Lunar flyby Zond 4 Launched 2 March 1968 Study of remote regions of circumterrestrial space, development of new on-board systems and units of space stations. Returned to Earth 7 March 1968—Self destruct system automatically blew up the capsule at 10 to 15 km altitude, Zond 1968A Launched 23 April 1968 Second stage failed 260 seconds after launch. Attempted Lunar flyby Zond 1968B Launched 21 July 1968 Block D stage exploded on pad, the first spacecraft to circle the Moon and return to land on Earth. Zond 6 Launched 10 November 1968 Circumlunar 14 November 1968 Returned to Earth 17 November 1968 Zond 1969A Launched 20 January 1969 Stage two shutdown 25 seconds early, attempted Lunar flyby Zond L1S-1 Launched 21 February 1969 First stage failure. Capsule escape system fired 70 seconds after launch, attempted Lunar orbiter and N1 rocket test Zond L1S-2 Launched 3 July 1969 First stage failure
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TMK
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TMK was the designation of a Soviet space exploration project to send a manned flight to Mars and Venus without landing. The TMK-1 spacecraft was due to be launched in 1971 and make a three-year-long flight including a Mars flyby, expanded project variations, such as the TMK-E, Mavr or KK, including a Venus flyby, electric propulsion or a manned Mars landing were also proposed. The TMK project was planned as an answer from the Soviet Union to the United States manned Moon landings, a previous Martian Piloted Complex mission was proposed in 1956. The project was never completed because the required N1 rocket never flew successfully, the first flight to Mars of the TMK-1 was planned to begin on June 8,1971. The 75 metric ton TMK-1 spacecraft would take a crew of three on a Mars flyby mission, after a 10½ month flight the crew would race past Mars, dropping remote-controlled landers, and then be flung into an Earth-return trajectory. Earth return would happen on July 10,1974, after a voyage of three years, one month, and two days, total volume of the section would be 25 cubic meters. The spacecraft would be powered by electric engines and five landers would deliver a nuclear-powered Mars Train on the surface for a one-year mission. The TMK-E would be capable of a flight to Mars and return. It would measure 175 m in length and house a crew of six, six landing craft were included, two for the crew and four for the Mars Train vehicles. A variation of the TMK mission planning involved a flyby of Venus on the return voyage, in 1966, a final version of the TMK studies was known as KK - Space Complex for Delivering a Piloted Expedition to Mars. Nuclear electric propulsion was to be used for the 630-day mission, Mars stay duration would be 30 days
20.
Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-105
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The Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-105 part of a programme known as the Spiral was a manned test vehicle to explore low-speed handling and landing. It was a result of a Soviet project to create an orbital spaceplane. The MiG105 was nicknamed Lapot Russian, лапоть, or bast shoe for the shape of its nose, the program was also known as EPOS. Work on this project began in 1965, two years after Dyna-Soars cancellation. The project was halted in 1969, to be resurrected in 1974 in response to the U. S. The test vehicle made its first subsonic free-flight test in 1976 and it was flown by pilot Aviard G. Fastovets to the Zhukovskii flight test center, a distance of 30.5 kilometres. Flight tests, totaling eight in all, continued sporadically until 1978, the actual space plane project was cancelled when the decision was made to instead proceed with the Buran project. The MiG test vehicle itself still exists and is currently on display at the Monino Air Force Museum in Russia, gleb Lozino-Lozinskiy was the leader of the Spiral development programme. Although having basically the same mission, Dyna-Soar and Spiral were radically different vehicles, for example, While the X-20 Dyna-Soar was designed for launch atop a conventional expendable rocket such as the Titan III-C or Saturn I, Soviet engineers opted for a midair launch scheme for Spiral. The mothership was to have built by the Tupolev Design Bureau and utilize many of the same technologies developed for the Tu-144 supersonic transport. Dyna-Soar was designed as a body, while Spiral was a conventional delta that featured an innovative variable-dihedral wing. During launch and reentry, these were folded upward at 60 degrees, after dropping to subsonic speeds post-reentry, the pilot lowered the wings into the horizontal position, giving the spaceplane better re-entry and flight characteristics. Spiral was built to allow for a landing and go-around maneuver in case of a missed landing approach. An air intake for a single Kolesov turbojet was mounted beneath the central vertical stabilizer and this was protected during launch and re-entry by a clamshell door which opened at subsonic speeds. By comparison, Dyna-Soar was designed primarily for a once-off, unpowered deadstick landing, high temperature superalloy metals such as niobium, molybdenum, tungsten and rene 41 were to have been used in the heatshield structure of the X-20. Several BOR craft were flown to test this concept, much like the Space Shuttle, Dyna-Soar was designed with a small payload bay behind the pressurized crew module. This could be used for lofting small satellites, carrying surveillance equipment, Spiral, on the other hand, was intended to carry only its pilot. Both Dyna-Soar and Spiral were designed to land on skids, the landing skids on Dyna-Soar were designed to deploy from insulated doors on the underside of the vehicle, like a conventional aircraft
21.
Almaz
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The Almaz program was a highly secretive Soviet military space station program, begun in the early 1960s. Three crewed military reconnaissance stations were launched between 1973 and 1976, Salyut 2, Salyut 3 and Salyut 5, to cover the military nature of the program the three launched Almaz stations were designated as civilian Salyut space stations. Salyut 2 failed shortly after achieving orbit, but Salyut 3, following Salyut 5, the Soviet Ministry of Defence judged in 1978 that the time consumed by station maintenance outweighed the benefits relative to automatic reconnaissance satellites. The space stations cores were known internally as OPS, from Orbital Piloted Station, the heritage of the Almaz program continues, with the ISS module Zarya being one example. Vladimir Chelomei at the OKB-52 design bureau promoted Almaz as a response to the US Air Forces Manned Orbiting Laboratory project, MOL had been widely publicized in the US press in the early 1960s, which provided Chelomei plenty of material to use to lobby for a Soviet response. The OPS would have a diameter of 4.15 metres, a mass of roughly 20 tonnes. As with MOL/Gemini, once in orbit the crew would access the lab through a hatch in the shield at the bottom of the VA capsule. After an extended stay of 30 to 60 days of military observation, unlike the American MOL design, the Soviets designed the Almaz to be recrewed and resupplied. For this, they created the TKS resupply craft, which consisted of an FGB, at the station, one docking port would be available to receive the TKS craft once the previous crew had left the station in their VA capsule. While the MOL was canceled in 1969, the Almaz program was integrated into the Salyut programme, plans called for the first three Almaz stations to be visited by three two-month-long expeditions each. The Almaz APOS design, without VA spacecraft, would evolve into the Almaz OPS station cores of the Salyut programme, in addition to reconnaissance equipment, Almaz was equipped with a unique 23mm Rikhter rapid-fire cannon mounted on the forward belly of the station. This revolver cannon was modified from the tail-gun of the Tu-22 bomber and was capable of a rate of fire of 1800-2000 rounds per minute. Each 168 gram or 173 gram projectile flew at a speed of 850 m/s relative to the station, the cannon had a supply of 32 rounds and was tested at the end of the mission, when the station was operating in unmanned mode. To aim the cannon, which was on a fixed mounting, the Almaz series remain, to this day, the only armed, crewed military spacecraft ever flown. Salyut 3/OPS-2 conducted a successful remote test firing with the station unmanned due to concerns over excessive vibration and noise. OPS-4 was to have featured two rockets instead of the cannon, but this system has not been shown publicly. Three Almaz OPS space stations were flown from 1973 to 1976 in the Salyut programme, Salyut 2, Salyut 3, the partially outfitted hulls of Almaz-205 and Almaz-206 are today in the property of Excalibur Almaz, a company that plans to launch these as manned space stations. The first Almaz station, announced as Salyut 2, it was launched on April 3,1973, for purposes of military secrecy, it was publicly designated Salyut 2 upon reaching orbit
22.
TKS (spacecraft)
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The TKS spacecraft was a Soviet spacecraft conceived in the late 1960s for resupply flights to the military Almaz space station. The Functional Cargo Block of the TKS spacecraft later formed the basis of space station modules. And the Functional Cargo Block which, in order to resupply an Almaz space station, carried docking hardware, tanks, furthermore, the FGB carried the on-orbit maneuvering engines for the TKS. The FGB could also be used alone as a cargo module without an VA spacecraft. The VA spacecraft on the hand was also intended to be launched as Almaz APOS, mated with an Almaz-OPS space station core as the primary orbital maneuvering system. As of August 2009, Excalibur Almaz planned to use the VA capsule as low-cost cargo return vehicles. The TKS spacecraft was designed by Vladimir Chelomei and V. N. Bugayskiy as a spacecraft launched with Proton rocket alternative to the Soyuz spacecraft for use with Almaz space stations. Development began in 1965, the Almaz programme had been abandoned by the time the first TKS spacecraft flew in 1977. The VA spacecraft was flown separately on four test missions with two craft per launch to test the design, as well as one all-up test mission and three resupply missions. The project had evolved with space station Modulny based on the TKS design outline, reworked to dock with Salyut 7, Mir. This development was designated FGB, or Functional Cargo Block, the TKS spacecraft consisted of an 11F74 Vozvraschaemyi Apparat, attached to an 11F77 Transportniy Korabl Snabzheniya. The TKS VA spacecraft was itself a very compact and efficient spacecraft, typically it would reenter the atmosphere within 2 orbits, but could fly autonomously for up to 31 hours. Although extensively flight tested, it never flew with a crew on board, the VA design was derived from the planned capsule for the Chelomeis LK-1 manned circumlunar spacecraft of the 1960s. It was also the basis for Chelomeis LK-700 Lunar Lander crew capsule, the VA looked somewhat similar to the Apollo capsule, but was 30% smaller than its NASA counterpart. The FGB was entered from the VA spacecraft via a short tunnel, at the aft end a pilot station was equipped with controls and windows for manual docking with the Almaz space station. The docking port was located here. Operational TKS spacecraft would have delivered KSI film return capsules to Almaz stations and these would have been stored around the docking port for transfer to the film capsule airlock for loading. VA #009L/P and VA #009P/P, Launched on 1977-08-04, launch vehicle failure forty seconds into the flight on a suborbital test of two VA spacecraft
23.
Energia
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Energia was a Soviet rocket that was designed by NPO Energia to serve as a heavy-lift expendable launch system as well as a booster for the Buran spacecraft. Control system main developer enterprise was the NPO Electropribor, the Energia used four strap-on boosters each powered by a four-chamber RD-170 engine burning kerosene/LOX, and a central core stage with 4 one-chamber RD-0120 engines fueled by liquid hydrogen/LOX. The rocket had the capacity to place about 100 tonnes in Low Earth orbit, up to 20 tonnes to geostationary orbit, work on the Energia/Buran system began in 1976 after the decision was made to cancel the unsuccessful N1. The cancelled N1 rocket-based Manned Lunar Launch Facilities and Infrastructure were used for Energia, Energia also replaced the Vulkan concept, which was a design based on the Proton and using the same hypergolic propellants, but much larger and more powerful. The Vulkan designation was given to a variation of the Energia which has eight boosters. This configuration required the addition of a stage to perform the final orbital insertion. Due to the termination of the Buran programme the Energia program was concluded after only two launches, and further the payload on the first launch didnt perform the final boost properly, the Energia was first test-launched on 15 May 1987, with the Polyus spacecraft as the payload. The intended orbit was altitude 280 km, inclination 64. 6°, the two stages of the Energia launcher functioned as designed, but due to a software error in its attitude control system, Polyus orbital insertion motor failed to inject the payload into orbit. Instead, the Polyus reentered the atmosphere over the Pacific Ocean, the second flight, and the first one where payload successfully reached orbit, was launched on 15 November 1988. This mission launched the unmanned Soviet Shuttle vehicle, Buran, at apogee, the Buran spacecraft made a 66.7 m/s burn to reach a final orbit of 251 km x 263 km. Production of Energia rockets ended with the fall of the Soviet Union, ever since, there have been persistent rumors of the renewal of production, but given the current political realities, that is highly unlikely. While the Energia is no longer in production, the Zenit boosters are still in production, the four strap-on liquid-fuel boosters, which burned kerosene and liquid oxygen, were the basis of the Zenit rocket which used the same engines. The engine is the four combustion chamber RD-170 and its derivative, the RD-171, is still used on the Zenit rocket. In August 2016, plans were announced to develop a super heavy-lift launch vehicle from existing Energia components instead of pushing the less-powerful Angara A5V project, three major variants were conceptualized after the original configuration, each with vastly different payloads. The Energia M was the smallest design configuration, the number of Zenit boosters was reduced from four to two, and instead of four RD-0120 engines in the core, it had only one. It was designed to replace the Proton rocket, but lost the 1993 competition to the Angara rocket, Energia II, named Uragan, was a rocket proposed to be fully reusable with the design feature to land on a conventional airfield. S. The Energia II core as proposed would be capable of re-entering and gliding to a landing, the final unflown configuration was also the largest. With eight Zenit booster rockets and an Energia-M core as the upper stage, the development of rocket-carrier Vulcan and the refurbishment of the Energia launch pad for its launches was in progress in 1990-1993
24.
Buran programme
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The Buran-class space shuttle orbiters used the expendable Energia rocket as a launch vehicle. The Buran programme was started by the Soviet Union as a response to the United States Space Shuttle program, the project was the largest and the most expensive in the history of Soviet space exploration. Development work included sending BOR-5 test vehicles on multiple sub-orbital test flights, Buran completed one unmanned orbital spaceflight in 1988 before its cancellation in 1993. Orbiter K1, which flew the test flight in 1988 was crushed in a collapse on 12 May 2002 in Kazakhstan. The OK-GLI resides in Technikmuseum Speyer, although Soviet/Russian Buran spacecraft was similar in appearance to NASAs Space Shuttle, and could similarly operate as a re-entry spaceplane, its internal and functional design was distinct. For example, the engines during launch were on the Energia rocket and were not taken into orbit by the spacecraft. Smaller rocket engines on the body provided propulsion in orbit. The Buran orbital vehicle programme was developed in response to the U. S, Space Shuttle programme, which in the 1980s raised considerable concerns among the Soviet military and especially Defense Minister Dmitriy Ustinov. An authoritative chronicler of the Soviet and later Russian space programmes, the Soviet government asked the TsNIIMash for an expert opinion. Institute director, Yuri Mozzhorin, recalls that for a time the institute could not envisage a civilian payload large enough to require a vehicle of that capacity. Officially, the Buran orbital vehicle was designed for the delivery to orbit and return to Earth of spacecraft, cosmonauts, before the Mriya was ready, the Myasishchev VM-T Atlant, a variant on the Soviet Myasishchev M-4 Molot bomber, fulfilled the same role. The Soviet reusable space-craft programme has its roots in the beginning of the space age. The idea of Soviet reusable space flight is very old, though it was neither continuous, before Buran, no project of the programme reached production. The idea saw its first iteration in the Burya high-altitude jet aircraft, several test flights are known, before it was cancelled by order of the Central Committee. The Burya had the goal of delivering a nuclear payload, presumably to the United States, the cancellation was based on a final decision to develop ICBMs. The next iteration of the idea was Zvezda from the early 1960s, decades later, another project with the same name was used as a service module for the International Space Station. After Zvezda, there was a hiatus in reusable projects until Buran, the development of the Buran began in the early 1970s as a response to the U. S. Soviet officials were concerned about a military threat posed by the U. S
25.
Bion (satellite)
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The Bion satellites, also named Biocosmos, were a series of Soviet biosatellites. They were part of the Kosmos satellites, the Soviet biosatellite program began in 1966 with Kosmos 110, and resumed in 1973 with Kosmos 605. Cooperation in space ventures between the Soviet Union and the United States was initiated in 1971, with the signing of the United States and Soviet Union in Science and Applications Agreement. The Soviet Union first offered to fly US experiments on a Kosmos biosatellite in 1974, the offer was realized in 1975 when the first joint U. S. /Soviet research were carried out on the Kosmos 782 mission. The Bion spacecraft were based on the Zenit and launches began in 1973 with primary emphasis on the problems of radiation effects on human beings, launches in the program included Kosmos 110,605,690,782, plus Nauka modules flown on Zenit-2M reconnaissance satellites. 90 kg of equipment could be contained in the external Nauka module, the Soviet/Russian Bion program provided U. S. investigators a platform for launching Fundamental Space Biology and biomedical experiments into space. The Bion program, which began in 1966, included a series of missions that flew biological experiments using primates, rodents, insects, cells, NASA became involved in the program in 1975 and participated in 9 of the 11 Bion missions. NASA ended its participation in the program with the Bion 11 mission launched in December 1996, the collaboration resulted in the flight of more than 100 U. S. experiments, one-half of all U. S. Life Sciences flight experiments accomplished with non-human subjects, the missions ranged from five days to around 22 days. In 2005 the Bion program was resumed with three new satellites of the modified Bion-M type – the first flight was launched April 19,2013 from Baikonur cosmodrome, Kazakhstan. All the gerbils died due to a failure, but condition of the rest of the experiments. Half the mice died as was predicted, Zenit Satellites - Bion Variant Astronautix, Bion TsSKB, Bion images RW Ballard, and JP Connolly. Joint research in biology and medicine on Kosmos biosatellites
26.
GLONASS
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GLONASS, or Global Navigation Satellite System, is a space-based satellite navigation system operating in the radionavigation-satellite service and used by the Russian Aerospace Defence Forces. It provides an alternative to GPS and is the second alternative navigational system in operation with global coverage, smartphones generally tend to use the same chipsets and the versions used since 2015 receive GLONASS signals and positioning information along with GPS. Since 2012, GLONASS was the second most used positioning system in mobile phones after GPS, the system has the advantage that smartphone users receive a more accurate reception identifying location to within 2 meters. Development of GLONASS began in the Soviet Union in 1976, beginning on 12 October 1982, numerous rocket launches added satellites to the system until the constellation was completed in 1995. After a decline in capacity during the late 1990s, in 2001, under Vladimir Putins presidency, GLONASS is the most expensive program of the Russian Federal Space Agency, consuming a third of its budget in 2010. By 2010, GLONASS had achieved 100% coverage of Russias territory and in October 2011, the GLONASS satellites designs have undergone several upgrades, with the latest version being GLONASS-K. GLONASS is a satellite navigation system, providing real time position and velocity determination for military. The satellites are located in middle circular orbit at 19,100 kilometres altitude with a 64.8 degree inclination, GLONASS orbit makes it especially suited for usage in high latitudes, where getting a GPS signal can be problematic. The constellation operates in three planes, with eight evenly spaced satellites on each. A fully operational constellation with global coverage consists of 24 satellites, to get a position fix the receiver must be in the range of at least four satellites. GLONASS satellites transmit two types of signal, open standard-precision signal L1OF/L2OF, and obfuscated high-precision signal L1SF/L2SF, the signals use similar DSSS encoding and binary phase-shift keying modulation as in GPS signals.0 MHz, known as the L1 band. The center frequency is 1602 MHz + n ×0.5625 MHz, signals are transmitted in a 38° cone, using right-hand circular polarization, at an EIRP between 25 and 27 dBW. The L2 band signals use the same FDMA as the L1 band signals, but transmit straddling 1246 MHz with the center frequency 1246 MHz + n×0.4375 MHz, the pseudo-random code is generated with a 9-stage shift register operating with a period of 1 ms. The navigational message is modulated at 50 bits per second, the superframe of the open signal is 7500 bits long and consists of 5 frames of 30 seconds, taking 150 seconds to transmit the continuous message. Each frame is 1500 bits long and consists of 15 strings of 100 bits, with 85 bits for data and check-sum bits, and 15 bits for time mark. Strings 1-4 provide immediate data for the satellite, and are repeated every frame, the data include ephemeris, clock and frequency offsets. Strings 5-15 provide non-immediate data for each satellite in the constellation, with frames I-IV each describing five satellites, the almanac uses modified Keplerian parameters and is updated daily. The details of the signal have not been disclosed
27.
Molniya (satellite)
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Molniya were military communications satellites used by the Soviet Union. The satellites were placed into highly elliptical orbits known as Molniya orbits, characterised by an inclination of +63.4 degrees. Such orbits allowed them to remain visible to sites in polar regions for extended periods, the Molniya program was authorized by a government decree in late 1960. The first launch took place on June 4,1964 and ended in failure when the 8K78 booster core stage lost thrust 287 seconds into launch due to a servo motor. The next attempt was on August 22 and reached orbit successfully, publicly referred to as Kosmos 41, it nonetheless operated for nine months. The first operational satellite, Molniya 1-01, was launched on April 23,1965. Since October 1967, Molniya satellites have used by Russia to broadcast their national Orbita television network. Molniya-1 spacecraft Molniya, A short history of development Molniya constellation Molniya 1-4
28.
Meteor (satellite)
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The Meteor spacecraft are weather observation satellites launched by the USSR and Russia. The Meteor satellite series was developed during the 1960s, the Meteor satellites were designed to monitor atmospheric and sea-surface temperatures, humidity, radiation, sea ice conditions, snow-cover, and clouds. Meteor 1-26 is considered to be the most likely candidate for a the 7 January 2016 satellite near collision, meteor-1 launches Meteor-2-21/Fizeau is the twenty-first and last in the Meteor-2 series of Russian meteorological satellites, which were launched 22 times from 1975 to 1993. ILRS Mission Support Status, Satellite Laser Ranging tracking support of satellite was discontinued in October 1998. What makes Meteor-2-21 distinctive from the other meteorological satellites is its unique retroreflector array, Fizeau is named after a French physicist, Armand Fizeau, who in 1851 conducted an experiment which tested for the aether convection coefficient. SLR tracking of this satellite was used for orbit determination. The Fizeau experiment tests the theory of special relativity – that distance events that are simultaneous for one observer will not be simultaneous for an observer in motion relative to the first. The central cube is made of fused silica and has a two-lobe Far Field Diffraction Pattern providing nearly equal intensities for compensated and uncompensated velocity aberration, both outer reflectors have aluminum coating on the reflecting surfaces and near-diffraction-limited FFDPs. One of the end reflectors is made of fused silica with an index of refraction of 1.46, the other end reflector is made of fused glass with an index of refraction of 1.62 and should provide a perfect compensation of the velocity aberration. SLR full-rate data from MOBLAS4, MOBLAS7, and Maidanak seem to confirm the presence of the influence of the Fizeau effect. Resur-1, another Russian satellite launched in 1994, has 2 corner cubes reflectors with near diffraction-limited FFDPs, WESTPAC, a future SLR satellite, will verify indisputably the existence or otherwise of the Fizeau effect. All the satellites were launched on Tsyklon-3 rockets and these satellites provide weather information including data on clouds, ice and snow cover, atmospheric radiation and humidity. The Meteor-3 class of satellites orbit in a higher altitude than the Meteor-2 class of satellites thus providing more coverage of the Earths surface. The Meteor-3 has the payload as the Meteor-2 but also includes an advanced scanning radiometer with better spectral and spatial resolution. Meteorological data is transmitted to four sites in the former Soviet Union in conjunction with about 80 other smaller sites. Meteor-3 launches Meteor-3-5, launched in 1991, is in a higher orbit than Meteor-2-21. Mechanically, it is similar to Meteor-2-21, which satellite was in operation depended on the sun angles and consequently the seasons. Meteor-3-5 was usually the summer satellite while 2-21 was in operation for approximately the half-year centered on winter, the satellite carried the second Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer aloft as the first and the last American-built instrument to fly on a Soviet spacecraft
29.
Zenit (satellite)
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Zenit was a series of military photoreconnaissance satellites launched by the Soviet Union between 1961 and 1994. To conceal their nature, all flights were given the public Kosmos designation, over a 33 year period, over five hundred Zenits were flown making it the most numerous type of satellite in the history of spaceflight. The basic design of the Zenit satellites was similar to the Vostok manned spacecraft, sharing the return and it consisted of a spherical re-entry capsule 2.3 m in diameter with a mass of around 2400 kg. This capsule contained the system, its film, recovery beacons, parachutes. The total length in orbit was around 5 m and the mass was between 4600 kg and 4740 kg. Unlike the American Corona spacecraft, the capsule carried both the film and the cameras and kept them in a temperature controlled pressurised environment. This simplified the design and engineering of the system but added considerably to the mass of the satellite. An advantage was that cameras could be reused, early Zenits were launched using the Vostok rocket, later versions used the Voskhod and the Soyuz rockets. The first flights were launched from Baikonur Cosmodrome but subsequent launches also took place at Plesetsk Cosmodrome. Most Zenits flew in an elliptical orbit with a perigee of around 200 km. By 1958, the OKB-1 design bureau was simultaneously working on Object OD-1 and this may have been a political manoeuvre that would enable him to continue the manned space program and avoid diverting more of OKB-1’s resources into Object OD-1. Spacecraft 1K would be a prototype, 2K was to be a reconnaissance satellite. The name Vostok was also used for all three of these craft. But in 1961 the name became known as the name of Yuri Gagarins spacecraft so the Vostok 2 reconnaissance satellite was renamed Zenit 2. The first Zenit launch attempt took place on 11 December 1961, but there was a fault in the third stage. The second attempt — publicly referred to as Kosmos 4 — was successfully launched on 26 April 1962, however a failure in the orientation system meant few useful pictures were obtained, usable pictures had a resolution of about 5 to 7 meters. Launch #3 on June 1 failed dramatically when the one of the 8A92 boosters strap-ons shut down at liftoff and fell onto the pad, the rest of the launch vehicle crashed 300 meters away. This accident caused damage to LC-1, delaying the flights of Vostok 3
30.
Lunokhod programme
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Lunokhod was a series of Soviet robotic lunar rovers designed to land on the Moon between 1969 and 1977. The 1969 Lunokhod 1A was destroyed during launch, the 1970 Lunokhod 1, the successful missions were in operation concurrently with the Zond and Luna series of Moon flyby, orbiter and landing missions. The Lunokhods were primarily designed to support the Soviet manned moon missions during Moon race, the Lunokhods were transported to the lunar surface by Luna spacecraft, which were launched by Proton-K rockets. The moon lander part of the Luna spacecraft for Lunokhods were similar to the ones for sample return missions, the Lunokhods were designed by Alexander Kemurdzhian at Lavochkin. Not until the 1997 Mars Pathfinder was another remote-controlled vehicle put on an extraterrestrial body, Lunokhods original primary mission was the back-up for L3 manned moon expeditions and for the later Zvezda lunar base. LK-R used as an escape craft in case of disability to start from Moon of LK and Lunokhods used by cosmonaut for transfer to LK-R in necessity. This manned version of Lunokhod were additionally equipped with oxygen stock with hose socket, standing pads, in mid-1968, at the facility KIP-10 or NIP-10 in the secret village Shkolnoye, near Simferopol, a lunodrom was built. It covered an area of one hectare and was similar to some parts of the lunar surface. It was constructed using more than 3,000 cubic meters of soil, the whole area was surrounded with bricks, painted in gray and black. It was used to analyze problems with the Lunokhod chassis and to cosmonauts skill of control the one, the facility was one of a network of ten facilities which contain earth satellite vehicle tracking equipment and provide command/control for Soviet near-space civil and military events. Additionally, this facility was support all lunar programs of Soviet Union in association with the Evpatoria Deep Space Tracking Facility, at least four complete vehicles were constructed, with the serial numbers 201,203,204 and 205. After years of engineering development and training, the first Lunokhod was launched on February 19,1969. Within a few seconds the rocket disintegrated and the first Lunokhod was lost, the rest of the world did not learn of the rockets valuable payload until years later. The failure resulted in the heat source, Polonium 210. After the destruction of the original Lunokhod, Soviet engineers began work immediately on another lunar vehicle, Lunokhod 1 was the first of two unmanned lunar rovers successfully landed on the Moon by the Soviet Union as part of its Lunokhod program. The spacecraft which carried Lunokhod 1 was named Luna 17, Lunokhod 1 was the first roving remote-controlled robot to land on another world. Luna 17 was launched on November 10,1970 at 14,44,01 UTC, after reaching Earth parking orbit, the final stage of Luna 17s launching rocket fired to place it into a trajectory towards the Moon. After two course correction manoeuvres it entered orbit on November 15,1970 at 22,00 UTC
31.
Mars program
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The Mars program was a series of unmanned spacecraft launched by the Soviet Union between 1960 and 1973. The spacecraft were intended to explore Mars, and included flyby probes, early Mars spacecraft were small, and launched by Molniya rockets. Starting with two failures in 1969, the heavier Proton-K rocket was used to launch larger 5 tonne spacecraft, consisting of an orbiter, the orbiter bus design was likely somewhat rushed into service and immature, considering that it performed very reliably in the Venera variant after 1975. The names of the Mars missions do not need to be translated, as the word Mars is spelled and pronounced approximately the same way in English and Russian. In addition to the Mars program, the Soviet Union also sent a probe to Mars as part of the Zond program, Zond 2, two more spacecraft were sent during the Phobos program. In 1996, Russia launched Mars 96, its first interplanetary mission since the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the first Soviet attempts to send a probe to Mars were the two Mars 1M spacecraft, which each had a mass of about 650 kg. Both were launched in 1960 and failed to achieve orbit, the spacecraft were dubbed Marsnik by the Western media. Mars 1 was launched in 1962 but failed en route to Mars, Mars 2M No.521 and Mars 2M No.522, known in the West as Mars 1969A and B, were heavier spacecraft with masses of 5 tonnes. They were launched by Proton-K rockets, and consisted of orbiters, the Mars 4M spacecraft, Mars 2 and Mars 3 missions consisted of identical spacecraft, each with an orbiter and an attached lander, which became the first spacecraft to reach the surface of Mars. The descent module entered the Martian atmosphere at roughly 6.0 km/s at a steeper angle than planned, the descent system malfunctioned and the lander crashed at 45°S 30°W, delivering the Soviet Union coat of arms to the surface. Meanwhile, the engine performed a burn to put the spacecraft into a 1380 x 24,940 km. Scientific instruments were turned on for about 30 minutes near periapsis. The descent module entered the Martian atmosphere at roughly 5.7 km/s, through aerodynamic braking, parachutes, and retrorockets, the lander achieved a soft landing at 45°S 158°W and began operations. However, after 20 seconds the instruments stopped working for unknown reasons, Mars 3 lander still managed to transmit a portion of the first picture of Martian surface. Meanwhile, the orbiter had suffered from a loss of fuel. The engine instead performed a burn to put the spacecraft into a long 12-day-19-hour period orbit about Mars with an inclination thought to be similar to that of Mars 2. Both landers had a small Mars rover on board, which would move across the surface on skis while connected to the lander with a 15-meter umbilical. Two small metal rods were used for obstacle avoidance, as radio signals from Earth would take too long to drive the rovers using remote control
32.
Phobos program
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The Phobos program was an unmanned space mission consisting of two probes launched by the Soviet Union to study Mars and its moons Phobos and Deimos. Phobos 1 was launched on 7 July 1988, and Phobos 2 on 12 July 1988, Phobos 1 suffered a terminal failure en route to Mars. Phobos 2 attained Mars orbit, but contact was lost before the final phase, Phobos 1 and 2 were of a new spacecraft design, succeeding the type used in the Venera planetary missions of 1975–1985, last used during the Vega 1 and Vega 2 missions to Comet Halley. They each had a mass of 2600 kg, the program featured cooperation from 14 other nations, including Sweden, Switzerland, Austria, France, West Germany, and the United States. The main section of the spacecraft consisted of a pressurized toroidal electronics section, below these were mounted four spherical tanks containing hydrazine for attitude control and, after the main propulsion module was to be jettisoned, orbit adjustment. A total of 28 thrusters were mounted on the tanks, with additional thrusters mounted on the spacecraft body. Attitude was maintained through the use of a control system, with pointing maintained with Sun. Phobos 1 operated nominally until an expected communications session on September 2,1988 failed to occur, the failure of controllers to regain contact with the spacecraft was traced to an error in the software uploaded on August 29/August 30, which had deactivated the attitude thrusters. By losing its lock on the Sun, the spacecraft could no longer properly orient its solar arrays, software instructions to turn off the probes attitude control, normally a fatal operation, were part of a routine used when testing the spacecraft on the ground. Normally this routine would be removed before launch, however, the software was coded in PROMs, and so removing the test code would have required removing and replacing the entire computer. Because of time pressure from the launch, engineers decided to leave the command sequence in. However, an error in constructing an upload sequence resulted in the command executing. Phobos 2 was launched on July 12,1988, and entered orbit on January 29,1989, Phobos 2 operated nominally throughout its cruise and Mars orbital insertion phases on January 29,1989, gathering data on the Sun, the interplanetary medium, Mars, and Phobos. Phobos 2 investigated Marss surface and atmosphere and returned 37 images of Phobos with a resolution of up to 40 meters, Phobos probes carried several instruments, solar x-ray and ultraviolet telescopes, a neutron spectrometer and the Grunt radar experiment designed to study the surface relief of Phobos. These observations made it possible to retrieve the first mineralogical maps of the planet and its satellite, ISM was developed at IAS and DESPA with support from CNES. List of instruments, VSK TV imaging system PROP-F hopping lander, Z. Sagdeev & A. V. Zakharov. Brief history of the Phobos mission
33.
Mars 1M
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Mars 1M was a series of two unmanned spacecraft which were used in the first Soviet missions to explore Mars. They were the earliest missions of the Mars program, the Western media dubbed the spacecraft Marsnik, a portmanteau of Mars and Sputnik. Mars 1M No.1, known in the west as Marsnik 1, Mars 1960A, in 1962, NASA Administrator James E. Webb informed the United States Congress that NASA believed the mission was an attempt at a Mars flyby probe. Some Soviet scientists involved with the program at that claim no knowledge of this mission. However, V. G. Perminov, the designer of planetary spacecraft at the Lavochkin design bureau. Mars 1M No.2, known in the west as Marsnik 2, Korabl 5, both Mars 1M spacecraft were launched by Molniya rockets. Mars 1M No.2 reached an altitude of 120 km before reentry, Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev had planned to bring models of the Mars probes for showcasing at his visit to the UN that month, but as both launches failed, they remained packed. These instruments were mounted on the outside of the spacecraft, a photo-television camera was held in a sealed module in the spacecraft and could take pictures through a viewport when a sensor indicated the Sun-illuminated martian surface was in view. Attitude was controlled by a Sun-star sensor with attitude correction performed by a dimethylhydrazine/nitric acid bipropellant rocket engine, the spacecraft orientation was to be maintained so that the solar panels faced the Sun throughout the flight. Power was provided by the two-square meter solar panels which charged silver-zinc batteries, radio communications were made using a decimeter band transmitter via the high gain antenna for spacecraft commands and telemetry. Radio bearing was used to maintain the orientation to Earth. Images were to be transferred using an 8-cm wavelength transmitter through the high-gain antenna, a fourth stage was added to the booster, the Molniya or 8K78, the new launcher was designated SL-6/A-2-e. This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the National Aeronautics, the Soviet Mars program, Professor Chris Mihos, Case Western Reserve University The beginnings of planetary exploration, Andrew J. LePage, The Space Review, Oct 112010
34.
RELIKT-1
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RELIKT-1 - a Soviet cosmic microwave background anisotropy experiment on board the Prognoz 9 satellite gave upper limits on the large-scale anisotropy. A reanalysis of the data in the later years claimed a confident blackbody form, nevertheless, the Nobel Prize in Physics for 2006 was awarded to a team of American scientists, who announced the fact on April 23,1992 based on data taken by the COBE spacecraft. This experiment was prepared by the Space Research Institute of the USSR Academy of Sciences, a map of the sky at 37 GHz was built using an 8 mm band Dicke-type modulation radiometer. The radiometer could not conduct multi-band astronomical observations, the entire sky was observed in 6 months. The angular resolution was 5.5 degrees, with a resolution of 0.6 mK. The galactic microwave flux was measured and the CMB dipole observed, a quadrupole moment was found between 17 and 95 microkelvins rms, with 90% confidence level. The heat radiation map of the Universe served as the emblem of the 1989 international conference The Cosmic Wave Background,25 Years Later in LAquila, Italy. The discovery of anisotropy by the RELIKT-1 spacecraft was first reported officially in January 1992 at the All-Moscow Astronomy Seminar held at Sternberg Astronomical Institute, as a follow-up to RELIKT-1, it was decided in 1986 to study the anisotropy of CMB as part of the Relikt-2 project. The sensitivity of the equipment had greatly increased, the spacecraft was scheduled to launch in 1993-1994, but the launch never took place because of the Soviet Unions break-up and lack of funding. Strukov, I. A. Skulachev, D. P. Deep-Space Measurements of the Microwave Background Anisotropy - First Results of the Relikt Experiment. 1984 Strukov, I. A. Brukhanov, A. A. Skulachev, D. P. Sazhin, M. V. Anisotropy of relic radiation in the RELICT-1 experiment, Physics Letters B, Volume 315, Issue 1-2, p. 198-202. 09/1993 The Relikt Experiment at NASAs LAMBDA
35.
Venera
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The Venera series space probes were developed by the Soviet Union between 1961 and 1984 to gather data from Venus, Venera being the Russian name for Venus. As with some of the Soviet Unions other planetary probes, the versions were launched in pairs with a second vehicle being launched soon after the first of the pair. Ten probes from the Venera series successfully landed on Venus and transmitted data from the surface of Venus, in addition, thirteen Venera probes successfully transmitted data from the atmosphere of Venus. The later probes in the Venera series successfully carried out their mission, since the surface conditions on Venus are extreme, the probes only survived on the surface for durations varying between 23 minutes up to about two hours. The first Soviet attempt at a flyby probe to Venus was launched on February 4,1961, in keeping with the Soviet policy at that time of not announcing details of failed missions, the launch was announced under the name Tyazhely Sputnik. It is also known as Venera 1VA, Venera 1 and Venera 2 were intended as fly-by probes to fly past Venus without entering orbit. Venera 1 was launched on February 12,1961, telemetry on the probe failed seven days after launch. It is believed to have passed within 100,000 km of Venus, Venera 2 launched on November 12,1965, but also suffered a telemetry failure after leaving Earth orbit. The Venera 3 to 6 probes were similar, weighing approximately one ton, and launched by the Molniya-type booster rocket, they included a cruise bus and a spherical atmospheric entry probe. The probes were optimised for atmospheric measurements, but not equipped with any special landing apparatus, although it was hoped they would reach the surface still functioning, the first probes failed almost immediately, thereby disabling data transmission to Earth. Venera 3 became the first human-made object to impact another planets surface as it crash-landed on March 1,1966, however, as the spacecrafts dataprobes had failed upon atmospheric penetration, no data from within the Venusian boundary were retrieved from the mission. On 18 October 1967, Venera 4 became the first spacecraft to measure the atmosphere of another planet, realizing the ships would be crushed before reaching the surface, the Soviets launched Venera 5 and Venera 6 as atmospheric probes. The Venera 7 probe was the first one designed to survive Venus surface conditions, still, the control scientists succeeded in extrapolating the pressure from the temperature data, which resulted from the first direct surface measurements. The Doppler measurements of the Venera 4 to 7 probes were the first evidence of the existence of high-speed zonal winds in the Venusian atmosphere, Venera 7s parachute failed shortly before landing very close to the surface. It impacted at 17 metres per second and toppled over, due to the resultant antenna misalignment, the radio signal was very weak, but was detected for 23 more minutes before its batteries expired. Thus, it became, on 15 December 1970, the first human-made probe to transmit data from the surface of Venus, Venera 8 was equipped with an extended set of scientific instruments for studying the surface. The cruise bus of Venera 7 and 8 was similar to that of earlier ones, the lander transmitted data during the descent and landed in sunlight. It measured the level but had no camera
36.
Vega program
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The Vega program was a series of Venus missions that also took advantage of the appearance of comet 1P/Halley in 1986. They had a mission to investigate Venus and also flyby Halleys Comet. The flyby of Halleys Comet had been a mission change in the Venera program following on from the cancellation of the American Halley mission in 1981. A later Venera mission was cancelled and the Venus part of the Vega 1 mission was reduced, because of this, the craft was designated Vega, a contraction of Venera and Gallei. The spacecraft design was based on the previous Venera 9 and Venera 10 missions, the two spacecraft were launched on December 15 and 21,1984, respectively. With their redesignated dual missions, the Vega probes became part of the Halley Armada, Vega 1 and Vega 2 were identical sister ships. The spacecraft was a development of the earlier Venera craft and they were designed by Babakin Space Center and constructed as 5VK by Lavochkin at Khimki. The craft was powered by large solar panels and instruments included an antenna dish, cameras, spectrometer, infrared sounder, magnetometers. The 4,920 kg craft was launched by a Proton 8K82K rocket from Baikonur Cosmodrome, Tyuratam, both Vega 1 and Vega 2 were three-axis stabilized spacecraft. The spacecraft were equipped with a dual bumper shield for dust protection from Halleys comet, the units were released some days before each arrived at Venus and entered the atmosphere without active inclination changes. Each contained a lander and a balloon explorer, the Vega 1 landers surface experiments were inadvertently activated at 20 km from the surface by an especially hard wind jolt, and so failed to provide results. The Vega 2 lander touched down at 03,00,50 UT on June 15,1985 at 8. 5° S,164. 5° E, the altitude of the touchdown site was 0.1 km above the planetary mean radius. The measured pressure at the site was 91 atm and the temperature was 736 K. The surface sample was found to be an anorthosite-troctolite, the lander transmitted data from the surface for 56 minutes. The instrument pack had enough power for sixty hours of operation and measured temperature, pressure, wind speed. The balloon envelopes were surfaced with polytetrafluoroethylene to resist attack by the corrosive atmosphere, both Vega-1 and Vega-2 balloons operated for more than 46 hrs from injection to the final transmission. The balloons were spherical superpressure types with a diameter of 3.54 metres, a gondola assembly weighing 6.9 kilograms and 1.3 meters long was connected to the balloon envelope by a tether 13 metres long. Total mass of the assembly was 21 kilograms
37.
Expendable launch system
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An expendable launch system is a launch system that uses an expendable launch vehicle to carry a payload into space. The vehicles used in launch systems are designed to be used only once. The vehicle typically consists of several stages, discarded one by one as the vehicle gains altitude. The ELV design differs from that of reusable systems, where the vehicle is launched and recovered more than once. Reuse might seem to make systems like the Space Shuttle more cost effective than ELVs, most satellites are currently launched using expendable launchers, they are perceived as having a low risk of mission failure, a short time to launch and a relatively low cost. Many orbital expendable launchers are derivatives of 1950s-era ballistic missiles, as such, cost was not a major consideration in their design. The largest of these is the Titan IV, the second costliest per-flight launch vehicle in history, on the other hand, a reusable launcher requires stronger parts and additional parts, thus decreasing payload capacity. The Space Shuttle was a national asset, used with great. Only five orbiters were built, and the loss of two cause great concern and a hiatus in Shuttle flights. Expendable launch failures usually caused a much shorter pause, each of which impacted only that model of launcher, for these reasons the Space Shuttle did not reduce the costs of constructing and launching payloads into orbit and did not replace expendable satellite launchers. On March 26,1980, the European Space Agency and the Centre National dEtudes Spatiales created Arianespace, Arianespace produces, operates and markets the Ariane launcher family. By 1995 Arianespace lofted its 100th satellite and by 1997 the Ariane rocket had its 100th launch, arianespaces 23 shareholders represent scientific, technical, financial and political entities from 10 different European countries. The major shareholder is the CNES, with 34. 68% of capital, at the start, NASA subsidized satellite launches, intending to eventually price Shuttle service for the commercial market at long-run marginal cost. On October 30,1984, United States President Ronald Reagan signed into law the Commercial Space Launch Act and this enabled an American industry of private operators of expendable launch systems. Prior to the signing of this law, all commercial satellite launches in the United States were limited to NASAs Space Shuttle, on November 5,1990, United States President George H. W. Bush signed into law the Launch Services Purchase Act. The Russian government sold part of its stake in RSC Energia to private investors in 1994, Energia together with Khrunichev constituted most of the Russian manned space program. In 1997, the Russian government sold off enough of its share to lose the majority position, in 1996 the United States government selected Lockheed Martin and Boeing to each develop Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicles to compete for launch contracts and provide assured access to space. The governments acquisition strategy relied on the commercial viability of both vehicles to lower unit costs
38.
Kosmos-3M
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The Kosmos-3M is a Russian space launch vehicle. It is a liquid-fueled two-stage rocket, first launched in 1967, the Kosmos-3M uses UDMH fuel and AK27I oxidizer to lift roughly 1,400 kg of payload into orbit. PO Polyot has manufactured these launch vehicles in the Russian town of Omsk for decades and it was originally scheduled to be retired from service in 2011, however, in April 2010 the Commander of the Russian Space Forces confirmed that it would be retired by the end of 2010. One further launch, with Kanopus-ST, was planned, however, first launched in 1967, with over 424 successful launches to date. A total of 446 Kosmos 3Ms were launched from 1967-2010, with 22 failures. Some of the noteworthy ones, On 22 December 1970. On 26 June 1973, a Kosmos 3M exploded on the pad at Plesetsk during a propellant loading accident, an attempted launch of an Intercosmos scientific satellite on 3 June 1975 failed 84 seconds into the launch when the first stage engine shut down. An attempted launch of a radar calibration satellite on 25 January 1983 suffered another first stage failure about 40 seconds into launch when the RD-219 started losing thrust. The onboard computer automatically shut the engine off and the fell into the Northern Dvina River. However, a group of ice fishing in the Dvina had witnessed the booster plunge into the river. After this and an examination of telemetry, sabotage was ruled out. The failure was traced to high-frequency combustion instability which had been a problem with the RD-219 engine and was responsible for the 1970 and 1975 Kosmos 3M failures. The engine was redesigned and no further launches were lost due to first stage engine failures, more recently, on 21 November 2000, a Kosmos 3M launcher failed to place the QuickBird 1 satellite into orbit due to a failure of its second stage. The rocket and satellite reentered the atmosphere over Uruguay, and an inquest into the accident was inconclusive, Comparison of orbital launchers families Comparison of orbital launch systems Cosmos –1,3, 3M and 3MU Encyclopedia Astronautica entry
39.
Molniya-M
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The Molniya-M, designation 8K78M, was a Russian carrier rocket derived from the R-7 Semyorka ICBM. The original 8K78 booster had been the product of a development program. As 1962 ended, there had been 12 launches of 8K78s,10 of which failed, the two successful launches had had their probes fail en route to their respective planetary targets. As such, work began at the Korolev Bureau to improve the basic 8K78 vehicle, the core and strap-ons engines were enhanced still further and the Kosberg Bureau completely redesigned the Blok I stage. The Blok L engine was also slightly enhanced, the 8K78M was first launched in 1964, however, the existing stock of 8K78s had not been used up yet and they continued to fly until 1967. During 1967, the core stage and strap-ons from the Soyuz 11A57 were adopted. It made 297 launches and experienced 21 failures and it will be replaced by the Soyuz-2/Fregat. Although originally developed for planetary probes, those had switched to the larger Proton booster by the 1970s due to increasing mass, there were four main variants of the Molniya-M, which varied in terms of their upper stage. Originally, the Block L stage was used, however, uprated versions replaced this with more powerful, or specialized, stages, for different missions. The Molniya-M/2BL, used to launch Oko missile defense spacecraft, had a Block 2BL upper stage, The Molniya-M/ML had a Block ML upper stage, following a launch on 30 September 2010, the Russian Space Forces confirmed that it had been retired from service
40.
Proton (rocket family)
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Proton is an expendable launch system used for both commercial and Russian government space launches. The first Proton rocket was launched in 1965, modern versions of the launch system are still in use as of 2016, making it one of the most successful heavy boosters in the history of spaceflight. As with many Soviet rockets, the names of recurring payloads became associated with the Proton, the moniker Proton originates from a series of similarly named scientific satellites, which were among the rockets first payloads. During the Cold War, it was designated the D-1/D-1e or SL-12/SL-13 by Western intelligence agencies, Launch capacity to low Earth orbit is about 22.8 tonnes. Geostationary transfer capacity is about 6.3 tonnes, commercial launches are marketed by International Launch Services. The rocket is intended to be retired before 2030, in January 2017, the Proton was temporarily grounded due to the manufacturer, Voronezh Mechanical Plant, having substituted a heat-resistant alloy in the engines with a cheaper metal. Proton initially started its life as a super heavy ICBM and it was designed to launch a 100-megaton thermonuclear weapon over a distance of 13,000 km. It was hugely oversized for an ICBM, and was never deployed in such a capacity and it was eventually used as a space launch vehicle. A rushed development program led to dozens of failures between 1965 and 1972, Proton did not complete its State Trials until 1977, at which point it was judged to have a higher than 90% reliability. Proton launched the unmanned Soviet circumlunar flights, and was intended to have launched the first Soviet circumlunar spaceflights, Proton launched the Salyut space stations, the Mir core segment and expansion modules, and both the Zarya and Zvezda modules of the ISS. Proton also launches commercial satellites, most of them being managed by International Launch Services, the first ILS Proton launch was on 9 April 1996 with the launch of the SES Astra 1F communications satellite. Since 1994, Proton has earned $4.3 billion for the Russian space industry, the 8K82K version is now usually called Proton K. It is fuelled by very toxic unsymmetrical dimethyl hydrazine and nitrogen tetroxide and these are hypergolic fuels which ignite on contact, avoiding the need for an ignition system, and can be stored at ambient temperatures. This avoids the need for components that are tolerant of low temperatures, in contrast, cryogenic fuels need periodic replenishment as they boil off. The fourth stage has multiple variants, depending on the mission, the simplest, Blok D, was used for interplanetary missions. Blok D had no guidance module, depending on the probe to control flight, three different Blok DM versions were for high Earth orbits. The Blok D/DM were unusual in that the fuel was stored in a tank, around the engine. The initial Proton tests in 1965–66 only used the first two stages of the booster, the complete four-stage vehicle being flown for the first time in 1967
41.
Proton-K
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The Proton-K, also designated Proton 8K82K after its GRAU index, 8K82K, was a Russian, previously Soviet, carrier rocket derived from the earlier Proton. It was built by Khrunichev, and launched from sites 81 and 200 at the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan, the maiden flight on 10 March 1967 carried a Soyuz 7K-L1 as part of the Zond program. It was retired from service in favour of the modernised Proton-M, making its 311th, the baseline Proton-K was a three-stage rocket. It was intended to launch Chelomeys manned TKS spacecraft, and succeeded in launching four unmanned tests flights prior to the programs cancellation and it was also intended for Chelomeys 20-ton LKS spaceplane that was never realised. Like other members of the Universal Rocket family, the Proton-K was fuelled by Unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine and these were hypergolic fuels which burn on contact, avoiding the need for an ignition system, and can be stored at ambient temperatures. This avoids the need for low-temperature–tolerant components, and allowed the rocket to sit on the pad fully fuelled for long periods of time, in contrast, cryogenic fuels would have required periodic topping-up of propellants as they boil off. The fuels used on the Proton, were, however, corrosive and toxic, the Russian Government paid for the cleanup of residual propellent in spent stages that impact downrange. Proton components were built in facilities near Moscow, then transported by rail to the assembly point near the pad. The first stage of the Proton-K consisted of a central oxidiser tank and this separated as one piece from the second stage, which was attached by means of a lattice structure interstage. The second stage ignited prior to first stage separation, and the top of the first stage was insulated to ensure that it retained its structural integrity until separation, the first stage used six RD-253 engines, designed by Valentin Glushko. The RD-253 is an engine and uses a staged combustion cycle. The first-stage guidance system was open-loop, which required significant amounts of propellant to be held in reserve, the third stage was powered by an RD-0210 engine and four vernier nozzles, with common systems. The verniers provided steering, eliminating the need for gimballing of the main engine and they also aided stage separation, and acted as ullage motors. Ducts built into the structure channelled vernier exhaust before stage separation, the third stage guidance system was also used to control the first and second stages earlier in flight. Many launches used a stage to boost the payload into a higher orbit. Blok D upper stages were used on forty flights, the majority of which were for the Luna, ten flights used the Blok D-1, mostly to launch spacecraft towards Venus. Blok D-2 upper stages were used three times, with the Fobos 1, Fobos 2 and Mars 96 spacecraft, the Blok DM upper stage was used on 66 launches. The most commonly used upper stage was the Blok DM-2, which was used on 109 flights, mostly with GLONASS, fifteen launches used the modernised Block DM-2M stage, mostly carrying Ekspress satellites, however other satellites, including Eutelsats SESAT1, also used this configuration
Soviet Union
Red Army
Polkovnik (colonel)
listen),[2] also transliterated as Sergey Pavlovich Korolyov, Ukrainian: Сергій Павлович Корольов Serhiy Pavlovych Korolyov; 12 January [O.S. 30 December 1906] 1907 – 14 January 1966) worked as the lead Soviet rocket engineer and spacecraft designer during the Space Race between the United States and the Soviet Union in the 1950s and 1960s. He is regarded by many as the father of practical astronautics.[3][4] He was involved in the development of the R-7 Rocket, Sputnik 1, and launching Laika and the first human being into space.[5]
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