1.
Construction set
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A construction set is a set of standardized pieces that allow for the construction of a variety of different models. The pieces avoid the lead-time of manufacturing custom pieces, and of requiring special training or design time to construct complex systems and this makes them suitable for temporary structures, or for use as childrens toys. The effect was found in school students. For children specifically, children who complete models using toy building blocks have much better spatial ability than children who do not complete such models, spatial ability also predicts completion of models. Construction toy play is beneficial for autistic children when both individual and group play with building blocks is incorporated. In addition to teaching architectural concepts such as modularity and load-bearing construction, unit block Lego clone Interlocking Puzzle Pieces and other Geometric Toys
2.
Carpenter (theatre)
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In theatre, a carpenter is a stagehand who builds sets and stage elements. They usually are hired by the manager, crew chief or technical director. They are usually paid by the hour, carpenters receive drafting from the technical director who uses the designers renderings, models, and/or drafting of the set to create the technical drawings for the production. Working mainly with woods and metals, they use techniques that include woodworking and welding and they build set pieces, including some standard elements—flats, platforms and columns—as well as pieces of the stage. For example, a carpenter may be responsible for building stairs and ramps on and off of the performance area, only carpenters trained as riggers are trusted to do rigging. Often union houses and some larger theatres make distinctions between carpenters and riggers, but most smaller theatres do not, due to staffing limitations, professional carpenters do not work on anything with an electrical component. They also do not paint the set, as this is the job of a scenic artist, often, stage carpentry for a large production is organized with one master carpenter or shop foreman and many subordinate carpenters
3.
Scenic design
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Scenic design is the creation of theatrical, as well as film or television scenery. Scenic designers come from a variety of backgrounds, but in recent years, are mostly trained professionals. Scenic designers design sets and scenery that aim to fully immerse the viewer in the production, a designer looks at the details searching for evidence through research to produce conceptual ideas that’s best toward supporting the content and values with visual elements. The subject of, “How do we generate creative ideas. ”The most consuming part of expanding our horizons toward scenic concepts is more than witnessing creativity. It starts with us opening our mind to the possibilities, to have an attitude toward learning, seeking, and engaging in creativity and to be willing to be adventurous, inquisitive and curious. Whether outside or inside, colorful trees or concerts, star lit skies or the architecture of a great building, discovering what will best clarify and support the story being told. The scenic designer works with the director and other designers to establish a visual concept for the production. All of these required drawing elements can be created from one accurate 3-D CAD model of the set design. Scenic designers are responsible for creating models of the scenery, renderings, paint elevations. Prague, CZ What is Scenography Article illustrating the differences between US and European theatre design practices Special, WhatLinksHere/Julia Anastasopoulos
4.
Theatre director
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The directors function is to ensure the quality and completeness of theatre production and to lead the members of the creative team into realizing their artistic vision for it. If the production he or she is mounting is a new piece of writing or a translation of a play, in contemporary theatre, after the playwright, the director is generally the primary visionary, making decisions on the artistic concept and interpretation of the play and its staging. Different directors occupy different places of authority and responsibility, depending on the structure, Directors use a wide variety of techniques, philosophies, and levels of collaboration. In ancient Greece, the birthplace of European drama, the writer bore principal responsibility for the staging of his plays, the author-director would also train the chorus, sometimes compose the music, and supervise every aspect of production. The fact that the director was called didaskalos, the Greek word for teacher, a miniature by Jean Fouquet from 1460 bears one of the earliest depictions of a director at work. Holding a prompt book, the central figure directs, with the aid of a long stick, from Renaissance times up until the 19th century, the role of director was often carried by the actor-manager. This would usually be an actor in a troupe who took the responsibility for choosing the repertoire of work, staging it. This was the case for instance with Commedia dellArte companies and English actor-managers like Colley Cibber, the modern theatre director can be said to have originated in the staging of elaborate spectacles of the Meininger Company under George II, Duke of Saxe-Meiningen. The management of large numbers of extras and complex stagecraft matters necessitated an individual to take on the role of overall coordinator. This gave rise to the role of the director in modern theatre, simultaneously, Constantin Stanislavski, principally an actor-manager, would set up the Moscow Art Theatre in Russia and similarly emancipate the role of the director as artistic visionary. The French regisseur is also used to mean a stage director. A more common term for theatre director in French is metteur en scène, post World War II, the actor-manager slowly started to disappear, and directing become a fully fledged artistic activity within the theatre profession. The director originating artistic vision and concept, and realizing the staging of a production, a cautionary note was introduced by the famed director Sir Tyrone Guthrie who said the only way to learn how to direct a play, is. To get a group of actors simple enough to allow you to let you direct them, most European countries nowadays know some form of professional directing training, usually at drama schools or conservatoires, or at universities. In the early days such programmes typically led to the staging of one major production in the third year. At the University of California, Irvine, Keith Fowler led for many years a programme based on the premise that directors are autodidacts who need as many opportunities to direct as possible. Under Fowler, graduate student directors would stage between five and ten productions during their residencies, with each production receiving detailed critiques. Directing is an artform that has grown with the development of theatre theory, with the emergence of new trends in theatre, so too have directors adopted new methodologies and engaged in new practices
5.
Scale model
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This enables it to demonstrate some behavior or property of the original object without examining the original object itself. The most familiar scale models represent the appearance of an object in miniature. Scale models are used in fields including engineering, architecture, film making, military command, salesmanship. While each field may use a model for a different purpose, all scale models are based on the same principles. The detail requirements vary depending on the needs of the modeler, in general a scale model must be designed and built primarily considering similitude theory. However, other requirements concerning practical issues must also be considered, similitude is the theory and art of predicting prototype performance from scale model observations. The main requirement of similitude is all dimensionless quantities must be equal for both the model and the prototype under the conditions the modeler desires to make observations. Dimensionless quantities are generally referred to as Pi terms, or π terms, in many fields the π terms are well established. For example, in dynamics, a well known dimensionless number called the Reynolds number comes up frequently in scale model tests with fluid in motion relative to a stationary surface. An example of the Reynolds number and its use in similitude theory satisfaction can be observed in the scale model testing of fluid flow in a horizontal pipe, one method to determine the dimensionless quantities of concern for a given problem is to use dimensional analysis. Practical concerns include the cost to construct the model, available test facilities to condition and observe the model, the availability of certain materials, and even who will build it. Practical requirements are very diverse depending on the purpose of the scale model. As an example, perhaps an aerospace company needs to test a new wing shape, however, if a facility such as this one cant be used, perhaps due to cost constraints, the similitude requirements must be relaxed or the test redesigned to accommodate the limitation. In this case, concessions must be made for reasons to the similitude requirements. An example of this from fluid dynamics is flow of a liquid in a horizontal pipe, possible π terms to consider in this situation are Reynolds number, Weber number, Froude number, and Mach number. For this flow configuration, however, no tension is involved. Also, compression of the fluid is not applicable, so the Mach number can be disregarded, finally, gravity is not responsible for the flow, so the Froude number can also be disregarded. This leaves the modeler with only the Reynolds number to worry about in terms of equating its values for the scale model, in general, scale models can be classified into three classes depending on the degree of similitude satisfaction they exhibit
6.
Theatrical property
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A prop, formally known as property, is an object used on stage or on screen by actors during a performance or screen production. In practical terms, a prop is considered to be anything movable or portable on a stage or a set, distinct from the actors, scenery, costumes, consumable food items appearing in the production are also considered props. The earliest known use of the properties in English to refer to stage accessories is in the 1425 CE Morality play. The Oxford English Dictionary finds the first usage of props in 1841, during the Renaissance in Europe, small acting troupes functioned as cooperatives, pooling resources and dividing any income. Many performers provided their own costumes, but special items—stage weapons, furniture or other hand-held devices—were considered company property, some experts however seem to think that the term comes from the idea that stage or screen objects belong to whoever uses them on stage. There is no difference between props in different media, such as theatre, film, or television, bland Wade, a properties director, says, A coffee cup onstage is a coffee cup on television, is a coffee cup on the big screen. He adds, There are definitely different responsibilities and different vocabulary, the term theatrical property originated to describe an object used in a stage play and similar entertainments to further the action. Technically, a prop is any object that gives the scenery, actors, or performance space specific period, place, props in a production originate from off stage unless they have been preset on the stage before the production begins. Props are stored on a prop table backstage near the entrance during production then generally locked in a storage area between performances. The term has readily transferred to television, motion picture and video game production, in recent years, the increasing popularity of movie memorabilia has added new meaning to the term prop, broadening its existence to include a valuable after-life as a prized collectors item. Typically not available until after a premiere, movie props appearing on-screen are called screen-used. However, a prop must read well from the house or on-screen, in some cases, a prop is designed to behave differently from how the real object would, often for the sake of safety. A mop, representing a string mop, but built out of a shape covered with fabric. A prop weapon that reads well but lacks the intentional harmfulness of the real weapon. In the theater, prop weapons are almost always either non-operable replicas, guns fire caps or noisy blanks, swords are dulled, and knives are often made of plastic or rubber. In film production, fully functional weapons are used. Real cartridges with bullets removed are still dangerously charged which has caused several instances when used on stage or film. The safety and proper handling of weapons used as movie props is the premiere responsibility of the prop master
7.
Floor plan
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Dimensions are usually drawn between the walls to specify room sizes and wall lengths. Floor plans may also include details of fixtures like sinks, water heaters, furnaces, floor plans may include notes for construction to specify finishes, construction methods, or symbols for electrical items. Similar to a map the orientation of the view is downward from above, but unlike a conventional map, objects below this level are seen, objects at this level are shown cut in plan-section, and objects above this vertical position within the structure are omitted or shown dashed. Plan view or planform is defined as an orthographic projection of an object on a horizontal plane. The term may be used in general to any drawing showing the physical layout of objects. For example, it may denote the arrangement of the objects at an exhibition. Drawings are now reproduced using plotters and large format xerographic copiers and this convention maintains the same orientation of the floor and ceilings plans - looking down from above. RCPs are used by designers and architects to demonstrate lighting, visible mechanical features, a floor plan is not a top view or birds eye view. It is a drawing to scale of the layout of a floor in a building. A top view or birds eye view does not show an orthogonally projected plane cut at the typical 4 foot height above the floor level, a floor plan could show, Interior walls and hallways Restrooms Windows and doors Appliances such as stoves, refrigerators, water heater etc. In other words, a plan is a section viewed from the top, in such views, the portion of the object above the plane is omitted to reveal what lies beyond. In the case of a plan, the roof and upper portion of the walls may typically be omitted. Roof plans are orthographic projections, but they are not sections as their plane is outside of the object. A plan is a method of depicting the internal arrangement of a 3-dimensional object in two dimensions. It is often used in drawing and is traditionally crosshatched. The style of crosshatching indicates the type of material the section passes through, a 3D floor plan can be defined as a virtual model of a building floor plan. Its often used to better convey architectural plans to individuals not familiar with floor plans, despite the purpose of floor plans originally being to depict 3D layouts in a 2D manner, technological expansion has made rendering 3D models much more cost effective. 3D plans show a depth of image and are often complimented by 3D furniture in the room
8.
Multiview projection
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Along the y-axis, The top and bottom views, which are known as plans. Along the z-axis, The front and back views, which are known as elevations. Orthographic projections show the views of an object, each viewed in a direction parallel to one of the main coordinate axes. These primary views are called plans and elevations, sometimes they are shown as if the object has been cut across or sectioned to expose the interior, these views are called sections. Auxiliary views are taken from an angle that is not one of the primary views. A plan is a view of a 3-dimensional object seen from vertically above and it may be drawn in the position of a horizontal plane passing through, above, or below the object. The outline of a shape in this view is called its planform. The plan view from above a building is called its roof plan, a section seen in a horizontal plane through the walls and showing the floor beneath is called a floor plan. An elevation is a view of a 3-dimensional object from the position of a vertical plane beside an object, in other words, an elevation is a side-view as viewed from the front, back, left or right. An elevation is a method of depicting the external configuration. Building façades are shown as elevations in architectural drawings and technical drawings, elevations are the most common orthographic projection for conveying the appearance of a building from the exterior. Perspectives are also used for this purpose. A building elevation is typically labeled in relation to the direction it faces. E. g. the North Elevation of a building is the side that most closely faces true north on the compass, interior elevations are used to show detailing such as millwork and trim configurations. In the building elevations are a non-perspective view of the structure. These are drawn to scale so that measurements can be taken for any aspect necessary, Drawing sets include front, rear and both side elevations. A developed elevation is a variant of a regular elevation view in several adjacent non-parallel sides may be shown together. For example, the north and west views may be shown side-by-side, sharing an edge, a section, or cross-section, is a view of a 3-dimensional object from the position of a plane through the object
9.
Fly system
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Systems are typically designed to fly components between clear view of the audience and out of view, into the large opening, fly loft, above the stage. Fly systems are used in conjunction with other theatre systems, such as scenery wagons, stage lifts and stage turntables. Theatrical rigging is most prevalent in proscenium theatres with stage houses designed specifically to handle the significant dead, building, occupational safety, and fire codes limit the types and quantity of rigging permitted in a theatre based on stage configuration. Theatrical rigging standards are developed and maintained by such as USITT. The line set is the machine of a typical fly system. The function of a line set is to fly a slender beam known as a batten by hoisting it with lift lines. By hanging scenery, lighting, or other equipment to a batten, a batten is said to be flying in when it is being lowered toward the stage, and flying out when it is being raised into the fly space. Battens may be just a few feet in length or may extend from one wing of the stage to the other, a batten is suspended from above by at least two lift lines, but long battens may require six or more lift lines. In manual rigging, a line set’s lift lines support weights opposite their connections to the batten in order to balance the weight of the batten and whatever it carries. The lift lines are reeved through a series of pulleys, known as blocks, an operating line allows riggers on the fly crew to raise and lower the batten. Automated rigging sometimes uses weights to help balance line set loads in a similar to manual counterweight rigging. Otherwise it relies solely on the power of an electric hoist to fly a line set. Together, a series of line sets regularly spaced up and down stage, commonly at 6 in,8 in, or 9 in centers. Theatrical rigging systems are made up of hemp, counterweight and/or automated line sets able to serve various functions, Line sets are typically general purpose in function, meaning they can perform any number of functions which vary depending upon the requirements of a particular theatre production. For example, a general purpose line set can usually be quickly transformed into a drapery or scenery line set, when a line set has a predetermined, relatively permanent, function it is known as a dedicated line set. Line sets are sometimes dedicated to particular draperies, such as the curtain and main border that mask the proscenium opening. Scenery line set In many stage productions, theatrical scenery is mounted to line sets in order to be flown in, for example, painted soft and hard flats and are commonly used to depict settings. Also, three-dimensional sets may be flown, Electrical line set Electrical line sets, commonly called electrics, are used to suspend and control lighting instruments and, in many cases, microphones and special effects equipment as well
10.
Scenery wagon
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A scenery wagon, also known as a stage wagon, is a mobile platform that is used to support and transport movable, three-dimensional theatrical scenery on a theater stage. In most cases, the scenery is constructed on top of the wagon such that the wagon, scenery wagons are built in a wide range of sizes, ranging from less than one square foot up to the size of the playing area of the stage. Various caster types are used on scenery wagons, the choice of caster type for any particular wagon depends on a number of factors, including platform size and shape, scenery weight, production aesthetics and budget. Typically, casters are mounted so that the bottom of the platform is elevated approximately one-half to three-quarters of an inch above the stage. The number of casters required for a wagon depends on type and load rating as well as the size, shape and weight of the wagon. Swivel casters are commonly used on smaller wagons because of the flexible, as the number of swivel casters attached to a wagon increases, though, it becomes increasingly difficult to align them. Consequently, it may be difficult or impossible to move a wagon that has a number of swivel casters when the casters are unaligned. As a result, rigid casters are preferred for larger wagons, air casters are sometimes used in place of rolling casters. To effect a change, a wagon is simply rolled offstage to remove it from the set or rolled onstage to its designated position to add it to the set. In the latter case, the wagon must be immobilized after it has been positioned on the stage so that actors can safely interact with it causing the wagon to move. A number of methods and mechanisms are used to immobilize, or lock scenery wagons in place. Ideally, the wedges are driven under the wagon to the extent that the wagon is supported by the wedges instead of its casters, wedges are typically used in pairs, on opposite sides of the wagon so that the wagon cant slip off the wedges. Slip bolts may be used to hold scenery wagons in position when high strength is required. The bolts are mounted to the base and, when the wagon is in position. A lift jack is fundamentally a lever that attaches to the wagon platform with a hinge. When no downward force is applied to the handle, the wagon rests securely on the stage. When the lever handle is forced downward, however, the caster serves as a fulcrum to lift the wagon slightly above the stage, lift jacks may be built into a wagon or onto a wagons exterior, as circumstances dictate. A wagon brake has a handle which, when pushed down, extends a steel rod down, when fully extended, the steel rod actually lifts a section of the wagon slightly off the stage floor
11.
Semperoper
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The Semperoper is the opera house of the Sächsische Staatsoper Dresden and the concert hall of the Staatskapelle Dresden. It is also home to the Semperoper ballet, the building is located near the Elbe River in the historic centre of Dresden, Germany. The opera house was built by the architect Gottfried Semper in 1841. After a devastating fire in 1869, the house was rebuilt, partly again by Semper. The opera house has a history of premieres, including major works by Richard Wagner. The first opera house at the location of todays Semperoper was built by the architect Gottfried Semper and it opened on 13 April 1841 with an opera by Carl Maria von Weber. The building style itself is debated among many, as it has features that appear in three styles, Early Renaissance and Baroque, with Corinthian style pillars typical of Greek classical revival. Perhaps the most suitable label for this style would be eclecticism, where influences from many styles are used, nevertheless, the opera building, Sempers first, is regarded as one of the most beautiful European opera houses. Following a devastating fire in 1869, the citizens of Dresden immediately set about rebuilding their opera house and they demanded that Gottfried Semper do the reconstruction, even though he was then in exile because of his involvement in the May 1849 uprising in Dresden. The architect had his son, Manfred Semper, build the opera house using his plans. Completed in 1878, it was built in Neo-Renaissance style, during the construction period, performances were held at the Gewerbehaussaal, which opened in 1870. The building is considered to be an example of Dresden Baroque architecture. It is situated on the Theatre Square in central Dresden on the bank of the Elbe River, on top of the portal there is a Panther quadriga with a statue of Dionysos. The interior was created by architects of the time, such as Johannes Schilling, monuments on the portal depict artists, such as Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Friedrich Schiller, William Shakespeare, Sophocles, Molière and Euripides. The building also features work by Ernst Rietschel and Ernst Julius Hähnel, in the pre-war years, the Semperoper premiered many of the works of Richard Strauss. In 1945, during the last months of World War II, the building was destroyed again. Exactly 40 years later, on 13 February 1985, the reconstruction was completed. It was rebuilt to be almost identical to its appearance before the war, but with the benefit of new stage machinery, the Semperoper reopened with the opera that was performed just before the buildings destruction in 1945, Carl Maria von Webers Der Freischütz
12.
Dresden
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Dresden is the capital city and, after Leipzig, the second-largest city of the Free State of Saxony in Germany. It is situated in a valley on the River Elbe, near the border with the Czech Republic, Dresden has a long history as the capital and royal residence for the Electors and Kings of Saxony, who for centuries furnished the city with cultural and artistic splendour. The city was known as the Jewel Box, because of its baroque, the controversial American and British bombing of Dresden in World War II towards the end of the war killed approximately 25,000, many of whom were civilians, and destroyed the entire city centre. After the war restoration work has helped to reconstruct parts of the inner city, including the Katholische Hofkirche, the Zwinger. Since German reunification in 1990 Dresden is again a cultural, educational and political centre of Germany, the Dresden University of Technology is one of the 10 largest universities in Germany and part of the German Universities Excellence Initiative. The economy of Dresden and its agglomeration is one of the most dynamic in Germany and it is dominated by high-tech branches, often called as “Silicon Saxony”. The city is one of the most visited in Germany with 4,3 million overnight stays per year. The royal buildings are among the most impressive buildings in Europe, main sights are also the nearby National Park of Saxon Switzerland, the Ore Mountains and the countryside around Elbe Valley and Moritzburg Castle. The most prominent building in the city of Dresden is the Frauenkirche, built in the 18th century, the church was destroyed during World War II. The remaining ruins were left for 50 years as a war memorial, the church was rebuilt from 1994 to 2005. Although Dresden is a relatively recent city of Germanic origin followed by settlement of Slavic people, Dresdens founding and early growth is associated with the eastward expansion of Germanic peoples, mining in the nearby Ore Mountains, and the establishment of the Margraviate of Meissen. Its name etymologically derives from Old Sorbian Drežďany, meaning people of the forest, Dresden later evolved into the capital of Saxony. Around the late 12th century, a Slavic settlement called Drežďany had developed on the southern bank, another settlement existed on the northern bank, but its Slavic name is unknown. It was known as Antiqua Dresdin by 1350, and later as Altendresden, dietrich, Margrave of Meissen, chose Dresden as his interim residence in 1206, as documented in a record calling the place Civitas Dresdene. After 1270, Dresden became the capital of the margraviate and it was given to Friedrich Clem after death of Henry the Illustrious in 1288. It was taken by the Margraviate of Brandenburg in 1316 and was restored to the Wettin dynasty after the death of Valdemar the Great in 1319, from 1485, it was the seat of the dukes of Saxony, and from 1547 the electors as well. The Elector and ruler of Saxony Frederick Augustus I became King Augustus II the Strong of Poland in personal union and he gathered many of the best musicians, architects and painters from all over Europe to the newly named Royal-Polish Residential City of Dresden. His reign marked the beginning of Dresdens emergence as a leading European city for technology, during the reign of Kings Augustus II the Strong and Augustus III of Poland the Zwinger Royal Palace, the Hofkirche and the Frauenkirche were built
13.
Plaster
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Plaster is a building material used for the protective and/or decorative coating of walls and ceilings and for moulding and casting decorative elements. In English plaster usually means a material used for the interiors of buildings, another imprecise term used for the material is stucco, which is also often used for plasterwork that is worked in some way to produce relief decoration, rather than flat surfaces. The most common types of plaster mainly contain either gypsum, lime, or cement, the plaster is manufactured as a dry powder and is mixed with water to form a stiff but workable paste immediately before it is applied to the surface. The reaction with water liberates heat through crystallization and the hydrated plaster then hardens, plaster can be relatively easily worked with metal tools or even sandpaper, and can be moulded, either on site or to make pre-formed sections in advance, which are put in place with adhesive. Plaster is not a material, it is suitable for finishing, rather than load-bearing. Forms of plaster have several other uses, in medicine plaster orthopedic casts are still often used for supporting set broken bones. In dentistry plaster is used to make dental models, various types of models and moulds are made with plaster. In art, lime plaster is the matrix for fresco painting. Gypsum plaster, or plaster of Paris, is produced by heating gypsum to about 300 °F, when the dry plaster powder is mixed with water, it re-forms into gypsum. The setting of unmodified plaster starts about 10 minutes after mixing and is complete in about 45 minutes, if plaster or gypsum is heated above 266 °F, hemihydrate is formed, which will also re-form as gypsum if mixed with water. On heating to 180 °C, the nearly water-free form, called γ-anhydrite is produced, γ-Anhydrite reacts slowly with water to return to the dihydrate state, a property exploited in some commercial desiccants. On heating above 250 °C, the anhydrous form called β-anhydrite or dead burned plaster is formed. A large gypsum deposit at Montmartre in Paris led calcined gypsum to be known as plaster of Paris. Plasterers often use gypsum to simulate the appearance of surfaces of wood, stone, or metal, on movie, nowadays, theatrical plasterers often use expanded polystyrene, although the job title remains unchanged. Plaster of Paris can be used to impregnate gauze bandages to make a material called plaster bandages. It is used similarly to clay, as it is shaped when wet, yet sets into a resilient. This is the material that was used to make classic plaster orthopedic casts to protect limbs with broken bones, set Modroc is an early example of a composite material. The hydration of plaster of Paris relies on the reaction of water with the dehydrated or partially hydrated calcium sulfate present in the plaster, lime plaster is a mixture of calcium hydroxide and sand
14.
Welder
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A welder or lit operator is a tradesperson who specializes in fusing materials together. The term welder refers to the operator, the machine is referred to as the power supply. The materials to be joined can be metals or varieties of plastic or polymer, welders typically have to have good dexterity and attention to detail, as well as some technical knowledge about the materials being joined and best practices in the field. Welding, without the proper precautions appropriate for the process, can be a dangerous, however, with the use of new technology and proper protection, the risks of injury and death associated with welding can be greatly reduced. Because many common welding procedures involve an open electric arc or flame, to prevent them, welders wear personal protective equipment in the form of heavy leather gloves and protective long sleeve jackets to avoid exposure to extreme heat and flames. Additionally, the brightness of the area leads to a condition called arc eye in which ultraviolet light causes the inflammation of the cornea. To protect bystanders, opaque welding curtains often surround the welding area, welders are also often exposed to dangerous gases and particulate matter. The size of the particles in question tends to influence the toxicity of the fumes, additionally, many processes produce fumes and various gases, most commonly carbon dioxide and ozone, that can prove dangerous if ventilation is inadequate. Welders with expertise in welding pressurized vessels, including submarine hulls, industrial boilers, kalpakjian, Serope and Steven R. Schmid
15.
Scenic painting
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Theatrical scenic painting includes wide-ranging disciplines, encompassing virtually the entire scope of painting and craft techniques. The techniques and specialized knowledge of the painter in replicating an image to a large scale are largely different from those of the traditional studio artist. In addition, he or she is expected to make the finished product fire-proof. Traditionally, scenic painters are drawn from the ranks of scenic designers, increasingly scenic painting is looked upon as a separate craft, and scenic painters are expected to subordinate their skills to those of the designer. A designer submits scaled paintings, maquettes or photographs, perhaps with original research, and sometimes accompanied by paint samples, Scenic paint is composed of three parts, the binder, the pigment and the medium. The binder is what makes the paint adhere to the surface to which it is applied, the pigment gives the paint its color, and the medium is designed to disappear as the paint dries. Scenic paints provide a good binder that will adhere to a variety of surfaces, and a pigment color. Popular scenic paint brands include Rosco, Artists Choice and Benjamin Moore, one of the most popular educational books about scenic painting is Scenic Art for the Theatre, History, Tools and Techniques by Susan Crabtree and Peter Beudert
16.
Stagecraft
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Stagecraft is the technical aspect of theatrical, film, and video production. It includes constructing and rigging scenery, hanging and focusing of lighting, design and procurement of costumes, make-up, stage management, audio engineering, stagecraft is distinct from the wider umbrella term of scenography. Considered a technical rather than a field, it is primarily the practical implementation of a scenic designers artistic vision. In its most basic form, stagecraft may be executed by a person who arranges all scenery, costumes, lighting, and sound. Regional theatres and larger community theatres will generally have a technical director, modern stagecraft is highly technical and specialized, it comprises many sub-disciplines and a vast trove of history and tradition. Greeks were the earliest recorded practitioners of stagecraft, Skene is Greek, translating roughly into scene or scenery, and refers to a large scenic house, about one story tall, with three doors. On the audience-side of the Skene, what are now known as flats could be hung. Flats developed to two-sided painted flats which would be mounted, centered, on a pin, with rope running around each consecutive pin. The double-sided-flat eventually evolved into the periaktos, over 20 such scenic inventions can be traced back to the Greeks. No light but that of the sun was used, plays started at sun-rise, plays of Medieval times were held in different places such as the streets of towns and cities, performed by traveling, secular troupes. Some were also held in monasteries, performed by church-controlled groups, the playing place could represent many different things such as indoors or outdoors. They were played in places so the props could be used for the play. Songs and spectacles were often used in plays to enhance participation, more modern stagecraft was in developed in England between 1576–1642. There were three different types of theaters in London – public, private and court, the size and shape varied but many were suggested to be round theaters. Most of the theatres had circular-design, with an area above the pit to allow sunlight to enter. It was an admission to stand in the pit. Court plays were used for holidays and special occasions, Lighting of the period would have consisted of candles, used as foot-lights, and hanging from chandeliers above the stage. Stagecraft during the Victorian era in England developed rapidly with the emergence of the West End, prompted by and influx of urbanites in the greater London area, Parliament was forced to do away with previous licensing laws and allowed all theatres to perform straight plays in 1843
17.
Theatrical scenery
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Theatrical scenery is that which is used as a setting for a theatrical production. The history of theatrical scenery is as old as the theatre itself, what we tend to think of as traditional scenery, i. e. By the Shakespearean era, the painted backdrop or theatrical prop was in evidence. However, this means that todays set designers must be much more careful. Our more modern notion of scenery, which dates back to the 19th century, finds its origins in the spectacle of opera buffa. Its elaborate settings were appropriated by the straight, or dramatic, theatre, through their use in comic operettas, burlesques, pantomimes and the like. Everything came together in the 1980s and 1990s and, continuing to today, until there is no established style of scenic production, modern stagecraft has grown so complex as to require the highly specialized skills of hundreds of artists and craftspeople to mount a single production. The construction of scenery is frequently one of the most time-consuming tasks when preparing for a show. As a result, many theatres have a place for storing scenery so that it can be used for multiple shows, since future shows typically are not known far in advance, theatres will often construct stock scenery that can be easily adapted to fit a variety of shows. Common stock scenery types include, Curtains Flats Platforms Scenery wagons Production sets Scenic design Set construction Scenography
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Scene shop
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A scenery shop or scene shop is a specialized workshop found in many medium or large theaters, as well as many educational theatre settings. The primary function of a shop is to fabricate and assemble the flats, platforms, scenery wagons. Commonly, a shop is also the location where most of the set painting is done. It is common for the working in a scene shop to be knowledgeable in a wide variety of technical skills. Scenic studios also sometimes make elements for museum booths, touring concerts, although many scene shops are located in general purpose building, most are in purpose built spaces because scenic fabrication has some fairly specific needs. Often they are in large, open rooms, to accommodate big elements that a show may call for. They are usually attached directly to a dock for delivery of materials. If they are attached to a venue, it is also common to have large doors providing access to the stage. Typically, compressed air and dust collection systems are distributed around the shop, many processes in a scene shop such as spray painting, welding, or hot-wire foam cutting produce dangerous gasses, so often extra ventilation is installed. Ideally, fume collection systems are available to use near the actual workpiece, Power is usually available in floor pockets or dropped from the ceiling, in a variety of voltages, as some tools, especially welders require high voltages. Often, scene shops have designated areas inside for paints, carpentry, metalwork, circular saws Table saw Power drills Screwdrivers Hammers Miter saws Welder Cutoff grinder Power sander Showers
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Batten (theater)
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In theaters, a batten is a long metal pipe suspended above the stage or audience from which lighting fixtures, theatrical scenery, and theater drapes and stage curtains may be hung. Battens that are located above a stage can usually be lowered to the stage or raised into a fly tower above the stage by a fly system, an electric is a batten that incorporates electrical cables above the pipe, often enclosed in a raceway. It typically has power cables for lights and DMX512 data cable for lighting control, the cables emerge from one end of the batten and continue through a snake to dimmers, control boards, or patchbays. All cable plugs have identifying numbers printed on them so that they can be referenced by the lighting control system. Loaded electrics are among the heaviest types of battens, often weighing more than a thousand pounds, electrics will often employ large loops of spring steel that extend outward to prevent adjacent battens from colliding with and damaging the lighting instruments. Electrics generally have an established trim height so that focusing is consistent, a drapery pipe may support front curtains, tormentor legs, borders, or tabs. Stage-width drapes can be heavy, weighing hundreds of pounds. Legs or borders are usually lighter as they may use less fabric and are not usually very thick, many theaters have built in shells designed to reflect sound produced on stage back into the audience. These shells often include large folding panels which can be flown in, elements of the set which are relatively flat or light can be flown in on battens. Some theatres use spare battens to store unneeded scenery or lighting instruments and this practice is generally discouraged due to the hazard created by overhead storage. Some theaters do not employ this system, and instead use a network of pipes accessible from catwalks above the stage. Rig Fly system Fly captain Holloway, John, burlington, MA, Elsevier Science & Technology
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Theater drapes and stage curtains
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Theater drapes and stage curtains are large pieces of cloth that are designed to mask backstage areas of a theater from spectators. Theater drapes represent a portion of any productions soft goods, a category includes any cloth-based element of the stage or scenery. Proscenium stages use a variety of drapes than arena or thrust stages. In proscenium theaters, drapes are typically suspended from battens that are controlled by a fly system. The front curtain, which is called a grand drape, act curtain, house curtain, house drape, main drape, main rag, or, in the UK, tabs, hangs downstage. It is typically opened and closed during performances to reveal or conceal the stage, there are several types of front curtains, which may consist of a single section or two sections, of fabric that may be pleated or flat. Depending on the type, front curtains may travel horizontally or vertically, in the case of front curtains that travel vertically, some types gather near the top of the proscenium when opened, while others are raised into the fly space above the stage. Hard teasers and tormentors are flat, horizontal and vertical pieces that are located just upstage of the grand drape, together, one hard teaser and a pair of tormentors are frequently used to form a reduced-size false proscenium within the frame of the actual theater proscenium. Hard teasers and tormentors are typically covered with plywood, which in turn is covered with dark colored. The teaser is usually flown from a dedicated batten so that its height can be adjusted so as to optimize its masking of the flies. In the UK this teaser is usually referred to as the House Header, in some productions, a show portal is used in place of a false proscenium. This is a frame for the stage which also serves to mask backstage areas, just as a teaser. Legs are tall, narrow stage drapes that are used to mask the wings on either side of the stage. Borders, are wide, short draperies that span the width of the stage, legs and borders are typically made from a heavy, light-absorbing material similar to that of other stage drapes. Typically, a set of two legs, one on side of the stage, and one border, is used to form a complete masking frame around the stage. Several such sets of legs and borders are typically employed at varying distances upstage from the proscenium, travelers are curtains onstage which can open and close. Drapes that hang at the sides of the perpendicular to the proscenium opening to mask the wings are known as Tabs. In the UK, these curtains have other names, often Up & Downers, a scrim, sometimes gauze, is a curtain made of an open-weave fabric that appears opaque when lit from the front, but transparent when a person or object behind the curtain is lit
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Flat (theatre)
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A flat or coulisse is a flat piece of theatrical scenery which is painted and positioned on stage so as to give the appearance of buildings or other background. Flats can be covered or hard covered. Soft-covered flats have changed little from their origin in the Italian Renaissance, flats with a frame that places the width of the lumber parallel to the face are called Broadway or stage flats. Hard-covered flats with a frame that is perpendicular to the paint surface are referred to as Hollywood or studio flats, rails are the top and bottom framing members of a flat. Rails run the width of the flat. Stiles are the members of the frame. The length of the stiles is the height of the flat. Toggles are horizontal cross pieces that run between the stiles or studs, the number and placement of toggles depends on the type of flat. The length of the toggles is the width of the flat minus the combined width of the stiles. Corner blocks are used to join the corners of a soft-cover flat and they are normally made of 1⁄4-inch plywood, and are triangles with corners of 45°, 45°, and 90°. They are most often made by ripping the plywood at 6 1⁄2 inches, keystones join the toggles to the stiles of soft-cover flats. They are 8 inches long, and normally rip sawn to the width as the toggles on one end. Straps can be used in place of keystones and they are 8 inches long and 2 1⁄2 inches wide rectangles. They are easier to construct than keystones, but not as strong, a coffin lock or screws may be used to join securely adjacent flats, or traditionally with a lash line cleat, where cotton sash cord is lashed around cleats installed on the flats edges. This allows for standing and striking of the set. Broadway or stage flats are generally constructed of 1-by-3-inch nominal pine boards, the boards are laid out flat on the shop floor, squared, and joined with the keystones and corner blocks. The keystones and corner blocks are inset 1 inch from the outside edge and they are then glued in place, and stapled or screwed down. The flat can then be flipped over and covered with muslin or decorative plywood, toggles in a Broadway flat are placed on 4 ft centers
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Stage lighting
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Stage lighting is the craft of lighting as it applies to the production of theatre, dance, opera and other performance arts. Several different types of lighting instruments are used in this discipline. In addition to lighting, modern stage lighting can also include special effects, such as lasers. People who work on stage lighting are commonly referred to as lighting technicians, the personnel needed to install, operate, and control the equipment also cross over into these different areas of stage lighting applications. The earliest known form of lighting was during the early Grecian theatres. They would build their theatres facing east to west so that in the afternoon they could perform plays and have the natural sunlight hit the actors, natural light continued to be utilized when playhouses were built with a large circular opening at the top of the theatre. Early Modern English theatres were roofless, allowing light to be utilized for lighting the stage. As theatres moved indoors, artificial lighting became a necessity and it was developed as theatres, at an unknown date, candlelight was introduced which brought more developments to theatrical lighting across Europe. While Oliver Cromwell was ruling Britain, all production was suspended in 1642. During this theatrical famine, great developments were being made in theatres on the European mainland, Charles II, who would later become King Charles II witnessed Italian theatrical methods and brought them back to England when he came to power. New playhouses were built in England and their large sizes called for more elaborate lighting, English theatres during this time used dipped candles to light chandeliers and sconces. Dipped candles were made by dipping a wick into hot wax repeatedly to create a cylindrical candle, candles needed frequent trimming and relighting regardless of what was happening on-stage because they dripped hot grease on both the audience and actors. Chandeliers also blocked the view of some patrons, there were two different types of Restoration theatres in England, Restoration commercial theatres and Restoration court theatres. Commercial theatres tended to be conservative in their lighting, for economic reasons. Court theatres could afford to use most of the Continental innovations in their productions, two main court theatres, built between 1660 and 1665, were the Cockpit Theatre and the Hall Theatre. Chandeliers and sconces seemed to be the primary lighting sources here but other developments were being made, by the 1670s, the Hall Theatre started using footlights, and between 1670 and 1689 they used candles or lamps. It can be noted that by the end of the 17th century, French, there is not much written on theatrical lighting in England at the end of the 17th century and from the little information historians do have, not much changed by the middle of the 18th century. Gas lighting hit the English stage in the early 1800s beginning with the Drury Lane, in the 1820s, a new type of artificial illumination was developed
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Lighting designer
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The LD also works closely with the stage manager or show control programming, if show control systems are used in that production. The role of the lighting designer varies greatly within professional and amateur theater, for a Broadway show, a touring production and most regional and small productions the LD is usually an outside freelance specialist hired early in the production process. Smaller theatre companies may have a resident lighting designer responsible for most of the companys productions or rely on a variety of freelance or even help to light their productions. At the Off-Broadway, or Off-Off-Broadway level the LD will occasionally be responsible for much of the technical work that would be the work of the lighting crew in a larger theater. The LD must take account the shows mood and the directors vision in creating a lighting design. Because lighting design is more abstract than costume or scenic design. Various forms of paperwork are essential for the LD to successfully communicate their design to various members of the production team, examples of typical paperwork include cue sheets, lightplots, instrument schedules, shop orders and focus charts. Cue sheets are of the most value to stage management, the light plot is a scale drawing that communicates the location of lighting fixtures and lighting positions so a team of electricians can independently install the lighting system. Next to each instrument on the plan will be information for any color gel, gobo, or other accessory that needs to go with it, often, paperwork listing all of this information is also generated by using a program such as Lightwright. The lighting designer uses this paperwork to aid in the visualization of not only ideas but simple lists to assist the Master Electrician during load-in, focus, professional LDs generally use special computer-aided design packages to create accurate and easily readable drafted plots that can be swiftly updated as necessary. The LD will discuss the plot with the production manager. After the Electricians have hung, circuited and patched the lighting units, nevertheless, any errors of focusing or changes to the lighting plan are corrected only when the performers are not onstage. These changes take place during work or note calls, the LD only attends these notes calls if units are hung or rehung and require additional focusing. The LD or Assistant Lighting Director will be in charge if in attendance, if the only work to be done is maintenance then the Production or Master Electrician will be in charge and will direct the Electrics crew. After the tech process, the performance may go into Dress rehearsal without a ticketed audience and/or Previews with a ticketed audience, during this time, if the cueing is finished, the LD will sit in the audience and take notes on what works and what needs changing. At this point, the Stage Manager will begin to take over the work of calling cues for the light board op to follow. Often, changes take place during notes call, but if serious problems occur the performance may be halted. If the show is still in previews, then the LD will make changes, changes should not be made after the lighting design is finished, and never without the LDs approval
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Stage lighting accessories
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Stage lighting accessories are components manufactured for conventional stage lighting instruments. Most conventional fixtures are designed to accept a number of different accessories designed to assist in the modification of the output and these accessories are intended to either provide relatively common functionality not originally provided in a fixture, or to extend the versatility of a lighting instrument by introducing features. Other accessories have been designed to overcome limitations or difficulties some fixtures present in specific applications. Barn doors, or occasionally a set of doors, are an attachment fitted to the front of a Fresnel lantern, a type of lantern used in films, television. The attachment has the appearance of a set of barn doors. Barn doors are mounted with a ring that fits inside of the color gel slot on the instrument, because of this, barn doors have a gel slot built into them, so the light can still be colored. Depending on the size and local practices, barn doors may be attached to the pipe or the instrument with their own safety cable, Barn doors are generally not used with profile or ellipsoidal reflector spotlights such as the Source Four because they have internal shutters which work more effectively. Barn doors are not effective at shaping the light of a PAR lights, a top hat, also known as a stove pipe or snoot, is a device used in theatrical lighting to shield the audiences eyes from the direct source of the light. It is shaped like a top hat with a hole in the top, the cylinder allows light to pass through but takes away the glint of a lighting instrument facing the audience. It also reduces flare created by the light, which is useful when the unit is hung near the proscenium or other objects that the designer does not want to light. There are also half-hats or eyelashes, which function in a similar manner but have only half the cylinder, and short hats, top hats are manufactured for most modern-day lighting instruments with gel frames of varying sizes. Gel extenders are similar to top hats in appearance, being a tube placed over the end of a lighting fixture, unlike top hats, however, gel extenders have a colour frame holder built into the end to allow color gel to be mounted. Gel extenders are available in a conical shape which does not constrict the beam of light output from the fixture at all. A colour frame or gel frame is a piece of folded material, made from metal or cardboard. Colour frames are placed directly outside the fixture, immediately in front of lens assembly, most fixtures include an integrated holder for the frame. Some accessories designed to mount in the gel frame holder, such as Barn Doors and this increases sharpness of the light by reducing the effect of imperfect lenses. Doughnuts are designed to fit into the colour frame holder directly outside the fixture, because they are typically thin, doughnuts can often be placed in the same slot as a gel frame. Doughnuts are typically used in fixtures in order to sharpen the beam when a template is in place
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Color gel
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Modern gels are thin sheets of polycarbonate or polyester, placed in front of a lighting fixture in the path of the beam. Gels have a life, especially in saturated colors and shorter wavelength. The color will fade or even melt, depending upon the absorption of the color. In permanent installations and some uses, colored glass filters or dichroic filters are being used. The main drawbacks are additional expense and a limited selection. In Shakesperean theater, red wine was used in a container as a light filter. In later days, colored water or silk was used to light in the theater. Later, a gelatin base became the material of choice, gelatin gel was available at least until 1979. The name gel has continued to be used to the present day, gelatin based color media had no melting point, and the color was cast in the media as opposed to being coated on the surface, both important properties for color media. It would, however, char at high temperature and became brittle once heated, by 1945 more heat-tolerant self-extinguishing acetate-based through-dyed materials were being manufactured. In the States Roscolene was also developed to deal with higher output light sources. The acetate-based material was replaced by polycarbonates like Roscolar and polyester based filters and these materials have superior heat tolerance when compared to acetate-based gels. Many were transparent film with a surface coating, the first dyed polyester gels were introduced by Berkey-Colortran in 1969 as Gelatran, the original deep dyed polyester. The Gelatran process is used today to produce GAMColor and Roscolux. Other color manufacturers, such as Lee Filters and Apollo Design Technology use a surface applied dye, almost every color manufacturer today uses either polycarbonate or polyester to manufacture their gels. Even todays gels can burn out easily, rendering them useless, to help combat this, a high temperature material, can be used to help prolong the life in high-heat output lighting instruments. In the 1930s Strand Electric of Floral Street, London provided the first numbering system for their swatches and with their agents in New York, remnants of this original filter color system exist in the color swatches of today. In the theater, gels are typically available in single 20x 24 sheets, the size originates from the gelatin days, it is the same as a standard bakers sheet, which was used to cast the sheets
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Color scroller
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A color scroller moves plastic gel color gel into the beam of the light. Most scrollers are controlled via DMX512 protocol, but some models also utilize the RDM protocol, when color scrollers were first introduced around 1980, a number of companies produced them, including, Avolites, GAM Products, Morpheus Lights, Rainbow, Rosco Laboratories and Wybron Inc. Now the main manufacturers are, A. C. Lighting, Apollo, Morpheus Lights, the most commonly used type of scroller is the single string scroller. This type has only one string of color anywhere from 2 to 33 frames long, dual string scrollers use 2 strings and allow for a form of CMY mixing. The Apollo MXR2, Chroma-Q Cascade and the Wybron CXI use 2 gel strings to obtain a CMY mix, one frame of clear gel is positioned at the center of each gel string with progressively denser frames of color positioned to either side of it. The first string has progressively denser yellow and cyan frames and the string has progressively denser yellow. This permits various YC, YM, and CM combinations to be achieved as a static color mix, there is a limited ability to transition live between mixed colors - although some transitions cannot be accomplished without passing through the clear center frame. Finally, there are true CYM mixing scrollers that utilize three independently controlled gel strings - namely, the ColorFader system manufactured by Morpheus Lights of Las Vegas, independent control of the gel strings permits users to cross-fade from any color to any color directly. The ColorFader system was developed to mimic the systems used in most moving lights. These transitions are achieved by starting with a full-density sheet of gel, at the start position on a ColorFader scroll the holes are large and plentiful - so the percentage of white light predominates and low-saturation colors are achieved. Ultimately a solid, unperforated sheet of gel is positioned in the optical path - for full saturation of and combination of Cyan, color scrollers come in many different sizes and are mountable on nearly every type of conventional lighting instrument. Sizes include,4 Inch 6 to 7.5 Inch 8 to 10 inch 12 inch 15 inch 20-30 inch Large format scrollers for ETC Multi-PAR units Most color scrollers use DMX512 addressing protocol, each scroller unit is given an address or identifying number. Earlier scroller models used binary DIP switches to set the address, depending on the manufacturer, power supplies can power anywhere from 1 to 64 units. Some color scrollers are configured for daisy chain connection, by which 4-pin power/control cable feeds into, the number of units that can be daisy chained together is limited by a head-feet restriction. Head-feet is defined as the sum of the lengths of cable from each device to a single power supply. It is a way to account for the drop in the power/signal cable caused the current drawn from each unit. If you exceed the recommended head feet you may experience problems with all of the scrollers on the chain. Other scroller systems, such as the Morpheus ColorFader, do not permit daisy chaining
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Cyclorama (theater)
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A cyclorama is a large curtain or wall, often concave, positioned at the back of the apse. It was popularized in the German theater of the 19th century, a cyc can be made of unbleached canvas or muslin, filled scrim, or seamless translucent plastic. Traditionally it is hung at 0% fullness, when possible, it is stretched on the sides and weighted on the bottom to create a flat and even surface. As seams tend to interrupt the surface of the cyclorama. As the name implies, it often encircles or partially encloses the stage to form a background, cycloramas or cycs also refer to photography curving backdrops which are white to create no background, or green screen to create a masking backdrop. Cycloramas are often used to create the illusion of a sky onstage, by varying the equipment, intensity, color and patterns used, a lighting designer can achieve many varied looks. A cyclorama can be front lit or, if it is constructed of translucent and seamless material, to achieve the illusion of extra depth, often desirable if one is re-creating a sky, the cyclorama can be paired with a sharkstooth scrim backdrop. Cycloramas are also often illuminated during dance concerts to match the mood of a song, occasionally, the cyc may be painted with a decorative or pictorial scene to fit a specific show, these are generally referred to as backdrops. Cyclorama Building, Boston Stage lighting Striplight Theater drapes and stage curtains Phyllis Hartnoll, the Concise Oxford Companion to the Theatre
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Gobo (lighting)
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A gobo is a physical stencil or template that is placed inside or in front of a light source, to control the shape of the emitted light. They are often used with stage lighting instruments to manipulate the shape of the light which is cast over a space or object. A metal gobo with patterned holes allows only the shape or pattern of light through, casting a specific pattern of light. This placement is important because it allows a pattern with crisp, Gobos placed after the optics do not have the option of such fine focus, and are more precisely called flags or cucoloris. Gobos may be used, in connection with projectors and simpler light sources, simple gobos, incorporated into automated lighting systems, are popular at nightclubs and other musical venues to create moving shapes. Gobos may also be used for lighting, as well as in interior design. Gobos can be made from various materials, common types include steel, glass and plastic/transparency gobos. Steel gobos use a template from which the image is cut out of. These types of gobos are the most sturdy of the common gobo types, in order to correctly represent the letter O for example, small tabs or bridges must be made in order to keep the metal tab in the middle of the letter supported. This effect may be undesirable in more intricate patterns or designs, glass gobos are made from transparent glass with a partial mirror coating to block the light and produce black areas in the projected image. This eliminates any need for bridging, since the glass itself is the support, glass gobos generally offer the highest image fidelity but are the most fragile. Usually, to create a glass gobo laser ablation or photo etching are used, plastic gobos or Transparency gobos can be used in LED ellipsoidal spotlights. These LED Only plastic gobos can be full color, but without the delicate nature and these plastic LED Only gobos are new to the market, as are the lights they go in, so there is much about the durability and effectiveness that will vary from brand to brand. In the past plastic gobos had been generally custom made—for when a pattern is needed in color, a lapse in the cooling apparatus, even for just a few seconds, can cause plastic gobos in a traditional lighting instrument to be ruined. Generally the lighting designer chooses a pattern from a catalogue or small swatch book provided by the manufacturer, because of the large number of gobos available, they are generally referred to by number, not name. For example, most manufacturers offer a gobo of a window, so instead of calling it window, it would be identified as gobo xxxxx Gobos are often used in weddings and corporate events to add a personal touch to the look of an event. Company logos, the names, or just about any artwork can be turned into a projected image. Some companies can turn a custom gobo out in as little as a week, stock gobo patterns are also widely used for these events, often stars or water projected onto the ceiling to set a mood in the whole room
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Lighting control console
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A lighting control console is an electronic device used in theatrical lighting design to control multiple lights at once. They are used throughout the entertainment industry and are placed at the Front of House position or in a control booth. All lighting control consoles can control dimmers which control the intensity of the lights, many modern consoles can control Intelligent lighting, fog machines and hazers, and other special effects devices. Some consoles can also interface with other performance hardware to improve synchronization or unify their control. Lighting consoles communicate with the dimmers and other devices in the system via an electronic control protocol. Consoles vary in size and complexity, from small preset boards to dedicated moving light consoles, most consoles accept MIDI Show Control signals and commands to allow show control systems to integrate their capabilities into more complex shows. Preset boards are the most basic lighting consoles—and also the most prevalent in smaller installations and they consist of two or more identical fader banks, called scenes. The faders on these scenes can be manually adjusted, each scene has the same number of channels which control the same dimmers. So the console operator can build a scene offline or in blind, generally, at least with a preset board, the operator has a cue sheet for each scene, which is a diagram of the board with the faders in their positions as determined by the lighting designer. The operator sets the faders into their positions based on the cue sheets, typically during a cue, the operator sets the next scene. Then, the operator makes the transition between the scenes using the cross-fader, Preset boards are not as prevalent since the advent of digital memory consoles, which can store scenes digitally, and are generally much less cumbersome but more expensive than preset boards. However, for small setups such as that of a DJ, they remain the board of choice for their simple to use interface and this is however not recommended since it is a long, drawn-out, and cumbersome process. Memory-based consoles have become popular in almost all larger installations. This type of controller has almost completely replaced preset consoles as controllers of choice and they also allow for lighting cues to contain larger channel counts due to the same time savings gained from not physically moving individual channel faders. Many memory consoles have a bank of faders and these faders can be programmed to control a single channel or a group of channels. The console may also have provision to operate in analog to a desk for programming scenes or live control. On some more advanced consoles, faders can be used to control effects, chases, moving Light Controllers are another step up in sophistication from Memory Consoles. As well as being capable of controlling ordinary luminares via dimmers, on midrange controllers, these are usually provided as a section separate from main Preset and Cue stack controls
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Socapex
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They are wired with six hot/live pins, six neutral pins, six ground/earth pins, and a final central pin used to aid alignment of the male end of the connector with a female receptacle. The Socapex was first created by a company called Socapex in 1961, Socapex became a brand name owned by Amphenol Socapex, the term is now often applied to similar off-brand connectors as a genericized trademark. Breakouts are often used to connect fixtures to the cable, a breakin is the opposite, consisting of tails with male Parallel Blade, stage pin connectors, IEC6030916 A, NEMA L5-20R twist-lock, BS546 or Schuko connectors feeding a female socapex connector. These are used to connect Socapex cables to dimmer packs that do not have Socapex outputs, Amphenol Socapex is still manufacturing and selling the original Socapex. The company also manufacturers a wider range of robust multi-way electrical connectors available in various standard, while some companies use Socapex as a rigging motor power cable, this is generally not recommended as differences in voltage can be misinterpreted, causing extensive equipment damage. Please note that the image above displays CEEP connectors who were the first company to introduce the mono piece backshell into the many years ago. KUPO 19PIN Website Official Socapex Website Official CEEP Website Official P3 Lighting connectors web-site SES19 pin connector web-site
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Stage pin connector
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A stage pin connector, also known as a grounded stage pin or grounded pin connector, is a standard cable type for theatrical lighting in North America and in many countries in the theatre world. Stage pin connectors are used for conducting dimmed power from a dimmer to stage lighting instruments. The first stage pin connectors had two cylindrical pins, one for line and one for neutral, arranged symmetrically in a rectangular housing. The housing was milled from a block of fiberglass or bakelite which may have been impregnated with asbestos for fire resistance. Later connectors use molded plastic or machined phenolic resin laminate housings and these two-pin connectors were not polarized, and thus the line and neutral conductors could be exchanged depending on which way the connectors were mated. Two-pin connectors may still be found on equipment and are often saved by electricians for wiring ungrounded fixtures. The ground pin is situated between the line and neutral pins and closer to the latter and this asymmetrical configuration effectively polarizes the connector ensuring that the line and neutral conductors are not exchanged in a properly wired installation. The ground pin is longer than the other two, ensuring that the safety ground connection is made first when making a connection. A special tool called a pin splitter may be used to expand this slit. A knife may be used to the effect, but this technique risks both personal injury, damage to the connector, or ruining of the knife blade. For these reasons, a screwdriver is often used as an impromptu pin splitter. Care must be taken when repairing or building these larger connectors, because ground is on the pin and neutral is in the middle. Most extension cables made with 20 A stage pin connectors use 12/3 type SOOW or SJOOW cable which has three individually insulated 12 awg stranded conductors inside a larger jacket, the internal insulation is usually colored black, white and green. This cable configuration can safely handle the full 20 ampere rating of the connector, the designation SOOW or SJOOW refers to the cables insulation construction and type. SJ— and S— are both most severe service cordage, however, older cable made using natural rubber is susceptible to dry-rotting, particularly in the heat generated by lighting equipment. This can cause the insulation to fail and expose or short circuit the conductors leading to shock or fire hazard if old cable is not inspected regularly, some stage pin extension cables may be constructed from cable with six or more conductors. This cable can be fitted with multiple stage-pin connectors at either end enabling the single cable to carry multiple independent output channels of dimmed power. Each channel or circuit should have its own line, ground, the cables integrally connected to lighting instruments may use 3-conductor SJOOW or SOOW cable or individual high-temperature wires inside of a fiberglass sleeve
32.
Theatrical smoke and fog
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Theatrical smoke and fog, also known as special effect smoke, fog or haze, is a category of atmospheric effects used in the entertainment industry. These atmospheric effects are used for creating effects, to make lighting and lighting effects visible. If an individual is at an entertainment venue and beams of light are visible cutting across the room, theatrical smoke and fog are indispensable in creating visible mid-air laser effects to entertain audiences. Common popular applications for theatrical fog include environmental testing as well as emergency personnel, militaries have historically used smoke and fog to mask troop movements in training and combat, the techniques of which are technologically similar to those used in theatre and film. There are generally 4 types of fog effects used in entertainment applications, smoke, fog, haze, Smoke is differentiated from other atmospheric effects in that it is composed of solid particles released during combustion, rather than the liquid droplets that fog or haze are composed of. Fog is created by pumping one of a variety of different glycol or glycol/water mixtures into a heat exchanger and heating until the fluid vapourizes, devices specifically manufactured for this purpose are referred to as a fog machines. For theatrical purposes the pesticide is typically replaced with glycol, glycol/water mixtures and this technique is similar to the smoke generators used by militaries to create smoke screens, and is generally only used outdoors due to the volume of fog produced and the petroleum fuel required. Low-lying fog effects can be created by combining a fog machine with another device designed specifically for this purpose, the result is a relatively thick fog that stays within a few feet of the ground. As the fog warms, or is agitated, it rises and dissipates, several manufacturers of theatrical fog fluid have developed specially formulated mixtures specifically designed to be used with CO2, intended to provide thicker, more consistent fog effects. Although these chilling devices do not use carbon dioxide, the specially formulated fog fluid does create denser fog than regular fog fluid, Haze effects refer to creating an unobtrusive, homogeneous cloud intended primarily to reveal lighting beams, such as light fingers in a rock concert. This effect is produced using a machine, typically done in one of two ways. One technique uses oil, atomized via a spray pump powered either by electricity or compressed CO2. Another technique for creating haze uses a mixture to create haze in a process nearly identical to that for creating fog effects. In either case the fluid used is referred to as haze fluid, glycol/water haze fluid is sometimes referred to as water based haze to avoid ambiguity. Smaller volumes of haze can also be generated from aerosol canisters containing mineral oil under pressure, liquid carbon dioxide, stored in compressed cylinders, is used in conjunction with theatrical fog machines to produce low-lying fog effects. When liquid CO2 is used to chill theatrical fog, the result is a fog that stays within a few feet of the ground. As the fog warms, or is agitated, it rises and dissipates, several manufacturers of theatrical fog fluid have developed specially formulated mixtures specifically designed to be used with CO2, intended to provide thicker, more consistent fog effects. Effect duration is determined by the cycle of the theatrical fog machine
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Stage lighting instrument
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Stage lighting instruments are used in stage lighting to illuminate theatrical productions, concerts, and other performances taking place in live performance venues. They are also used to light television studios and sound stages, many stagecraft terms vary between the United States and the United Kingdom. In the United States, lighting fixtures are often called instruments or units, in the UK, they are called lanterns or luminaires. This article mainly uses terms common to the United States, see the picture at top right for the physical location of most components. It comprises all of the exterior of the fixture except for the lens or opening, the housing may be designed with specific elements that help reduce heat and increase the efficiency of a lamp. Older instruments were made from rolled and machined steel or aluminum, with the advent of the Source Four, many lighting instruments are being made from die cast metal. Die casting allows for one single, light-weight body that is economical to produce. Some instruments are made from plastic, such as the Selecon Pacific, the opening of samad is the gap in the housing from where the beam of light is intended to come. Many fixtures use a lens to help control the beam of light, though some, such as border or cyclorama lights, the lens and the reflector, along with other beam-altering devices are both considered part of the optics system. The reflector affects the quality and directionality of the light output, a reflector is located behind or around the light source in such a way as to direct more light towards the lens or opening. Each unit has a reflector, used in conjunction with the lens to create the desired effect. An ellipsoidal reflector has a set at one focus point of an ellipsoid-shaped reflector that bounces the light. This focuses the beam of light into a tight beam, ellipsoidal reflectors often are used for tight, focusable spots, although they can be used for floodlights, such as in scoops. A parabolic reflector has a set at the focus point of a parabola-shaped reflector that bounces the light in parallel beams away from the reflector. There is no point at which the light converges, so the light is unfocusable, parabolic reflectors are used for lights intended to provide an unfocused wash, such as PAR cans. Reflectors can also be used to reduce or eliminate unwanted thermal emission. Incandescent lamps produce light through heating of the filament, while arc lamps produce light through the heating, in either case, this heat is also emitted from the lamp as infrared light. The thermal energy is projected onto the stage with the visible light
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Beam projector
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A beam projector is a lenseless stage lighting instrument with very little beam spread. The primary reflector is a reflector and the secondary reflector is a spherical reflector. The result is a shaft of light that cannot be easily controlled or modified. Beam projectors are used to create a godspot effect. The beam projector no longer is used to the extent that it once was, as newer fixtures, a similar effect can be produced using ETC Source Four PAR fixtures with a clear lens. A snoot/top hat can be added to control spill
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Ellipsoidal reflector spotlight
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The optics of an ERS instrument are roughly similar to those of a 35 mm slide projector. There are many types of ERS that are designed for the applications found in the entertainment industry. ERS instruments come in all shapes and sizes, each particular model of ERS has its own set of characteristics. Generally, ERS instruments are the most varied and utilized type of stage lighting instrument, ERS may also be referred to as Profile Spotlights because the beam can be shaped to the profile of an object. Ellipsoidal reflectors are used for their strong, well-defined light and their versatility, leko and Source Four are brand names which are often, but inaccurately, used to refer to any sort of ellipsoidal. Characteristics of a typical ellipsoidal lighting unit include, An ellipsoidal reflector An adjustable lens tube containing the lens or lens train. Adjusting the tube by pushing it further in or pulling it out of the unit allows changes to the focus of the beam of light projected by the unit. This results from changing the distance between the reflector and the lens train, Zoom ERS instruments can vary the size of beam as well as the focus One or two Plano-Convex lenses within the lens tube to create the lens train. The Plano-Convex lenses, named for having one side and one convex side, have their convex sides facing each other within the tube. Most modern units include two slots that allow for combining different accessories A series of four shutters mounted at the focal point of the unit. These allow for precise shaping and sizing of the beam as lines. Additionally, an iris may be present to size the beam circularly, the filament of the lamp is at one focal point of the ellipsoidal reflector and the gate with the shutters and gobo are at the other focal point. Ellipsoidals are supplied with a certain size lens or lenses that determines the field angle, field angle is the angle of the beam of light where it reaches 10% of the intensity of the center of the beam. Most manufacturers now use field angle to indicate the fixtures spread typically in this series, older fixtures are described by the width of the lens x focal length of the instrument. For example, a 6x9 ellipsoidal would have a 6 diameter lens, 6x9 Instruments have a field angle of approximately 37°. 6x12 instruments have an angle of approximately 27°. As the field angle narrows, the instrument can be used further from the stage, variable focus instruments with two lenses that move in and out from the lamp housing are also available, allowing the user to manually adjust to the desired focal length within a certain range. Ellipsoidals can be used for any job but their function is to illuminate a specific proximity
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Fresnel lantern
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A Fresnel lantern is a common lantern used in theatre, which employs a Fresnel lens to wash light over an area of the stage. The lens produces a wider, soft-edged beam of light, which is used for back light. The distinctive lens has an appearance instead of the full or smooth appearance of other lenses. This allows the lens to have a greater curvature than would otherwise be practical. The lens focuses the light by tilting each ring of glass slightly more towards the center as the distance is increased from the center of the lens. If the glass were completely flat, this would cause a pattern of circles of light. This pattern of small bumps helps to break up the passing through the lens. This means that the intensity of the light is consistent across the spread of the beam of light, the stepped lens design causes less heat buildup than a plano-convex lens of the same angle. These lenses are named after their inventor, Augustin-Jean Fresnel, who developed the lens initially for use in lighthouses. Theatrical Fresnels are typically made in 8,6 or 3 inch varieties, referring to the diameter of the lens, the 3-inch variety is referred to as an inkie. Fresnel lenses can operate close to the source and are very cheap to produce, so the lanterns tend to be small. In film lighting, a greater range of lens and lamp sizes are produced and used. The reflector effectively doubles the output of the fixture, as all light that is emitted backwards into the reflector is reflected back through the filament of the lamp. As with most lighting fixtures, the lamp and reflector cannot move independently and it is this unit that is moved back and forth inside the lamp to focus the light. This is done by a slider on the bottom of the lantern, the lamps are almost always mounted base down, i. e. with the bulb standing upwards. Burning these lamps upside down will shorten lamp life significantly, the degree to which the lamp may be focused is limited by the length of the housing. To reduce the width of the beam, the lamp and reflector are moved back from the lens. However, the back in the housing the lamp is placed
