1.
Purity ring
–
Purity rings are worn as a sign of chastity. The practice originated in the United States in the 1990s among Christian-affiliated sexual abstinence groups, wearing a purity ring is typically accompanied by a religious vow to practice abstinence until marriage. Chastity rings are part of the sex education movement. Those who wear or promote these rings argue that the method for safe sex is abstinence. Even though research suggests purity rings are most effective when a child asks to take a purity pledge and wear the ring. Despite these fears, some research suggests purity rings have little to no effect, miss Manners advises that polite society does not recognize such a thing as a chastity ring. It is so polite that it presumes that a lady is chaste unless publicly proven otherwise, many celebrities, including Miley Cyrus, Jessica Simpson and the Jonas Brothers, among others, have worn purity rings
Purity ring
–
Purity Ring performing at Melt! Festival in 2013
Purity ring
2.
Youth
–
Youth is the time of life when one is young, but often means the time between childhood and adulthood. It is also defined as the appearance, freshness, vigor, spirit, Youth is an experience that may shape an individuals level of dependency, which can be marked in various ways according to different cultural perspectives. Personal experience is marked by an individuals cultural norms or traditions, around the world, the English terms youth, adolescent, teenager, kid, and young person are interchanged, often meaning the same thing, but they are occasionally differentiated. Youth can be referred to as the time of life when one is young and this involves childhood, and the time of life which is neither childhood nor adulthood, but rather somewhere in between. Youth also identifies a particular mindset of attitude, as in He is very youthful, for certain uses, such as employment statistics, the term also sometimes refers to individuals from the ages of 14 to 21. However, the term refers to a specific age range during a specific developmental period in a persons life. The UN also recognizes that this varies without prejudice to other age groups listed by states such as 18-30. A useful distinction within the UN itself can be made between teenagers and young adults, while seeking to impose some uniformity on statistical approaches, the UN itself is aware of contradictions between approaches in its own statutes. Hence under the 15-24 definition children are defined as those under the age of 14 while under the 1979 Convention on the Rights of the Child, those under the age of 18 are regarded as children. The UN also states they are aware that several definitions exist for youth within UN entities such as Youth Habitat 15-32, - Robert Kennedy Youth is the stage of constructing the self-concept. The self-concept of youth is influenced by several such as peers, lifestyle, gender. It is the time of a life in which they make choices which will affect their future. In much of sub-Saharan Africa, the youth is associated with young men from 15 to 30 or 35 years of age. Youth in Nigeria includes all members of the Federal Republic of Nigeria aged 18–35, many African girls experience youth as a brief interlude between the onset of puberty and marriage and motherhood. But in urban settings, poor women are considered youth much longer. Varying culturally, the constructions of youth in Latin America. In Vietnam, widespread notions of youth are sociopolitical constructions for both sexes between the ages of 15 and 35, in Brazil, the term youth refers to people of both sexes from 15 to 29 years old. This age bracket reflects the influence on Brazilian law of international organizations like the World Health Organization and it is also shaped by the notion of adolescence that has entered everyday life in Brazil through a discourse on childrens rights
Youth
–
A group of
teenagers. The term teenager is often considered synonymous with youth.
3.
Celibacy
–
Celibacy is the state of voluntarily being unmarried, sexually abstinent, or both, usually for religious reasons. It is often in association with the role of an official or devotee. In its narrow sense, the term celibacy is applied only to those for whom the state is the result of a sacred vow, act of renunciation. In a wider sense, it is understood to only mean abstinence from sexual activity. Celibacy has existed in one form or another throughout history, in all the major religions of the world. Ancient Judaism was strongly opposed to celibacy, similarly, the Romans viewed it as an aberration and legislated fiscal penalties against it, with the sole exception granted to the Vestal Virgins. Christians in the Middle Ages and in particular Catholics believed that celibacy was a prerequisite for religious office, protestantism saw a reversal of this trend in the West and the Eastern Orthodox Church never adopted it. The Islamic attitudes toward celibacy have been complex as well, Muhammad denounced it, classical Hindu culture encouraged asceticism and celibacy in the later stages of life, after one has met his societal obligations. Jainism and Buddhism have been influenced by Hinduism in this respect, There were, however, significant cultural differences in the various areas where Buddhism spread, which affected the local attitudes toward celibacy. It was not well received in China, for example, where other religions such as Daoism were opposed to it. A somewhat similar situation existed in Japan, where the Shinto tradition also opposed celibacy, the English word celibacy derives from the Latin caelibatus, state of being unmarried, from Latin caelebs, meaning unmarried. This word derives from two Proto-Indo-European stems, *kaiwelo- alone and *libs- living, the words abstinence and celibacy are often used interchangeably, but are not necessarily the same thing. A. W. Sipe adds that even in the relatively uniform milieu of Catholic priests in the United States there is no clear operational definition of celibacy. The concept of new celibacy was introduced by Gabrielle Brown in her 1980 book The New Celibacy, in a revised version of her book, she claims that abstinence is a response on the outside to whats going on, and celibacy is a response from the inside. According to her definition, celibacy is much more than not having sex and it is more intentional than abstinence, and its goal is personal growth and empowerment. This new perspective on celibacy is echoed by authors including Elizabeth Abbott, Wendy Keller. The rule of celibacy in the Buddhist religion, whether Mahayana or Theravada, has a long history, in Japan, celibacy was an ideal among Buddhist clerics for hundreds of years. But violations of clerical celibacy were so common for so long that, finally, in 1872, subsequently, ninety percent of Buddhist monks/clerics married
Celibacy
–
Saint
Kateri Tekakwitha, a
Catholic laywoman who took a private vow of perpetual virginity
Celibacy
–
Buddhist monks in Chiang Mai Province,
Thailand
Celibacy
–
A Russian orthodox nun and monk in Israel, 2012
Celibacy
–
"Saint
Macarius and a Cherub" from
Saint Catherine's Monastery, Sinai, Egypt.
4.
Marriage
–
The definition of marriage varies according to different cultures, but it is principally an institution in which interpersonal relationships, usually sexual, are acknowledged. In some cultures, marriage is recommended or considered to be compulsory before pursuing any sexual activity, when defined broadly, marriage is considered a cultural universal. Individuals may marry for several reasons, including legal, social, libidinal, emotional, financial, spiritual, whom they marry may be influenced by socially determined rules of incest, prescriptive marriage rules, parental choice and individual desire. In some areas of the world, arranged marriage, child marriage, polygamy, conversely, such practices may be outlawed and penalized in parts of the world out of concerns for womens rights and because of international law. These trends coincide with the human rights movement. Marriage can be recognized by a state, an organization, an authority, a tribal group. It is often viewed as a contract, Marriages can be performed in a secular civil ceremony or in a religious setting via a wedding ceremony. The act of marriage usually creates normative or legal obligations between the individuals involved, and any offspring they may produce, some cultures allow the dissolution of marriage through divorce or annulment. In some areas, child marriages and polygamy may occur in spite of laws against the practice. For example, the number of marriages in Europe decreased by 30% from 1975 to 2005 and these changes have occurred primarily in Western countries. The word marriage derives from Middle English mariage, which first appears in 1250–1300 CE and this in turn is derived from Old French, marier, and ultimately Latin, marītāre, meaning to provide with a husband or wife and marītāri meaning to get married. The adjective marīt-us -a, -um meaning matrimonial or nuptial could also be used in the form as a noun for husband. Anthropologists have proposed several competing definitions of marriage in an attempt to encompass the wide variety of marital practices observed across cultures, even within Western culture, definitions of marriage have careened from one extreme to another and everywhere in between. The anthropological handbook Notes and Queries defined marriage as a union between a man and a such that children born to the woman are the recognized legitimate offspring of both partners. In recognition of a practice by the Nuer people of Sudan allowing women to act as a husband in certain circumstances, Kathleen Gough suggested modifying this to a woman, none of these men had legal rights to the womans child. Economic anthropologist Duran Bell has criticized the definition on the basis that some societies do not require marriage for legitimacy. He argued that a definition of marriage is circular in societies where illegitimacy has no other legal or social implications for a child other than the mother being unmarried. In 1955 article in Man, Leach argued that no one definition of marriage applied to all cultures and he offered a list of ten rights associated with marriage, including sexual monopoly and rights with respect to children, with specific rights differing across cultures
Marriage
–
A pair of
wedding rings
Marriage
–
Swedish royal wedding clothes from 1766,
Livrustkammaren in Stockholm
Marriage
–
Nepali wedding party in traditional dress
Marriage
–
An arranged marriage between
Louis XIV of France and
Maria Theresa of Spain.
5.
Chastity
–
Chastity is sexual behavior of a man or woman that is acceptable to the moral standards and guidelines of their culture, civilization or religion. The term has become associated with sexual abstinence, especially before marriage. The words chaste and chastity stem from the Latin adjective castus meaning pure, the words entered the English language around the middle of the 13th century, at that time they meant slightly different things. Chaste meant virtuous or pure from unlawful sexual intercourse, while chastity meant virginity and it was not until the late 16th century that the two words came to have the same basic meaning as a related adjective and noun. For Muslims and many Christians, acts of nature are restricted to marriage. For unmarried persons, chastity is identified with sexual abstinence, sexual acts outside or apart from marriage, such as adultery, fornication and prostitution, are considered sinful. In many Christian traditions, chastity is synonymous with sexual purity, chastity means not having any sexual relations before marriage. It also means fidelity to husband or wife during marriage, in Catholic morality, chastity is placed opposite the deadly sin of lust, and is classified as one of seven virtues. The moderation of sexual desires is required to be virtuous, reason, will and desire can harmoniously work together to do what is good. In marriage, the spouses commit to a relationship which excludes sexual intimacy with other persons. After marriage, a form of chastity, often called vidual chastity, is expected of a woman while she is in mourning for her late husband. For example, Anglican Bishop Jeremy Taylor defined 5 rules in Holy Living, including abstaining from marrying so long as she is with child by her former husband, the particular ethical system may not prescribe each of these. Many Anglican communities allow for artificial contraception, seeing the restriction of family size by artificial contraception as possibly not contrary to Gods will, a stricter view is held by the Shakers, who prohibit marriage as a violation of chastity. The Catholic Church has set up various rules regarding clerical celibacy, celibacy is required of monastics—monks, nuns and friars—even in a rare system of double cloisters, in which husbands could enter the monastery while their wives entered a sister monastery. Required celibacy among the clergy is a recent practice, it became Church policy at the Second Lateran Council in 1139. It was not uniformly enforced among the clergy until 200 years later, eastern Catholic priests are permitted to be married, provided they are so before ordination and outside the monastic life. Vows of chastity can also be taken by laypersons, either as part of a religious life or on an individual basis, as a voluntary act of devotion, or as part of an ascetic lifestyle. The voluntary aspect has led it to being included among the main counsels of perfection, chastity is a central and pivotal concept in Roman Catholic praxis
Chastity
–
Allegory of chastity by
Hans Memling
6.
Promiscuity
–
Promiscuity is the practice of having casual sex frequently with different partners or being indiscriminate in the choice of sexual partners. The term can carry a moral judgement if the ideal for sexual activity is monogamous relationships. A common example of behavior viewed as promiscuous by many cultures is the one-night stand, what sexual behavior is considered promiscuous varies between cultures, as does the prevalence of promiscuity. Different standards are applied to different genders and civil statuses. Feminists have traditionally argued a significant double standard exists between how men and women are judged for promiscuity, a scientific study published in 2005 found that promiscuous men and women are judged equally harshly. However, later studies show evidence for a double standard, Promiscuity is common in many animal species. Some species have mating systems, ranging from polyandry and polygyny to mating systems with no stable relationships where mating between two individuals is a one-time event. Many species form stable pair bonds, but still mate with other individuals outside the pair, in biology, incidents of promiscuity in species that form pair bonds are usually called extra-pair copulations. American experiments in 1978 and 1982 found the majority of men were willing to have sex with women they did not know, of average attractiveness. No woman, by contrast, agreed to such propositions from men of average attractiveness, while men were in general comfortable with the requests, regardless of their willingness, women responded with shock and disgust. The number of partners people have had in their lifetimes varies widely within a population. A2007 nationwide survey in the United States found the number of female sexual partners reported by men was seven. About 29% of men and 9% of women reported to have had more than 15 sexual partners in their lifetimes, an important question in the epidemiology of sexually transmitted infections is whether or not these groups copulate mostly at random or within their social groups. A2006 systematic review found no association between regional sexual behavior tendencies, such as number of partners, and sexual-health status. Much more predictive of sexual-health status are socioeconomic factors like poverty and mobility, other studies have suggested that people with multiple casual sex partners are more likely to be diagnosed with sexually transmitted infections. The study measured one-night stands, attitudes to sex. A2014 nationwide survey in the United Kingdom named Liverpool the countrys most promiscuous city, britains position on the international index may be linked to increasing social acceptance of promiscuity among women as well as men. Britain’s ranking was ascribed to such as the decline of religious scruples about extramarital sex, the growth of equal pay and equal rights for women
Promiscuity
–
Portrait of
Giacomo Casanova
Promiscuity
–
Empress
Catherine II is remembered in popular culture for her sexual promiscuity.
7.
Pythagoras
–
Pythagoras of Samos was an Ionian Greek philosopher, mathematician, and the putative founder of the movement called Pythagoreanism. Most of the information about Pythagoras was written centuries after he lived. He was born on the island of Samos, and travelled, visiting Egypt and Greece, around 530 BC, he moved to Croton, in Magna Graecia, and there established some kind of school or guild. In 520 BC, he returned to Samos, Pythagoras made influential contributions to philosophy and religion in the late 6th century BC. He is often revered as a mathematician and scientist and is best known for the Pythagorean theorem which bears his name. Many of the accomplishments credited to Pythagoras may actually have been accomplishments of his colleagues, some accounts mention that the philosophy associated with Pythagoras was related to mathematics and that numbers were important. It was said that he was the first man to himself a philosopher, or lover of wisdom, and Pythagorean ideas exercised a marked influence on Plato. Burkert states that Aristoxenus and Dicaearchus are the most important accounts, Aristotle had written a separate work On the Pythagoreans, which is no longer extant. However, the Protrepticus possibly contains parts of On the Pythagoreans and his disciples Dicaearchus, Aristoxenus, and Heraclides Ponticus had written on the same subject. These writers, late as they are, were among the best sources from whom Porphyry and Iamblichus drew, while adding some legendary accounts. Herodotus, Isocrates, and other writers agree that Pythagoras was the son of Mnesarchus and born on the Greek island of Samos. His father is said to have been a gem-engraver or a wealthy merchant, a late source gives his mothers name as Pythais. As to the date of his birth, Aristoxenus stated that Pythagoras left Samos in the reign of Polycrates, at the age of 40, around 530 BC he arrived in the Greek colony of Croton in what was then Magna Graecia. There he founded his own school the members of which he engaged to a disciplined. He furthermore aquired some political influence, on Greeks and non-Greeks of the region, following a conflict with the neighbouring colony of Sybaris, internal discord drove most of the Pythagoreans out of Croton. Pythagoras left the city before the outbreak of civil unrest and moved to Metapontum, after his death, his house was transformed into a sanctuary of Demeter, out of veneration for the philosopher, by the local population. In ancient sources there was disagreement and inconsistency about the late life of Pythagoras. His tomb was shown at Metapontum in the time of Cicero, according to Walter Burkert, Most obvious is the contradiction between Aristoxenus and Dicaearchus, regarding the catastrophe that overwhelmed the Pythagorean society
Pythagoras
–
Bust of Pythagoras of Samos in the
Capitoline Museums,
Rome.
Pythagoras
–
Bust of Pythagoras,
Vatican
Pythagoras
–
A scene at the
Chartres Cathedral shows a philosopher, on one of the
archivolts over the right door of the west portal at Chartres, which has been attributed to depict Pythagoras.
Pythagoras
–
Croton on the southern coast of Magna Graecia (Southern Italy), to which Pythagoras ventured after feeling overburdened in Samos.
8.
Zoroastrianism
–
Ascribed to the teachings of the Iranian prophet Zoroaster, it exalts a deity of wisdom, Ahura Mazda, as its Supreme Being. Zoroastrianism was suppressed from the 7th century onwards following the Muslim conquest of Persia of 633-654, recent estimates place the current number of Zoroastrians at around 2.6 million, with most living in India and in Iran. Besides the Zoroastrian diaspora, the older Mithraic faith Yazdânism is still practised amongst Kurds, the religious philosophy of Zoroaster divided the early Iranian gods of Proto-Indo-Iranian tradition. The most important texts of the religion are those of the Avesta, in Zoroastrianism, the creator Ahura Mazda, through the Spenta Mainyu is an all-good father of Asha, in opposition to Druj and no evil originates from him. He and his works are evident to humanity through the six primary Amesha Spentas, Spenta Mainyu adjoined unto truth oppose the Spirits opposite, Angra Mainyu and its forces born of Akəm Manah. In Zoroastrianism, the purpose in life is to be among those who renew the world. to make the progress towards perfection. Its basic maxims include, Humata, Hukhta, Huvarshta, which mean, Good Thoughts, Good Words, there is only one path and that is the path of Truth. Do the right thing because it is the thing to do. The full name by which Zoroaster addressed the deity is, Ahura, The Lord Creator and he proclaimed that there is only one God, the singularly creative and sustaining force of the Universe. He also stated that human beings are given a right of choice, Zoroasters teachings focused on responsibility, and did not introduce a devil per se. The contesting force to Ahura Mazda was called Angra Mainyu, or angry spirit, post-Zoroastrian scripture introduced the concept of Ahriman, the Devil, which was effectively a personification of Angra Mainyu. The name Zoroaster is a Greek rendering of the name Zarathustra and he is known as Zartosht and Zardosht in Persian and Zaratosht in Gujarati. The Zoroastrian name of the religion is Mazdayasna, which combines Mazda- with the Avestan language word yasna, meaning worship, in English, an adherent of the faith is commonly called a Zoroastrian or a Zarathustrian. An older expression still used today is Behdin, meaning The best Religion | Beh < Middle Persian Weh + Din < Middle Persian dēn < Avestan Daēnā. In Zoroastrian liturgy the term is used as a title for an individual who has formally inducted into the religion in a Navjote ceremony. The term Mazdaism /ˈmæzdə. ɪzəm/ is a typical 19th century construct, taking Mazda- from the name Ahura Mazda, the March 2001 draft edition of the Oxford English Dictionary also records an alternate form, Mazdeism, perhaps derived from the French Mazdéisme, which first appeared in 1871. In older English sources, the terms Gheber and Gueber were used to refer to Zoroastrians, however, Zoroastrian philosophy is identified as having been known to Italian Renaissance Europe through an image of Zoroaster in Raphaels School of Athens by Giorgio Vasari in 1550. The Oxford English Dictionary records use of the term Zoroastrianism in 1874 in Archibald Sayces Principles of Comparative Philology, Zoroastrians believe that there is one universal, transcendent, supreme god, Ahura Mazda, or the Wise Lord
Zoroastrianism
–
Farvahar.
Persepolis, Iran.
Zoroastrianism
–
Faravahar (or Ferohar), one of the primary symbols of Zoroastrianism, believed to be the depiction of a Fravashi (guardian spirit)
Zoroastrianism
–
A scene from the
Hamzanama where
Hamza ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib Burns Zarthust’s Chest and Shatters the Urn with his Ashes
Zoroastrianism
–
The
fire temple of
Baku, c. 1860
9.
Good and evil
–
In religion, ethics, philosophy and psychology good and evil is a very common dichotomy. In cultures with Manichaean and Abrahamic religious influence, evil is usually perceived as the dualistic antagonistic opposite of good, Evil, in a general context, is the absence or opposite of that which is described as being good. Often, evil is used to denote profound immorality, in certain religious contexts, evil has been described as a supernatural force. Definitions of evil vary, as does the analysis of its motives, however, elements that are commonly associated with evil involve unbalanced behavior involving expediency, selfishness, ignorance, or neglect. How to achieve good is also discussed in the social sciences, every language has a word expressing good in the sense of having the right or desirable quality and bad in the sense undesirable. A sense of judgment and a distinction right and wrong, good. This idea developed into a religion which spawned many sects, some of which embraced an extreme dualistic belief that the world should be shunned. Morality in this absolute sense solidifies in the dialogues of Plato, the idea is further developed in Late Antiquity by Neoplatonists, Gnostics, and Church Fathers. Medieval theology was shaped by St. Augustine of Hippo. According to the definition of St. Augustine of Hippo sin is a word, deed. Other later Germanic forms include Middle English evel, ifel, ufel, Old Frisian evel, Old Saxon ubil, Old High German ubil, differing views also exist as to why evil might arise. Many religious and philosophical traditions claim that evil behavior is an aberration that results from the human condition. Sometimes, evil is attributed to the existence of free will, Some argue that evil itself is ultimately based in an ignorance of truth. A variety of Enlightenment thinkers have alleged the opposite, by suggesting that evil is learned as a consequence of social structures. In physics and statistical thermodynamics, the property of goodness or order is referred to as a state of low entropy. Confucianisms primary concern is with correct social relationships and the behavior appropriate to the learned or superior man, thus evil would correspond to wrong behavior. By good, I understand that which we know is useful to us. By evil, on the contrary I understand that which we certainly know hinders us from possessing anything that is good
Good and evil
–
In many religions,
angels are considered good beings. In the
Judeo-Christian tradition,
God —being the creator of all life —is seen as the personification of good.
Good and evil
–
Satan, as seen in
Codex Gigas.
Demons are generally seen as evil beings, and Satan as greatest of these (in the Christian tradition).
10.
Gnosticism
–
Gnosticism is a modern name for a variety of ancient religious ideas and systems, originating in Jewish milieus in the first and second century CE. This Divine spark could be liberated by gnosis of this Divine spark, the Gnostic ideas and systems flourished in Mediterranean in the second century CE, in conjunction with and influenced by the early Christian movements and Middle Platonism. In the Persian Empire Gnosticism spread as far as China with Manicheism, a major question in scholarly research is the qualification of Gnosticism, based on the study of its texts, as either an interreligious phenomenon or as an independent religion. The word Gnosticism is a construction, from the Greek word gnosis. Gnosis refers to knowledge based on experience or perception. In a religious context, gnosis is mystical or esoteric knowledge based on direct participation with the divine, in most Gnostic systems the sufficient cause of salvation is this knowledge of the divine. It is a knowing, comparable to that encouraged by Plotinus. With gnosis comes a fuller insight, and gives an understanding of the deeper meanings of doctrines, scriptures. The usual meaning of gnostikos in Classical Greek texts is learned or intellectual, platos use of learned is fairly typical of Classical texts. By the Hellenistic period, it began to also be associated with Greco-Roman mysteries, the adjective is not used in the New Testament, but Clement of Alexandria speaks of the learned Christian in complimentary terms. The use of gnostikos in relation to heresy originates with interpreters of Irenaeus, some scholars consider that Irenaeus sometimes uses gnostikos to simply mean intellectual, whereas his mention of the intellectual sect is a specific designation. The term Gnosticism was derived from the use of the Greek adjective gnostikos by St. Irenaeus to describe the school of Valentinus as he legomene gnostike haeresis the heresy called Learned, the Syrian-Egyptian traditions postulate a remote, supreme Godhead, the Monad. From this highest divinity emanate lower divine beings, known as Aeons, the Demiurg, one of those Aeons, creates the physical world. Divine elements fall into the realm, and are locked within human beings. This divine element returns to the realm when Gnosis, esoteric or intuitive knowledge of the divine element within is obtained. Gnostic systems postulate a dualism between God and the world, varying from the radical dualist systems of Manicheanism to the dualism of classic gnostic movements. Radical dualism, or absolute dualism, posits two co-equal divine forces, while in mitigated dualism one of the two principles is in some way inferior to the other, in qualified monism the second entity may be divine or semi-divine. Valentinian Gnosticism is a form of monism, expressed in terms previously used in a dualistic manner, Gnostics tended toward asceticism, especially in their sexual and dietary practice
Gnosticism
–
Manichean priests writing at their desks, with panel inscription in
Sogdian. Manuscript from Khocho,
Tarim Basin.
Gnosticism
–
Irenaeus, who first used "gnostic" to describe heresies
Gnosticism
–
A lion-faced deity found on a Gnostic gem in
Bernard de Montfaucon 's L'antiquité expliquée et représentée en figures may be a depiction of the Demiurge; however, cf.
Mithraic Zervan Akarana
11.
Gnosticism and the New Testament
–
Gnosticism is a modern name for a variety of ancient religious ideas and systems, originating in Jewish milieus in the first and second century CE. This Divine spark could be liberated by gnosis of this Divine spark, the Gnostic ideas and systems flourished in Mediterranean in the second century CE, in conjunction with and influenced by the early Christian movements and Middle Platonism. In the Persian Empire Gnosticism spread as far as China with Manicheism, a major question in scholarly research is the qualification of Gnosticism, based on the study of its texts, as either an interreligious phenomenon or as an independent religion. The word Gnosticism is a construction, from the Greek word gnosis. Gnosis refers to knowledge based on experience or perception. In a religious context, gnosis is mystical or esoteric knowledge based on direct participation with the divine, in most Gnostic systems the sufficient cause of salvation is this knowledge of the divine. It is a knowing, comparable to that encouraged by Plotinus. With gnosis comes a fuller insight, and gives an understanding of the deeper meanings of doctrines, scriptures. The usual meaning of gnostikos in Classical Greek texts is learned or intellectual, platos use of learned is fairly typical of Classical texts. By the Hellenistic period, it began to also be associated with Greco-Roman mysteries, the adjective is not used in the New Testament, but Clement of Alexandria speaks of the learned Christian in complimentary terms. The use of gnostikos in relation to heresy originates with interpreters of Irenaeus, some scholars consider that Irenaeus sometimes uses gnostikos to simply mean intellectual, whereas his mention of the intellectual sect is a specific designation. The term Gnosticism was derived from the use of the Greek adjective gnostikos by St. Irenaeus to describe the school of Valentinus as he legomene gnostike haeresis the heresy called Learned, the Syrian-Egyptian traditions postulate a remote, supreme Godhead, the Monad. From this highest divinity emanate lower divine beings, known as Aeons, the Demiurg, one of those Aeons, creates the physical world. Divine elements fall into the realm, and are locked within human beings. This divine element returns to the realm when Gnosis, esoteric or intuitive knowledge of the divine element within is obtained. Gnostic systems postulate a dualism between God and the world, varying from the radical dualist systems of Manicheanism to the dualism of classic gnostic movements. Radical dualism, or absolute dualism, posits two co-equal divine forces, while in mitigated dualism one of the two principles is in some way inferior to the other, in qualified monism the second entity may be divine or semi-divine. Valentinian Gnosticism is a form of monism, expressed in terms previously used in a dualistic manner, Gnostics tended toward asceticism, especially in their sexual and dietary practice
Gnosticism and the New Testament
–
St. Paul, Valentin de Boulogne
Gnosticism and the New Testament
–
The resurrection of the dead by
Michelangelo Buonarroti
12.
Semen
–
Semen, also known as seminal fluid, is an organic fluid that may contain spermatozoa. It is secreted by the gonads and other organs of male or hermaphroditic animals. Semen is produced and originates from the vesicle, which is located in the pelvis. The process that results in the discharge of semen is called ejaculation, Semen is also a form of genetic material. In animals, semen has been collected for cryoconservation, cryoconservation of animal genetic resources is a practice that calls for the collection of genetic material in efforts for conservation of a particular breed. Depending on the species, spermatozoa can fertilize ova externally or internally, in external fertilization, the spermatozoa fertilize the ova directly, outside of the females sexual organs. Female fish, for example, spawn ova into their aquatic environment, during internal fertilization, however, fertilization occurs inside the females sexual organs. Internal fertilization takes place after insemination of a female by a male through copulation, in most vertebrates, including amphibians, reptiles, birds and monotreme mammals, copulation is achieved through the physical mating of the cloaca of the male and female. In marsupial and placental mammals, copulation occurs through the vagina, during the process of ejaculation, sperm passes through the ejaculatory ducts and mixes with fluids from the seminal vesicles, the prostate, and the bulbourethral glands to form the semen. The seminal vesicles produce a viscous fluid rich in fructose. The prostatic secretion, influenced by dihydrotestosterone, is a whitish, thin fluid containing proteolytic enzymes, citric acid, acid phosphatase, the bulbourethral glands secrete a clear secretion into the lumen of the urethra to lubricate it. Sertoli cells, which nurture and support developing spermatocytes, secrete a fluid into seminiferous tubules that helps transport sperm to the genital ducts, the ductuli efferentes possess cuboidal cells with microvilli and lysosomal granules that modify the ductal fluid by reabsorbing some fluid. The accessory genital ducts, the vesicle, prostate glands. Seminal plasma of humans contains a range of organic and inorganic constituents. The seminal plasma provides a nutritive and protective medium for the spermatozoa during their journey through the reproductive tract. The normal environment of the vagina is a one for sperm cells, as it is very acidic, viscous. The components in the seminal plasma attempt to compensate for this hostile environment, basic amines such as putrescine, spermine, spermidine and cadaverine are responsible for the smell and flavor of semen. These alkaline bases counteract and buffer the acidic environment of the vaginal canal, the components and contributions of semen are as follows, A1992 World Health Organization report described normal human semen as having a volume of 2 ml or greater, pH of 7.2 to 8
Semen
–
Spermatozoa, in this case human, are a primary component in normal semen, and the agents of fertilization of the female
ova
Semen
–
Human semen in a petri dish
Semen
–
Semen stain on carpet observed with and without ultraviolet light
13.
Lecithin
–
Lecithins are usually phospholipids, composed of phosphoric acid with choline, glycerol or other fatty acids usually glycolipids or triglyceride. Glycerophospholipids in lecithin include phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidylinositol, phosphatidylserine, Lecithin was first isolated in 1845 by the French chemist and pharmacist Theodore Gobley. In 1850, he named the phosphatidylcholine lécithine, Lecithin can easily be extracted chemically using any non-polar solvent such as hexane, ethanol, acetone, petroleum ether, benzene, etc. or extraction can be done mechanically. It is usually available from such as soybeans, eggs, milk, marine sources, rapeseed, cottonseed. It has low solubility in water, but is an excellent emulsifier, in aqueous solution, its phospholipids can form either liposomes, bilayer sheets, micelles, or lamellar structures, depending on hydration and temperature. This results in a type of surfactant that usually is classified as amphipathic, Lecithin is sold as a food additive and dietary supplement. In cooking, it is used as an emulsifier and to prevent sticking. While lecithin is also a source of a variety of types of dietary fats. Lecithin is a source for methyl groups via its metabolite, trimethylglycine although this is consumed from plants. Phosphatidylcholine occurs in all organisms, being one of the major components of the phospholipid portion of the cell membrane. Commercial lecithin, as used by manufacturers, is a mixture of phospholipids in oil. The lecithin can be obtained by water degumming the extracted oil of seeds and it is a mixture of various phospholipids, and the composition depends on the origin of the lecithin. A major source of lecithin is soybean oil, the main phospholipids in lecithin from soya and sunflower are phosphatidyl choline, phosphatidyl inositol, phosphatidyl ethanolamine, and phosphatidic acid. They often are abbreviated to PC, PI, PE, and PA, purified phospholipids are produced by companies commercially. To modify the performance of lecithin to make it suitable for the product to which it is added, in hydrolysed lecithins, a portion of the phospholipids have one fatty acid removed by phospholipase. The most commonly used phospholipase is phospholipase A2, which removes the fatty acid at the C2 position of glycerol, lecithins may also be modified by a process called fractionation. During this process, lecithin is mixed with an alcohol, usually ethanol, some phospholipids, such as phosphatidylcholine, have good solubility in ethanol, whereas most other phospholipids do not dissolve well in ethanol. The ethanol is separated from the sludge, after which the ethanol is removed by evaporation to obtain a phosphatidylcholine-enriched lecithin fraction
Lecithin
–
An example of a phosphatidylcholine, a type of phospholipid in lecithin. Red - choline and phosphate group; Black - glycerol; Green - unsaturated fatty acid; Blue - saturated fatty acid
14.
Phosphorus
–
Phosphorus is a chemical element with symbol P and atomic number 15. As an element, phosphorus exists in two major forms—white phosphorus and red phosphorus—but because it is reactive, phosphorus is never found as a free element on Earth. At 0. 099%, phosphorus is the most abundant pnictogen in the Earths crust, with few exceptions, minerals containing phosphorus are in the maximally oxidised state as inorganic phosphate rocks. The glow of phosphorus itself originates from oxidation of the white phosphorus — a process now termed chemiluminescence, together with nitrogen, arsenic, antimony, and bismuth, phosphorus is classified as a pnictogen. Phosphates are a component of DNA, RNA, ATP, and the phospholipids, demonstrating the link between phosphorus and life, elemental phosphorus was first isolated from human urine, and bone ash was an important early phosphate source. Phosphate mines contain fossils, especially marine fossils, because phosphate is present in the deposits of animal remains. Low phosphate levels are an important limit to growth in aquatic systems. The vast majority of compounds produced are consumed as fertilisers. Phosphate is needed to replace the phosphorus that plants remove from the soil, other applications include the role of organophosphorus compounds in detergents, pesticides, and nerve agents. Phosphorus exists as several forms that exhibit different properties. The two most common allotropes are white phosphorus and red phosphorus, from the perspective of applications and chemical literature, the most important form of elemental phosphorus is white phosphorus, often abbreviated as WP. It is a soft and waxy solid consists of tetrahedral P4 molecules. This P4 tetrahedron is also present in liquid and gaseous phosphorus up to the temperature of 800 °C when it starts decomposing to P2 molecules, White phosphorus exists in two crystalline forms, α and β. At room temperature, the α-form is stable, which is common and it has cubic crystal structure and at 195.2 K, it transforms into β-form. These forms differ in terms of the orientations of the constituent P4 tetrahedra. White phosphorus is the least stable, the most reactive, the most volatile, the least dense, White phosphorus gradually changes to red phosphorus. This transformation is accelerated by light and heat, and samples of white phosphorus almost always some red phosphorus. For this reason, white phosphorus that is aged or otherwise impure is also called yellow phosphorus, when exposed to oxygen, white phosphorus glows in the dark with a very faint tinge of green and blue
Phosphorus
–
waxy white (yellow cut), red (granules centre left, chunk centre right), and violet phosphorus
Phosphorus
–
P 4 molecule
Phosphorus
–
White phosphorus
Phosphorus
–
Crystal structure of red phosphorus
15.
Friedrich Nietzsche
–
He began his career as a classical philologist before turning to philosophy. He became the youngest ever to hold the Chair of Classical Philology at the University of Basel in 1869, Nietzsche resigned in 1879 due to health problems that plagued him most of his life, and he completed much of his core writing in the following decade. In 1889, at age 44, he suffered a collapse and he lived his remaining years in the care of his mother, and then with his sister Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche, and died in 1900. Nietzsches body of work touched widely on art, philology, history, religion, tragedy, culture, and science, and drew inspiration from figures such as Schopenhauer, Wagner. His writing spans philosophical polemics, poetry, cultural criticism, and fiction while displaying a fondness for aphorism, born on 15 October 1844, Nietzsche grew up in the small town of Röcken, near Leipzig, in the Prussian Province of Saxony. He was named after King Frederick William IV of Prussia, who turned forty-nine on the day of Nietzsches birth, Nietzsches parents, Carl Ludwig Nietzsche, a Lutheran pastor and former teacher, and Franziska Oehler, married in 1843, the year before their sons birth. They had two children, a daughter, Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche, born in 1846, and a second son, Ludwig Joseph. Nietzsches father died from an ailment in 1849, Ludwig Joseph died six months later. The family then moved to Naumburg, where they lived with Nietzsches maternal grandmother, after the death of Nietzsches grandmother in 1856, the family moved into their own house, now Nietzsche-Haus, a museum and Nietzsche study centre. Nietzsche attended a school and then, later, a private school, where he became friends with Gustav Krug, Rudolf Wagner. In 1854, he began to attend Domgymnasium in Naumburg, because his father had worked for the state the now-fatherless Nietzsche was offered a scholarship to study at the internationally recognized Schulpforta. He transferred and studied there from 1858 to 1864, becoming friends with Paul Deussen and he also found time to work on poems and musical compositions. Nietzsche led Germania, a music and literature club, during his summers in Naumburg. His end-of-semester exams in March 1864 showed a 1 in Religion and German, a 2a in Greek and Latin, a 2b in French, History, and Physics, while at Pforta, Nietzsche had a penchant for pursuing subjects that were considered unbecoming. The teacher who corrected the essay gave it a mark but commented that Nietzsche should concern himself in the future with healthier, more lucid. After graduation in September 1864, Nietzsche commenced studies in theology, for a short time he and Deussen became members of the Burschenschaft Frankonia. After one semester, he stopped his studies and lost his faith. In June 1865, at the age of 20, Nietzsche wrote to his sister Elisabeth, who was deeply religious, a letter regarding his loss of faith
Friedrich Nietzsche
–
Nietzsche in Basel, c. 1875
Friedrich Nietzsche
–
Nietzsche in 1861
Friedrich Nietzsche
–
Schopenhauer 's philosophy strongly influenced Nietzsche's earliest philosophical thought.
Friedrich Nietzsche
–
Mid-October 1871. From left:
Erwin Rohde, Karl von Gersdorff, Nietzsche.
16.
Nutrient
–
A nutrient is a component in foods that an organism uses to survive and grow. Macronutrients provide the energy an organisms metabolic system needs to function while micronutrients provide the necessary cofactors for metabolism to be carried out. Both types of nutrients can be acquired from the environment, micronutrients are used to build and repair tissues and to regulate body processes while macronutrients are converted to, and used for, energy. Methods of nutrient intake are different for plants and animals, plants take in nutrients directly from the soil through their roots and from the atmosphere through their leaves. Animals and protists have specialized digestive systems that work to break down macronutrients for energy, organic nutrients consist of carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and vitamins. Inorganic chemical compounds such as minerals, water, and oxygen may also be considered nutrients. A nutrient is considered if it must be obtained from an external source either because the organism cannot synthesize it or because insufficient quantities are produced. Nutrients needed in small amounts are called micronutrients while those needed in large quantities are called macronutrients. The effects of nutrients are dose-dependent, shortages are called deficiencies, macronutrients are defined in several different ways. The chemical elements humans consume in the largest quantities are carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, the classes of chemical compounds humans consume in the largest quantities and which provide bulk energy are carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. Water and atmospheric oxygen also must be consumed in large quantities, calcium, salt, magnesium, and potassium are sometimes added to the list of macronutrients because they are required in large quantities compared to other vitamins and minerals. They are sometimes referred to as the macrominerals, carbohydrates are compounds made up of types of sugars. Carbohydrates are classified by their number of units, monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides. Proteins are organic compounds that consist of amino acids joined by peptide bonds, the body cannot manufacture some of the amino acids, the diet must supply them. Proteins, in nutrition, are broken down through digestion by proteases back into free amino acids, fats consist of a glycerin molecule with three fatty acids attached. Fatty acids are unbranched hydrocarbon chains,1 connected by single bonds alone or by double and single bonds. Fats are needed to keep cell membranes functioning properly, to insulate body organs against shock, to body temperature stable. The body does not manufacture certain fatty acids and the diet must supply them, although alcohol provides energy, and can thus be compared to macronutrients, it is not a substance that is essential for normal function
Nutrient
–
Good sources of
magnesium: bran muffins, pumpkin seeds, barley, buckwheat flour, low-fat vanilla yogurt, trail mix, halibut steaks, garbanzo beans, lima beans, soybeans, and spinach
Nutrient
–
Nutrient cycle in the oceans
Nutrient
–
The strip of a green alga (
Enteromorpha) along this shore indicates that there is a nearby source of nutrients (probably
nitrates or
ammonia from a small estuary).
Nutrient
–
Rich sources of
copper: oysters, beef or lamb liver, Brazil nuts, blackstrap molasses, cocoa, and black pepper. Good sources: lobster, nuts and sunflower seeds, green olives, and wheat bran.
17.
Pseudoscience
–
Pseudoscience consists of claims, beliefs, or practices presented as being plausible scientifically, but which are not justifiable by the scientific method. The term pseudoscience is often considered pejorative because it suggests something is being presented as science inaccurately or even deceptively, accordingly, those termed as practicing or advocating pseudoscience often dispute the characterization. The demarcation between science and pseudoscience has philosophical and scientific implications, differentiating science from pseudoscience has practical implications in the case of health care, expert testimony, environmental policies, and science education. The word pseudoscience is derived from the Greek root pseudo meaning false and the English word science, an earlier recorded use of the term was during 1843 by the French physiologist François Magendie. From time to time, though, the usage of the word occurred in a formal, technical manner around a perceived threat to individual and institutional security in a social and cultural setting. A number of principles are accepted by scientists as standards for determining whether a body of knowledge, method. Experimental results should be reproducible and verified by other researchers, statistical quantification of significance, confidence, and error are also important tools for the scientific method. During the mid-20th century, Karl Popper emphasized the criterion of falsifiability to distinguish science from nonscience, falsifiability means a result can be disproved. For example, a statement such as God exists may be true or false, Popper used astrology and psychoanalysis as examples of pseudoscience and Einsteins theory of relativity as an example of science. The point is made there is no physical test to refute the claim of the presence of this dragon. No matter what test you think you can devise, there is then a reason why this does not apply to the invisible dragon, sagan concludes, Now, whats the difference between an invisible, incorporeal, floating dragon who spits heatless fire and no dragon at all. During 1942, Robert K. Merton identified a set of five norms which he characterized as what makes a real science, If any of the norms were violated, Merton considered the enterprise to be nonscience. These are not broadly accepted by the scientific community and his norms were, Originality, The tests and research done must present something new to the scientific community. Detachment, The scientists reasons for practicing this science must be simply for the expansion of their knowledge, the scientists should not have personal reasons to expect certain results. Universality, No person should be able to easily obtain the information of a test than another person. Social class, religion, ethnicity, or any other factors should not be factors in someones ability to receive or perform a type of science. Skepticism, Scientific facts must not be based on faith, one should always question every case and argument and constantly check for errors or invalid claims. Public accessibility, Any scientific knowledge one obtains should be available to everyone
Pseudoscience
–
A typical 19th century
phrenology chart: In the 1820s, phrenologists claimed the mind was located in areas of the brain, and were attacked for doubting that mind came from the nonmaterial soul. Their idea of reading "bumps" in the skull to predict personality traits was later discredited. Phrenology was first called a pseudoscience in 1843 and continues to be considered so.
18.
Physiology
–
Physiology is the scientific study of normal mechanisms, and their interactions, which operate within a living system. A sub-discipline of biology, its focus is in how organisms, organ systems, organs, cells, and biomolecules carry out the chemical or physical functions that exist in a living system. Given the size of the field, it is divided into, among others, animal physiology, plant physiology, cellular physiology, microbial physiology, bacterial physiology, and viral physiology. The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine is awarded to those who make significant achievements in this discipline by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. In medicine, a state is one occurring from normal body function, rather than pathologically. Physiological studies date back to the ancient civilizations of India and Egypt alongside anatomical studies, the study of human physiology as a medical field dates back to at least 420 BC to the time of Hippocrates, also known as the father of medicine. Hippocrates incorporated his belief called the theory of humours, which consisted of four basic substance, earth, water, air. Each substance is known for having a corresponding humour, black bile, phlegm, blood and yellow bile, Hippocrates also noted some emotional connections to the four humours, which Claudis Galenus would later expand on. The critical thinking of Aristotle and his emphasis on the relationship between structure and function marked the beginning of physiology in Ancient Greece. Like Hippocrates, Aristotle took to the theory of disease. Claudius Galenus, known as Galen of Pergamum, was the first to use experiments to probe the functions of the body, unlike Hippocrates though, Galen argued that humoral imbalances can be located in specific organs, including the entire body. His modification of this theory better equipped doctors to more precise diagnoses. Galen was also the founder of experimental physiology, and for the next 1,400 years, Galenic physiology was a powerful and influential tool in medicine. Jean Fernel, a French physician, introduced the term physiology, inspired in the work of Adam Smith, Milne-Edwards wrote that the body of all living beings, whether animal or plant, resembles a factory. Where the organs, comparable to workers, work incessantly to produce the phenomena that constitute the life of the individual, in more differentiated organisms, the functional labor could be apportioned between different instruments or systems. In 1858, Joseph Lister studied the cause of blood coagulation and inflammation that resulted after previous injuries and he later discovered and implemented antiseptics in the operating room, and as a result decreases death rate from surgery by a substantial amount. The Physiological Society was founded in London in 1876 as a dining club, the American Physiological Society is a nonprofit organization that was founded in 1887. The Society is, devoted to fostering education, scientific research, in 1891, Ivan Pavlov performed research on conditional reflexes that involved dogs saliva production in response to a plethora of sounds and visual stimuli
Physiology
–
Oil painting depicting Claude Bernard, the father of modern physiology, with his pupils
Physiology
–
Animals
19.
Gland
–
A gland is an organ in an animals body that synthesizes substances for release into the bloodstream or into cavities inside the body or its outer surface. Every gland is formed by an ingrowth from an epithelial surface and this ingrowth may in the beginning possess a tubular structure, but in other instances glands may start as a solid column of cells which subsequently becomes tubulated. As growth proceeds, the column of cells may divide or give off offshoots, in many glands, the number of branches is limited, in others a very large structure is finally formed by repeated growth and sub-division. As a rule, the branches do not unite with one another, but in one instance, the liver, glands are classified according to their shape. If the gland retains its shape as a tube throughout it is termed a tubular gland, in the second main variety of gland the secretory portion is enlarged and the lumen variously increased in size. These are termed alveolar or saccular glands, glands are divided based on their function into two groups, Endocrine glands secrete substances that circulate through the blood stream. These glands that secrete their products through the basal lamina into the blood stream and these glands often secrete hormones, and play an important role in maintaining homeostasis. The pineal gland, thymus gland, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, exocrine glands secrete their products through a duct onto an outer surface of the body, such as the skin or the gastrointestinal tract. Secretion is directly onto the apical surface, the glands in this group can be divided into three groups, Apocrine glands a portion of the secreting cells body is lost during secretion. E. g. mammary gland, sweat gland of arm pit, pubic region, skin around anus, lips, holocrine glands the entire cell disintegrates to secrete its substances, meibomian and zeis glands. Merocrine glands cells secrete their substances by exocytosis, E. g. max sweat gland of humans, goblet cells, salivary gland, tear gland, intestinal glands. The type of product of exocrine glands may also be one of three categories, Serous glands secrete a watery, often protein-rich, fluid-like product, e. g. sweat glands. Mucous glands secrete a viscous product, rich in carbohydrates, e. g. goblet cells, sebaceous glands secrete a lipid product. These glands are known as oil glands, e. g. Fordyce spots. Adenosis is any disease of a gland, the diseased gland has abnormal formation or development of glandular tissue which is sometimes tumorous. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh
Gland
–
Apocrine
Gland
–
Human submaxillary gland. At the right is a group of mucous alveoli, at the left a group of serous alveoli.
Gland
–
Methods of
secretion
Gland
–
Types of gland
20.
Endocrine glands
–
Endocrine glands are glands of the endocrine system that secrete their products, hormones, directly into the blood rather than through a duct. The major glands of the system include the pineal gland, pituitary gland, pancreas, ovaries, testes, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, hypothalamus. The hypothalamus and pituitary gland are neuroendocrine organs, the ability of a target cell to respond to a hormone depends on the presence of receptors, within the cell or on its plasma membrane, to which the hormone can bind. Changes in number and sensitivity of hormone receptors may occur in response to high or low levels of stimulating hormones, blood levels of hormones reflect a balance between secretion and degradation/excretion. The liver and kidneys are the organs that degrade hormones, breakdown products are excreted in urine. Hormone half-life and duration of activity are limited and vary from hormone to hormone, permissiveness is the situation in which a hormone cannot exert its full effects without the presence of another hormone. Synergism occurs when two or more hormones produce the effects in a target cell and their results are amplified. Antagonism occurs when a hormone opposes or reverses the effect of another hormone, the endocrine glands belong to the bodys control system. The hormones which they help to regulate the functions of cells. Endocrine organs are activated to release their hormones by humoral, neural or hormonal stimuli, negative feedback is important in regulating hormone levels in the blood. The nervous system, acting through hypothalamic controls, can in certain cases override or modulate hormonal effects, the pituitary gland hangs from the base of the brain by a stalk and is enclosed by bone. It consists of a glandular portion and a neural portion. The hypothalamus regulates the output of the anterior pituitary and synthesizes two hormones that it exports to the posterior pituitary for storage and later release. Four of the six anterior pituitary hormones are tropic hormones that regulate the function of other endocrine organs, most anterior pituitary hormones exhibit a diurnal rhythm of release, which is subject to modification by stimuli influencing the hypothalamus. Somatotropic hormone or Growth hormone is a hormone that stimulates growth of all body tissues but especially skeletal muscle. It may act directly, or indirectly via insulin-like growth factors, GH mobilizes fats, stimulates protein synthesis, and inhibits glucose uptake and metabolism. Secretion is regulated by growth hormone releasing hormone and growth hormone inhibiting hormone, hypersecretion causes gigantism in children and acromegaly in adults, hyposecretion in children causes pituitary dwarfism. Thyroid-stimulating hormone promotes normal development and activity of the thyroid gland, thyrotropin-releasing hormone stimulates its release, negative feedback of thyroid hormone inhibits it
Endocrine glands
–
The major endocrine glands: 1
Pineal gland 2
Pituitary gland 3
Thyroid gland 4
Thymus 5
Adrenal gland 6
Pancreas 7
Ovary (female) 8
Testis (male)
21.
Libertine
–
Libertinism is described as an extreme form of hedonism. Libertines put value on physical pleasures, meaning those experienced through the senses, as a philosophy, libertinism gained new-found adherents in the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries, particularly in France and Great Britain. Notable among these were John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester, the word Libertine was originally coined by John Calvin to negatively describe opponents of his policies in Geneva, Switzerland. This group, led by Ami Perrin, argued against Calvins insistence that church discipline should be enforced uniformly against all members of Genevan society and this was the last great political challenge Calvin had to face in Geneva. During the 18th and 19th centuries, the became more associated with debauchery. Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand wrote that Joseph Bonaparte sought only lifes pleasures, les Liaisons dangereuses, an epistolary novel by Pierre Choderlos de Laclos, is a trenchant description of sexual libertinism. Wayland Young argues. the mere analysis of libertinism, carried out by a novelist with such a prodigious command of his medium. Was enough to condemn it and play a part in its destruction. The narrator subordinates reason to sense and it is based to some extent on Boileaus version of Juvenals eighth or fifteenth satire, and is also indebted to Hobbes, Montaigne, Lucretius and Epicurus, as well as the general libertine tradition. Confusion has arisen in its interpretation as it is ambiguous as to whether the speaker is Rochester himself and it criticises the vanities and corruptions of the statesmen and politicians of the court of Charles II. The libertine novel was an 18th century literary genre of which the lay in the European. The genre effectively ended with the French Revolution, themes of libertine novels were anti-clericalism, anti-establishment and eroticism. Authors include Claude Prosper Jolyot de Crébillon, Denis Diderot, Marquis de Sade, Choderlos de Laclos, other famous titles are Histoire de Dom Bougre, Portier des Chartreux and Thérèse Philosophe. Precursors to the writers were Théophile de Viau and Charles de Saint-Evremond, who were inspired by Epicurus. Robert Darnton is a historian who has covered this genre extensively. Critics have been divided as to the merits of William Hazlitts Liber Amoris. The critic Vivian de Sola Pinto linked John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochesters libertinism to Hobbesian materialism, in Shakespeares play Hamlet, Ophelia refers to her brother Laertes as a puffd and reckless libertine. A play, The Libertine, was written by Stephen Jeffreys, the 2004 film The Libertine, based on Jeffreys play, starred Johnny Depp as Rochester
Libertine
–
John Wilmot
Libertine
–
Marquis de Sade
Libertine
–
Playwrights
22.
Industrial Revolution
–
The Industrial Revolution was the transition to new manufacturing processes in the period from about 1760 to sometime between 1820 and 1840. The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and most of the important technological innovations were British, aided by these legal and cultural foundations, an entrepreneurial spirit and consumer revolution drove industrialisation in Britain, which would be emulated in countries around the world. A change in marrying patterns to getting married later made able to accumulate more human capital during their youth. The Industrial Revolution marks a turning point in history, almost every aspect of daily life was influenced in some way. In particular, average income and population began to exhibit unprecedented sustained growth, mechanised textile production spread from Great Britain to continental Europe in the early 19th century, with important centres of textiles, iron and coal emerging in Belgium, and later in France. Since then industrialisation has spread throughout much of the world, the precise start and end of the Industrial Revolution is still debated among historians, as is the pace of economic and social changes. Economic historians are in agreement that the onset of the Industrial Revolution is the most important event in the history of humanity since the domestication of animals and plants. The term Industrial Revolution applied to change was becoming more common by the late 1830s. Friedrich Engels in The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 spoke of an industrial revolution, however, although Engels wrote in the 1840s, his book was not translated into English until the late 1800s, and his expression did not enter everyday language until then. Credit for popularising the term may be given to Arnold Toynbee, some historians, such as John Clapham and Nicholas Crafts, have argued that the economic and social changes occurred gradually and the term revolution is a misnomer. This is still a subject of debate among some historians, the commencement of the Industrial Revolution is closely linked to a small number of innovations, beginning in the second half of the 18th century. By the 1830s the following gains had been made in important technologies, Textiles – mechanised cotton spinning powered by steam or water greatly increased the output of a worker, the power loom increased the output of a worker by a factor of over 40. The cotton gin increased productivity of removing seed from cotton by a factor of 50, large gains in productivity also occurred in spinning and weaving of wool and linen, but they were not as great as in cotton. Steam power – the efficiency of steam engines increased so that they used between one-fifth and one-tenth as much fuel, the adaptation of stationary steam engines to rotary motion made them suitable for industrial uses. The high pressure engine had a power to weight ratio. Steam power underwent an expansion after 1800. Iron making – the substitution of coke for charcoal greatly lowered the fuel cost for pig iron, using coke also allowed larger blast furnaces, resulting in economies of scale. The cast iron blowing cylinder was first used in 1760 and it was later improved by making it double acting, which allowed higher furnace temperatures
Industrial Revolution
–
A
Watt steam engine. The
steam engine, made of iron and fueled primarily by
coal, became widely used in the
United Kingdom during the Industrial Revolution.
Industrial Revolution
–
Iron and Coal, 1855–60, by
William Bell Scott illustrates the rise of coal and iron working in the Industrial Revolution and the heavy engineering projects they made possible.
Industrial Revolution
–
Model of the
spinning jenny in a museum in
Wuppertal. Invented by
James Hargreaves in 1764, the spinning jenny was one of the innovations that started the revolution.
Industrial Revolution
–
The only surviving example of a
spinning mule built by the inventor
Samuel Crompton.
23.
Victorian morality
–
Many of these values spread throughout the British Empire. Today, the term Victorian morality can describe any set of values that espouse sexual restraint, low tolerance of crime, the term Victorian was first used during the Great Exhibition in London, where Victorian inventions and morals were shown to the world. Victorian values were developed in all facets of Victorian living, the morality and values of the period can be classed as Religion, Morality, Elitism, Industrialism, and Improvement. These values took root in Victorian morality, creating a change in the British Empire. A plethora of social movements arose from attempts to improve the harsh living conditions for many under a rigid class system. The term Victorianum has acquired a range of connotations, including that of a strict set of moral standards. This stems from the image of Queen Victoria—and her husband, Prince Albert, two hundred years earlier the Puritan movement, which led to the installment of Oliver Cromwell, had temporarily overthrown the British monarchy. Cromwell imposed a moral code on the people. The two social forces of Puritanism and libertinism continued to motivate the collective psyche of Great Britain from the Restoration onward and this was particularly significant in the public perceptions of the later Hanoverian monarchs who immediately preceded Queen Victoria. For instance, her uncle George IV was commonly perceived as a pleasure-seeking playboy, historians Peter Gay and Michael Mason both point out that modern society often confuses Victorian etiquette for a lack of knowledge. It is often thought that those going for a swim in the sea at the beach would use a machine out of modesty. Despite the existence of the machine, it was still possible to see people bathing nude. However, Victorian society did recognize that both men and women could enjoy copulation, verbal or written communication of emotion or sexual feelings was also often proscribed so people instead used the language of flowers. Victorian erotica also survives in private letters archived in museums and even in a study of womens orgasms, Victoria ascended to the throne in 1837, only four years after the abolition of slavery in the British Empire. It took so long because the anti-slavery morality was pitted against powerful economic interests which claimed their businesses would be destroyed if they were not permitted to exploit slave labor, eventually, plantation owners in the Caribbean received £20 million in compensation. In Victorias time, the Royal Navy patrolled the Atlantic Ocean, stopping any ships that it suspected of trading African slaves to the Americas, the British had set up a Crown Colony in West Africa—Sierra Leone—and transported freed slaves there. Freed slaves from Nova Scotia founded and named the capital of Sierra Leone Freetown, many people living at that time argued that the living conditions of workers in English factories seemed worse than those endured by some slaves. Throughout the Victorian Era, homosexuality held a position in the culture
Victorian morality
–
Victoria, Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
Victorian morality
–
Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha,
Prince Consort
24.
Religious fanaticism
–
Steffen gives several features associated with religious fanaticism or extremism, Spiritual needs. Religion has power to meet this need for meaning and transcendent relationship and it presents itself in such a way that those who find their way into it come to express themselves in ways consistent with the particular vision of ultimacy at the heart of this religious form. It is present to the consciousness as a live option that addresses spiritual need and satisfies human longing for meaning, power. Ever since Christianity was established, some of those in authority have sought to expand and control the church, grant Shafer says, Jesus of Nazareth is best known as a preacher of nonviolence. The start of Christian fanatic rule came with the Roman Emperor Constantine I as Catholicism, an example of Christians who didnt line up with Orthodox ideology is the Donatists, who refused to accept repentant clergy who had formerly given way to apostasy when persecuted. Fanatic Christian activity, as Catholicism, continued into the Middle Ages with the Crusades and these wars were attempts by the Catholics, sanctioned by the Pope, to reclaim the Holy Land from the Muslims. Charles Selengut, in his book Sacred Fury, Understanding Religious Violence, said, Jews had to be killed in the religious campaign because their very existence challenged the sole truth espoused by the Christian Church. Shafer adds that, When the crusaders captured Jerusalem in 1099, they killed Muslims, Jews, another prominent form of fanaticism came a few centuries later with the Spanish Inquisition. The Inquisition was the way of making sure their people stayed within Catholic Christianity. Selengut said, The inquisitions were attempts at self-protection and targeted primarily internal enemies of the church, the driving force of the Inquisition was the Inquisitors, who were responsible for spreading the truth of Christianity. Selengut continues, saying, The inquisitors generally saw themselves as educators helping people maintain correct beliefs by pointing out errors in knowledge, punishment and death came only to those who refused to admit their errors. During the Spanish Inquisitions of the century, the clear distinction between confession and innocence and remaining in error became muddled. The investigators had to invent all sorts of techniques, including torture, extremism within Islam goes back to the 7th century to the Kharijites. From their essentially political position, they developed extreme doctrines that set apart from both mainstream Sunni and Shiʿa Muslims. The Kharijites were particularly noted for adopting an approach to Takfir, whereby they declared other Muslims to be unbelievers. Sayyid Qutb, a figurehead of the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt, was influential in promoting a Pan-Islamist ideology in the 1960s. The Qutbist ideology has been influential in jihadist movements that seek to overthrow secular governments, since Osama bin Ladens fatwa in 1998, radical jihad has increasingly become an internationally recognized term. Bin Ladens concept, though, is different from the actual meaning of the term
Religious fanaticism
–
Osama bin Laden and
Ayman al-Zawahiri have promoted the overthrow of secular governments.
25.
World War I
–
World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
World War I
–
Clockwise from the top: The aftermath of shelling during the
Battle of the Somme,
Mark V tanks cross the
Hindenburg Line,
HMS Irresistible sinks after hitting a
mine in the
Dardanelles, a British
Vickers machine gun crew wears
gas masks during the Battle of the Somme,
Albatros D.III fighters of
Jagdstaffel 11
World War I
–
Sarajevo citizens reading a poster with the proclamation of the
Austrian annexation in 1908.
World War I
–
This picture is usually associated with the arrest of
Gavrilo Princip, although some believe it depicts Ferdinand Behr, a bystander.
World War I
–
Serbian Army
Blériot XI "Oluj", 1915.
26.
World War II
–
World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
World War II
–
Clockwise from top left: Chinese forces in the
Battle of Wanjialing, Australian
25-pounder guns during the
First Battle of El Alamein, German
Stuka dive bombers on the
Eastern Front in December 1943, a U.S. naval force in the
Lingayen Gulf,
Wilhelm Keitel signing the
German Instrument of Surrender, Soviet troops in the
Battle of Stalingrad
World War II
–
The
League of Nations assembly, held in
Geneva,
Switzerland, 1930
World War II
–
Adolf Hitler at a German
National Socialist political rally in
Weimar, October 1930
World War II
–
Italian soldiers recruited in 1935, on their way to fight the
Second Italo-Abyssinian War
27.
Combined oral contraceptive pill
–
The combined oral contraceptive pill, often referred to as the birth control pill or colloquially as the pill, is a birth control method that includes a combination of an estrogen and a progestogen. When taken by every day, these pills inhibit female fertility. They were first approved for use in the United States in 1960. They are currently used by more than 100 million women worldwide, as of 2012, 16% of U. S. women aged 15-44 reported being on the birth control pill, making it the most widely used contraceptive method among women of that age range. Use varies widely by country, age, education, and marital status, one third of women aged 16–49 in the United Kingdom currently use either the combined pill or progestogen-only pill, compared with only 1% of women in Japan. Two forms are on the World Health Organizations List of Essential Medicines, the pill was a catalyst for the sexual revolution. Combined oral contraceptive pills should be taken at the time each day. If one or more tablets are forgotten for more than 12 hours, most brands of combined pills are packaged in one of two different packet sizes, with days marked off for a 28-day cycle. For the 21-pill packet, a pill is consumed daily for three weeks, followed by a week of no pills, for the 28-pill packet,21 pills are taken, followed by a week of placebo or sugar pills. A woman on the pill will have a withdrawal bleed sometime during the placebo week, there are also two newer combination birth control pills that have 24 days of active hormone pills, followed by 4 days of placebo. The placebo pills allow the user to take a pill every day, placebo pills may contain an iron supplement, as iron requirements increase during menstruation. Failure to take pills during the placebo week does not impact the effectiveness of the pill, the withdrawal bleeding that occurs during the break from active pills was thought to be reassuring, as a physical confirmation of not being pregnant. The 28-day pill package also simulates the average menstrual cycle, though the events during a pill cycle are significantly different from those of a normal ovulatory menstrual cycle. The pill suppresses the normal cycle, and the withdrawal bleeding occurs while the pills are taken. The withdrawal bleeding is also predictable, unexpected breakthrough bleeding can be a possible side effect of longer term active regimens. Attempting this with bi- or tri-phasic pill formulations carries a risk of breakthrough bleeding. It will not, however, increase the risk of getting pregnant, starting in 2003, women have also been able to use a three-month version of the Pill. Seasonique is another version in which the week every three months is replaced with a week of low-dose estrogen
Combined oral contraceptive pill
–
Combined oral contraceptive pill (COCP)
Combined oral contraceptive pill
–
Half-used blister pack of LevlenED
Combined oral contraceptive pill
–
oral contraceptives, 1970s
28.
Antibiotics
–
Antibiotics, also called antibacterials, are a type of antimicrobial drug used in the treatment and prevention of bacterial infections. They may either kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria, a limited number of antibiotics also possess antiprotozoal activity. Antibiotics are not effective against viruses such as the cold or influenza. Drugs which inhibit viruses are termed antiviral drugs or antivirals rather than antibiotics, sometimes the term antibiotic is used to refer to any substance used against microbes, synonymous with antimicrobial. Some sources distinguish between antibacterial and antibiotic, antibacterials are used in soaps and disinfectants, while antibiotics are used as medicine, Antibiotics revolutionized medicine in the 20th century, and have together with vaccination led to the near eradication of diseases such as tuberculosis in the developed world. However, their effectiveness and easy access led to overuse, especially in raising, prompting bacteria to develop resistance. All classes of antibiotics in use today were first discovered prior to the mid 1980s, substances with antibiotic properties had been used for various purposes since ancient times. Before the early 20th century, treatments for infections were based primarily on medicinal folklore, mixtures with antimicrobial properties that were used in treatments of infections were described over 2000 years ago. Many ancient cultures, including the ancient Egyptians and ancient Greeks, used specially selected mold and plant materials, more recent observations made in the laboratory of antibiosis between microorganisms led to the discovery of natural antibacterials produced by microorganisms. Louis Pasteur observed, if we could intervene in the antagonism observed between some bacteria, it would offer perhaps the greatest hopes for therapeutics. In 1874, physician Sir William Roberts noted that cultures of the mold Penicillium glaucum that is used in the making of types of blue cheese did not display bacterial contamination. In 1876, physicist John Tyndall also contributed to this field, Louis Pasteur conducted research showing that Bacillus anthracis would not grow in the presence of the related mold Penicillium notatum. In his thesis, Duchesne proposed that bacteria and molds engage in a battle for survival. Duchesne observed that E. coli was eliminated by the fungus Penicillium glaucum when they were grown in the same culture. He also observed that when he inoculated animals with lethal doses of typhoid bacilli together with Penicillium glaucum. Unfortunately Duchesnes army service after getting his degree prevented him from doing any further research, Duchesne died of tuberculosis, a disease now treated by antibiotics. In 1928, Sir Alexander Fleming identified penicillin, a molecule produced by molds that kills or stops the growth of certain kinds of bacteria. Fleming was working on a culture of disease-causing bacteria when he noticed the spores of a mold, Penicillium chrysogenum
Antibiotics
–
Testing the susceptibility of
Staphylococcus aureus to antibiotics by the
Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion method – antibiotics diffuse from antibiotic-containing disks and inhibit growth of S. aureus, resulting in a zone of inhibition.
Antibiotics
–
Health advocacy messages such as this one encourage patients to talk with their doctor about safety in using antibiotics.
Antibiotics
–
Scanning electron micrograph of a human
neutrophil ingesting
methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)
Antibiotics
–
Alexander Fleming
29.
Moral values
–
Morality is the differentiation of intentions, decisions, and actions between those that are distinguished as proper and those that are improper. Morality may also be synonymous with goodness or rightness. Moral philosophy includes moral ontology, or the origin of morals, as well as moral epistemology, an example of normative ethical philosophy is the Golden Rule, which states that, One should treat others as one would like others to treat oneself. Immorality is the opposition to morality, while amorality is variously defined as an unawareness of, indifference toward. Ethics is the branch of philosophy which addresses questions of morality, the word ethics is commonly used interchangeably with morality, and sometimes it is used more narrowly to mean the moral principles of a particular tradition, group, or individual. It does not connote objective claims of right or wrong, descriptive ethics is the branch of philosophy which studies morality in this sense. In its normative sense, morality refers to whatever is actually right or wrong, normative ethics is the branch of philosophy which studies morality in this sense. For example, while they might concede that forces of social conformity significantly shape individuals moral decisions and this may be the philosophical view propounded by ethical naturalists, however not all moral realists accept that position. Moral anti-realism, on the hand, holds that moral statements either fail or do not even attempt to report objective moral facts. Some forms of non-cognitivism and ethical subjectivism, while considered anti-realist in the robust sense used here, are considered realist in the sense synonymous with moral universalism, celia Green made a distinction between tribal and territorial morality. She characterizes the latter as predominantly negative and proscriptive, it defines a persons territory, including his or her property and dependents, apart from these proscriptions, territorial morality is permissive, allowing the individual whatever behaviour does not interfere with the territory of another. By contrast, tribal morality is prescriptive, imposing the norms of the collective on the individual, Green relates the development of territorial morality to the rise of the concept of private property, and the ascendancy of contract over status. Some observers hold that individuals apply distinct sets of rules to people depending on their membership of an in-group or an out-group. Some biologists, anthropologists and evolutionary psychologists believe this in-group/out-group discrimination has evolved because it enhances group survival and this belief has been confirmed by simple computational models of evolution. In simulations this discrimination can result in both unexpected cooperation towards the in-group and irrational hostility towards the out-group, falger have argued that nationalism and patriotism are forms of this in-group/out-group boundary. Jonathan Haidt has noted that experimental observation indicating an in-group criterion provides one moral foundation substantially used by conservatives, peterson and Seligman approach the anthropological view looking across cultures, geo-cultural areas and across millennia. They conclude that certain virtues have prevailed in all cultures they examined, the major virtues they identified include wisdom / knowledge, courage, humanity, justice, temperance, and transcendence. Each of these includes several divisions, for instance humanity includes love, kindness, and social intelligence
Moral values
–
Allegory with a portrait of a Venetian senator (Allegory of the morality of earthly things), attributed to
Tintoretto, 1585
30.
Feminist
–
Feminism is a range of political movements, ideologies, and social movements that share a common goal, to define and advance political, economic, personal, and social rights for women. This includes seeking to establish opportunities for women in education. Feminists have also worked to promote autonomy and integrity, and to protect women and girls from rape, sexual harassment. Numerous feminist movements and ideologies have developed over the years and represent different viewpoints, some forms of feminism have been criticized for taking into account only white, middle class, and educated perspectives. This criticism led to the creation of specific or multicultural forms of feminism, including black feminism. Charles Fourier, a Utopian Socialist and French philosopher, is credited with having coined the word féminisme in 1837, depending on the historical moment, culture and country, feminists around the world have had different causes and goals. Most western feminist historians assert that all working to obtain womens rights should be considered feminist movements. Other historians assert that the term should be limited to the modern feminist movement and those historians use the label protofeminist to describe earlier movements. The history of the modern western feminist movements is divided into three waves, each wave dealt with different aspects of the same feminist issues. The first wave comprised womens suffrage movements of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the second wave was associated with the ideas and actions of the womens liberation movement beginning in the 1960s. The second wave campaigned for legal and social equality for women, the third wave is a continuation of, and a reaction to, the perceived failures of second-wave feminism, beginning in the 1990s. First-wave feminism was a period of activity during the 19th century, in the UK and US, it focused on the promotion of equal contract, marriage, parenting, and property rights for women. This was followed by Australia granting female suffrage in 1902, in 1928 this was extended to all women over 21. In the U. S. notable leaders of this movement included Lucretia Mott, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, anthony, who each campaigned for the abolition of slavery prior to championing womens right to vote. These women were influenced by the Quaker theology of spiritual equality, in the United States, first-wave feminism is considered to have ended with the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, granting women the right to vote in all states. During the late Qing period and reform movements such as the Hundred Days Reform, Chinese feminists called for womens liberation from traditional roles, later, the Chinese Communist Party created projects aimed at integrating women into the workforce, and claimed that the revolution had successfully achieved womens liberation. According to Nawar al-Hassan Golley, Arab feminism was closely connected with Arab nationalism, in 1899, Qasim Amin, considered the father of Arab feminism, wrote The Liberation of Women, which argued for legal and social reforms for women. He drew links between womens position in Egyptian society and nationalism, leading to the development of Cairo University, in 1923 Hoda Shaarawi founded the Egyptian Feminist Union, became its president and a symbol of the Arab womens rights movement
Feminist
–
International Women's Day rally in
Dhaka, Bangladesh, on 8 March 2005, organized by the National Women Workers Trade Union Centre
Feminist
–
Feminist Suffrage Parade in New York City, 6 May 1912
Feminist
–
After selling her home,
Emmeline Pankhurst, pictured in New York City in 1913, travelled constantly, giving speeches throughout Britain and the United States.
Feminist
–
Louise Weiss along with other Parisian
suffragettes in 1935. The newspaper headline reads "The Frenchwoman Must Vote."
31.
Margaret Sanger
–
Margaret Higgins Sanger was an American birth control activist, sex educator, writer, and nurse. Sanger popularized the term control, opened the first birth control clinic in the United States. Sanger used her writings and speeches primarily to promote her way of thinking and she was prosecuted for her book Family Limitation under the Comstock Act in 1914. She was afraid of what would happen, so she fled to Britain until she knew it was safe to return to the US, Sangers efforts contributed to several judicial cases that helped legalize contraception in the United States. Sanger, who has criticized for supporting negative eugenics, remains an admired figure in the American reproductive rights movement. Her subsequent trial and appeal generated controversy, Sanger felt that in order for women to have a more equal footing in society and to lead healthier lives, they needed to be able to determine when to bear children. She also wanted to prevent so-called back-alley abortions, which were common at the time because abortions were illegal in the United States and she believed that while abortion was sometimes justified it should generally be avoided, and she considered contraception the only practical way to avoid them. In 1921, Sanger founded the American Birth Control League, which became the Planned Parenthood Federation of America. In 1929, she formed the National Committee on Federal Legislation for Birth Control, from 1952 to 1959, Sanger served as president of the International Planned Parenthood Federation. She died in 1966, and is regarded as a founder of the modern birth control movement. Sanger was born Margaret Louise Higgins in 1879 in Corning, New York, to Michael Hennessey Higgins, an Irish-born stonemason and free-thinker, and Anne Purcell Higgins, a Catholic Irish-American. Michael Hennessey Higgins had emigrated to the USA at age 14 and joined the U. S. Army as a drummer at age 15, after leaving the army, Michael studied medicine and phrenology, but ultimately became a stonecutter, making stone angels, saints, and tombstones. Michael H. Higgins was a Catholic who became an atheist and her parents brought the family to Canada during the Potato Famine. Anne Higgins went through 18 pregnancies in 22 years before dying at the age of 49, Sanger was the sixth of eleven surviving children, and spent much of her youth assisting with household chores and caring for her younger siblings. Supported by her two sisters, Margaret Higgins attended Claverack College and Hudson River Institute, before enrolling in 1900 at White Plains Hospital as a nurse probationer. In 1902, she married the architect William Sanger and gave up her education, though she was plagued by a recurring active tubercular condition, Margaret Sanger bore three children, and the couple settled down to a quiet life in Westchester, New York. In 1911, after a fire destroyed their home in Hastings-on-Hudson, Margaret Sanger worked as a visiting nurse in the slums of the East Side, while her husband worked as an architect and a house painter. Already imbued with her husbands leftist politics, Margaret Sanger also threw herself into the radical politics, by the standards of the day, Sangers articles were extremely frank in their discussion of sexuality, and many New York Call readers were outraged by them
Margaret Sanger
–
Sanger in 1922
Margaret Sanger
–
Sanger with sons Grant and Stuart, c. 1919
Margaret Sanger
–
This page from Sanger's Family Limitation, 1917 edition, describes a
cervical cap.
Margaret Sanger
–
Sanger published the Birth Control Review from 1917 to 1929.
32.
Norm (sociology)
–
From a sociological perspective, social norms are informal understandings that govern the behavior of members of a society. Social psychology recognizes smaller group units, such as a team or an office, in other words, norms are regarded as collective representations of acceptable group conduct as well as individual perceptions of particular group conduct. They can be viewed as products which represent individuals basic knowledge of what others do. Furthermore, in the field of psychology, the roles of norms are emphasized which can guide behavior in a certain situation or environment as mental representations of appropriate behavior. For example, it has shown that normative messages can promote pro-social behavior, including decreasing alcohol use and increasing voter turnout. According to the definition of social norms behavioral component, norms have two dimensions, how much a behaviour is exhibited, and how much the group approves of that behavior. At the same time, norms also can be changed contingent on the behavior of others. In fact, in Sherif, one confederate was able to affect the development of a group related to the autokinetic effect. Norms running counter to the behaviors of the society or culture may be transmitted and maintained within small subgroups of society. For example, Crandall noted that groups have a rate of bulimia, a publicly recognized life-threatening disease. Social norms have a way of maintaining order and organizing groups, although not considered to be formal laws within society, norms still work to promote a great deal of social control. They are statements that regulate conduct, the cultural phenomenon that is the norm is the prescriber of acceptable behavior in specific instances. Without them, there would be a world without consensus, common ground, even though the law and a states legislation is not intended to control social norms, society and the law are inherently linked and one dictates the other. This is why it has said that the language used in some legislation is controlling and dictating for what should or should not be accepted. For example, the criminalisation of sexual relations is said to protect those that are vulnerable. The language surrounding these laws conveys the message that such acts are supposedly immoral and should be condemned, norms in every culture create conformity that allows for people to become socialized to the culture in which they live. As social beings, individuals learn when and where it is appropriate to say things, to use certain words, to discuss certain topics or wear certain clothes. Thus, knowledge about cultural norms is important for impressions, which is a regulation of their nonverbal behavior
Norm (sociology)
–
Shaking hands after a sports match is an example of a social norm.
Norm (sociology)
–
"Normal is a bad word", a graffito in
Ljubljana, Slovenia
Norm (sociology)
–
Figure 1. The return potential model (reproduced from Jackson, 1965).
33.
Religion
–
Religions have sacred histories and narratives, which may be preserved in sacred scriptures, and symbols and holy places, that aim mostly to give a meaning to life. Religions may contain symbolic stories, which are said by followers to be true, that have the side purpose of explaining the origin of life. Traditionally, faith, in addition to reason, has considered a source of religious beliefs. There are an estimated 10,000 distinct religions worldwide, about 84% of the worlds population is affiliated with one of the five largest religions, namely Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism or forms of folk religion. With the onset of the modernisation of and the revolution in the western world. The religiously unaffiliated demographic include those who do not identify with any religion, atheists. While the religiously unaffiliated have grown globally, many of the religiously unaffiliated still have various religious beliefs, about 16% of the worlds population is religiously unaffiliated. The study of religion encompasses a variety of academic disciplines, including theology, comparative religion. Theories of religion offer various explanations for the origins and workings of religion, Religion is derived from the Latin religiō, the ultimate origins of which are obscure. One possible interpretation traced to Cicero, connects lego read, i. e. re with lego in the sense of choose, go over again or consider carefully. The medieval usage alternates with order in designating bonded communities like those of monastic orders, we hear of the religion of the Golden Fleece, of a knight of the religion of Avys. In the ancient and medieval world, the etymological Latin root religio was understood as a virtue of worship, never as doctrine, practice. In the Quran, the Arabic word din is often translated as religion in modern translations and it was in the 19th century that the terms Buddhism, Hinduism, Taoism, and Confucianism first emerged. Max Müller characterized many other cultures around the world, including Egypt, Persia, what is called ancient religion today, they would have only called law. Some languages have words that can be translated as religion, but they may use them in a different way. For example, the Sanskrit word dharma, sometimes translated as religion, throughout classical South Asia, the study of law consisted of concepts such as penance through piety and ceremonial as well as practical traditions. Medieval Japan at first had a union between imperial law and universal or Buddha law, but these later became independent sources of power. There is no equivalent of religion in Hebrew, and Judaism does not distinguish clearly between religious, national, racial, or ethnic identities
Religion
–
Urarina shaman, Peru, 1988
Religion
Religion
–
The
Yazılıkaya sanctuary in
Turkey, with the twelve gods of the underworld
Religion
–
Confucianism,
Taoism, and
Buddhism are one, a painting in the litang style portraying three men laughing by a river stream, 12th century,
Song dynasty
34.
Honor killing
–
The mere perception that a woman has behaved in a way that dishonors her family is sufficient to trigger an attack on her life. Although rarely, men can also be the victims of honor killings by members of the family of a woman with whom they are perceived to have an inappropriate relationship, the loose term honor killing applies to killing of both men and women in cultures that practice it. Some women who bridge social divides, publicly engage other communities, the distinctive nature of honor killings is the collective nature of the crime – many members of an extended family plan the act together, sometimes through a formal family council. Another significant feature is the connection of honor killings to the control of behavior, in particular in regard to sexuality/marriage. Another key aspect is the importance of the reputation of the family in the community, another characteristic of honor killings is that the perpetrators often dont face negative stigma within their communities, because their behavior is seen as justified. The incidence of honor killings is very difficult to determine and estimates vary widely, in most countries data on honor killings is not collected systematically, and many of these killings are reported by the families as suicides or accidents and registered as such. Although honor killings are often associated with the Asian continent, especially the Middle East and South Asia, in 2000, the United Nations estimated that 5,000 women were victims of honor killings each year. According to BBC, Womens advocacy groups, however, suspect that more than 20,000 women are killed each year. Murder is not the form of honor crime, other crimes such as acid attacks, abduction, mutilations, beatings occur. Methods of killing include stoning, stabbing, beating, burning, beheading, hanging, throat slashing, lethal acid attacks, shooting and strangulation. The murders are sometimes performed in public to warn the other individuals within the community of possible consequences of engaging in what is seen as illicit behavior. Often, minor girls and boys are selected by the family to act as the killers, so that the killer may benefit of the most favorable legal outcome. Boys and sometimes women in the family are often asked to control and monitor the behavior of their sisters or other females in the family legal, 2) preventive. First of all, legal measures refer to a modification of the criminal laws to guarantee equal legal protection of females. On top of that, Amnesty insisted the government to assure legal access for the victims of crime in the name of honor, when it comes to preventive measures, Amnesty underlined the critical need to promote public awareness through the means of media, education, and public announcements. Finally, protective measures include ensuring an environment for activists, lawyers. Also, Amnesty argued for the expansion of victim support services such as shelters, kremlin-appointed Chechen President Ramzan Kadyrov said that honor killings were perpetrated on those who deserved to die. He said that those who are killed have loose morals and are shot by relatives in honor killings
Honor killing
–
Map of India showing the States and Union Territories of the country. In 2010, the
Supreme Court of India issued notice in regard to honor killings to the states of
Punjab,
Haryana,
Bihar,
Uttar Pradesh,
Rajasthan,
Jharkhand,
Himachal Pradesh and
Madhya Pradesh.
35.
Stoning
–
Stoning, or lapidation, is a method of capital punishment whereby a group throws stones at a person until they die. No individual among the group can be identified as the one who kills the subject and this is in contrast to the case of a judicial executioner. Slower than other forms of execution, stoning within the context of contemporary Western culture is considered a form of execution by torture, in some countries, such as Afghanistan and Iraq, stoning has been declared illegal by the state, but is practiced extrajudicially. In several others, people have been sentenced to death by stoning, in modern times, allegations of stoning are politically sensitive, the government of Iran, for example, describes allegations of stoning as political propaganda. The Jewish Torah serves as a religious reference for Judaism. Stoning is the method of execution mentioned most frequently in the Torah. And thou shalt stone him with stones, that he die, because he sought to thrust thee away from the LORD thy God. The inclusion of the children in the punishment was troubling to later Jewish commentators, the Talmud describes four methods of execution, stoning, pouring molten lead down the throat of the condemned person, beheading, and strangulation. The Mishna gives the following list of persons who should be stoned, prior to early Christianity, particularly in the Mishnah, doubts were growing in Jewish society about the effectiveness of capital punishment in general in acting as a useful deterrent. Subsequently its use was dissuaded by the central legislators, the Mishnah states, A Sanhedrin that puts a man to death once in seven years is called destructive. Rabbi Eliezer ben Azariah says that this extends to a Sanhedrin that puts a man to death once in seventy years. Rabbi Akiba and Rabbi Tarfon say, Had we been in the Sanhedrin none would ever have put to death. Rabban Simeon ben Gamaliel says, they would have multiplied shedders of blood in Israel, in the following centuries the leading Jewish sages imposed so many restrictions on the implementation of capital punishment as to make it de facto illegal. The restrictions were to prevent execution of the innocent, and included many conditions for a testimony to be admissible that were difficult to fulfill. Philosopher Moses Maimonides wrote, It is better and more satisfactory to acquit a thousand guilty persons than to put a single innocent one to death and he was concerned that the law guard its public perception, to preserve its majesty and retain the peoples respect. He saw errors of commission as much more threatening to the integrity of law than errors of omission, in rabbinic law, capital punishment may only be inflicted by the verdict of a regularly constituted court of twenty-three qualified members. The culprit must be a person of age and of sound mind. On the day the verdict is pronounced, the convict is led forth to execution, a sentence is not attended by confiscation of the convicts goods, the persons possessions descend to their legal heirs
Stoning
–
Saint Stephen, first martyr of Christianity, painted in 1506 by
Marx Reichlich (1460-1520) (Pinakothek of
Munich)
Stoning
–
An
Aztec adulterer being stoned to death;
Florentine Codex
Stoning
–
The Punishment of Korah and the Stoning of Moses and Aaron (1480–1482), by
Sandro Botticelli,
Sistine Chapel,
Rome.
Stoning
–
Stoning of the Devil, 2006
Hajj
36.
United States
–
Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
United States
–
Native Americans meeting with Europeans, 1764
United States
–
Flag
United States
–
The signing of the
Mayflower Compact, 1620.
United States
–
The
Declaration of Independence: the
Committee of Five presenting their draft to the
Second Continental Congress in 1776
37.
Western Europe
–
Western Europe, or West Europe, is the region comprising the western part of Europe. Below, some different geographic and geopolitical definitions of the term are outlined, prior to the Roman conquest, a large part of Western Europe had adopted the newly developed La Tène culture. This cultural and linguistic division was reinforced by the later political east-west division of the Roman Empire. The division between these two was enhanced during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages by a number of events, the Western Roman Empire collapsed, starting the Early Middle Ages. By contrast, the Eastern Roman Empire, mostly known as the Greek or Byzantine Empire, survived, in East Asia, Western Europe was historically known as taixi in China and taisei in Japan, which literally translates as the Far West. The term Far West became synonymous with Western Europe in China during the Ming dynasty, the Italian Jesuit priest Matteo Ricci was one of the first writers in China to use the Far West as an Asian counterpart to the European concept of the Far East. In his writings, Ricci referred to himself as Matteo of the Far West, the term was still in use in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Post-war Europe would be divided into two spheres, the West, influenced by the United States, and the Eastern Bloc. With the onset of the Cold War, Europe was divided by the Iron Curtain, behind that line lie all the capitals of the ancient states of Central and Eastern Europe. Although some countries were neutral, they were classified according to the nature of their political. This division largely defined the popular perception and understanding of Western Europe, the world changed dramatically with the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989. The Federal Republic of Germany peacefully absorbed the German Democratic Republic, COMECON and the Warsaw Pact were dissolved, and in 1991, the Soviet Union ceased to exist. Several countries which had part of the Soviet Union regained full independence. Although the term Western Europe was more prominent during the Cold War, it remains much in use, in 1948 the Treaty of Brussels was signed between Belgium, France, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom. It was further revisited in 1954 at the Paris Conference, when the Western European Union was established and it was declared defunct in 2011, after the Treaty of Lisbon, and the Treaty of Brussels was terminated. When the Western European Union was dissolved, it had 10 member countries, six member countries, five observer countries. The CIA divides Western Europe into two smaller subregions, regional voting blocs were formed in 1961 to encourage voting to various UN bodies from different regional groups. The European Union is an economic and political union of 28 member states that are located primarily in Europe, some Western and Northern European countries of Iceland, Norway, Switzerland and Liechtenstein are members of EFTA, though cooperating to varying degree with the European Union
Western Europe
–
The Great Schism in
Christianity, the predominant religion in Western Europe at the time.
Western Europe
Western Europe
–
Geopolitical Occident of Europe
38.
U.S. federal government
–
The Federal Government of the United States is the national government of the United States, a republic in North America, composed of 50 states, one district, Washington, D. C. and several territories. The federal government is composed of three branches, legislative, executive, and judicial, whose powers are vested by the U. S. Constitution in the Congress, the President, and the courts, including the Supreme Court. The powers and duties of these branches are defined by acts of Congress. The full name of the republic is United States of America, no other name appears in the Constitution, and this is the name that appears on money, in treaties, and in legal cases to which it is a party. The terms Government of the United States of America or United States Government are often used in documents to represent the federal government as distinct from the states collectively. In casual conversation or writing, the term Federal Government is often used, the terms Federal and National in government agency or program names generally indicate affiliation with the federal government. Because the seat of government is in Washington, D. C, Washington is commonly used as a metonym for the federal government. The outline of the government of the United States is laid out in the Constitution, the government was formed in 1789, making the United States one of the worlds first, if not the first, modern national constitutional republics. The United States government is based on the principles of federalism and republicanism, some make the case for expansive federal powers while others argue for a more limited role for the central government in relation to individuals, the states or other recognized entities. For example, while the legislative has the power to create law, the President nominates judges to the nations highest judiciary authority, but those nominees must be approved by Congress. The Supreme Court, in its turn, has the power to invalidate as unconstitutional any law passed by the Congress and these and other examples are examined in more detail in the text below. The United States Congress is the branch of the federal government. It is bicameral, comprising the House of Representatives and the Senate, the House currently consists of 435 voting members, each of whom represents a congressional district. The number of each state has in the House is based on each states population as determined in the most recent United States Census. All 435 representatives serve a two-year term, each state receives a minimum of one representative in the House. There is no limit on the number of terms a representative may serve, in addition to the 435 voting members, there are six non-voting members, consisting of five delegates and one resident commissioner. In contrast, the Senate is made up of two senators from each state, regardless of population, there are currently 100 senators, who each serve six-year terms
U.S. federal government
–
The
United States Capitol is the
seat of government for Congress.
U.S. federal government
–
Great Seal of the United States
U.S. federal government
–
Diagram of the Federal Government and American Union, 1862.
39.
Frank Lautenberg
–
Frank Raleigh Lautenberg was a United States Senator from New Jersey and a member of the Democratic Party. He was originally from Paterson, New Jersey, Lautenberg was elected to five terms as a Senator. He first took office in December 1982 and served three terms, retiring from the Senate in 2001 and he died during his second term. He is also the longest serving senator from New Jersey, having served a total of 28 years,5 months and 8 days, before entering politics, he was the chairman and chief executive officer of Automatic Data Processing, Inc. In his early years, he served overseas in the U. S. Army Signal Corps from 1942 to 1946 as a part of the war effort, and after returning home his interest in American political events increased. Lautenberg was born in Paterson, New Jersey, the son of Mollie and Sam Lautenberg, Jewish immigrants from Poland and Russia and he was named after his maternal grandfather, Frank Bergen, and close family friend and Paterson community activist, Raleigh Weintrob. When Lautenberg was 19, his father who worked in mills, sold coal, farmed and once ran a tavern. His mother then opened a shop to support the family. After graduating from Nutley High School in 1941, Lautenberg served overseas in the United States Army Signal Corps during World War II from 1942 to 1946, then, financed by the GI Bill, he attended and graduated from Columbia Business School in 1949 with a degree in economics. He worked as a salesman for Prudential Insurance and was the first salesman at Automatic Data Processing and he became the companys CEO in 1975. He was the commissioner of the Port Authority of New York. Lautenberg contributed to Democratic candidates for years and he donated $90,000 to George McGoverns campaign for President in 1972, earning himself a place on one of Richard Nixons enemies lists. In 1982, he ran for the Democratic nomination for the U. S. Senate, maguire was the favorite but Boggs entry took votes away from him and Lautenberg spent a considerable amount of his own money. Lautenberg won with a plurality, taking 26% of the vote to Maguires 23%, LeFantes 20%, the seat had been occupied by Democrat Harrison A. Williams, who resigned on March 11,1982, after being implicated in the Abscam scandal. After Williams resignation, Republican Governor Thomas Kean appointed Republican Nicholas F. Brady to the seat, Brady served in the Senate through the primary and general elections but did not run for the seat himself. In the general election, Lautenberg faced popular Republican congresswoman Millicent Fenwick and she ran on a very progressive platform and polls in the Summer of 1982 put her ahead by 18 points. Even Lautenberg quipped that she was the most popular candidate in the country, Lautenberg spent more of his own money, eventually out-spending Fenwick two-to-one. He did however point out that she would be almost 80 at the end of her first term and was unlikely to gain much seniority in the Senate
Frank Lautenberg
–
Frank Lautenberg
Frank Lautenberg
–
Lautenberg first served in the US Senate in 1982.
Frank Lautenberg
–
Lautenberg meets with Associate Justice nominee
Samuel Alito prior to his confirmation hearings. Lautenberg eventually voted against the nominee.
Frank Lautenberg
–
Lautenberg with
Barbara Boxer (right) and
Maria Cantwell (left) at a news conference discussing whether oil executives lied during a Congressional testimony regarding
price gouging.
40.
Democratic Party (United States)
–
The Democratic Party is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, along with the Republican Party. The Democrats dominant worldview was once socially conservative and fiscally classical liberalism, while, especially in the rural South, since Franklin D. Roosevelt and his New Deal coalition in the 1930s, the Democratic Party has also promoted a social-liberal platform, supporting social justice. Today, the House Democratic caucus is composed mostly of progressives and centrists, the partys philosophy of modern liberalism advocates social and economic equality, along with the welfare state. It seeks to provide government intervention and regulation in the economy, the party has united with smaller left-wing regional parties throughout the country, such as the Farmer–Labor Party in Minnesota and the Nonpartisan League in North Dakota. Well into the 20th century, the party had conservative pro-business, the New Deal Coalition of 1932–1964 attracted strong support from voters of recent European extraction—many of whom were Catholics based in the cities. After Franklin D. Roosevelts New Deal of the 1930s, the pro-business wing withered outside the South, after the racial turmoil of the 1960s, most southern whites and many northern Catholics moved into the Republican Party at the presidential level. The once-powerful labor union element became smaller and less supportive after the 1970s, white Evangelicals and Southerners became heavily Republican at the state and local level in the 1990s. However, African Americans became a major Democratic element after 1964, after 2000, Hispanic and Latino Americans, Asian Americans, the LGBT community, single women and professional women moved towards the party as well. The Northeast and the West Coast became Democratic strongholds by 1990 after the Republicans stopped appealing to socially liberal voters there, overall, the Democratic Party has retained a membership lead over its major rival the Republican Party. The most recent was the 44th president Barack Obama, who held the office from 2009 to 2017, in the 115th Congress, following the 2016 elections, Democrats are the opposition party, holding a minority of seats in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a minority of governorships, and state legislatures, though they do control the mayoralty of cities such as New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, Houston, and Washington, D. C. The Democratic Party traces its origins to the inspiration of the Democratic-Republican Party, founded by Thomas Jefferson, James Madison and that party also inspired the Whigs and modern Republicans. Organizationally, the modern Democratic Party truly arose in the 1830s, since the nomination of William Jennings Bryan in 1896, the party has generally positioned itself to the left of the Republican Party on economic issues. They have been liberal on civil rights issues since 1948. On foreign policy both parties changed position several times and that party, the Democratic-Republican Party, came to power in the election of 1800. After the War of 1812 the Federalists virtually disappeared and the national political party left was the Democratic-Republicans. The Democratic-Republican party still had its own factions, however. As Norton explains the transformation in 1828, Jacksonians believed the peoples will had finally prevailed, through a lavishly financed coalition of state parties, political leaders, and newspaper editors, a popular movement had elected the president
Democratic Party (United States)
–
Andrew Jackson was the first Democratic
President of the United States
Democratic Party (United States)
Democratic Party (United States)
–
The three leaders of the Democratic party during the first half of the 20th century: President
Woodrow Wilson (nominated in 1912 and '16) Sec. of State
William J. Bryan (nominated in 1896, 1900 and 1908),
Josephus Daniels,
Breckinridge Long,
William Phillips, and
Franklin D. Roosevelt (nominated for VP in 1920 and for president in 1932, 36,'40 and 44)
Democratic Party (United States)
–
John F. Kennedy,
35th President of the United States (1961–1963)
41.
New Jersey
–
New Jersey is a state in the Northeastern and mid-Atlantic regions of the United States. It is bordered on the north and east by New York, on the southeast and south by the Atlantic Ocean, on the west by Pennsylvania, New Jersey is the fourth-smallest state but the 11th-most populous and the most densely populated of the 50 United States. New Jersey lies entirely within the statistical areas of New York City. New Jersey was inhabited by Native Americans for more than 2,800 years, in the early 17th century, the Dutch and the Swedes made the first European settlements. New Jersey was the site of decisive battles during the American Revolutionary War in the 18th century. In the 19th century, factories in cities such as Camden, Paterson, Newark, Trenton, around 180 million years ago, during the Jurassic Period, New Jersey bordered North Africa. The pressure of the collision between North America and Africa gave rise to the Appalachian Mountains, around 18,000 years ago, the Ice Age resulted in glaciers that reached New Jersey. As the glaciers retreated, they left behind Lake Passaic, as well as rivers, swamps. New Jersey was originally settled by Native Americans, with the Lenni-Lenape being dominant at the time of contact, scheyichbi is the Lenape name for the land that is now New Jersey. The Lenape society was divided into clans that were based upon common female ancestors. These clans were organized into three distinct phratries identified by their animal sign, Turtle, Turkey, and Wolf and they first encountered the Dutch in the early 17th century, and their primary relationship with the Europeans was through fur trade. The Dutch became the first Europeans to lay claim to lands in New Jersey, the Dutch colony of New Netherland consisted of parts of modern Middle Atlantic states. Although the European principle of ownership was not recognized by the Lenape. The first to do so was Michiel Pauw who established a patronship called Pavonia in 1630 along the North River which eventually became the Bergen, peter Minuits purchase of lands along the Delaware River established the colony of New Sweden. During the English Civil War, the Channel Island of Jersey remained loyal to the British Crown and it was from the Royal Square in St. Helier that Charles II of England was proclaimed King in 1649, following the execution of his father, Charles I. The North American lands were divided by Charles II, who gave his brother, the Duke of York, the region between New England and Maryland as a proprietary colony. James then granted the land between the Hudson River and the Delaware River to two friends who had remained loyal through the English Civil War, Sir George Carteret and Lord Berkeley of Stratton, the area was named the Province of New Jersey. Since the states inception, New Jersey has been characterized by ethnic, New England Congregationalists settled alongside Scots Presbyterians and Dutch Reformed migrants
New Jersey
–
The New Jersey Botanical Garden at Skylands in
Ringwood State Park,
Passaic and
Bergen Counties
New Jersey
–
Flag
New Jersey
–
Washington Crossing the Delaware during the
New York and New Jersey campaign, winter 1777
New Jersey
–
George Washington rallying his troops at the
Battle of Princeton
42.
Barbara Lee
–
Barbara Jean Lee is the U. S. Representative for Californias 13th congressional district, serving East Bay voters from 1998 to 2013 during a time when the region was designated Californias 9th congressional district and she is a member of the Democratic Party. She was the first woman to represent the 9th district and is also the first woman to represent the 13th district, Lee was the Chair of the Congressional Black Caucus and was the Co-Chair of the Congressional Progressive Caucus. Lee is notable as the member of either house of Congress to vote against the authorization of use of force following the September 11,2001 attacks. This made her a hero among many in the anti-war movement, Lee has been a vocal critic of the war in Iraq and supports legislation creating a Department of Peace. Lee was born Barbara Jean Tutt in El Paso, Texas, the daughter of Mildred Adaire and Garvin Alexander Tutt, according to a DNA analysis, she descends primarily from the people of Guinea-Bissau and Sierra Leone. She moved from Texas to California in 1960 with her military family parents and she was a young single mother of two receiving public assistance when she began attending college. Lee was educated at Mills College, and received an MSW from the University of California, Berkeley, also as a student, she was a volunteer at the Oakland chapter of the Black Panther Partys Community Learning Center and worked on Panther co-founder Bobby Seales 1973 Oakland mayoral campaign. Lee was a member for United States Representative Ron Dellums and a member of the California State Assembly. She ran for Congress in an election that created a year-long series of five special elections as various East Bay politicians vied for political office. She warned her colleagues to be not to embark on an open-ended war with neither an exit strategy nor a focused target. In granting these overly broad powers, the Congress failed its responsibility to understand the dimensions of its declaration, the president has the constitutional authority to protect the nation from further attack, and he has mobilized the armed forces to do just that. The Congress should have waited for the facts to be presented and this vote made nationwide news reports and brought about a large and extremely polarized response, with the volume of calls gridlocking the switchboard of her Capitol Hill office. Many of the responses included death threats against her or her family to the point that the Capitol Police provided round-the-clock plainclothes bodyguards and she was also criticized by politicians and in editorial pages of conservative-leaning newspapers, e. g. John Funds column in The Wall Street Journal. She was awarded the Seán MacBride Peace Prize by the International Peace Bureau in 2002 for that vote, in her speech, she quoted the Rev. Nathan Baxter, dean of National Cathedral, “As we act, let us not become the evil that we deplore. Death penalty Lees opposition to the penalty was recognized in 2002 by Death Penalty Focus. Foreign affairs Although Lee is considered a liberal Democrat, she has split with members of her own party throughout her congressional career. Lee voted against the Iraq War Resolution in 2002, Lee was one of only 46 Democrats to vote for the Online Freedom of Speech Act of 2005
Barbara Lee
–
Barbara Lee
Barbara Lee
–
Barbara Lee meets with
Barack Obama
Barbara Lee
–
Barbara Lee meets with
NASA Administrator
Charles Bolden and the
STS-129 space shuttle crew
43.
California
–
California is the most populous state in the United States and the third most extensive by area. Located on the western coast of the U. S, California is bordered by the other U. S. states of Oregon, Nevada, and Arizona and shares an international border with the Mexican state of Baja California. Los Angeles is Californias most populous city, and the second largest after New York City. The Los Angeles Area and the San Francisco Bay Area are the nations second- and fifth-most populous urban regions, California also has the nations most populous county, Los Angeles County, and its largest county by area, San Bernardino County. The Central Valley, an agricultural area, dominates the states center. What is now California was first settled by various Native American tribes before being explored by a number of European expeditions during the 16th and 17th centuries, the Spanish Empire then claimed it as part of Alta California in their New Spain colony. The area became a part of Mexico in 1821 following its war for independence. The western portion of Alta California then was organized as the State of California, the California Gold Rush starting in 1848 led to dramatic social and demographic changes, with large-scale emigration from the east and abroad with an accompanying economic boom. If it were a country, California would be the 6th largest economy in the world, fifty-eight percent of the states economy is centered on finance, government, real estate services, technology, and professional, scientific and technical business services. Although it accounts for only 1.5 percent of the states economy, the story of Calafia is recorded in a 1510 work The Adventures of Esplandián, written as a sequel to Amadis de Gaula by Spanish adventure writer Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo. The kingdom of Queen Calafia, according to Montalvo, was said to be a land inhabited by griffins and other strange beasts. This conventional wisdom that California was an island, with maps drawn to reflect this belief, shortened forms of the states name include CA, Cal. Calif. and US-CA. Settled by successive waves of arrivals during the last 10,000 years, various estimates of the native population range from 100,000 to 300,000. The Indigenous peoples of California included more than 70 distinct groups of Native Americans, ranging from large, settled populations living on the coast to groups in the interior. California groups also were diverse in their organization with bands, tribes, villages. Trade, intermarriage and military alliances fostered many social and economic relationships among the diverse groups, the first European effort to explore the coast as far north as the Russian River was a Spanish sailing expedition, led by Portuguese captain Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, in 1542. Some 37 years later English explorer Francis Drake also explored and claimed a portion of the California coast in 1579. Spanish traders made unintended visits with the Manila galleons on their trips from the Philippines beginning in 1565
California
–
A forest of redwood trees in
Redwood National Park
California
–
Flag
California
–
Mount Shasta
California
–
Aerial view of the
California Central Valley
44.
Christopher Shays
–
Christopher Hunter Chris Shays is an American politician. He was a member of the United States House of Representatives and he is a member of the Republican Party. Shays was the only Republican congressman from New England elected to the 110th United States Congress in the 2006 midterm elections and his loss to Jim Himes in the 2008 election made New Englands House delegation entirely Democratic in the 111th Congress. He was the most senior member of the House of Representatives to be defeated in the 2008 election, in 2009, Shays was appointed to co-chair the Commission on Wartime Contracting. The commission is an independent, bipartisan legislative commission established to study wartime contracting in Iraq, Shays was a candidate for the 2012 Republican U. S. Senate nomination to replace retiring Connecticut senator Joe Lieberman. However, he lost the August 14 primary to Linda McMahon, Shays was born in Stamford, Connecticut, the son of Margaret Peggy and Thurston Crane Shays. His maternal grandmother was born in Scotland and he lives in the Black Rock section of Bridgeport, Connecticut. Shays has always remained a Christian Scientist—a system of thought and practice derived from the writings of Mary Baker Eddy, Shays married Betsi DeRaismes in 1968. They served together in the Peace Corps in Fiji from 1968 to 1970, at the age of 29, Christopher was first elected to the Connecticut House where he served from 1975 to 1987. He served simultaneously as the member of both the Appropriations Committee and the Committee on Finance, Revenue, and Bonding. He also served as a member of the Judiciary Committee and he served six days in jail on a contempt charge when he was a member of the Connecticut Legislature protesting judicial corruption. In 1987 Christopher won an election to fill the vacant seat of the late Congressman Stewart McKinney. He represented the 4th congressional district losing to Jim Himes in 2008. During his 21 years in Congress, Christopher served on the Government Reform, Financial Services, Budget, in 2007, Shays raised his voice to a Capitol Hill policeman, and touched the officers badge to read the number for not letting the congressmans visitors through a doorway. I take full responsibility for this incident and want to ensure it does not reflect negatively on the officer in any way, he added. Since 1990, Christopher Shays has voted with the Republican majority 76. 8% of the time, voted with the Democratic majority 57. 9% of the time and missed 2. 5% of the votes. U. S. Shays is labeled by his supporters as a maverick and independent thinker, Shays is pro-choice on abortion but voted for the Partial-Birth Abortion Ban Act. Shays was endorsed by the Brady Campaign for his support for gun control and was one of only six Republicans to vote against banning lawsuits against gun manufacturers and distributors in 2005 and he was one of the few Republicans to oppose amending the Constitution to ban flag-burning
Christopher Shays
–
Chris Shays
Christopher Shays
–
Shays at a political debate held at
Fairfield University in October 2006
45.
Republican Party (United States)
–
The Republican Party, commonly referred to as the GOP, is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, the other being its historic rival, the Democratic Party. The party is named after republicanism, the dominant value during the American Revolution, there have been 19 Republican presidents, the most from any one party. The Republican Partys current ideology is American conservatism, which contrasts with the Democrats more progressive platform, further, its platform involves support for free market capitalism, free enterprise, fiscal conservatism, a strong national defense, deregulation, and restrictions on labor unions. In addition to advocating for economic policies, the Republican Party is socially conservative. As of 2017, the GOP is documented as being at its strongest position politically since 1928, in addition to holding the Presidency, the Republicans control the 115th United States Congress, having majorities in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a majority of governorships and state legislatures, the main cause was opposition to the Kansas–Nebraska Act, which repealed the Missouri Compromise by which slavery was kept out of Kansas. The Northern Republicans saw the expansion of slavery as a great evil, the first public meeting of the general anti-Nebraska movement where the name Republican was suggested for a new anti-slavery party was held on March 20,1854, in a schoolhouse in Ripon, Wisconsin. The name was chosen to pay homage to Thomas Jeffersons Republican Party. The first official party convention was held on July 6,1854, in Jackson and it oversaw the preserving of the union, the end of slavery, and the provision of equal rights to all men in the American Civil War and Reconstruction, 1861–1877. The Republicans initial base was in the Northeast and the upper Midwest, with the realignment of parties and voters in the Third Party System, the strong run of John C. Fremont in the 1856 United States presidential election demonstrated it dominated most northern states, early Republican ideology was reflected in the 1856 slogan free labor, free land, free men, which had been coined by Salmon P. Chase, a Senator from Ohio. Free labor referred to the Republican opposition to labor and belief in independent artisans. Free land referred to Republican opposition to the system whereby slaveowners could buy up all the good farm land. The Party strove to contain the expansion of slavery, which would cause the collapse of the slave power, Lincoln, representing the fast-growing western states, won the Republican nomination in 1860 and subsequently won the presidency. The party took on the mission of preserving the Union, and destroying slavery during the American Civil War, in the election of 1864, it united with War Democrats to nominate Lincoln on the National Union Party ticket. The partys success created factionalism within the party in the 1870s and those who felt that Reconstruction had been accomplished and was continued mostly to promote the large-scale corruption tolerated by President Ulysses S. Grant ran Horace Greeley for the presidency. The Stalwarts defended Grant and the system, the Half-Breeds led by Chester A. Arthur pushed for reform of the civil service in 1883. The Republicans supported the pietistic Protestants who demanded Prohibition, nevertheless, by 1890 the Republicans had agreed to the Sherman Antitrust Act and the Interstate Commerce Commission in response to complaints from owners of small businesses and farmers
Republican Party (United States)
–
Abraham Lincoln, the first Republican U.S. President (1861–1865).
Republican Party (United States)
–
Theodore Roosevelt,
26th President of the United States (1901–1909)
Republican Party (United States)
–
Dwight Eisenhower,
34th President of the United States (1953–1961)
Republican Party (United States)
–
Richard Nixon,
37th President of the United States (1969–1974)
46.
Connecticut
–
Connecticut is the southernmost state in the New England region of the northeastern United States. Connecticut is also often grouped along with New York and New Jersey as the Tri-State Area and it is bordered by Rhode Island to the east, Massachusetts to the north, New York to the west, and Long Island Sound to the south. Its capital city is Hartford, and its most populous city is Bridgeport, the state is named for the Connecticut River, a major U. S. river that approximately bisects the state. The word Connecticut is derived from various anglicized spellings of an Algonquian word for long tidal river, Connecticut is the third smallest state by area, the 29th most populous, and the fourth most densely populated of the 50 United States. It is known as the Constitution State, the Nutmeg State, the Provisions State, and it was influential in the development of the federal government of the United States. Connecticuts center of population is in Cheshire, New Haven County, Connecticuts first European settlers were Dutch. They established a small, short-lived settlement in present-day Hartford at the confluence of the Park, initially, half of Connecticut was a part of the Dutch colony New Netherland, which included much of the land between the Connecticut and Delaware rivers. The first major settlements were established in the 1630s by England, the Connecticut and New Haven Colonies established documents of Fundamental Orders, considered the first constitutions in North America. In 1662, the three colonies were merged under a charter, making Connecticut a crown colony. This colony was one of the Thirteen Colonies that revolted against British rule in the American Revolution, the Connecticut River, Thames River, and ports along the Long Island Sound have given Connecticut a strong maritime tradition which continues today. The state also has a history of hosting the financial services industry, including insurance companies in Hartford. As of the 2010 Census, Connecticut features the highest per-capita income, Human Development Index, and median household income in the United States. Landmarks and Cities of Connecticut Connecticut is bordered on the south by Long Island Sound, on the west by New York, on the north by Massachusetts, and on the east by Rhode Island. The state capital and third largest city is Hartford, and other cities and towns include Bridgeport, New Haven, Stamford, Waterbury, Norwalk, Danbury, New Britain, Greenwich. Connecticut is slightly larger than the country of Montenegro, there are 169 incorporated towns in Connecticut. The highest peak in Connecticut is Bear Mountain in Salisbury in the northwest corner of the state, the highest point is just east of where Connecticut, Massachusetts, and New York meet, on the southern slope of Mount Frissell, whose peak lies nearby in Massachusetts. At the opposite extreme, many of the towns have areas that are less than 20 feet above sea level. Connecticut has a maritime history and a reputation based on that history—yet the state has no direct oceanfront
Connecticut
–
Bear Mountain, highest peak in Connecticut
Connecticut
–
Flag
Connecticut
–
Lake Mcdonough reservoir as seen from the Tunxis Trail Overlook Spur trail, Barkhamsted
Connecticut
–
New Haven
47.
George W. Bush
–
George Walker Bush is an American politician who served as the 43rd President of the United States from 2001 to 2009. He was also the 46th Governor of Texas from 1995 to 2000 and he is the eldest son of Barbara and George H. W. Bush. After graduating from Yale University in 1968 and Harvard Business School in 1975, Bush married Laura Welch in 1977 and ran unsuccessfully for the House of Representatives shortly thereafter. He later co-owned the Texas Rangers baseball team before defeating Ann Richards in the 1994 Texas gubernatorial election and he is the second president to assume the nations highest office after his father, following the lead of John Quincy Adams. He is also a brother of Jeb Bush, a former Governor of Florida who was a candidate for the Republican presidential nomination in the 2016 presidential election, the September 11 terrorist attacks occurred eight months into Bushs first term as president. Bush responded with what became known as the Bush Doctrine, launching a War on Terror, a military campaign that included the war in Afghanistan in 2001. He also promoted policies on the economy, health care, education, Social Security reform and his tenure included national debates on immigration, Social Security, electronic surveillance, and torture. In the 2004 Presidential race, Bush defeated Democratic Senator John Kerry in another close election. After his re-election, Bush received increasingly heated criticism from across the spectrum for his handling of the Iraq War, Hurricane Katrina. Amid this criticism, the Democratic Party regained control of Congress in the 2006 elections, Bush left office in 2009, returning to Texas where he purchased a home in Crawford. He wrote a memoir, Decision Points and his presidential library was opened in 2013. His presidency has been ranked among the worst in historians polls published in the late 2000s and 2010s. George Walker Bush was born on July 6,1946, at Grace-New Haven Hospital in New Haven, Connecticut, as the first child of George Herbert Walker Bush and his wife, the former Barbara Pierce. He was raised in Midland and Houston, Texas, with four siblings, Jeb, Neil, Marvin, another younger sister, Robin, died from leukemia at the age of three in 1953. His grandfather, Prescott Bush, was a U. S and his father, George H. W. Bush, was Ronald Reagans Vice President from 1981 to 1989 and the 41st U. S. President from 1989 to 1993. Bush has English and some German ancestry, along with more distant Dutch, Welsh, Irish, French, Bush attended public schools in Midland, Texas, until the family moved to Houston after he had completed seventh grade. He then spent two years at The Kinkaid School, a school in Houston. Bush attended high school at Phillips Academy, a school in Andover, Massachusetts
George W. Bush
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George W. Bush
George W. Bush
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Lt. George W. Bush while in the
Texas Air National Guard
George W. Bush
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George W. Bush with his father outside the White House, April 29, 1992
George W. Bush
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Governor Bush (right) with father, former president
George H. W. Bush and wife, Laura, in 1997
48.
Presidency of George W. Bush
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The presidency of George W. Bush began on January 20,2001 at noon Eastern Standard Time, when George W. Bush was inaugurated as President of the United States. Bushs presidency ended on January 20,2009, a Republican, he took office following a very close win in the 2000 presidential election over Democratic nominee Al Gore, the then–incumbent Vice President. Bush, the 43rd United States president, is the son of the 41st president, Bush was re-elected in 2004, defeating his Democratic opponent John Kerry by a slim margin. He was succeeded in office by Democrat Barack Obama, who won the 2008 presidential election, upon taking office, Bush pushed through a $1.3 trillion tax cut program and the No Child Left Behind Act, a major education bill. He also pushed for socially conservative efforts, such as the Partial-Birth Abortion Ban Act and that same month, he signed into law the controversial Patriot Act in order to strengthen security and allow for greater surveillance. In 2003, Bush ordered an invasion of Iraq, asserting that Iraq possessed stockpiles of weapons of destruction in violation of UN Security Council Resolution 1441. Later that year, he signed the Medicare Prescription Drug, Improvement, and Modernization Act, Bush pushed for Social Security and immigration reform, but both efforts failed. The wars in Afghanistan and Iraq continued, and in 2007 he launched a surge of troops in Iraq. The Bush administrations response to Hurricane Katrina and the dismissal of U. S. attorneys controversy earned wide coverage, and his second term saw a drop in his approval ratings. The financial crisis of 2007–2008 dominated his last days in office as policymakers looked to avert a major economic disaster, Bushs presidency is frequently ranked by historians as among the worst in American history. W. Vice President Dick Cheney served as Secretary of Defense under George H. W. Bush, Bush placed a high value on personal loyalty and, as a result, his administration had high message discipline. He maintained a style of management. Im confident in my management style, Im a delegator because I trust the people Ive asked to join the team. That makes it easier to be President, he said in an interview with Diane Sawyer on ABC in December 2003, critics alleged, however, that Bush was willing to overlook mistakes made by loyal subordinates. There was only one non-Republican in Bushs cabinet, Secretary of Transportation Norman Mineta, Mineta resigned from Bushs cabinet on July 7,2006 to pursue other challenges. Mary Peters, a Republican, was nominated and confirmed to succeed him as Transportation Secretary, at least one other non-Republican was apparently offered a position in the administration but declined. CNN reported that in the transition to his term, Bush offered the positions of Ambassador to the United Nations. In 2006, Bush replaced long-time chief of staff Andrew Card with Joshua Bolten and made major staff, on November 8,2006, Bush announced plans to replace Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld with former CIA Director Robert Gates
Presidency of George W. Bush
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Presidency of George W. Bush
Presidency of George W. Bush
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Cabinet meeting
Presidency of George W. Bush
49.
Barack Obama
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Barack Hussein Obama II is an American politician who served as the 44th President of the United States from 2009 to 2017. He is the first African American to have served as president and he previously served in the U. S. Senate representing Illinois from 2005 to 2008, and in the Illinois State Senate from 1997 to 2004. Obama was born in Honolulu, Hawaii, two years after the territory was admitted to the Union as the 50th state and he grew up mostly in Hawaii, but also spent one year of his childhood in Washington State and four years in Indonesia. After graduating from Columbia University in 1983, he worked as a community organizer in Chicago, in 1988 Obama enrolled in Harvard Law School, where he was the first black president of the Harvard Law Review. After graduation, he became a civil rights attorney and professor, Obama represented the 13th District for three terms in the Illinois Senate from 1997 to 2004, when he ran for the U. S. Senate. In 2008, Obama was nominated for president, a year after his campaign began and he was elected over Republican John McCain, and was inaugurated on January 20,2009. Nine months later, Obama was named the 2009 Nobel Peace Prize laureate, during his first two years in office, Obama signed many landmark bills. Main reforms were the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, the Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act, after a lengthy debate over the national debt limit, Obama signed the Budget Control and the American Taxpayer Relief Acts. In foreign policy, Obama increased U. S. troop levels in Afghanistan, reduced nuclear weapons with the U. S. -Russian New START treaty, and ended military involvement in the Iraq War. He ordered military involvement in Libya in opposition to Muammar Gaddafi, after winning re-election over Mitt Romney, Obama was sworn in for a second term in 2013. Obama also advocated gun control in response to the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting, and issued wide-ranging executive actions concerning climate change and immigration. In foreign policy, Obama ordered military intervention in Iraq in response to gains made by ISIL after the 2011 withdrawal from Iraq, Obama left office in January 2017 with a 60% approval rating. He currently resides in Washington, D. C and his presidential library will be built in Chicago. Obama was born on August 4,1961, at Kapiʻolani Maternity & Gynecological Hospital in Honolulu and he is the only President to have been born in Hawaii. He was born to a mother and a black father. His mother, Ann Dunham, was born in Wichita, Kansas, of mostly English descent, with some German, Irish, Scottish, Swiss and his father, Barack Obama Sr. was a married Luo Kenyan man from Nyangoma Kogelo. Obamas parents met in 1960 in a Russian language class at the University of Hawaii at Manoa, the couple married in Wailuku, Hawaii on February 2,1961, six months before Obama was born. In late August 1961, Obamas mother moved him to the University of Washington in Seattle for a year
Barack Obama
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Barack Obama
Barack Obama
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Obama with his half-sister
Maya Soetoro-Ng, mother
Ann Dunham and grandfather
Stanley Dunham, in
Honolulu, Hawaii
Barack Obama
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Obama and others celebrate the naming of a street in Chicago after
ShoreBank co-founder Milton Davis in 1998
Barack Obama
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Obama in his official portrait as a member of the United States Senate
50.
Presidency of Barack Obama
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The presidency of Barack Obama began at noon EST on January 20,2009, when Barack Obama was inaugurated as President of the United States, and ended on January 20,2017. Obama, a Democrat, took office as the 44th United States president following a victory over Republican John McCain in the 2008 presidential election. Four years later, in the 2012 election, he defeated Mitt Romney to win re-election and he was the first African American president, the first multiracial president, the first non-white president, and the first president to have been born in Hawaii. Obama was succeeded by Republican Donald Trump, who won the 2016 presidential election, Obama also appointed Supreme Court Justices Elena Kagan and Sonia Sotomayor, the latter of whom became the first Hispanic American on the Supreme Court. Democrats controlled both houses of Congress until Republicans won a majority in the House of Representatives in the 2010 elections, following the elections, Obama and Congressional Republicans engaged in a protracted stand-off over government spending levels and the debt ceiling. In his second term, Obama took steps to combat climate change, signing an international climate agreement. Obama also presided over the implementation of the Affordable Care Act and other legislation passed in his first term, the number of American soldiers in Afghanistan fell dramatically during Obamas second term, though U. S. soldiers remained in Afghanistan throughout Obamas presidency. The presidential transition period began following Obamas election to the presidency in November 2008, John Podesta, Valerie Jarrett, and Pete Rouse co-chaired the Obama-Biden Transition Project. During the transition period, Obama announced nominations for his Cabinet, in November 2008, Congressman Rahm Emanuel accepted Obamas offer to serve as White House Chief of Staff. Obama was inaugurated on January 20,2009, succeeding George W. Bush, Obama officially assumed the presidency at 12,00 pm, EST, and completed the oath of office at 12,05 pm, EST. He delivered his inaugural address immediately following his oath, following his inauguration, Obama and the Senate worked to confirm his nominees to the United States Cabinet. Obama nominated several former Clinton administration officials to the Cabinet and to other positions, on April 28,2009, the Senate confirmed former Kansas governor Kathleen Sebelius as Secretary of Health and Human Services, completing Obamas initial Cabinet. In March 2016, Obama nominated Chief Judge Merrick Garland of the D. C. Circuit to fill Scalias seat, garlands nomination remained before the Senate for longer than any other Supreme Court nomination in history, and the nomination expired with the end of the 114th Congress. President Donald Trump is widely expected to appoint a successor to Scalia, Obamas presidency saw the continuation of battles between both parties over the confirmation of judicial nominees. Democrats continually accused Republicans of stalling nominees throughout Obamas tenure, after several nomination battles, Senate Democrats in 2013 reformed the use of the filibuster so that it could no longer be used on executive or judicial nominations. Obamas judicial nominees were significantly more diverse than those of previous administrations, with more appointments going to women, some of the first actions of Obamas presidency focused on reversing measures taken by the Bush administration following the September 11 attacks. Another order, Executive Order 13491, banned torture and other coercive techniques, on January 29, Obama signed a bill for the first time in his presidency, the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009 revised the statute of limitations for filing pay discrimination lawsuits. On February 3, he signed the Childrens Health Insurance Program Reauthorization Act, on March 9,2009, Obama lifted restrictions on federal funding of embryonic stem cell research
Presidency of Barack Obama
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Barack Obama
Presidency of Barack Obama
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Obama's first term presidential portrait was taken during the transition period
Presidency of Barack Obama
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Barack Obama being sworn in as President of the United States.
Presidency of Barack Obama
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President Obama signs the ARRA into law on February 17, 2009 in
Denver, Colorado. Vice President
Joe Biden stands behind him.
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