1.
Sewage treatment
–
Sewage treatment is the process of removing contaminants from wastewater, primarily from household sewage. It includes physical, chemical, and biological processes to remove these contaminants, a by-product of sewage treatment is usually a semi-solid waste or slurry, called sewage sludge, that has to undergo further treatment before being suitable for disposal or land application. Sewage treatment may also be referred to as treatment, although the latter is a broader term which can also be applied to purely industrial wastewater. If the sewer system is a combined sewer then it will also carry urban runoff to the treatment plant. The term sewage treatment plant is often replaced with the term wastewater treatment plant. Sewage can be treated close to where the sewage is created, alternatively, sewage can be collected and transported by a network of pipes and pump stations to a municipal treatment plant. This is called a centralized system, sewage is generated by residential, institutional, commercial and industrial establishments. It includes household waste liquid from toilets, baths, showers, kitchens, in many areas, sewage also includes liquid waste from industry and commerce. Sewage may include stormwater runoff or urban runoff, sewerage systems capable of handling storm water are known as combined sewer systems. This design was common when urban sewerage systems were first developed, in the late 19th, combined sewers require much larger and more expensive treatment facilities than sanitary sewers. Heavy volumes of storm runoff may overwhelm the sewage treatment system, sanitary sewers are typically much smaller than combined sewers, and they are not designed to transport stormwater. Backups of raw sewage can occur if excessive infiltration/inflow is allowed into a sewer system. As rainfall travels over roofs and the ground, it may pick up various contaminants including soil particles and other sediment, heavy metals, organic compounds, animal waste, some jurisdictions require stormwater to receive some level of treatment before being discharged directly into waterways. Examples of treatment processes used for stormwater include retention basins, wetlands, buried vaults with various kinds of media filters and this process is called industrial wastewater treatment. The same does not apply to many developing countries where industrial effluent is more likely to enter the sewer if it exists, or even the water body. Industrial wastewater may contain pollutants which cannot be removed by conventional sewage treatment, also, variable flow of industrial waste associated with production cycles may upset the population dynamics of biological treatment units, such as the activated sludge process. Sewage collection and treatment is subject to local, state and federal regulations. Sewage treatment generally involves three stages, called primary, secondary and tertiary treatment, Primary treatment consists of temporarily holding the sewage in a quiescent basin where heavy solids can settle to the bottom while oil, grease and lighter solids float to the surface
Sewage treatment
–
A wastewater treatment plant in Oregon, USA.
Sewage treatment
–
Simplified
process flow diagram for a typical large-scale treatment plant
Sewage treatment
–
Process flow diagram for a typical treatment plant via subsurface flow constructed wetlands (SFCW)
Sewage treatment
–
Secondary
clarifier at a rural treatment plant.
2.
Syria
–
Syrias capital and largest city is Damascus. Religious groups include Sunnis, Christians, Alawites, Druze, Mandeans, Shiites, Salafis, Sunni Arabs make up the largest religious group in Syria. Its capital Damascus and largest city Aleppo are among the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world, in the Islamic era, Damascus was the seat of the Umayyad Caliphate and a provincial capital of the Mamluk Sultanate in Egypt. The post-independence period was tumultuous, and a number of military coups. In 1958, Syria entered a union with Egypt called the United Arab Republic. Syria was under Emergency Law from 1963 to 2011, effectively suspending most constitutional protections for citizens, Bashar al-Assad has been president since 2000 and was preceded by his father Hafez al-Assad, who was in office from 1970 to 2000. Mainstream modern academic opinion strongly favours the argument that the Greek word is related to the cognate Ἀσσυρία, Assyria, in the past, others believed that it was derived from Siryon, the name that the Sidonians gave to Mount Hermon. However, the discovery of the inscription in 2000 seems to support the theory that the term Syria derives from Assyria. The area designated by the word has changed over time, since approximately 10,000 BC, Syria was one of centers of Neolithic culture where agriculture and cattle breeding appeared for the first time in the world. The following Neolithic period is represented by houses of Mureybet culture. At the time of the pre-pottery Neolithic, people used vessels made of stone, gyps, finds of obsidian tools from Anatolia are evidences of early trade relations. Cities of Hamoukar and Emar played an important role during the late Neolithic, archaeologists have demonstrated that civilization in Syria was one of the most ancient on earth, perhaps preceded by only those of Mesopotamia. The earliest recorded indigenous civilisation in the region was the Kingdom of Ebla near present-day Idlib, gifts from Pharaohs, found during excavations, confirm Eblas contact with Egypt. One of the earliest written texts from Syria is an agreement between Vizier Ibrium of Ebla and an ambiguous kingdom called Abarsal c.2300 BC. The Northwest Semitic language of the Amorites is the earliest attested of the Canaanite languages, Mari reemerged during this period, and saw renewed prosperity until conquered by Hammurabi of Babylon. Ugarit also arose during this time, circa 1800 BC, close to modern Latakia, Ugaritic was a Semitic language loosely related to the Canaanite languages, and developed the Ugaritic alphabet. The Ugarites kingdom survived until its destruction at the hands of the marauding Indo-European Sea Peoples in the 12th century BC, Yamhad was described in the tablets of Mari as the mightiest state in the near east and as having more vassals than Hammurabi of Babylon. Yamhad imposed its authority over Alalakh, Qatna, the Hurrians states, the army of Yamhad campaigned as far away as Dēr on the border of Elam
Syria
–
Female figurine, 5000 BC.
Ancient Orient Museum.
Syria
–
Flag
Syria
–
God head, the kingdom of
Yamhad (c. 1600 BC)
Syria
–
Ebla royal palace c. 2400 BC
3.
Wastewater
–
Wastewater, also written as waste water, is any water that has been adversely affected in quality by anthropogenic influence. Wastewater can originate from a combination of domestic, industrial, commercial or agricultural activities, surface runoff or stormwater, municipal wastewater is usually conveyed in a combined sewer or sanitary sewer, and treated at a wastewater treatment plant. Treated wastewater is discharged into receiving water via an effluent pipe, wastewaters generated in areas without access to centralized sewer systems rely on on-site wastewater systems. These typically comprise a septic tank, drain field, and optionally an on-site treatment unit, the management of wastewater belongs to the overarching term sanitation, just like the management of human excreta, solid waste and stormwater. Sewerage is the infrastructure, including pipes, pumps, screens. Soluble organic material such as urea, fruit sugars, soluble proteins, drugs, pharmaceuticals, inorganic particles such as sand, grit, metal particles, ceramics, etc. Soluble inorganic material such as ammonia, road-salt, sea-salt, cyanide, hydrogen sulfide, thiocyanates, thiosulfates, animals such as protozoa, insects, arthropods, small fish, etc. Macro-solids such as napkins, nappies/diapers, condoms, needles, childrens toys, dead animals or plants. Gases such as sulfide, carbon dioxide, methane, etc. Emulsions such as paints, adhesives, mayonnaise, hair colorants, emulsified oils, toxins such as pesticides, poisons, herbicides, etc. The result is that the content of the water will be decreased. Those biochemical reactions create what is measured in the laboratory as the oxygen demand. Such chemicals are also liable to be broken down using strong oxidizing agents, both the BOD and COD tests are a measure of the relative oxygen-depletion effect of a waste contaminant. Both have been adopted as a measure of pollution effect. The BOD test measures the demand of biodegradable pollutants whereas the COD test measures the oxygen demand of oxidizable pollutants. The so-called 5-day BOD measures the amount of oxygen consumed by oxidation of waste contaminants in a 5-day period. The total amount of consumed when the biochemical reaction is allowed to proceed to completion is called the Ultimate BOD. Because the Ultimate BOD is so time consuming, the 5-day BOD has been almost universally adopted as a measure of pollution effect
Wastewater
–
Grand Coulee Dam
Wastewater
–
Wastewater treatment plant in
Cuxhaven, Germany
Wastewater
–
Industrial wastewater effluent with neutralized pH from tailing runoff. Taken in Peru.
Wastewater
–
Major types
4.
Community
–
A community is a small or large social unit who have something in common, such as norms, religion, values, or identity. Often - but not always - communities share a sense of place that is situated in a geographical area. Durable relations that extend beyond immediate genealogical ties also define a sense of community, people tend to define those social ties as important to their identity, practice, and roles in social institutions like family, home, work, government, society, or humanity, at large. The word community derives from the Old French comuneté, which comes from the Latin communitas community, human communities may share intent, belief, resources, preferences, needs, and risks in common, affecting the identity of the participants and their degree of cohesiveness. Community studies is an academic field drawing on both sociology and anthropology and the research methods of ethnography and participant observation in the study of community. In academic settings around the world, community studies is variously a sub-discipline of anthropology or sociology and it is often interdisciplinary and geared toward practical applications rather than purely theoretical perspectives. Community studies is sometimes combined with other fields, i. e. Urban and Community Studies, Health and Community Studies, or Family, while studies of the Internet are now widespread across academic disciplines, there is a growing collaboration among these investigations. On the research side, Internet studies intersects with studies of cyberculture, human–computer interaction, Urban sociologists contest the significance of place in shaping community. The anonymity and impersonal characterizing life in modern city spaces tend to be devoid of the collective connectedness associated with the idea of community”. The philosophy of science is the study of the logic and method of the social sciences, such as sociology, anthropology. Cultural anthropology is a branch of anthropology focused on the study of variation among humans. It is in contrast to social anthropology, which perceives cultural variation as a subset of the anthropological constant, a variety of methods are involved in cultural anthropological, including participant observation, interviews, and surveys. The term civilization later gave way to definitions given by V. Gordon Childe, with forming an umbrella term. Anthropologists have argued that culture is human nature, and that all people have a capacity to classify experiences, encode classifications symbolically, since humans acquire culture through the learning processes of enculturation and socialization, people living in different places or different circumstances develop different cultures. Anthropologists have also pointed out that through culture people can adapt to their environment in non-genetic ways, much of anthropological theory has originated in an appreciation of and interest in the tension between the local and the global. Colonialism and its processes increasingly brought European thinkers into direct or indirect contact with primitive others, the umbrella term socio-cultural anthropology draws upon both cultural and social anthropology traditions. In archaeological studies of communities the term community is used in two ways, paralleling usage in other areas. The first is a definition of community as a place where people used to live
Community
–
A
community of interest gathers at
Stonehenge, England, for the summer solstice.
Community
–
To what extent do participants in joint activities experience a
sense of community?
Community
–
Lewes Bonfire Night procession commemorating 17 Protestant martyrs burnt at the stake from 1555 to 1557
Community
–
The anti-war
affinity group "Collateral Damage"
protesting the
Iraq war
5.
Volume
–
Volume is the quantity of three-dimensional space enclosed by a closed surface, for example, the space that a substance or shape occupies or contains. Volume is often quantified numerically using the SI derived unit, the cubic metre, three dimensional mathematical shapes are also assigned volumes. Volumes of some simple shapes, such as regular, straight-edged, volumes of a complicated shape can be calculated by integral calculus if a formula exists for the shapes boundary. Where a variance in shape and volume occurs, such as those that exist between different human beings, these can be calculated using techniques such as the Body Volume Index. One-dimensional figures and two-dimensional shapes are assigned zero volume in the three-dimensional space, the volume of a solid can be determined by fluid displacement. Displacement of liquid can also be used to determine the volume of a gas, the combined volume of two substances is usually greater than the volume of one of the substances. However, sometimes one substance dissolves in the other and the volume is not additive. In differential geometry, volume is expressed by means of the volume form, in thermodynamics, volume is a fundamental parameter, and is a conjugate variable to pressure. Any unit of length gives a unit of volume, the volume of a cube whose sides have the given length. For example, a cubic centimetre is the volume of a cube whose sides are one centimetre in length, in the International System of Units, the standard unit of volume is the cubic metre. The metric system also includes the litre as a unit of volume, thus 1 litre =3 =1000 cubic centimetres =0.001 cubic metres, so 1 cubic metre =1000 litres. Small amounts of liquid are often measured in millilitres, where 1 millilitre =0.001 litres =1 cubic centimetre. Capacity is defined by the Oxford English Dictionary as the applied to the content of a vessel, and to liquids, grain, or the like. Capacity is not identical in meaning to volume, though closely related, Units of capacity are the SI litre and its derived units, and Imperial units such as gill, pint, gallon, and others. Units of volume are the cubes of units of length, in SI the units of volume and capacity are closely related, one litre is exactly 1 cubic decimetre, the capacity of a cube with a 10 cm side. In other systems the conversion is not trivial, the capacity of a fuel tank is rarely stated in cubic feet, for example. The density of an object is defined as the ratio of the mass to the volume, the inverse of density is specific volume which is defined as volume divided by mass. Specific volume is an important in thermodynamics where the volume of a working fluid is often an important parameter of a system being studied
Volume
–
A
measuring cup can be used to measure volumes of
liquids. This cup measures volume in units of
cups,
fluid ounces, and
millilitres.
6.
Volumetric flow rate
–
In physics and engineering, in particular fluid dynamics and hydrometry, the volumetric flow rate, is the volume of fluid which passes per unit time, usually represented by the symbol Q. In US customary units and imperial units, volumetric flow rate is expressed as ft3/s or gallons per minute. Volumetric flow rate should not be confused with volumetric flux, as defined by Darcys law and represented by the symbol q, with units of m3/, the integration of a flux over an area gives the volumetric flow rate. Since this is only the derivative of volume, a scalar quantity. Volumetric flow rate can also be defined by, Q = v ⋅ A where, v = flow velocity A = cross-sectional vector area/surface The above equation is true for flat. In general, including curved surfaces, the equation becomes a surface integral, the area required to calculate the volumetric flow rate is real or imaginary, flat or curved, either as a cross-sectional area or a surface. The vector area is a combination of the magnitude of the area through which the volume passes through, A, the reason for the dot product is as follows. The only volume flowing through the cross-section is the amount normal to the area and this amount is, Q = v A cos θ where θ is the angle between the unit normal n̂ and the velocity vector v of the substance elements. The amount passing through the cross-section is reduced by the factor cos θ, as θ increases less volume passes through. Substance which passes tangential to the area, that is perpendicular to the unit normal, when the mass flow rate is known, and the density can be assumed constant, this is an easy way to get Q. Q = m ˙ ρ Where, ṁ = mass flow rate, in internal combustion engines, the time area integral is considered over the range of valve opening. This has to be factored by the width of the valve throat, the answer is usually related to the cylinders swept volume. Air to cloth ratio Discharge Flow measurement Flowmeter Orifice plate Poiseuilles law Stokes flow Units of flow
Volumetric flow rate
7.
Greywater
–
Greywater or sullage is all wastewater generated in households or office buildings from streams without fecal contamination, i. e. all streams except for the wastewater from toilets. Sources of greywater include, e. g. sinks, showers, baths, the use of non-toxic and low-sodium soap and personal care products is recommended to protect vegetation when reusing greywater for irrigation purposes. Greywater, by definition, does not include the discharge of toilets or highly fecally contaminated wastewater, when greywater is mixed with toilet wastewater, it is called sewage or blackwater and should be treated in sewage treatment plants or onsite sewage facility, which often is a septic system. When it is separate, it may open up interesting decentralized treatment. The separate treatment of greywater falls under the concept of source separation which is one principle commonly applied in ecological sanitation approaches, the main advantage of keeping greywater separate from toilet wastewater is that the pathogen load is much reduced and the greywater is therefore easier to treat and reuse. Treated greywater has many uses, for example toilet flushing or irrigation, in households with conventional flush toilets, greywater makes up about 65% of the total wastewater produced by that household. In may be a source of water for reuse, because there is a close relationship between the production of greywater and the potential demand for toilet flushing water. Greywater usually contains traces of excreta and is therefore not free of pathogens. The excreta comes from washing a persons anal area in the bath and shower, the quality of greywater can deteriorate rapidly during storage because it is often warm, contains some nutrients and organic matter as well as pathogens. Stored greywater also leads to odour nuisances for the same reason, most greywater is easier to treat and recycle than blackwater, because of lower levels of contaminants. If collected using a separate plumbing system from blackwater, domestic greywater can be recycled directly within the home, garden or company, if stored, it must be used within a very short time or it will begin to putrefy due to the organic solids in the water. Recycled greywater of this kind is never safe to drink, but a number of treatment steps can be used to water for washing or flushing toilets. Mechanical systems In constructed wetlands, the plants use contaminants of greywater, such as food particles, as nutrients in their growth. However, salt and soap residues can be toxic to microbial and plant life alike, but can be absorbed and degraded through constructed wetlands and aquatic plants such as sedges, rushes, and grasses. Demand on conventional water supplies and pressure on sewage treatment systems is reduced by the use of greywater, re-using greywater also reduces the volume of sewage effluent entering watercourses which can be ecologically beneficial. In times of drought, especially in areas, greywater use in gardens or toilet systems helps to achieve some of the goals of ecologically sustainable development. S. Greywater use for irrigation appears to be a safe practice, a 2015 epidemiological study found no additional burden of disease among graywater users irrigating arid regions. The safety of reuse of greywater as potable water has also been studied, a few organic micropollutants including benzene were found in greywater in significant concentrations but most pollutants were in very low concentrations
Greywater
–
Left: a bottle of greywater from an office building before treatment. Right: greywater following
membrane bioreactor treatment
Greywater
–
Example of a source of greywater in the household: dirty water from cleaning the floor
Greywater
–
Urban decentralized greywater treatment with
constructed wetland in Oslo, Norway
Greywater
–
Greywater treatment plant with
membrane bioreactor in the basement of an office building in Frankfurt, Germany
8.
Blackwater (waste)
–
Blackwater is used to describe wastewater containing feces, urine and flushwater from flush toilets along with anal cleansing water or toilet paper. Blackwater is to be distinguished from greywater which is the wastewater generated from washing food, clothes and dishware, as well as from bathing, according to a one source, Blackwater is the mixture of urine, faeces and flushwater along with anal cleansing water and/or dry cleansing materials. Blackwater contains the pathogens of faeces and the nutrients of urine that are diluted in the flushwater, Blackwater is a term dating to at least the 1970s. Water coming from domestic equipment other than toilets is called greywater, separation of blackwater and greywater nowadays happens with all ecological buildings. Especially in autonomous buildings, the separation is always present and it is also commonly used on recreational vehicles which feature a greywater holding tank and a blackwater holding tank. Blackwater contains pathogens that must decompose before they can be released safely into the environment and it is difficult to process blackwater if it contains a large quantity of excess water, or if it must be processed quickly, because of the high concentrations of organic material. However, if blackwater does not contain water, or if it receives primary treatment to de-water. The heat produced by naturally occurring thermophilic microorganisms, will heat the compost to over 60 °C, Blackwater generation can be avoided by making use of composting toilets and vermifilter toilets. In certain autonomous buildings, such as earthships, this is almost always present, besides saving water, composting toilets allow the user to reuse the nutrients found therein
Blackwater (waste)
–
E. coli bacteria under magnification
9.
Toilet
–
A toilet is a sanitation fixture used for the storing or disposal of human urine and feces. In developed countries, different forms of flush toilets are common. These are connected to a system in most urban areas. In many developing countries, especially in areas, dry toilets such as pit latrines. Dry toilets are usually placed in outhouses, i. e. not inside the dwelling, in many countries, private homes are designed with the flush toilet and the bath or shower in the same room, the bathroom, to simplify plumbing and reduce cost. Other cultures find this insanitary, and have one room for body-washing, public toilets are installed where their use is expected on a permanent basis, while portable toilets may be brought in for large but temporary gatherings. Chemical toilets are used in various contexts, such as passenger trains. Serious waterborne diseases such as cholera and diarrhea occur when open defecation or poor sanitation permits human waste to pollute water supplies, historically, sanitation has been a concern from the earliest stages of human settlements. The Indus Valley Civilization is particularly notable for its extensive sanitation works, for the most part, early cities emptied their waste into rivers or seas manually or via open ditches. Sanitation in ancient Rome was notably advanced, as were some of the reredorters of medieval monasteries, a precursor to the modern flush toilet system was designed by John Harington in 1596 but did not become common until the late 19th century. Even London, at time the worlds largest city, did not require indoor toilets in its building codes until after the First World War. A typical flush toilet is a ceramic bowl connected on the up side to a cistern that enables rapid filling with water, when a toilet is flushed, the sewage should flow into a septic tank or into a system connected to a Sewage treatment plant. However, in countries, this treatment does not happen. The water in the bowl is connected to a pipe shaped like an upside-down U. One side of the U channel is arranged as a tube longer than the water in the bowl is high. The siphon tube connects to the drain, the bottom of the drain pipe limits the height of the water in the bowl before it flows down the drain. The water in the acts as a barrier to sewer gas entering the building. Sewer gas escapes through a vent pipe attached to the sewer line, the amount of water used by conventional flush toilets usually makes up a significant portion of personal daily water usage
Toilet
–
Toilets come in various shapes and forms around the world: Top:
flush toilet in a home in Australia, with dispenser for
toilet paper and a
toilet brush in its holder; Bottom: Low-cost
dry toilet (
Arborloo at a school in Zimbabwe)
Toilet
Toilet
–
Flush toilet bowl (sitting style)
Toilet
–
A poorly maintained pit latrine in Yaounde,
Cameroon
10.
Human waste
–
Human Waste is Suffocations debut EP released by Relapse Records. This was also the first CD ever to be released by Relapse, infecting The Crypts, Mass Obliteration, and Jesus Wept were re-recorded on the following album, Effigy of the Forgotten. Synthetically Revived was also re-recorded on Pierced from Within and Catatonia was re-recorded for the Despise the Sun EP, the only track that has not been re-recorded is the title track, which was originally recorded for the demo Reincremated. It was re-released in 2005 with two tracks taken from the 1990 demo Reincremated. Tracks 7 and 8 on the re-release are Involuntary Slaughter and Reincremation, jacobson - Executive Producer Suffocation - Producer Ron Spencer - Artwork
Human waste
–
Human Waste
Human waste
11.
Toilet paper
–
It also acts as a layer of protection for the hands during these processes. It is sold as a strip of perforated paper wrapped around a paperboard core for storage in a dispenser near a toilet. Most modern toilet paper in the world is designed to decompose in septic tanks, whereas some other bathroom. The use of paper for hygiene purposes has been recorded in China in the 6th century AD, modern commercial toilet paper originated in the 19th century, with a patent for roll-based dispensers being made in 1883. During the Ming dynasty, it was recorded in 1393 that a supply of 720,000 sheets of toilet paper were produced for the general use of the imperial court at the capital of Nanjing. In Ancient Rome, a sponge on a stick was commonly used and these are all cited in the classic Biblical and Talmudic Medicine by the German physician Julius Preuss. Gargantua dismisses the use of paper as ineffective, rhyming that, Who his foul tail with paper wipes and he concludes that the neck of a goose, that is well downed provides an optimum cleansing medium. The rise of publishing by the century led to the use of newspapers. In many parts of the world, especially where toilet paper or the necessary plumbing for disposal may be unavailable or unaffordable, also, in many parts of the world such as India, people consider using water a much cleaner and more sanitary practice than using paper. Joseph Gayetty is widely credited with being the inventor of modern commercially available toilet paper in the United States, gayettys paper, first introduced in 1857, was available as late as the 1920s. Gayettys Medicated Paper was sold in packages of flat sheets, watermarked with the inventors name, original advertisements for the product used the tagline The greatest necessity of the age. Gayettys medicated paper for the water-closet, seth Wheeler of Albany, New York, obtained the earliest United States patents for toilet paper and dispensers, the types of which eventually were in common use in that country, in 1883. Moist toilet paper, called wet wipes, was first introduced in the United Kingdom by Andrex in the 1990s and it has been promoted as being a better method of cleaning than dry toilet paper after defecation, and may be useful for women during menstruation. It was promoted as a product but it has been implicated in the creation of fatbergs. By 2016, some municipalities had begun education campaigns advising people not to flush used wet wipes, more than seven billion rolls of toilet paper are sold yearly in the U. S. alone. Americans use an average of 23.6 rolls per capita per year, the average measures of a modern roll of toilet paper is ~10 cm wide, ø12 cm and weighs about 227 grams. An alternative method of packing the sheets uses interleaved sheets in boxes, hard single ply paper has been used as well as soft multi-ply. Manufactured toilet paper sheet in the United States was sized 4 1/2 x 4 1/2, since 1999 the size of a sheet has been shrinking, Kimberly-Clark reduced the length of a sheet to 4.1
Toilet paper
–
A roll of toilet paper.
Toilet paper
–
Toilet paper and toilet paper holder.
Toilet paper
–
Anal cleansing instruments known as
chūgi from the
Nara period (710 to 784) in
Japan. The modern rolls in the background are for size comparison.
Toilet paper
–
" Le Troubadour " (French) - 1960s package of toilet paper
12.
Bidet
–
A bidet is a plumbing fixture or type of sink intended for washing the genitalia, perineum, inner buttocks, and anus of the human body, and is typically installed in a bathroom. Lower-cost add-ons combining a toilet seat and electronic bidet are becoming popular as well. Bidets are primarily used to wash and clean the genitalia, perineum, inner buttocks, traditional designs may also be used to clean any other part of the human body, such as the feet. Despite appearing similar to a toilet, a traditional bidet may be more compared to a sink. There are also bidets that are attachable to ordinary toilet bowls and they have the advantage of being inexpensive and saving space. They are usually not meant to replace the use of paper as they are used after some paper to achieve full cleanliness without immediately having to take a shower. Bidets with a vertical jet are intended to replace the use of toilet paper, historical antecedents and early functions of the bidet are believed to include devices used for contraception. Bidets are considered ineffective by todays standards of contraception, and their use for this function was quickly abandoned, in contrast to a bidet that is integrated with the toilet, a bidet shower has to be held by the hands, and cleaning does not take place automatically. Bidet showers are common in countries where water is considered essential for anal cleansing, drawbacks include the possibility of wetting a users clothing if used carelessly. In addition, a user must be mobile and flexible to use a hand-held bidet shower. A bidet is a fixture that is installed as a separate unit in the bathroom besides toilet, shower and sink. In the past, getting a bidet meant installing a new plumbing unit into the bathroom. Newer bidets are often no longer standalone units, A bidet may be a movable or fixed nozzle attached to a toilet on back or side toilet rim. In these cases, their use is restricted to cleaning the anus, some bidets of this type produce a vertical water jet and others a more or less oblique one. Such attachable bidets are controlled either mechanically or electronically, mechanically controlled bidets tend to be simple mechanisms manually controlled by a valve. From the last ones some have the apparatus fixed on bowl rim, the attachable bidets may be manufactured of plastic, chrome-plated metal, or stainless steel to accommodate many tastes and budgets. Electronic bidets are controlled with waterproof electrical switches rather than with a manual valve. Further refinements include adjustable water pressure, temperature compensation, and directional spray control, where bathroom appearance is of concern, under-the-seat mounting types have become more popular
Bidet
–
A modern bidet of the traditional type
Bidet
–
A 20th century bidet (foreground)
Bidet
–
Toilet seat bidet
Bidet
–
The bidet of
Queen Maria Carolina of Naples, in the
Royal Palace of Caserta,
Italy
13.
Surface runoff
–
Surface runoff is the flow of water that occurs when excess stormwater, meltwater, or other sources flows over the Earths surface. Surface runoff is a component of the water cycle. It is the agent in soil erosion by water. Runoff that occurs on the surface before reaching a channel is also called a nonpoint source. If a nonpoint source contains man-made contaminants, or natural forms of pollution the runoff is called nonpoint source pollution, a land area which produces runoff that drains to a common point is called a drainage basin. When runoff flows along the ground, it can pick up soil contaminants including petroleum, pesticides, surface runoff can be generated either by rainfall, snowfall or by the melting of snow, or glaciers. Snow and glacier melt occur only in areas cold enough for these to form permanently, typically snowmelt will peak in the spring and glacier melt in the summer, leading to pronounced flow maxima in rivers affected by them. The determining factor of the rate of melting of snow or glaciers is both air temperature and the duration of sunlight, in high mountain regions, streams frequently rise on sunny days and fall on cloudy ones for this reason. In areas where there is no snow, runoff will come from rainfall, however, not all rainfall will produce runoff because storage from soils can absorb light showers. This occurs when the rate of rainfall on a surface exceeds the rate at which water can infiltrate the ground and this is called flooding excess overland flow, Hortonian overland flow, or unsaturated overland flow. This more commonly occurs in arid and semi-arid regions, where rainfall intensities are high and this occurs largely in city areas where pavements prevent water from flooding. When the soil is saturated and the depression storage filled, and rain continues to fall, the level of antecedent soil moisture is one factor affecting the time until soil becomes saturated. This runoff is called saturation excess overland flow or saturated overland flow, soil retains a degree of moisture after a rainfall. This residual water moisture affects the soils infiltration capacity, during the next rainfall event, the infiltration capacity will cause the soil to be saturated at a different rate. The higher the level of antecedent soil moisture, the more quickly the soil becomes saturated, once the soil is saturated, runoff occurs. After water infiltrates the soil on a portion of a hill, the water may flow laterally through the soil. This is called subsurface return flow or throughflow, any remaining surface water eventually flows into a receiving water body such as a river, lake, estuary or ocean. Urbanization increases surface runoff by creating more impervious surfaces such as pavement and it is instead forced directly into streams or storm water runoff drains, where erosion and siltation can be major problems, even when flooding is not
Surface runoff
–
Runoff flowing into a
stormwater drain
Surface runoff
–
Surface runoff from a hillside after soil is saturated
Surface runoff
–
Urban surface water runoff
Surface runoff
–
Soil erosion by water on intensively-tilled farmland.
14.
Sanitary sewer
–
A sanitary sewer or foul sewer is an underground carriage system specifically for transporting sewage from houses and commercial buildings through pipes to treatment or disposal. Sanitary sewers are part of a system called sewerage or sewage system. Sewage may be treated to water pollution before discharge to surface waters. Sanitary sewers serving industrial areas also carry industrial wastewater, separate sanitary sewer systems are designed to transport sewage alone. In municipalities served by sewers, separate storm drains may be constructed to convey surface runoff directly to surface waters. Sanitary sewers are distinguished from combined sewers, which combine sewage with stormwater runoff in the same pipe, sanitary sewer systems are considered beneficial because they avoid combined sewer overflows. To overcome these disadvantages, some cities built separate sanitary sewers to collect only municipal wastewater, the decision between a combined sewer system or two separate systems is mainly based on need for sewage treatment and cost of providing treatment during heavy rain events. Many cities with combined sewer systems built prior to sewage treatment have not replaced those sewer systems, in the developed world, sewers are pipes from buildings to one or more levels of larger underground trunk mains, which transport the sewage to sewage treatment facilities. Vertical pipes, usually made of precast concrete, called manholes, depending upon site application and use, these vertical pipes can be cylindrical, eccentric or concentric. The manholes are used for access to the pipes for inspection and maintenance. They also facilitate vertical and horizontal angles in otherwise straight pipelines, pipes conveying sewage from an individual building to a common gravity sewer line are called laterals. Branch sewers typically run under streets receiving laterals from buildings along that street, larger cities may have sewers called interceptors receiving flow from multiple trunk sewers. Design and sizing of sanitary sewers considers the population to be served over the life of the sewer, per capita wastewater production. Commercial and industrial flows are considered, but diversion of surface runoff to storm drains eliminates wet weather flow peaks of inefficient combined sewers. Pumps may be necessary where gravity sewers serve areas at lower elevations than the treatment plant. A lift station is a gravity sewer sump with a pump to lift accumulated sewage to a higher elevation, the pump may discharge to another gravity sewer at that location or may discharge through a pressurized force main to some distant location. Most of the solids are removed by the tanks, so the treatment plant can be much smaller than a typical plant. In addition, because of the vast reduction in solid waste, because the wastestream is pressurized, they can be laid just below the ground surface along the lands contour
Sanitary sewer
–
PVC Sanitary Sewer Installation. Sanitary sewers are sized to carry the amount of sewage generated by the collection area. Sanitary sewers are much smaller than combined sewers designed to also carry
surface runoff.
Sanitary sewer
–
Schematic of a conventional sanitary sewer to convey
blackwater and
greywater from households to a centralized
sewage treatment facility
Sanitary sewer
–
A
manhole cover for a sanitary sewer access point.
Sanitary sewer
–
View looking down into an open manhole showing two converging sanitary sewer lines. The larger line enters from the right and changes direction within the manhole to exit from the top of the photo. A smaller line enters from the bottom of the photo under the access steps. The concrete floor of the manhole has channels to minimize accumulation of solids.
15.
Plumbing
–
Plumbing is any system that conveys fluids for a wide range of applications. Plumbing uses pipes, valves, plumbing fixtures, tanks, heating and cooling, waste removal, and potable water delivery are among the most common uses for plumbing, but it is not limited to these applications. The word derives from the Latin for lead, plumbum, as the first effective pipes used in the Roman era were lead pipes, in the developed world, plumbing infrastructure is critical to public health and sanitation. Boilermakers and pipefitters are not plumbers, although they work with piping as part of their trade, standardized earthen plumbing pipes with broad flanges making use of asphalt for preventing leakages appeared in the urban settlements of the Indus Valley Civilization by 2700 B. C. The Romans used lead pipe inscriptions to prevent water theft, Plumbing reached its early apex in ancient Rome, which saw the introduction of expansive systems of aqueducts, tile wastewater removal, and widespread use of lead pipes. With the Fall of Rome both water supply and sanitation stagnated—or regressed—for well over 1,000 years, improvement was very slow, with little effective progress made until the growth of modern densely populated cities in the 1800s. During this period, public authorities began pressing for better waste disposal systems to be installed. Earlier, the disposal system had merely consisted of collecting waste. Eventually the development of separate, underground water and sewage systems eliminated open sewage ditches, most large cities today pipe solid wastes to sewage treatment plants in order to separate and partially purify the water, before emptying into streams or other bodies of water. For potable water use, galvanized iron piping was commonplace in the United States from the late 1800s until around 1960, after that period, copper piping took over, first soft copper with flared fittings, then with rigid copper tubing utilizing soldered fittings. The use of lead for potable water declined sharply after World War II because of increased awareness of the dangers of lead poisoning, at this time, copper piping was introduced as a better and safer alternative to lead pipes. e. Heating and cooling systems utilizing water to transport thermal energy, as in district heating systems, a water pipe is a pipe or tube, frequently made of plastic or metal, that carries pressurized and treated fresh water to a building, as well as inside the building. For many centuries, lead was the material for water pipes. This was a source of lead-related health problems in the years before the hazards of ingesting lead were fully understood, among these were stillbirths. Lead water pipes were still used in the early 20th century. In addition, lead-tin alloy solder was commonly used to join copper pipes, despite the Romans common use of lead pipes, their aqueducts rarely poisoned people. Unlike other parts of the world where lead pipes cause poisoning, what often causes confusion is the large amount of evidence of widespread lead poisoning, particularly amongst those who would have had easy access to piped water. This was a result of lead being used in cookware and as an additive to processed food and drink
Plumbing
–
A complex arrangement of rigid
steel piping and stop
valves regulate flow to various parts of the building
Plumbing
–
Roman lead pipe with a folded seam, at the
Roman Baths in
Bath, England
Plumbing
–
Copper piping system in a building
Plumbing
–
Plastic hot and cold supply piping for a sink
16.
Sewerage
–
Sewerage is the infrastructure that conveys sewage or surface runoff. It encompasses components such as receiving drains, manholes, pumping stations, storm overflows, Sewerage ends at the entry to a sewage treatment plant or at the point of discharge into the environment. It is the system of pipes, chambers, manholes, etc. that conveys the sewage or storm water, according to this definition, sewerage and sewage are two different terms. However, at least in American English colloquial usage, both terms are used interchangeably. The main part of a system is made up of large pipes that convey the sewage from the point of production to the point of treatment. In certain areas it has resulted in a significant lowering of the water table, in the example of Belgium, a lowering of the water table by 100 meters has been the result. The freshwater that is accumulated by the system is then piped to the sea. In areas where this is a concern, vacuum sewers may be used due to the shallow excavation that is possible for them. Severe constraints are applied to sewerage, which may result in premature deterioration and these include root intrusion, joint displacement, cracks and holes formation leading to a significant volume of leakage with an overall risk for the environment and public health. For example, it is estimated that 500 million m3 of contaminated water per year can leak into soil, the rehabilitation and replacement of damaged sewers is very costly. Annual rehabilitation costs for Los Angeles County are about €400 million, and in Germany, hydrogen sulfide is indirectly responsible for biogenic sulfide corrosion and consequently, sewerage need rehabilitation works. Various repairs options are available to Owners over a range of costs. Depending of the condition and contamination, the cleaning can range from simple high pressure jet water cleaning up to real hydro-demolition. One method to ensure sound concrete is exposed is to verify that the surface pH is superior to 10, as for any concrete repair, the state-of-the-art rules must be followed. It utilizes classical facade rotor pump, easily available in the market, the main drawback is the limited pumping distance that cannot exceed 75 meters. Spinning head wet spray, this method is similar to the first and this method is fast and especially suited for cylindrical chambers like manholes. When a structure is so severely corroded that man entry is a risk, high pressure dry spray, this method, also called “shotcrete” or “gunite” is allowing a faster rate of rehabilitation, and also to make a thicker application in a single pass. The main interest of dry shotcrete is the capacity to pump the mortar over a long distance, longest dry shotcrete distance the authors are aware is a job site in Australia in 2014 where 100% calcium aluminate mortar was air transported over 800 meters before being sprayed
Sewerage
–
Major types
17.
Combined sewer
–
A combined sewer is a sewage collection system of pipes and tunnels designed to also collect surface runoff. Combined sewers can cause water pollution problems during combined sewer overflow events when wet weather flows exceed the sewage treatment plant capacity. This type of design is no longer used in building new communities. Recent archaeological discoveries have shown some of the earliest sewer systems were developed 2500 BC in the ancient city of Harappa. The primitive sewers were carved in the ground alongside buildings and this discovery reveals the conceptual understanding of waste disposal by the early civilizations. The earliest sewers were designed to carry street runoff away from inhabited areas, open sewers, consisting of gutters and urban streambeds, were common worldwide before the 20th century. Most sewage collection systems of the 19th and early to mid 20th century used single-pipe systems that collect both sewage and urban runoff from streets and roofs and this type of collection system is referred to as a combined sewer system. The rationale for combining the two was that it would be cheaper to build just a single system, most cities at that time did not have sewage treatment plants, so there was no perceived public health advantage in constructing a separate surface water sewerage or storm sewer system. When constructed, combined sewer systems were typically sized to carry three to 160 times the average dry weather sewage flows and it is generally infeasible to treat the volume of mixed sewage and surface runoff flowing in a combined sewer during peak runoff events caused by snowmelt or convective precipitation. As cities built sewage treatment plants, those plants were built to treat only the volume of sewage flowing during dry weather. These relief structures, called storm-water regulators are constructed in combined sewer systems to divert flows in excess of the design flow of the sewage treatment plant. CSO statistics may be confusing because the term may describe either the number of events or the number of relief structure locations at such events may occur. Overflow frequency and duration varies both from system to system, and from outfall to outfall, within a combined sewer system. Some CSO outfalls discharge infrequently, while others activate every time it rains, CSOs should not be confused with sanitary sewer overflows. Absence of a diversion outfall often causes sanitary sewer overflows to flood residential structures and/or flow over traveled road surfaces before reaching natural drainage channels, each storm is different in the quantity and type of pollutants it contributes. For example, storms occur in late summer, when it has not rained for a while, have the most pollutants. Pollutants like oil, grease, fecal coliform from pet and wildlife waste, in cold weather areas, pollutants from cars, people and animals also accumulate on hard surfaces and grass during the winter and then are flushed into the sewer systems during heavy spring rains. About 860 communities in the US have combined sewer systems, serving about 40 million people, CSO discharges during heavy storms can cause serious water pollution problems in these communities
Combined sewer
–
Combined Sewer System. During dry weather (and small storms), all flows are handled by the
publicly owned treatment works (POTW). During large storms, the relief structure allows some of the combined
stormwater and
sewage to be discharged untreated to an adjacent water body.
Combined sewer
–
Photo of the interior of a combined sewer in
Brighton, England.
Combined sewer
–
Most of the US combined sewer systems are in the
Northeast and
Great Lakes regions, and the
Pacific Northwest.
Combined sewer
–
The
civil engineer Joseph Bazalgette, constructed a sewerage system for London in the mid-19th century.
18.
Body of water
–
Body of Water is a musical conceived by Tony Kienitz and Tanna Herr with music by Jim Walker. It entails the life of fourteen teens left behind in a war crisis. The show was the production of A Theatre Near U. The show was adapted from music written by Jim Walker, the music for the show was nominated for Best Original Music by the San Francisco Bay Area Critics Circle Excellence in Theatre Awards. The album is available on iTunes here, the overall reception of Body of Water was positive. He also praised the music by Jim Walker as wonderfully raw, cryptic, richard Conema of Talkin Broadway and member of the Bay Area Theatre Critics Circle agreed with Jarrett on the music and choreography. He also said that the actors of the show are the adult performers of the future. These young people are doing work and many aspire to be professional actors. He also commended producing theatre company A Theatre Near U, saying that A Theatre Near U may have just fired the first shot in a revolution to determine the future of Youth Theatre
Body of water
–
The original poster for Body of Water, the Musical.
Body of water
19.
Ecosystem
–
An ecosystem is a community of living organisms in conjunction with the nonliving components of their environment, interacting as a system. These biotic and abiotic components are regarded as linked together through nutrient cycles, as ecosystems are defined by the network of interactions among organisms, and between organisms and their environment, they can be of any size but usually encompass specific, limited spaces. Energy, water, nitrogen and soil minerals are other essential components of an ecosystem. The energy that flows through ecosystems is obtained primarily from the sun and it generally enters the system through photosynthesis, a process that also captures carbon from the atmosphere. By feeding on plants and on one another, animals play an important role in the movement of matter and they also influence the quantity of plant and microbial biomass present. Ecosystems are controlled both by external and internal factors, other external factors include time and potential biota. Ecosystems are dynamic entities—invariably, they are subject to disturbances and are in the process of recovering from some past disturbance. Ecosystems in similar environments that are located in different parts of the world can have different characteristics simply because they contain different species. The introduction of species can cause substantial shifts in ecosystem function. Internal factors not only control ecosystem processes but are controlled by them and are often subject to feedback loops. Other internal factors include disturbance, succession and the types of species present, although humans exist and operate within ecosystems, their cumulative effects are large enough to influence external factors like climate. Biodiversity affects ecosystem function, as do the processes of disturbance, classifying ecosystems into ecologically homogeneous units is an important step towards effective ecosystem management, but there is no single, agreed-upon way to do this. The term ecosystem was first used in 1935 in a publication by British ecologist Arthur Tansley, Tansley devised the concept to draw attention to the importance of transfers of materials between organisms and their environment. He later refined the term, describing it as The whole system, including not only the organism-complex, but also the whole complex of physical factors forming what we call the environment. Tansley regarded ecosystems not simply as natural units, but as mental isolates, Tansley later defined the spatial extent of ecosystems using the term ecotope. G. Raymond Lindeman took these ideas one step further to suggest that the flow of energy through a lake was the driver of the ecosystem. Most mineral nutrients, on the hand, are recycled within ecosystems. Ecosystems are controlled both by external and internal factors, external factors, also called state factors, control the overall structure of an ecosystem and the way things work within it, but are not themselves influenced by the ecosystem
Ecosystem
–
Coral reefs are a highly
productive marine ecosystem.
Ecosystem
–
Global oceanic and terrestrial
phototroph abundance, from September 1997 to August 2000. As an estimate of
autotroph biomass, it is only a rough indicator of primary production potential, and not an actual estimate of it. Provided by the
SeaWiFS Project,
NASA /
Goddard Space Flight Center and
ORBIMAGE.
Ecosystem
Ecosystem
20.
Wastewater treatment plant
–
The latter is called water reclamation and implies avoidance of disposal by use of treated wastewater effluent for various purposes. Treatment means removing impurities from water being treated, and some methods of treatment are applicable to water and wastewater. The physical infrastructure used for treatment is called a wastewater treatment plant. By-products from wastewater treatment plants, such as screenings, grit, if the wastewater is predominantly from municipal sources it is called sewage and its treatment is called sewage treatment. Although disposal or reuse occurs after treatment, it must be considered first, since disposal or reuse are the objectives of wastewater treatment, disposal or reuse options are the basis for treatment decisions. Acceptable impurity concentrations may vary with the type of use or location of disposal, ocean disposal is subject to international treaty requirements. International treaties may also regulate disposal into rivers crossing international borders, water bodies entirely within the jurisdiction of a single nation may be subject to regulations of multiple local governments. Acceptable impurity concentrations may vary widely among different jurisdictions for disposal of wastewater to evaporation ponds, infiltration basins, phase separation transfers impurities into a non-aqueous phase. Phase separation may occur at points in a treatment sequence to remove solids generated during oxidation or polishing. Grease and oil may be recovered for fuel or saponification, solids often require dewatering of sludge in a wastewater treatment plant. Disposal options for dried solids vary with the type and concentration of impurities removed from water, production of waste brine, however, may discourage wastewater treatment removing dissolved inorganic solids from water by methods like ion exchange, reverse osmosis, and distillation. Solids and non-polar liquids may be removed from wastewater by gravity when density differences are sufficient to overcome dispersion by turbulence, gravity separation of solids is the primary treatment of sewage, where the unit process is called primary settling tanks or primary sedimentation tanks. It is also used for the treatment of other wastewaters. Solids that are heavier than water will accumulate at the bottom of quiescent settling basins, more complex clarifiers also have skimmers to simultaneously remove floating grease like soap scum and solids like feathers or wood chips. Containers like the API oil-water separator are specifically designed to separate non-polar liquids, other types of water filters remove impurities by chemical or biological processes described below. Oxidation reduces the oxygen demand of wastewater, and may reduce the toxicity of some impurities. Secondary treatment converts some impurities to carbon dioxide, water, chemical oxidation is widely used for disinfection. Secondary treatment by biochemical oxidation of dissolved and colloidal organic compounds is used in sewage treatment and is applicable to some agricultural and industrial waste waters
Wastewater treatment plant
–
Clarifiers are widely used for wastewater treatment.
Wastewater treatment plant
–
Primary settling tank of wastewater treatment plant in Dresden-Kaditz, Germany
Wastewater treatment plant
–
Aeration tank of an
activated sludge process at the wastewater treatment plant in Dresden-Kaditz, Germany
Wastewater treatment plant
–
Overview of the wastewater treatment plant of Antwerpen-Zuid, located in the south of the agglomeration of Antwerp (Belgium)
21.
Developing countries
–
Also, the general term less-developed country should not be confused with the specific least developed country. The term developing describes a currently observed situation and not a dynamic or expected direction of progress, since the late 1990s developing countries tended to demonstrate higher growth rates than the developed ones. There is criticism of the use of the developing country. The term implies inferiority of a country or undeveloped country compared with a developed country. It assumes a desire to develop along the traditional Western model of development which a few countries, such as Cuba and Bhutan. An alternative measurement that has suggested is that of gross national happiness. Countries on the boundary between developed and developing are often categorized under the newly industrialized countries. In the 2016 edition of its World Development Indicators, the World Bank made a decision to no longer distinguish between “developed” and “developing” countries in the presentation of its data, nobody has ever agreed on a definition for these terms in the first place. Various terms are used for whatever is not a developed country, terms used include less developed country or less economically developed country, and for the more extreme, least developed country or least economically developed country. But according to the United Nations Statistics Division, There is no established convention for the designation of developed, the World Bank classifies countries into four income groups. These are set each year on July 1, economies were divided according to 2016 GNI per capita using the following ranges of income, Low income countries had GNI per capita of US$1,025 or less. Lower middle income countries had GNI per capita between US$1,026 and US$4,035, upper middle income countries had GNI per capita between US$4,036 and US$12,475. High income countries had GNI per capita above US$12,476 and this may be by absolute numbers or country ranking. The UN has developed the Human Development Index, an indicator of the above statistics. The UN sets Millennium Development Goals from a blueprint developed by all of the countries and leading development institutions. There is an association between low income and high population growth. The terms utilized when discussing developing countries refer to the intent, other terms sometimes used are less developed countries, least economically developed countries, underdeveloped nations or Third World nations, and non-industrialized nations. Conversely, developed countries, most economically developed countries, First World nations and that is, LEDCs are the poorest subset of LDCs
Developing countries
–
developing economies according to the IMF
22.
Environmental degradation
–
It is defined as any change or disturbance to the environment perceived to be deleterious or undesirable. Environmental degradation is one of the ten threats officially cautioned by the High-level Panel on Threats, Challenges, environmental degradation is of many types. When natural habitats are destroyed or natural resources are depleted, the environment is degraded, efforts to counteract this problem include environmental protection and environmental resources management. One major component of environmental degradation is the depletion of the resource of water on Earth. Approximately only 2. 5% of all of the water on Earth is fresh water, 69% of the fresh water is frozen in ice caps located on Antarctica and Greenland, so only 30% of the 2. 5% of fresh water is available for consumption. Fresh water is an important resource, since life on Earth is ultimately dependent on it. Water scarcity is a problem due to many foreseen issues in the future, including population growth, increased urbanization, higher standards of living. Climate change affects the Earths water supply in a number of ways. Transpiration from plants can be affected by a rise in atmospheric CO2, which can decrease their use of water, warmer winter temperatures cause a decrease in snowpack, which can result in diminished water resources during summer. Sea-level rise may also consequently be caused by a depletion of groundwater, a rise in air temperature results in a rise in water temperature, which is also very significant in water degradation, as the water would become more susceptible to bacterial growth. It is generally expected that, on average, global precipitation will increase, with some areas receiving increases, naturally, the distribution of precipitation across the planet is very uneven, causing constant variations in water availability in respective locations. Changes in precipitation affect the timing and magnitude of floods and droughts, shift runoff processes, vegetation patterns and growth rates will be directly affected by shifts in precipitation amount and distribution, which will in turn affect agriculture as well as natural ecosystems. Groundwater reserves will be depleted, and the water has a greater chance of being of poor quality from saline or contaminants on the land surface. The human population on Earth is expanding rapidly which goes hand in hand with the degradation of the environment at large measures, humanitys appetite for needs is disarranging the environments natural equilibrium. Production industries are venting smoke and discharging chemicals that are polluting water resources, the smoke that is emitted into the atmosphere holds detrimental gases such as carbon monoxide and sulfur dioxide. The high levels of pollution in the atmosphere form layers that are absorbed into the atmosphere. Organic compounds such as chlorofluorocarbons have generated an unwanted opening in the ozone layer, the available fresh water being affected by the climate is also being stretched across an ever-increasing global population. Even though some areas may see an increase in supply from an uneven distribution of precipitation increase
Environmental degradation
–
Eighty-plus years after the abandonment of
Wallaroo Mines (
Kadina, South Australia),
mosses remain the only vegetation at some spots of the site's grounds
Environmental degradation
–
Water pollution due to dairy farming in the
Wairarapa in New Zealand
Environmental degradation
–
A stream in the town of
Amlwch, Anglesey which is contaminated by
acid mine drainage from the former copper mine at nearby
Parys Mountain.
23.
Sustainability
–
In ecology, sustainability is the property of biological systems to remain diverse and productive indefinitely. Long-lived and healthy wetlands and forests are examples of biological systems. In more general terms, sustainability is the endurance of systems, the organizing principle for sustainability is sustainable development, which includes the four interconnected domains, ecology, economics, politics and culture. Sustainability science is the study of development and environmental science. Sustainability can also be defined as a process characterized by the pursuit of a common ideal. An ideal is by definition unattainable in a time and space. However, by persistently and dynamically approaching it, the results in a sustainable system. Healthy ecosystems and environments are necessary to the survival of humans, ways of reducing negative human impact are environmentally-friendly chemical engineering, environmental resources management and environmental protection. Information is gained from green chemistry, earth science, environmental science, Ecological economics studies the fields of academic research that aim to address human economies and natural ecosystems. Moving towards sustainability is also a challenge that entails international and national law, urban planning and transport, local and individual lifestyles. The name sustainability is derived from the Latin sustinere, sustain can mean “maintain, support, or endure”. ”The 2005 World Summit on Social Development identified sustainable development goals, such as economic development, social development and environmental protection. This view has been expressed as an illustration using three overlapping ellipses indicating that the three pillars of sustainability are not mutually exclusive and can be mutually reinforcing, in fact, the three pillars are interdependent, and in the long run none can exist without the others. The three pillars have served as a ground for numerous sustainability standards and certification systems in recent years. Standards which today explicitly refer to the bottom line include Rainforest Alliance, Fairtrade. Some sustainability experts and practitioners have illustrated four pillars of sustainability, one such pillar is future generations, which emphasizes the long-term thinking associated with sustainability. There is also an opinion that considers resource use and financial sustainability as two pillars of sustainability. Sustainable development consists of balancing local and global efforts to meet human needs without destroying or degrading the natural environment. The question then becomes how to represent the relationship between those needs and the environment, a study from 2005 pointed out that environmental justice is as important as sustainable development
Sustainability
–
Achieving sustainability will enable the Earth to continue supporting human life.
Sustainability
Sustainability
–
Batad
rice terraces, The Philippines —UNESCO World Heritage site
Sustainability
–
Urban sustainability analysis of the greater urban area of the city of Sao Paulo using the ‘Circles of Sustainability' method of the UN and Metropolis Association. For more information see
James, Paul; with Magee, Liam; Scerri, Andy; Steger, Manfred B. (2015). Urban Sustainability in Theory and Practice: Circles of Sustainability. London: Routledge.
24.
Internally displaced person
–
An internally displaced person is someone who is forced to flee his or her home but who remains within his or her countrys borders. They are often referred to as refugees, although they do not fall within the definitions of a refugee. At the end of 2014, it was estimated there were 38.2 million IDPs worldwide, the highest level since 1989, the first year for which global statistics on IDPs are available. The countries with the largest IDP populations were Syria, Colombia, Iraq, in this way, the document intentionally steers toward flexibility rather than legal precision as the words in particular indicate that the list of reasons for displacement is not exhaustive. However, as Erin Mooney has pointed out, global statistics on internal displacement generally count only IDPs uprooted by conflict, moreover, a recent study has recommended that the IDP concept should be defined even more narrowly, to be limited to persons displaced by violence. It is very difficult to get accurate figures for internally displaced persons because populations arent constant, IDPs may be returning home while others are fleeing, others may periodically return to IDP camps to take advantage of humanitarian aid. While the case of IDPs in large camps such as those in Darfur, western Sudan, are relatively well-reported, it is difficult to assess those IDPs who flee to larger towns. It is necessary in many instances to supplement official figures with additional information obtained from operational humanitarian organizations on the ground, thus, the 24.5 million figure must be treated as an estimate. Additionally, most official figures include those displaced by conflict or natural disasters. Development-induced IDPs often are not included in assessments and it has been estimated that between 70 and 80% of all IDPs are women and children. 50% of internally displaced people and refugees were thought to be in areas in 2010. A2013 study found that these protracted urban displacements had not been given due weight by international aid, the study argues that this protracted urban displacement needs a fundamental change in the approach to those who are displaced and their host societies. They note that re-framing responses to urban displacement will also involve human rights and development actors, an updated country by country breakdown can be found online. The problem of protecting and assisting IDPs is not a new issue, in international law it is the responsibility of the government concerned to provide assistance and protection for the IDPs in their country. It has been estimated that some 5 million IDPs in 11 countries are without any significant humanitarian assistance from their governments, unlike the case of refugees, there is no international humanitarian institution which has the overall responsibility of protecting and assisting the refugees as well as the internally displaced. A number of organizations have stepped into the breach in specific circumstances. guided by the 1951 United Nations Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 Protocol. The UNHCR has traditionally argued that it not have a general competence for IDPs even though at least since 1972 it had relief. However, in cases where there is a specific request by the UN Secretary General, in 2005 it was helping some 5.6 million IDPs, but only about 1.1 million in Africa
Internally displaced person
–
Villagers fleeing gunfire in a camp for internally displaced persons during the
2008 Nord-Kivu war
Internally displaced person
–
Tailor in Labuje IDP camp in
Uganda.
25.
Stormwater
–
Stormwater is water that originates during precipitation events and snow/ice melt. Stormwater can soak into the soil, be held on the surface and evaporate, or runoff and end up in streams, rivers. In natural landscapes such as forests, the soil absorbs much of the stormwater, Stormwater is also a resource and important as the worlds human population demand exceeds the availability of readily available water. Techniques of storm water harvesting with point source water management and purification can potentially make urban environments self-sustaining in terms of water, because impervious surfaces do not allow rain to infiltrate into the ground, more runoff is generated than in the undeveloped condition. This additional runoff can erode watercourses as well as cause flooding after the collection system is overwhelmed by the additional flow. Because the water is flushed out of the watershed during the event, little infiltrates the soil, replenishes groundwater. A first flush is the runoff of a rainstorm. During this phase, polluted water entering storm drains in areas with high proportions of impervious surfaces is more concentrated compared to the remainder of the storm. Consequently, these concentrations of urban runoff result in high levels of pollutants discharged from storm sewers to surface waters. Pollutants entering surface waters during precipitation events is termed polluted runoff, daily human activities result in deposition of pollutants on roads, lawns, roofs, farm fields, etc. When it rains or there is irrigation, water runs off and ultimately makes its way to a river, lake, in addition to the pollutants carried in stormwater runoff, urban runoff is being recognized as a cause of pollution in its own right. In natural catchments surface runoff entering waterways is a rare event, occurring only a few times each year. Before development occurred most rainfall soaked into the ground and contributed to groundwater recharge or was recycled into the atmosphere by vegetation through evapotranspiration. In addition to delivering higher pollutants from the catchment, increased stormwater flow can lead to stream erosion, encourage weed invasion. Native species often rely on such flow regimes for spawning, juvenile development, in some areas, especially along the U. S. coast, polluted runoff from roads and highways may be the largest source of water pollution. Stormwater is a cause of urban flooding. Urban flooding is the inundation of land or property in a built-up environment caused by overwhelming the capacity of drainage systems. Although triggered by events such as flash flooding or snow melt, urban flooding is a condition, characterized by its repetitive, costly
Stormwater
–
Urban runoff entering a
storm drain
Stormwater
–
Relationship between
impervious surfaces and
surface runoff
Stormwater
–
Urban runoff being discharged to
coastal waters
Stormwater
–
Stormwater filtration system for urban runoff
26.
Water pollution
–
Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies. This form of environmental degradation occurs when pollutants are directly or indirectly discharged into water bodies without adequate treatment to remove harmful compounds, Water pollution affects the entire biosphere – plants and organisms living in these bodies of water. In almost all cases the effect is damaging not only to individual species and population, Water pollution is a major global problem which requires ongoing evaluation and revision of water resource policy at all levels. It has been suggested that pollution is the leading worldwide cause of deaths and diseases. An estimated 580 people in India die of water related illness every day. About 90 percent of the water in the cities of China is polluted, as of 2007, half a billion Chinese had no access to safe drinking water. In addition to the problems of water pollution in developing countries. The head of Chinas national development agency said in 2007 that one quarter the length of Chinas seven main rivers were so poisoned the water harmed the skin. Natural phenomena such as volcanoes, algae blooms, storms, and earthquakes also cause changes in water quality. Although interrelated, surface water and groundwater have often studied and managed as separate resources. Surface water seeps through the soil and becomes groundwater, conversely, groundwater can also feed surface water sources. Sources of surface water pollution are generally grouped into two based on their origin. Point source water pollution refers to contaminants that enter a waterway from a single, identifiable source, examples of sources in this category include discharges from a sewage treatment plant, a factory, or a city storm drain. The U. S. Clean Water Act defines point source for regulatory enforcement purposes, the CWA definition of point source was amended in 1987 to include municipal storm sewer systems, as well as industrial storm water, such as from construction sites. Nonpoint source pollution refers to contamination that does not originate from a single discrete source. NPS pollution is often the cumulative effect of small amounts of contaminants gathered from a large area, a common example is the leaching out of nitrogen compounds from fertilized agricultural lands. Nutrient runoff in storm water from sheet flow over a field or a forest are also cited as examples of NPS pollution. Contaminated storm water washed off of parking lots, roads and highways, however, because this runoff is typically channeled into storm drain systems and discharged through pipes to local surface waters, it becomes a point source
Water pollution
–
Raw sewage and
industrial waste in the
New River as it passes from
Mexicali to
Calexico, California
Water pollution
–
Pollution in the
Lachine Canal, Canada
Water pollution
–
Point source pollution –
Shipyard –
Rio de Janeiro.
Water pollution
–
Poster to teach people in South Asia about human activities leading to the pollution of water sources
27.
UNDP
–
The United Nations Development Programme is the United Nations global development network. Headquartered in New York City, UNDP advocates for change and connects countries to knowledge, experience and it provides expert advice, training and grants support to developing countries, with increasing emphasis on assistance to the least developed countries. The status of UNDP is that of an executive board within the United Nations General Assembly, the UNDP Administrator is the third highest-ranking official of the United Nations after the United Nations Secretary-General and Deputy Secretary-General. UNDP also encourages the protection of rights and the empowerment of women in all of its programmes. The UNDP Human Development Report Office also publishes an annual Human Development Report to measure, in addition to a global Report, UNDP publishes regional, national, and local Human Development Reports. UNDP is funded entirely by contributions from member nations. The organization operates in 177 countries, where it works with governments to meet development challenges. Additionally, the UNDP works internationally to help achieve the Millennium Development Goals. Currently, the UNDP is one of the main UN agencies involved in the development of the Post-2015 Development Agenda, UNDP works with nations on their own solutions to global and national development challenges. As they develop local capacity, they draw on the people of UNDP, the UNDP was founded on 22 November 1965 with the merger of the Expanded Programme of Technical Assistance and the Special Fund. The rationale was to avoid duplication of activities, the EPTA was set up in 1949 to help the economic and political aspects of underdeveloped countries while the Special Fund was to enlarge the scope of UN technical assistance. The Special Fund arose from the idea of a Special United Nations Fund for Economic Development, while countries such as the Nordic countries were proponents of such a United Nations controlled fund. The concept of SUNFED was dropped to form the Special Fund and this Special Fund was some compromise over the SUNFED concept, it did not provide investment capital, but only helped to bring pre-conditions for private investment. With the US proposing and creating the International Development Association within the World Banks umbrella, the EPTA, in 2013, UNDP’s entire budget was approximately US$5 billion. The following table lists the top 15 DAC5 Digit Sectors to which UNDP has committed funding, the UNDP claims on the IATI Registry website that the data covers 100% of development flows. UNDP’s offices and staff are on the ground in 177 countries, working with governments, UNDP links and coordinates global and national efforts to achieve the goals and national development priorities laid out by host countries. UNDP also supports existing democratic institutions by increasing dialogue, enhancing national debate, UNDP also works at the macro level to reform trade, encourage debt relief and foreign investment, and ensure the poorest of the poor benefit from globalisation. On the ground, UNDP sponsors developmental pilot projects, promotes the role of women in development, in this way, UNDP works with local leaders and governments to provide opportunities for impoverished people to create businesses and improve their economic condition
UNDP
–
United Nations Development Programme
28.
UN-Habitat
–
The United Nations Human Settlements Programme is the United Nations agency for human settlements and sustainable urban development. It was established in 1978 as an outcome of the First UN Conference on Human Settlements and Sustainable Urban Development held in Vancouver, UN-Habitat maintains its headquarters at the United Nations Office at Nairobi, Kenya. It is mandated by the United Nations General Assembly to promote socially and environmentally sustainable towns and it is a member of the United Nations Development Group. The mandate of UN-Habitat derives from the Habitat Agenda, adopted by the United Nations Conference on Human Settlements in Istanbul, Turkey, the twin goals of the Habitat Agenda are adequate shelter for all and the development of sustainable human settlements in an urbanizing world. Since October 2010 the Executive Director is Joan Clos, former mayor of Barcelona and Minister of Industry, Tourism, the Governing Council of UN-Habitat is the intergovernmental decision-making body for the Programme. Every two years, the Governing Council examines the UN-Habitat’s work and relationships with its partners and it is a high-level forum of governments at the ministerial level during which policy guidelines and the organizations budget are established for the next two-year period. The Governing Council is taking place in Nairobi, Kenya, the World Urban Forum is an international conference dedicated to urban issues, organized by UN-Habitat. The World Urban Campaign is the world living platform on cities for sharing and learning on initiatives, actions, coordinated by UN-Habitat, it is a global coalition of public, private and civil society partners seeking to raise the urban agenda. The campaign is UN-Habitats partners platform for the preparation of the Third United Nations Conference on Housing, the United Nations has designated the first Monday of October every year as World Habitat Day. This is an occasion to reflect on the state of our towns and cities and it is also intended to remind the world of its collective responsibility for the future of human habitat. The UN-Habitat Scroll of Honour Award is a given by the United Nations Human Settlements Programme in recognition of work carried out in the field of human settlements development. The aim of the award is to individuals and institutions instrumental in improving the living conditions in urban centres around the world
UN-Habitat
–
UN-Habitat office in
Hospital de la Santa Creu i Sant Pau (Barcelona)
UN-Habitat
–
United Nations Human Settlements Programme
29.
Infrastructure
–
Infrastructure refers to the fundamental facilities and systems serving a country, city, or area, including the services and facilities necessary for its economy to function. The word was imported from French, where it means subgrade, the word is a combination of the Latin prefix infra, meaning below, and structure. The military use of the term achieved currency in the United States after the formation of NATO in the 1940s and this crisis discussion contributed to an increase in infrastructure asset management and maintenance planning in the US. Public-policy discussions have been hampered by lack of a definition for infrastructure. A1987 US National Research Council panel adopted the public works infrastructure. The OECD also classifies communications as a part of infrastructure, the American Society of Civil Engineers has not defined the term, though issuing a US Infrastructure Report Card every 2-4 years. Hard infrastructure refers to the physical networks necessary for the functioning of an industrial nation. The term critical infrastructure distinguishes those infrastructure elements that, if damaged or destroyed. Similarly, a booking system might be critical infrastructure for an airline. These elements of infrastructure are the focus of efforts in the aftermath of natural disasters. The term infrastructure may be confused with the following overlapping or related concepts, service connections to municipal service and public utility networks would also be considered land improvements, not infrastructure. The term public works includes government-owned and operated infrastructure as well as buildings, such as schools. Public works generally refers to physical assets needed to deliver public services, public services include both infrastructure and services generally provided by government. Infrastructure may be owned and managed by governments or by private companies, generally, most roads, major ports and airports, water distribution systems and sewage networks are publicly owned, whereas most energy and telecommunications networks are privately owned. Publicly owned infrastructure may be paid for taxes, tolls, or metered user fees. Major investment projects are financed by the issuance of long-term bonds. Government owned and operated infrastructure may be developed and operated in the sector or in public-private partnerships. As of 2008 in the United States for example, public spending on infrastructure has varied between 2. 3% and 3. 6% of GDP since 1950, many financial institutions invest in infrastructure
Infrastructure
–
Grand Coulee Dam
30.
Constructed wetland
–
A constructed wetland is an artificial wetland created for the purpose of treating anthropogenic discharge such as municipal or industrial wastewater, or stormwater runoff. It may also be created for land reclamation after mining, refineries, constructed wetlands are engineered systems that use natural functions of vegetation, soil, and organisms to treat different water streams. Depending on the type of wastewater that has to be treated the system has to be adjusted accordingly which means that pre- or post-treatments might be necessary. Constructed wetlands can be designed to emulate the features of natural wetlands, some constructed wetlands may also serve as a habitat for native and migratory wildlife, although that is usually not their main purpose. The two main types of constructed wetlands are subsurface flow and surface flow wetlands, the planted vegetation plays a role in contaminant removal but the filter bed, consisting usually of a combination of sand and gravel, has an equally important role to play. Many terms are used to denote constructed wetlands, such as reed beds, soil infiltration beds, constructed treatment wetlands, treatment wetlands, beside engineered wetlands, the terms of man-made or artificial wetlands are often found as well. A biofilter has some similarities with a wetland, but is usually without plants. However, the term of constructed wetlands can also be used to describe restored and recultivated land that was destroyed in the past through draining and converting into farmland, ponds for wastewater treatment or water purification are not considered as constructed wetlands. They are referred to as ponds or treatment ponds, respectively. A constructed wetland is a sequence of water bodies designed to filter and treat waterborne pollutants found in sewage. Constructed wetlands are used for treatment or for greywater treatment. They can be used after a tank for primary treatment. Some CW designs however do not use upfront primary treatment, vegetation in a wetland provides a substrate upon which microorganisms can grow as they break down organic materials. This community of microorganisms is known as the periphyton, the periphyton and natural chemical processes are responsible for approximately 90 percent of pollutant removal and waste breakdown. The plants remove about seven to ten percent of pollutants, different species of aquatic plants have different rates of heavy metal uptake, a consideration for plant selection in a constructed wetland used for water treatment. Constructed wetlands are of two types, subsurface flow and surface flow wetlands. Many regulatory agencies list treatment wetlands as one of their recommended best management practices for controlling urban runoff, in most cases, the bottom is lined with either a polymer geomembrane, concrete or clay in order to protect the water table and surrounding grounds. The substrate can be either gravel—generally limestone or pumice/volcanic rock, depending on local availability, subsurface flow wetlands can be further classified as horizontal flow and vertical flow constructed wetlands
Constructed wetland
–
Constructed wetland in an ecoological settlement in Flintenbreite near Luebeck, Germany
Constructed wetland
–
Effluent from a constructed wetland for
greywater treatment at an ecological housing estate in Hamburg-Allermoehe, Germany
Constructed wetland
–
Constructed wetland for domestic wastewater treatment in Bayawan City, the Philippines
Constructed wetland
–
Schematic of a vertical subsurface flow constructed wetland: Effluent flows through pipes on the subsurface of the ground through the root zone to the ground.
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