1.
Social realism
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While the movements characteristics vary from nation to nation, it almost always utilizes a form of descriptive or critical realism. Social realism traces back to 19th-century European Realism, including the art of Honoré Daumier, Gustave Courbet, in Russia Peredvizhniki or Social Realism was critical of the social environment that caused the conditions pictured, and denounced the evil Tsarist period. Ilya Repin, said that his art work was aimed “To criticize all the monstrosities of our vile society” of the Tsarist period, similar concerns were addressed in 20th-century Britain by the Artists International Association, Mass Observation and the Kitchen sink school. Social realist photography draws from the traditions of the late 19th century, such as the work of Jacob A. Riis. In about 1900, a group of Realist artists led by Robert Henri challenged the American Impressionism and academics, the term was suggested by a drawing by George Bellows, captioned Disappointments of the Ash Can, which appeared in the Philadelphia Record in April 1915. In paintings, illustrations, etchings, and lithographs, Ashcan artists concentrated on portraying New Yorks vitality, with a eye on current events. Barbara Weinberg of The Metropolitan Museum of Art has described the artists as documenting an unsettling, transitional time that was marked by confidence and doubt, excitement and trepidation. Ignoring or registering only gently harsh new realities such as the problems of immigration and urban poverty, notable Ashcan works include George Luks’ Breaker Boy and John Sloan’s Sixth Avenue Elevated at Third Street. The Ashcan school influenced the art of the Depression era, including Thomas Hart Benton’s mural City Activity with Subway, Social Realism with roots in European Realism became an important art movement during the Great Depression in the United States in the 1930s. As an American artistic movement it is related to American scene painting. In Mexico the painter Frida Kahlo is associated with the realism movement. The Mexican muralist movement is characterized by its political undertones, the majority of which are of a Marxist nature, diego Rivera, David Alfaro Siqueiros, José Clemente Orozco, and Rufino Tamayo are the best known proponents of the movement. Santiago Martínez Delgado, Jorge González Camarena, Roberto Montenegro, Federico Cantú Garza, the term dates on a broader scale to the Realist movement in French art during the mid-19th century. The social realist style fell out of fashion in the 1960s but is influential in thinking. Many artists who subscribed to social realism were painters with socialist political views, in certain contexts, socialist realism has been described as a specific branch of social realism. Social realism has been summarized as follows, Social Realism developed as a reaction against idealism, consequences of the Industrial Revolution became apparent, urban centers grew, slums proliferated on a new scale contrasting with the display of wealth of the upper classes. With a new sense of consciousness, the Social Realists pledged to “fight the beautiful art”. They focused on the realities of contemporary life and sympathized with working-class people
2.
Abstract art
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Abstract art uses a visual language of shape, form, color and line to create a composition which may exist with a degree of independence from visual references in the world. Western art had been, from the Renaissance up to the middle of the 19th century, underpinned by the logic of perspective, the arts of cultures other than the European had become accessible and showed alternative ways of describing visual experience to the artist. By the end of the 19th century many artists felt a need to create a new kind of art which would encompass the fundamental changes taking place in technology, science and philosophy. The sources from which individual artists drew their theoretical arguments were diverse, Abstract art, non-figurative art, non-objective art, and nonrepresentational art are loosely related terms. They are similar, but perhaps not of identical meaning, Abstraction indicates a departure from reality in depiction of imagery in art. This departure from accurate representation can be slight, partial, or complete, even art that aims for verisimilitude of the highest degree can be said to be abstract, at least theoretically, since perfect representation is likely to be exceedingly elusive. Artwork which takes liberties, altering for instance color and form in ways that are conspicuous, total abstraction bears no trace of any reference to anything recognizable. In geometric abstraction, for instance, one is unlikely to find references to naturalistic entities, Figurative art and total abstraction are almost mutually exclusive. But figurative and representational art often contains partial abstraction, both geometric abstraction and lyrical abstraction are often totally abstract. It is at level of visual meaning that abstract art communicates. One can enjoy the beauty of Chinese calligraphy or Islamic calligraphy without being able to read it, in Chinese painting, abstraction can be traced to the Tang dynasty painter Wang Mo, who is credited to have invented the splashed-ink painting style. While none of his paintings remain, this style is seen in some Song Dynasty Paintings. A late Song painter named Yu Jian, adept to Tiantai buddhism and his paintings show heavily misty mountains in which the shapes of the objects are barely visible and extremely simplified. This type of painting was continued by Sesshu Toyo in his later years, another instance of abstraction in Chinese painting is seen in Zhu Deruns Cosmic Circle. The painting is a reflection of the Daoist metaphysics in which chaos, in Tokugawa Japan some zen monk-painters created Enso, a circle who represents the absolute enlightenment. Usually made in one spontaneous brush stroke, it became the paradigm of the minimalist aesthetic that guided part of the zen painting, three art movements which contributed to the development of abstract art were Romanticism, Impressionism and Expressionism. Artistic independence for artists was advanced during the 19th century, patronage from the church diminished and private patronage from the public became more capable of providing a livelihood for artists. Expressionist painters explored the use of paint surface, drawing distortions and exaggerations
3.
Expressionism
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Expressionism was a modernist movement, initially in poetry and painting, originating in Germany at the beginning of the 20th century. Its typical trait is to present the world solely from a subjective perspective, Expressionist artists sought to express the meaning of emotional experience rather than physical reality. Expressionism was developed as an avant-garde style before the First World War and it remained popular during the Weimar Republic, particularly in Berlin. The style extended to a range of the arts, including expressionist architecture, painting, literature, theatre, dance, film. The term is sometimes suggestive of angst, in a general sense, painters such as Matthias Grünewald and El Greco are sometimes termed expressionist, though in practice the term is applied mainly to 20th-century works. The Expressionist emphasis on individual perspective has been characterized as a reaction to positivism, though an alternate view is that the term was coined by the Czech art historian Antonin Matějček in 1910, as the opposite of impressionism, An Expressionist wishes, above all, to express himself. Immediate perception and builds on more complex psychic structures, in 1905, a group of four German artists, led by Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, formed Die Brücke in the city of Dresden. This was arguably the founding organization for the German Expressionist movement, a few years later, in 1911, a like-minded group of young artists formed Der Blaue Reiter in Munich. The name came from Wassily Kandinskys Der Blaue Reiter painting of 1903, among their members were Kandinsky, Franz Marc, Paul Klee, and Auguste Macke. However, the term Expressionism did not firmly establish itself until 1913, though mainly a German artistic movement initially and most predominant in painting, poetry and the theatre between 1910–30, most precursors of the movement were not German. Expressionism is notoriously difficult to define, in part because it overlapped with other major isms of the modernist period, with Futurism, Vorticism, Cubism, Surrealism, more explicitly, that the expressionists rejected the ideology of realism. The term refers to a style in which the artist seeks to depict not objective reality but rather the subjective emotions. It is arguable that all artists are expressive but there are examples of art production in Europe from the 15th century onward which emphasize extreme emotion. Expressionism has been likened to Baroque by critics such as art historian Michel Ragon, according to Alberto Arbasino, a difference between the two is that Expressionism doesnt shun the violently unpleasant effect, while Baroque does. Expressionism throws some terrific fuck yous, Baroque doesnt, brazil, Anita Malfatti, Cândido Portinari, Di Cavalcanti, Iberê Camargo and Lasar Segall. Estonia, Konrad Mägi, Eduard Wiiralt Finland, Tyko Sallinen, Alvar Cawén, Juho Mäkelä, there were a number of groups of expressionist painters, including Der Blaue Reiter and Die Brücke. Der Blaue Reiter was based in Munich and Die Brücke was based originally in Dresden, Die Brücke was active for a longer period than Der Blaue Reiter, which was only together for a year. The Expressionists had many influences, among them Edvard Munch, Vincent van Gogh and they were also aware of the work being done by the Fauves in Paris, who influenced Expressionisms tendency toward arbitrary colours and jarring compositions
4.
Oil paint
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Oil paint is a type of slow-drying paint that consists of particles of pigment suspended in a drying oil, commonly linseed oil. The viscosity of the paint may be modified by the addition of a solvent such as turpentine or white spirit, Oil paints have been used in Europe since the 12th century for simple decoration, but were not widely adopted as an artistic medium until the early 15th century. Common modern applications of oil paint are in finishing and protection of wood in buildings and exposed metal structures such as ships and its hard-wearing properties and luminous colors make it desirable for both interior and exterior use on wood and metal. Due to its properties, it has recently been used in paint-on-glass animation. Thickness of coat has considerable bearing on time required for drying, the literature abounds with incorrect theories and information, in general, anything published before 1952 is suspect. Until 1991 nothing was known about the aspect of cave paintings from the Paleolithic era. Many assumptions were made about the chemistry of the binders, the oldest known oil paintings date from 650 AD, found in 2008 in caves in Afghanistans Bamiyan Valley, using walnut and poppy seed oils. Though the ancient Mediterranean civilizations of Greece, Rome, and Egypt used vegetable oils, indeed, linseed oil was not used as a medium because of its tendency to dry very slowly, darken, and crack, unlike mastic and wax. Greek writers such as Aetius Amidenus recorded recipes involving the use of oils for drying, such as walnut, poppy, hempseed, pine nut, castor, when thickened, the oils became resinous and could be used as varnish to seal and protect paintings from water. Additionally, when yellow pigment was added to oil, it could be spread over tin foil as an expensive alternative to gold leaf. Early Christian monks maintained these records and used the techniques in their own artworks, theophilus Presbyter, a 12th-century German monk, recommended linseed oil but advocated against the use of olive oil due to its long drying time. Oil paint was used as it is today in house decoration, as a tough waterproof cover for exposed woodwork. In the 13th century, oil was used to detail tempera paintings, in the 14th century, Cennino Cennini described a painting technique utilizing tempera painting covered by light layers of oil. The slow-drying properties of organic oils were commonly known to early painters, however, the difficulty in acquiring and working the materials meant that they were rarely used. As public preference for naturalism increased, the quick-drying tempera paints became insufficient to achieve the very detailed and precise effects that oil could achieve. Van Eyck’s mixture may have consisted of piled glass, calcined bones, the new mixture had a honey-like consistency and better drying properties. This mixture was known as oglio cotto—cooked oil, leonardo da Vinci later improved these techniques by cooking the mixture at a very low temperature and adding 5 to 10% beeswax, which prevented darkening of the paint. Giorgione, Titian, and Tintoretto each may have altered this recipe for their own purposes, the use of any cooked oils or Litharge darkens an oil painting rapidly
5.
Watercolor
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Watercolor or watercolour, also aquarelle, a diminutive of the Latin for water, is a painting method in which the paints are made of pigments suspended in a water-based solution. Watercolor refers to both the medium and the resulting artwork, the traditional and most common support—material to which the paint is applied—for watercolor paintings is paper. Other supports include papyrus, bark papers, plastics, vellum, leather, fabric, wood, Watercolor paper is often made entirely or partially with cotton, which gives a good texture and minimizes distortion when wet. Watercolors are usually translucent, and appear luminous because the pigments are laid down in a form with few fillers obscuring the pigment colors. Watercolors can also be made opaque by adding Chinese white, in East Asia, watercolor painting with inks is referred to as brush painting or scroll painting. In Chinese, Korean and Japanese painting it has been the dominant medium, india, Ethiopia and other countries have long watercolor painting traditions as well. Fingerpainting with watercolor paints originated in mainland China, however, its continuous history as an art medium begins with the Renaissance. The German Northern Renaissance artist Albrecht Dürer, who painted several fine botanical, wildlife, an important school of watercolor painting in Germany was led by Hans Bol as part of the Dürer Renaissance. Despite this early start, watercolors were used by Baroque easel painters only for sketches, copies or cartoons. Notable early practitioners of watercolor painting were Van Dyck, Claude Lorrain, Giovanni Benedetto Castiglione, however, botanical illustration and wildlife illustration perhaps form the oldest and most important traditions in watercolor painting. Botanical illustrations became popular during the Renaissance, both as hand-tinted woodblock illustrations in books or broadsheets and as tinted ink drawings on vellum or paper. Wildlife illustration reached its peak in the 19th century with such as John James Audubon. Several factors contributed to the spread of watercolor painting during the 18th century, Watercolor artists were commonly brought with the geological or archaeological expeditions, funded by the Society of Dilettanti, to document discoveries in the Mediterranean, Asia, and the New World. This example popularized watercolors as a form of personal tourist journal, the confluence of these cultural, engineering, scientific, tourist, and amateur interests culminated in the celebration and promotion of watercolor as a distinctly English national art. William Blake published several books of hand-tinted engraved poetry, provided illustrations to Dantes Inferno, from the late 18th century through the 19th century, the market for printed books and domestic art contributed substantially to the growth of the medium. Satirical broadsides by Thomas Rowlandson, many published by Rudolph Ackermann, were extremely popular. Among the important and highly talented contemporaries of Turner and Girtin, were John Varley, John Sell Cotman, Anthony Copley Fielding, Samuel Palmer, William Havell, the Swiss painter Louis Ducros was also widely known for his large format, romantic paintings in watercolor. These societies provided annual exhibitions and buyer referrals for many artists, in particular, the graceful, lapidary, and atmospheric watercolors by Richard Parkes Bonington created an international fad for watercolor painting, especially in England and France in the 1820s
6.
Acrylic paint
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Acrylic paint is a fast-drying paint made of pigment suspended in acrylic polymer emulsion. Acrylic paints are water-soluble, but become water-resistant when dry, acrylic paint is typically used for crafting, or in art classes in schools because it does not require any chemicals, and rinses away with just water. It also is likely to leave a stain on clothes than oil paint. As early as 1934, the first usable acrylic resin dispersion was developed by German chemical company BASF, the synthetic paint was first used in the 1940s, combining some of the properties of oil and watercolor. Between 1946 and 1949, Leonard Bocour and Sam Golden invented a solution acrylic paint under the brand Magna paint, acrylics were made commercially available in the 1950s. Following that development, Golden came up with an acrylic paint called Aquatec. Otto Röhm invented acrylic resin, which was transformed into acrylic paint. These two product lines were the very first acrylic emulsion artists paints, water-based acrylic paints were subsequently sold as latex house paints, as latex is the technical term for a suspension of polymer microparticles in water. Interior latex house paints tend to be a combination of binder, filler, pigment, exterior latex house paints may also be a co-polymer blend, but the best exterior water-based paints are 100% acrylic, due to elasticity and other factors. Vinyl, however, costs half of what 100% acrylic resins cost, soon after the water-based acrylic binders were introduced as house paints, artists and companies alike began to explore the potential of the new binders. Water-soluble artists acrylic paints were sold commercially by Liquitex beginning in the 1950s, in 1963, Rowney was the first manufacturer to introduce artist’s acrylic paints in Europe, under the brand name Cryla. Before the 19th century, artists mixed their own paints, which allowed them to achieve the color and thickness. While suitable media and raw pigments are available for the production of acrylic paint, hand mixing may not be practical because of the fast drying time. Acrylic painters can modify the appearance, hardness, flexibility, texture, watercolor and oil painters also use various media, but the range of acrylic media is much greater. Acrylics have the ability to bond to many different surfaces, in these cases it is recommended that the surface first be sealed with an appropriate sealer. Acrylics can be applied in layers or washes to create effects that resemble watercolors. They can also be used to build layers of paint—gel and molding paste media are sometimes used to create paintings with relief features that are, quite literally. Acrylic paints are used in hobbies such as train, car, house
7.
Wax
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Waxes are a diverse class of organic compounds that are hydrophobic, malleable solids near ambient temperatures. They include higher alkanes and lipids, typically with melting points above about 40 °C, waxes are insoluble in water but soluble in organic, nonpolar solvents. Natural waxes of different types are produced by plants and animals, waxes are organic compounds that characteristically consist of long alkyl chains. They may also include various groups such as fatty acids, primary and secondary long chain alcohols, unsaturated bonds, aromatics, amides, ketones. They frequently contain fatty acid esters as well, synthetic waxes are often long-chain hydrocarbons that lack functional groups. Waxes are synthesized by plants and animals. Those of animal origin typically consist of wax esters derived from a variety of carboxylic acids, in waxes of plant origin characteristic mixtures of unesterified hydrocarbons may predominate over esters. The composition depends not only on species, but also on location of the organism. The most commonly known animal wax is beeswax, but other insects secrete waxes, a major component of the beeswax used in constructing honeycombs is the ester myricyl palmitate which is an ester of triacontanol and palmitic acid. Its melting point is 62-65 °C, spermaceti occurs in large amounts in the head oil of the sperm whale. One of its constituents is cetyl palmitate, another ester of a fatty acid. Lanolin is a wax obtained from wool, consisting of esters of sterols, plants secrete waxes into and on the surface of their cuticles as a way to control evaporation, wettability and hydration. From the commercial perspective, the most important plant wax is carnauba wax, containing the ester myricyl cerotate, it has many applications, such as confectionery and other food coatings, car and furniture polish, floss coating, and surfboard wax. Other more specialized vegetable waxes include candelilla wax and ouricury wax, plant and animal based waxes or oils can undergo selective chemical modifications to produce waxes with more desirable properties than are available in the unmodified starting material. This approach has relied on green chemistry approaches including olefin metathesis and enzymatic reactions, although many natural waxes contain esters, paraffin waxes are hydrocarbons, mixtures of alkanes usually in a homologous series of chain lengths. These materials represent a significant fraction of petroleum and they are refined by vacuum distillation. Paraffin waxes are mixtures of saturated n- and iso- alkanes, naphthenes, a typical alkane paraffin wax chemical composition comprises hydrocarbons with the general formula CnH2n+2, such as Hentriacontane, C31H64. The degree of branching has an important influence on the properties, millions of tons of paraffin waxes are produced annually
8.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
9.
Art Students League of New York
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The Art Students League of New York is an art school located on West 57th Street in Manhattan, New York City, New York. Although artists may study full-time, there have never been any degree programs or grades, the League also maintains a significant permanent collection of student and faculty work, and publishes an online journal of writing on art-related topics, entitled LINEA. The breakaway group of students included women, and was originally housed in rented rooms at 16th Street. Influential board members from this period included painter Thomas Eakins. Membership continued to increase, forcing the League to relocate to larger spaces. In 1889, the League participated in the founding of the American Fine Arts Society, together with the Society of American Artists, the American Fine Arts Building at 215 West 57th Street, constructed as their joint headquarters, has continued to house the League since 1892. In the late 1890s and early 1900s an increasing number of artists came to study. Among them was a young Miss Wilhelmina Weber Furlong and eventually her husband Thomas Furlong, the avant-garde couple served the league in executive and administrative roles and as student members throughout the American modernism movement. Alice Van Vechten Brown, who would later develop some of the first art programs in American higher education, in the years after World War II, the G. I. Bill played an important role in the history of the League by enabling returning veterans to attend classes. As of 2010, the League remains an important part of New York City art life, from 1906 until 1922, and again after the end of World War II from 1947 until 1979, the League operated a summer school of painting at Woodstock, New York. In 1995, the Leagues facilities expanded to include the Vytlacil campus in Sparkill, New York, named after and based upon a gift of the property, since its inception, the Art Students League has employed notable professional artists as instructors and lecturers. Most engagements have been for a year or two, and some, like those of sculptor George Grey Barnard, were quite brief. Others have taught for decades, notably Frank DuMond and George Bridgman, bridgmans successor was Robert Beverly Hale. In 1988, Robert Cenedella took over the George Grosz Chair, luis Mora, Robert Neffson, Maxfield Parrish, Jules Pascin, Joseph Pennell, Richard C. Pionk, Larry Poons, Richard Pousette-Dart, Abraham Rattner, Peter Reginato, Frank J. Alden Weir, and William Zorach
10.
National Academy Museum and School
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Durand, Thomas Cole, Martin E. Thompson, and others to promote the fine arts in America through instruction and exhibition. The Academy is an honorary organization, a school. The school offers instruction, master classes, intensive critiques, various workshops. The museum houses a collection of over 7,000 works of American art from the 19th, 20th. The Academy has been located at several locations over the years, notable among them was a building built during 1863-1865, designed by architect P. B. Wight in Venetian Gothic style, which was modeled on the Doges Palace in Venice, another locale was at West 109th Street and Amsterdam Avenue in Manhattan. Since 1942 the academy has occupied a mansion that was the home of sculptor Anna Hyatt Huntington and Archer Milton Huntington at Fifth Avenue. The original founders of the National Academy of Design were students of the American Academy of the Fine Arts, samuel F. B. Morse and other students set about forming the drawing association to meet several times each week for the study the art of design. Still, the association was viewed as a dependent organization of the American Academy, an attempt was made to reconcile the difference and maintain a single academy by appointing six of the artists from the association as directors of the American Academy. When four of the nominees were not elected, however, the frustrated artists resolved to form a new academy, among the teaching staff were numerous artists, including Will Hicok Low, who taught from 1889 to 1892. The famous American poet William Cullen Bryant also gave lectures, architect Alexander Jackson Davis taught at the Academy. Painter Lemuel Wilmarth was the first full-time instructor Gulian C, verplanck, a Congressman and a man of letters, gave an address at the school in 1824. and Silas Dustin was a curator
11.
Leon Kroll
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Leon Kroll was an American painter and lithographer. Born into a family on lower Second Avenue in New York City, Krolls father was a violinist. He studied at the Art Students League of New York under John Henry Twachtman, in 1913 Kroll showed work at the Armory Show. In 1930, he was elected to the American Academy of Arts and he was also named Chevalier of the Legion of Honor in 1950. Kroll died in Gloucester, Massachusetts aged 89, 1938-1942 Shriver Hall at Johns Hopkins University, circa 1953. New York, Gerald Peters Gallery,1998, online biography another online biography Works at New Mexico Museum of Art
12.
Mexicans
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Mexicans are the people of the United Mexican States, a multiethnic country in North America. Mexicans can also be those who identify with the Mexican cultural and/or national identity, the Mexica founded Mexico-Tenochtitlan in 1325 as an altepetl located on an island in Lake Texcoco, in the Valley of Mexico. It became the capital of the expanding Mexica Empire in the 15th century, at its peak, it was the largest city in the Pre-Columbian Americas. It subsequently became a cabecera of the Viceroyalty of New Spain, today the ruins of Tenochtitlan are located in the central part of Mexico City. In 2015,21. 5% of Mexicos population in Mexico self-identify as being indigenous, there are about 12 million Mexican nationals residing outside of Mexico, with about 11.7 million living in the United States. The larger Mexican diaspora can also include individuals that trace ancestry to Mexico, the Nahuatl language was a common tongue in the region of modern Central Mexico during the Aztec Empire, but after the arrival of Europeans the common language of the region became Spanish. Mexicano is derived from the word Mexico itself, in the principal model to create demonyms in Spanish, the suffix -ano is added to the name of the place of origin. Another hypothesis suggests that Mēxihco derives from the Nahuatl words for Moon and this meaning might then refer to Tenochtitlans position in the middle of Lake Texcoco. The system of interconnected lakes, of which Texcoco formed the center, had the form of a rabbit, still another hypothesis suggests that it is derived from Mēctli, the goddess of maguey. The term Mexicano as a word to describe the different peoples of the region of Mexico as a group emerged in the 16th century. In that time the term did not apply to a nationality nor to the limits of the modern Mexican Republic. The document stated, el venturoso descubrimiento que los Mexicanos han hecho, Mexican politicians and reformers such as José Vasconcelos and Manuel Gamio were instrumental in building a Mexican national identity on the concept of mestizaje. The word has somewhat pejorative connotations and most of the Mexican citizens who would be defined as mestizos in the sociological literature would probably self-identify primarily as Mexicans, in Chiapas the word Ladino is used instead of mestizo. White Mexicans are Mexican citizens of full European descent, another group in Mexico, the mestizos, also include people with varying amounts of European ancestry, with some having a European admixture superior to 90%. Because of this, the line between whites and mestizos has become rather blur, and the Mexican government decided to abandon racial classifications. Intermixing would produce a group which would become the majority by the time of Independence. However, at its height, the immigrant population in Mexico never exceeded twenty percent of the total. Many of these came with money to invest and/or ties to allow them to become prominent in business
13.
Mural
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A mural is any piece of artwork painted or applied directly on a wall, ceiling or other permanent surface. A distinguishing characteristic of painting is that the architectural elements of the given space are harmoniously incorporated into the picture. Some wall paintings are painted on canvases, which are then attached to the wall. Whether these works can be accurately called murals is a subject of controversy in the art world. Murals of sorts date to Upper Paleolithic times such as the paintings in the Chauvet Cave in Ardèche department of southern France, many ancient murals have been found within ancient Egyptian tombs, the Minoan palaces and in Pompeii. During the Middle Ages murals were executed on dry plaster. The huge collection of Kerala mural painting dating from the 14th century are examples of fresco secco, in Italy, circa 1300, the technique of painting of frescos on wet plaster was reintroduced and led to a significant increase in the quality of mural painting. In modern times, the became more well-known with the Mexican muralism art movement. There are many different styles and techniques, the best-known is probably fresco, which uses water-soluble paints with a damp lime wash, a rapid use of the resulting mixture over a large surface, and often in parts. The colors lighten as they dry, the marouflage method has also been used for millennia. Murals today are painted in a variety of ways, using oil or water-based media, the styles can vary from abstract to trompe-lœil. Initiated by the works of artists like Graham Rust or Rainer Maria Latzke in the 1980s, trompe-loeil painting has experienced a renaissance in private. The buon fresco technique consists of painting in pigment mixed with water on a layer of wet, fresh. The pigment is absorbed by the wet plaster, after a number of hours. After this the painting stays for a time up to centuries in fresh. Fresco-secco painting is done on dry plaster, the pigments thus require a binding medium, such as egg, glue or oil to attach the pigment to the wall. By the end of the century this had largely displaced the buon fresco method. This technique had, in reduced form, the advantages of a secco work, in Greco-Roman times, mostly encaustic colors applied in a cold state were used
14.
Diego Rivera
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Diego María de la Concepción Juan Nepomuceno Estanislao de la Rivera y Barrientos Acosta y Rodríguez, known as Diego Rivera was a prominent Mexican painter. His large frescoes helped establish the Mexican mural movement in Mexican art, between 1922 and 1953, Rivera painted murals among others in Mexico City, Chapingo, Cuernavaca, San Francisco, Detroit, and New York City. In 1931, a exhibition of his works was held at the Museum of Modern Art in New York. Rivera had a marriage with fellow Mexican artist Frida Kahlo. Rivera was born in Guanajuato, Mexico, to a well-to-do family, Diego had a twin brother named Carlos, who died two years after they were born. Rivera was said to have Converso ancestry, Rivera wrote in 1935, My Jewishness is the dominant element in my life. Rivera began drawing at the age of three, a year after his brothers death. He had been drawing on the walls. His parents, rather than punishing him, installed chalkboards and canvas on the walls, as an adult, he married Angelina Beloff in 1911, and she gave birth to a son, Diego. Maria Vorobieff-Stebelska gave birth to a daughter named Marika in 1918 or 1919 when Rivera was married to Angelina and he married his second wife, Guadalupe Marín, in June 1922, with whom he had two daughters, Ruth and Guadalupe. He was still married when he met art student Frida Kahlo and they married on August 21,1929 when he was 42 and she was 22. Their mutual infidelities and his violent temper led to divorce in 1939, Rivera later married Emma Hurtado, his agent since 1946, on July 29,1955, one year after Kahlos death. His mural Dreams of a Sunday in the Alameda depicted Ignacio Ramírez holding a sign which read and this work caused a furor, but Rivera refused to remove the inscription. The painting was not shown for nine years – until Rivera agreed to remove the inscription. He stated, To affirm God does not exist, I do not have to hide behind Don Ignacio Ramírez, I am an atheist, from the age of ten, Rivera studied art at the Academy of San Carlos in Mexico City. He was sponsored to study in Europe by Teodoro A. Dehesa Méndez. In those years, Paris was witnessing the beginning of Cubism in paintings by such eminent painters as Pablo Picasso, Georges Braque, from 1913 to 1917, Rivera enthusiastically embraced this new school of art. Around 1917, inspired by Paul Cézannes paintings, Rivera shifted toward Post-Impressionism with simple forms and his paintings began to attract attention, and he was able to display them at several exhibitions
15.
Rockefeller Center
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Rockefeller Center is a large complex consisting of 19 high-rise commercial buildings covering 22 acres between 48th and 51st Streets in New York City. Commissioned by the Rockefeller family, it is located in the center of Midtown Manhattan and it was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1987. It is famous for its annual Christmas tree lighting, Rockefeller Center was named after John D. Rockefeller, Jr. who leased the space from Columbia University in 1928 and developed it beginning in 1930. Rockefeller stated, It was clear there were only two courses open to me. One was to abandon the entire development, the other to go forward with it in the definite knowledge that I myself would have to build it and finance it alone. The initial cost of acquiring the space, razing some of the existing buildings and it was the largest private building project ever undertaken in modern times. Construction of the 14 buildings in the Art Deco style began on May 17,1930, principal builder and managing agent for the massive project was John R. Todd. The construction of the project employed over 40,000 people and it was the public relations pioneer Ivy Lee, the prominent adviser to the family, who first suggested the name Rockefeller Center for the complex, in 1931. Rockefeller, Jr. initially did not want the Rockefeller family name associated with the commercial project, what could have become a major controversy in the mid-1930s concerned the last of the four European buildings that remained unnamed. Ivy Lee and others attempts to rent the space to German commercial concerns. Rockefeller ruled this out after being advised of Hitlers Nazi march toward World War II and this subsequently became the primary location of the U. S. In 1985, Columbia University sold the land beneath Rockefeller Center to the Rockefeller Group for $400 million, in 1989, Mitsubishi Estate, a real estate company of the Mitsubishi Group, purchased the entire Rockefeller Center complex, and its owner, Rockefeller Group. In 1996, the complex was purchased by a consortium of owners that included Goldman Sachs, Gianni Agnelli, Stavros Niarchos, and David Rockefeller. Tishman Speyer, led by Jerry Speyer, a friend of David Rockefeller. The landmark buildings comprise over 8,000,000 square feet on 22 acres in Midtown, bounded by Fifth and Sixth avenues and these are co-owned by Tishman-Speyer, and open to the public. 1 Rockefeller Plaza – The original Time–Life Building, a tenant was General Dynamics. 10 Rockefeller Plaza – Originally the Holland House, then the Eastern Air Lines Building, currently home of Today Show studios. 30 Rockefeller Plaza – Originally the RCA Building, in 1988 it was renamed the GE Building, headquarters of NBC, the Rainbow Room restaurant is located on the 65th floor
16.
Federal Art Project
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The Federal Art Project was a New Deal program to fund the visual arts in the United States. Under national director Holger Cahill, it was one of five Federal Project Number One projects sponsored by the Works Progress Administration, the Federal Art Project was the visual arts arm of the Great Depression-era Works Progress Administration, a Federal One program. Funded under the Emergency Relief Appropriation Act of 1935, it operated from August 29,1935, the Federal Art Project operated community art centers throughout the country where craft workers and artists worked, exhibited and educated others. The project created more than 200,000 separate works, some of them remaining among the most significant pieces of art in the country. The Federal Art Projects primary goals were to employ out-of-work artists and to art for non-federal municipal buildings. Artists were paid $23.60 a week, tax-supported institutions such as schools, hospitals, the work was divided into art production, art instruction and art research. The primary output of the group was the Index of American Design. As many as 10,000 artists were commissioned to work for the WPA Federal Art Project. The WPA program made no distinction between representational and nonrepresentational art, abstraction had not yet gained favor in the 1930s and 1940s and, thus, was virtually unsalable. As a result, the Federal Art Project supported such artists as Jackson Pollock before their work could earn them income. One particular success was the Milwaukee Handicraft Project, which started in 1935 as an experiment that employed 900 people who were classified as unemployable due to their age or disability. The project came to employ approximately 5,000 unskilled workers, many of them women, historian John Gurda observed that the citys unemployment hovered at 40 percent in 1933. In that year, he said,53 percent of Milwaukees property taxes went unpaid because people just could not afford to make the tax payments, workers were taught bookbinding, block printing and design, which they used to create handmade art books and childrens books. They produced toys, dolls, theatre costumes, quilts, rugs, draperies, wall hangings and furniture that were purchased by schools, hospitals and municipal organizations for the cost of materials only. In 2014, when the Museum of Wisconsin Art mounted an exhibition of items created by the Milwaukee Handicraft Project, Holger Cahill was national director of the Federal Art Project. Other administrators included Audrey McMahon, director of the New York Region, haupers, director for Minnesota, and Robert Bruce Inverarity, director for Washington state. Some 10,000 artists were commissioned to work for the Federal Art Project, notable artists include the following, The first federally sponsored community art center opened in December 1936 in Raleigh, North Carolina. The Index of American Design program of the Federal Art Project produced a survey of the crafts
17.
Works Progress Administration
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In a much smaller but more famous project, Federal Project Number One, the WPA employed musicians, artists, writers, actors and directors in large arts, drama, media, and literacy projects. Almost every community in the United States had a new park, the WPAs initial appropriation in 1935 was for $4.9 billion. Headed by Harry Hopkins, the WPA provided jobs and income to the unemployed during the Great Depression in the United States. At its peak in 1938, it provided jobs for three million unemployed men and women, as well as youth in a separate division, the National Youth Administration. Between 1935 and 1943, when the agency was disbanded, the WPA employed 8.5 million people, most people who needed a job were eligible for employment in some capacity. Hourly wages were set to the prevailing wages in each area. The stated goal of building programs was to end the depression or, at least, alleviate its worst effects. Millions of people needed subsistence incomes, Work relief was preferred over public assistance because it maintained self-respect, reinforced the work ethic, and kept skills sharp. The WPA was a program that operated its own projects in cooperation with state and local governments. Usually the local sponsor provided land and often trucks and supplies, WPA sometimes took over state and local relief programs that had originated in the Reconstruction Finance Corporation or Federal Emergency Relief Administration programs. It was liquidated on June 30,1943, as a result of low unemployment due to the shortage of World War II. The WPA had provided millions of Americans with jobs for eight years, on May 6,1935, FDR issued Executive Order 7034, establishing the Works Progress Administration. The WPA superseded the work of the Federal Emergency Relief Administration, direct relief assistance was permanently replaced by a national work relief program—a major public works program directed by the WPA. The WPA was largely shaped by Harry Hopkins, supervisor of the Federal Emergency Relief Administration, both Roosevelt and Hopkins believed that the route to economic recovery and the lessened importance of the dole would be in employment programs such as the WPA. The Division of Professional and Service Projects, which was responsible for projects including education programs, recreation programs. It was later named the Division of Community Service Programs and the Service Division, the Division of Investigation, which succeeded a comparable division at FERA and investigated fraud, misappropriation of funds and disloyalty. The Division of Statistics, also known as the Division of Social Research, the Project Control Division, which processed project applications. Other divisions including the Employment, Management, Safety, Supply, the goal of the WPA was to employ most of the unemployed people on relief until the economy recovered
18.
United States Department of the Treasury
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The Department of the Treasury is an executive department and the treasury of the United States federal government. It was established by an Act of Congress in 1789 to manage government revenue, the Department is administered by the Secretary of the Treasury, who is a member of the Cabinet. On February 13,2017, the Senate confirmed Steven Mnuchin as Secretary of the Treasury, the first Secretary of the Treasury was Alexander Hamilton, who was sworn into office on September 11,1789. Hamilton was asked by President George Washington to serve after first having asked Robert Morris, Hamilton almost single-handedly worked out the nations early financial system, and for several years was a major presence in Washingtons administration as well. His portrait is on the obverse of the U. S. ten-dollar bill while the Treasury Department building is shown on the reverse. Besides the Secretary, one of the best-known Treasury officials is the Treasurer of the United States whose signature, along with the Treasury Secretarys, the Treasury prints and mints all paper currency and coins in circulation through the Bureau of Engraving and Printing and the United States Mint. The Department also collects all federal taxes through the Internal Revenue Service, the Congress had no power to levy and collect taxes, nor was there a tangible basis for securing funds from foreign investors or governments. The delegates resolved to issue paper money in the form of bills of credit, the Congress stipulated that each of the colonies contribute to the Continental governments funds. With the signing of the Declaration of Independence on July 4,1776, despite the infusion of foreign and domestic loans to pay for a war of independence, the United Colonies were unable to establish a well-organized agency for financial administration. Michael Hillegas was first called Treasurer of the United States on May 14,1777, the Treasury Office was reorganized three times between 1778 and 1781. The $241.5 million of paper Continental Dollars devalued rapidly, by May 1781, the dollar collapsed at a rate of from 500 to 1000 to 1 against hard currency. Protests against the worthless money swept the colonies and angry Americans coined the expression not worth a Continental, Robert Morris was designated Superintendent of Finance in 1781 and restored stability to the nations finances. Morris, a colonial merchant, was nicknamed the Financier because of his reputation for procuring funds or goods on a moments notice. His staff included a Comptroller, a Treasurer, a Register, and auditors, who managed the finances through 1784. The Treasury Board of three Commissioners continued to oversee the finances of the confederation of former colonies until September 1789, the First Congress of the United States was called to convene in New York on March 4,1789, marking the beginning of government under the Constitution. Alexander Hamilton took the oath of office as the first Secretary of the Treasury on September 11,1789, Hamilton had served as George Washingtons aide-de-camp during the Revolution, and was of great importance in the ratification of the Constitution. Because of his financial and managerial acumen, Hamilton was a choice for solving the problem of the new nations heavy war debt. Hamiltons first official act was to submit a report to Congress in which he laid the foundation for the financial health
19.
Section of Painting and Sculpture
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The Treasury Section of Painting and Sculpture, commonly known as the Section, was established in 1934 and administered by the Procurement Division of the United States Department of the Treasury. Like the Works Progress Administration, the Section was part of a government project aimed at providing work for Americans throughout the Great Depression during the 1930s. The Sections main function was to high quality art to decorate public buildings in the form of murals. Because post offices were visited by everyone, they were the places selected to display these projects. Commissioned artists were provided with the guidelines and themes for each project, the muralist movement was inspired by the Mexican muralists, but Section murals did not portray the harsh social or economic realities of the time. Rather, they celebrated historical events and courageous acts, many of these murals have disappeared, or fallen into disrepair, others have been restored thanks to renewed interest in their historical and artistic significance. Painters of these murals include Ralf Henricksen, Henrietta Shore and Suzanne Scheuer, like other New Deal public art programs, the Section was designed to increase employment among artists, but it was unusual in awarding commissions competitively, based on artistic talent. In total, the Section commissioned more than 1,300 murals and 300 sculptures, the Section was created in 1934 and led by Edward Bruce. Other federal art programs followed, including the Federal Art Project, the Section of Painting and Sculpture was renamed as the Section of Fine Arts in 1939 and operated until 1942. The Section’s primary objective was to secure suitable art of the best quality available for the embellishment of public buildings, artworks created under the Section of Fine Arts were site-specific murals and sculptures for newly constructed federal buildings and post offices. 1% of the costs of new federal building was set aside to fund the program. Unlike the other New Deal art programs, the Section awarded commissions through competitions, competitions were open to all artists, regardless of economic status, and artists proposals were reviewed without identifying the name of the artist who had made the submission. The Section sought entries that reflected local interests and events, indeed, artists awarded commissions were encouraged to visit the community to ensure that their murals reflected the community. Although many of the artists did not make such visits, it was common for artists to correspond with the town, some local communities rejected the approved designs, and the artists would work to respond to these concerns and save their commissions. The program also encouraged artists to reflect the building’s function, for example, the William Jefferson Clinton Federal Building, constructed in the early 1930s as the headquarters for the U. S. These murals have been the subject of complaints about stereotypes of women, Native Americans, African Americans, and rural Americans, Edward Bruce died of a heart attack in January 1943. By the end of 1943, all of the New Deal art programs had been shut down
20.
Brooklyn
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Brooklyn is the most populous borough of New York City, with a Census-estimated 2,636,735 residents in 2015. It borders the borough of Queens at the end of Long Island. Today, if New York City dissolved, Brooklyn would rank as the third-most populous city in the U. S. behind Los Angeles, the borough continues, however, to maintain a distinct culture. Many Brooklyn neighborhoods are ethnic enclaves, Brooklyns official motto, displayed on the Borough seal and flag, is Eendraght Maeckt Maght which translates from early modern Dutch as Unity makes strength. Since 2010, Brooklyn has evolved into a hub of entrepreneurship and high technology startup firms. The history of European settlement in Brooklyn spans more than 350 years, the neighborhood of Marine Park was home to North Americas first tidal mill. It was built by the Dutch, and the foundation can be seen today, however, the area was not formally settled as a town. Many incidents and documents relating to this period are in Gabriel Furmans early compilation, what is today Brooklyn left Dutch hands after the final English conquest of New Netherland in 1664, a prelude to the Second Anglo–Dutch War. The English reorganized the six old Dutch towns on southwestern Long Island as Kings County on November 1,1683 and this tract of land was recognized as a political entity for the first time, and the municipal groundwork was laid for a later expansive idea of Brooklyn identity. On August 27,1776 was fought the Battle of Long Island, the first major engagement fought in the American Revolutionary War after independence was declared, and the largest of the entire conflict. British troops forced Continental Army troops under George Washington off the heights near the sites of Green-Wood Cemetery, Prospect Park. The fortified American positions at Brooklyn Heights consequently became untenable and were evacuated a few days later, One result of the Treaty of Paris in 1783 was the evacuation of the British from New York City, celebrated by residents into the 20th century. The New York Navy Yard operated in Wallabout Bay for the entire 19th century, the first center of urbanization sprang up in the Town of Brooklyn, directly across from Lower Manhattan, which saw the incorporation of the Village of Brooklyn in 1817. Reliable steam ferry service across the East River to Fulton Landing converted Brooklyn Heights into a town for Wall Street. Ferry Road to Jamaica Pass became Fulton Street to East New York, Town and Village were combined to form the first, kernel incarnation of the City of Brooklyn in 1834. Industrial deconcentration in mid-century was bringing shipbuilding and other manufacturing to the part of the county. Each of the two cities and six towns in Kings County remained independent municipalities, and purposely created non-aligning street grids with different naming systems and it later became the most popular and highest circulation afternoon paper in America. The publisher changed to L. Van Anden on April 19,1842, on May 14,1849 the name was shortened to The Brooklyn Daily Eagle, on September 5,1938 it was further shortened to Brooklyn Eagle
21.
Washington, D.C.
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Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing
22.
1939 New York World's Fair
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Many countries around the world participated in it, and over 44 million people attended its exhibits in two seasons. The NYWF of 1939–1940 was the first exposition to be based on the future, with a slogan of Dawn of a New Day. To its visitors the Fair will say, Here are the materials, ideas and these are the tools with which the World of Tomorrow must be made. They are all interesting and much effort has been expended to lay them before you in an interesting way, familiarity with today is the best preparation for the future. Within six months of the Fairs opening, the Second World War would begin, in 1935, at the height of the Great Depression, a group of New York City businessmen decided to create an international exposition to lift the city and the country out of depression. Not long after, these men formed the New York Worlds Fair Corporation, the NYWFC elected former chief of police Grover Whalen as the president of their committee. This event turned the area into a City park after the exposition closed, edward Bernays directed public relations of the fair in 1939, which he called democricity. Promotion of this event took many forms. Howard Hughes flew a special Worlds Fair flight around the world to promote the fair in 1938, on April 30,1939, a very hot Sunday, the fair had its grand opening, with 206,000 people in attendance. The April 30 date coincided with the 150th anniversary of George Washingtons inauguration, in Lower Manhattan, although many of the pavilions and other facilities were not quite ready for this opening, it was put on with pomp and great celebration. David Sarnoff, then president of RCA and an advocate of television. On April 30,1939, the ceremony and President Roosevelts speech were seen on black. NBC used the event to inaugurate regularly scheduled broadcasts in New York City over their station W2XBS. An estimated 1,000 people viewed the Roosevelt telecast on about 200 television sets scattered throughout the New York metropolitan area. In order to convince visitors that the television sets were not a trick. As part of the exhibit at the RCA pavilion, visitors could see themselves on television, there were also television demonstrations at the General Electric and Westinghouse pavilions. During this formal introduction at the fair, television became available for public purchase at various stores in the New York City area. After Albert Einstein gave a speech that discussed cosmic rays, the lights were ceremonially lit
23.
Austin, Texas
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Austin is the capital of the U. S. state of Texas and the seat of Travis County. It is the 11th-most populous city in the U. S. and it is the fastest growing large city in the United States and the second most populous capital city after Phoenix, Arizona. As of the U. S. Census Bureaus July 1,2015 estimate and it is the cultural and economic center of the Austin–Round Rock metropolitan area, which had an estimated population of 2,056,405 as of July 1,2016. In the 1830s, pioneers began to settle the area in central Austin along the Colorado River, in 1839, the site was officially chosen to replace Houston as the new capital of the Republic of Texas and was incorporated under the name Waterloo. Shortly thereafter, the name was changed to Austin in honor of Stephen F. Austin, the Father of Texas and the republics first secretary of state. The city subsequently grew throughout the 19th century and became a center for government and education with the construction of the Texas State Capitol and the University of Texas at Austin. After a lull in growth from the Great Depression, Austin resumed its development into a city and, by the 1980s, it emerged as a center for technology. A number of Fortune 500 companies have headquarters or regional offices in Austin, including Amazon. com, cisco, eBay, Google, IBM, Intel, Oracle Corporation, Texas Instruments, 3M, and Whole Foods Market. Dells worldwide headquarters is located in nearby Round Rock, a suburb of Austin, residents of Austin are known as Austinites. They include a mix of government employees, college students, musicians, high-tech workers, blue-collar workers. The city also adopted Silicon Hills as a nickname in the 1990s due to an influx of technology. In the late 1800s, Austin was known as the City of the Violet Crown because of the glow of light across the hills just after sunset. Even today, many Austin businesses use the term Violet Crown in their name, Austin is known as a clean-air city for its stringent no-smoking ordinances that apply to all public places and buildings, including restaurants and bars. The FBI ranked Austin as the second-safest major city in the U. S. for the year 2012, U. S. News & World Report named Austin the best place to live in the U. S. in 2017. Austin, Travis County and Williamson County have been the site of habitation since at least 9200 BC. When settlers arrived from Europe, the Tonkawa tribe inhabited the area, the Comanches and Lipan Apaches were also known to travel through the area. Spanish colonists, including the Espinosa-Olivares-Aguirre expedition, traveled through the area for centuries, in 1730, three missions from East Texas were combined and reestablished as one mission on the south side of the Colorado River, in what is now Zilker Park, in Austin. The mission was in area for only about seven months
24.
University of Texas at Austin
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Founded in 1881 as The University of Texas, its campus is in Austin, Texas—approximately 1 mile from the Texas State Capitol. The institution has the nations seventh-largest single-campus enrollment, with over 50,000 undergraduate and graduate students and over 24,000 faculty, UT Austin was inducted into the American Association of Universities in 1929, becoming only the third university in the American South to be elected. It is a center for academic research, with research expenditures exceeding $550 million for the 2014–2015 school year. J. Pickle Research Campus and the McDonald Observatory, among university faculty are recipients of the Nobel Prize, Pulitzer Prize, the Wolf Prize, the Emmy Award, the Turing Award, and the National Medal of Science, as well as many other awards. UT Austin student athletes compete as the Texas Longhorns and are members of the Big 12 Conference and its Longhorn Network is the only sports network featuring the college sports of a single university. The first mention of a university in Texas can be traced to the 1827 constitution for the Mexican state of Coahuila y Tejas. Although Title 6, Article 217 of the Constitution promised to establish education in the arts and sciences. On April 18,1838, An Act to Establish the University of Texas was referred to a committee of the Texas Congress. On January 26,1839, the Texas Congress agreed to set aside fifty leagues of land towards the establishment of a publicly funded university, in addition,40 acres in the new capital of Austin were reserved and designated College Hill. In 1845, Texas was annexed into the United States, interestingly, the states Constitution of 1845 failed to mention higher education. On February 11,1858, the Seventh Texas Legislature approved O. B,102, an act to establish the University of Texas, which set aside $100,000 in United States bonds toward construction of the states first publicly funded university. The legislature also designated land reserved for the encouragement of railroad construction toward the universitys endowment, Texas secession from the Union and the American Civil War delayed repayment of the borrowed monies. At the end of the Civil War in 1865, The University of Texas endowment was just over $16,000 in warrants, the more valuable lands reverted to the fund to support general education in the state. The legislature additionally appropriated $256,272.57 to repay the funds taken from the university in 1860 to pay for frontier defense, the 1883 grant of land increased the land in the Permanent University Fund to almost 2.2 million acres. Under the Act of 1858, the university was entitled to just over 1,000 acres of land for every mile of railroad built in the state. On March 30,1881, the legislature set forth the structure and organization. By popular election on September 6,1881, Austin was chosen as the site, galveston, having come in second in the election was designated the location of the medical department. On November 17,1882, on the original College Hill, smite the earth, smite the rocks with the rod of knowledge and fountains of unstinted wealth will gush forth
25.
Texas
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Texas is the second largest state in the United States by both area and population. Other major cities include Austin, the second most populous state capital in the U. S. Texas is nicknamed the Lone Star State to signify its former status as an independent republic, and as a reminder of the states struggle for independence from Mexico. The Lone Star can be found on the Texan state flag, the origin of Texass name is from the word Tejas, which means friends in the Caddo language. Due to its size and geologic features such as the Balcones Fault, although Texas is popularly associated with the U. S. southwestern deserts, less than 10 percent of Texas land area is desert. Most of the centers are located in areas of former prairies, grasslands, forests. Traveling from east to west, one can observe terrain that ranges from coastal swamps and piney woods, to rolling plains and rugged hills, the term six flags over Texas refers to several nations that have ruled over the territory. Spain was the first European country to claim the area of Texas, Mexico controlled the territory until 1836 when Texas won its independence, becoming an independent Republic. In 1845, Texas joined the United States as the 28th state, the states annexation set off a chain of events that caused the Mexican–American War in 1846. A slave state before the American Civil War, Texas declared its secession from the U. S. in early 1861, after the Civil War and the restoration of its representation in the federal government, Texas entered a long period of economic stagnation. One Texan industry that thrived after the Civil War was cattle, due to its long history as a center of the industry, Texas is associated with the image of the cowboy. The states economic fortunes changed in the early 20th century, when oil discoveries initiated a boom in the state. With strong investments in universities, Texas developed a diversified economy, as of 2010 it shares the top of the list of the most Fortune 500 companies with California at 57. With a growing base of industry, the leads in many industries, including agriculture, petrochemicals, energy, computers and electronics, aerospace. Texas has led the nation in export revenue since 2002 and has the second-highest gross state product. The name Texas, based on the Caddo word tejas meaning friends or allies, was applied by the Spanish to the Caddo themselves, during Spanish colonial rule, the area was officially known as the Nuevo Reino de Filipinas, La Provincia de Texas. Texas is the second largest U. S. state, behind Alaska, though 10 percent larger than France and almost twice as large as Germany or Japan, it ranks only 27th worldwide amongst country subdivisions by size. If it were an independent country, Texas would be the 40th largest behind Chile, Texas is in the south central part of the United States of America. Three of its borders are defined by rivers, the Rio Grande forms a natural border with the Mexican states of Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo León, and Tamaulipas to the south
26.
Modernism
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Among the factors that shaped modernism were the development of modern industrial societies and the rapid growth of cities, followed then by reactions of horror to World War I. Modernism also rejected the certainty of Enlightenment thinking, and many modernists rejected religious belief, the poet Ezra Pounds 1934 injunction to Make it new. Was the touchstone of the approach towards what it saw as the now obsolete culture of the past. In this spirit, its innovations, like the novel, atonal and twelve-tone music, divisionist painting and abstract art. Modernism explicitly rejected the ideology of realism and makes use of the works of the past by the employment of reprise, incorporation, rewriting, recapitulation, revision, others focus on modernism as an aesthetic introspection. While J. M. W. Art critic Clement Greenberg describes the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood as proto-Modernists, There the proto-Modernists were, of all people, the Pre-Raphaelites actually foreshadowed Manet, with whom Modernist painting most definitely begins. They acted on a dissatisfaction with painting as practiced in their time, rationalism has also had opponents in the philosophers Søren Kierkegaard and later Friedrich Nietzsche, both of whom had significant influence on existentialism. A major 19th-century engineering achievement was The Crystal Palace, the huge cast-iron, Glass and iron were used in a similar monumental style in the construction of major railway terminals in London, such as Paddington Station and Kings Cross Station. These technological advances led to the building of structures like the Brooklyn Bridge. The latter broke all previous limitations on how tall man-made objects could be and these engineering marvels radically altered the 19th-century urban environment and the daily lives of people. Arguments arose that the values of the artist and those of society were not merely different, but that Society was antithetical to Progress, the philosopher Schopenhauer called into question the previous optimism, and his ideas had an important influence on later thinkers, including Nietzsche. Darwins theory of evolution by natural selection undermined religious certainty and the idea of human uniqueness, in particular, the notion that human beings were driven by the same impulses as lower animals proved to be difficult to reconcile with the idea of an ennobling spirituality. Karl Marx argued that there were fundamental contradictions within the capitalist system, historians, and writers in different disciplines, have suggested various dates as starting points for modernism. Everdell also thinks modernism in painting began in 1885–86 with Seurats Divisionism, the poet Baudelaires Les Fleurs du mal, and Flauberts novel Madame Bovary were both published in 1857. In the arts and letters, two important approaches developed separately in France, the first was Impressionism, a school of painting that initially focused on work done, not in studios, but outdoors. Impressionist paintings demonstrated that human beings do not see objects, the school gathered adherents despite internal divisions among its leading practitioners, and became increasingly influential. A significant event of 1863 was the Salon des Refusés, created by Emperor Napoleon III to display all of the paintings rejected by the Paris Salon. While most were in standard styles, but by artists, the work of Manet attracted tremendous attention
27.
Charles Umlauf
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Charles Umlauf was an American sculptor and teacher who was born in South Haven, Michigan. In 1929 he began three years of study with Albin Polasek at the Art Institute of Chicago and he subsequently spent one year as an assistant to Lorado Taft at his Midway Studio before returning to the AIC where he remained until 1937. Those years saw a growth in Umlaufs interest in the abstract sculptures being produced in Europe. The Great Depression years found Umlauf employed by the WPA Federal Art Project, in 1941 Umlauf accepted a position at the University of Texas school of art in Austin, Texas and taught there for 40 years. Artists teaching at UT with Umlauf included Kelly Fearing and Seymour Fogel, in 1981, Umlauf retired as a professor emeritus. In 1985 he donated his home, studio and many works of art to the city of Austin, and the location was subsequently turned into the Umlauf Sculpture Garden. And Becky Duval Reese, A Century of Sculpture in Texas,1889 -1989, Archer M. and Richard A. Lawson, The Federal Art Project in Illinois,1935 -1943
28.
Waco, Texas
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Waco is a city which is the county seat of McLennan County, Texas, United States. It is situated along the Brazos River and I-35, halfway between Dallas and Austin, the city had a 2010 population of 124,805, making it the 22nd-most populous city in the state. The US Census 2015 population estimate is 132,356, the Waco Metropolitan Statistical Area consists of McLennan and Falls Counties, which had a 2010 population of 234,906. Falls County was added to the Waco MSA in 2013, the US Census 2016 population estimate for the Waco MSA is 265,207. Indigenous peoples occupied areas along the river for thousands of years, in historic times, the area of present-day Waco was occupied by the Wichita Native American tribe known as the Waco. In 1824, Thomas M. Duke explored the area and reported to Stephen F. Austin, describing the Waco village and they have a spring almost as cold as ice itself. All we want is some Brandy and Sugar to have Ice Toddy and they have about 400 acres planted in corn, beans, pumpkins, and melons and that tended in good order. I think they cannot raise more than One Hundred Warriors, after Austin halted the first attempt to destroy their village in 1825, he made a treaty with them. The Waco eventually moved out of the region, settling north near present-day Fort Worth, in 1872, they joined other Wichita tribes on a reservation in Oklahoma. In 1902, the Waco received allotments of land and became official US citizens, neil McLennan settled in an area near the South Bosque River in 1838. Jacob De Cordova bought McLennans property and hired a former Texas Ranger, in 1849, Erath designed the first block of the city. Property owners wanted to name the city Lamartine, but Erath convinced them to name the area Waco Village, in March 1849, Shapley Ross built the first house in Waco, a double-log cabin, on a bluff overlooking the springs. His daughter Kate was the first white child to be born in Waco, in 1866, Wacos leading citizens embarked on an ambitious project to build the first bridge to span the wide Brazos River. They formed the Waco Bridge Company to build the 475-foot brick Waco Suspension Bridge, the economic effects of the Waco bridge were immediate and large. The cowboys and cattle-herds following the Chisholm Trail north, crossed the Brazos River at Waco, some chose to pay the Suspension Bridge toll, while others floated their herds down the river. The population of Waco grew rapidly, as immigrants now had a crossing for their horse-drawn carriages. Since 1971, the bridge has been only to pedestrian traffic and is in the National Register of Historic Places. In the late 19th century, a district called the Reservation grew up in Waco
29.
Houston
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Houston is the most populous city in the state of Texas and the fourth-most populous city in the United States. With a census-estimated 2014 population of 2.239 million within an area of 667 square miles, it also is the largest city in the southern United States and the seat of Harris County. Located in Southeast Texas near the Gulf of Mexico, it is the city of Houston–The Woodlands–Sugar Land. Houston was founded on August 28,1836, near the banks of Buffalo Bayou and incorporated as a city on June 5,1837. The city was named after former General Sam Houston, who was president of the Republic of Texas and had commanded, the burgeoning port and railroad industry, combined with oil discovery in 1901, has induced continual surges in the citys population. Houstons economy has an industrial base in energy, manufacturing, aeronautics. Leading in health care sectors and building equipment, Houston has more Fortune 500 headquarters within its city limits than any city except for New York City. The Port of Houston ranks first in the United States in international waterborne tonnage handled, the city has a population from various ethnic and religious backgrounds and a large and growing international community. Houston is the most diverse city in Texas and has described as the most diverse in the United States. It is home to cultural institutions and exhibits, which attract more than 7 million visitors a year to the Museum District. Houston has a visual and performing arts scene in the Theater District. In August 1836, two real estate entrepreneurs from New York, Augustus Chapman Allen and John Kirby Allen, purchased 6,642 acres of land along Buffalo Bayou with the intent of founding a city. The Allen brothers decided to name the city after Sam Houston, the general at the Battle of San Jacinto. The great majority of slaves in Texas came with their owners from the slave states. Sizable numbers, however, came through the slave trade. New Orleans was the center of trade in the Deep South. Thousands of enslaved African Americans lived near the city before the Civil War, many of them near the city worked on sugar and cotton plantations, while most of those in the city limits had domestic and artisan jobs. Houston was granted incorporation on June 5,1837, with James S. Holman becoming its first mayor, in the same year, Houston became the county seat of Harrisburg County and the temporary capital of the Republic of Texas
30.
Tetraethyl orthosilicate
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Tetraethyl orthosilicate, formally named tetraethoxysilane, is the chemical compound with the formula Si4. Often abbreviated TEOS, it is a liquid that degrades in water. TEOS is the ester of orthosilicic acid, Si4. It is the most prevalent alkoxide of silicon, like its many analogues, it is prepared by alcoholysis of silicon tetrachloride, SiCl4 +4 EtOH → Si4 +4 HCl where Et is the ethyl radical, C2H5, and thus EtOH is ethanol. TEOS is mainly used as an agent in silicone polymers. TEOS is also used as the source for synthesis of some zeolites. Other applications include coatings for carpets and other objects, TEOS is used in the production of aerogel. These applications exploit the reactivity of the Si-OR bonds, TEOS easily converts to silicon dioxide upon the addition of water, Si4 +2 H2O → SiO2 +4 C2H5OH An idealized equation is shown, in reality the silica produced is hydrated. This hydrolysis reaction is an example of a sol-gel process, the reaction proceeds via a series of condensation reactions that convert the TEOS molecule into a mineral-like solid via the formation of Si-O-Si linkages. Rates of this conversion are sensitive to the presence of acids and bases, the Stöber process allows the formation of monodisperse and mesoporous silica. At elevated temperatures, TEOS converts to silicon dioxide, Si4 → SiO2 +2 2O The volatile coproduct is diethyl ether, TEOS has low toxicity by ingestion. While tetramethoxysilane is highly damaging to eyes since it deposits silica, NIST Standard Reference Database 69, June 2005 Release, NIST Chemistry WebBook Details of TEOS deposition process CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards
31.
Barn
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A barn is an agricultural building usually located on farms and used for various purposes. In the North American area, a barn refers to structures that house livestock, including cattle and horses, as well as equipment and fodder, and often grain. As a result, the barn is often qualified e. g. tobacco barn, dairy barn, sheep barn. On the Continent, however, barns were often part of integrated structures known as byre-dwellings, in addition, barns may be used for equipment storage, as a covered workplace, and for activities such as threshing. The word barn comes from the Old English bere, for barley, and aern, for a storage place—thus, “Another word for barn in Old English was beretun, barley enclosure (from tun, enclosure, house, or beretun, also meaning a threshing floor. In historical times, the barn was to be distinguished from the granary, now, however, the common English name for a grain storage building is granary. The modern barn largely developed from the three aisled barn, commonly known as tithe barn or monastic barn. This, in turn, originated in a 12th-century building tradition, also applied in halls, in the 15th century several thousands of these huge barns were to be found in Western-Europe. In the course of time, its method was adopted by normal farms and it gradually spread to simpler buildings. As a rule, the barn had large entrance doors. The storage floors between the posts or in the aisles were known as bays or mows. The main types were large barns with sideway passages, compact barns with a central entrance, the latter also spread to Eastern Europe. Whenever stone walls were applied, the timber frame often gave way to single-naved buildings. A special type were byre-dwellings, which included living quarters, byres and stables, such as the Frisian farmhouse or Gulf house, not all, however, evolved from the medieval barn. Other types descended from the prehistoric longhouse or other building traditions, one of the latter was the Low German house, in which the harvest was stored in the attic. In many cases, the New World colonial barn evolved from the Low German house, in the mid to late 19th century in the U. S. barn framing methods began to shift away from traditional timber framing to truss framed or plank framed buildings. Truss or plank framed barns reduced the number of timbers instead using dimensional lumber for the rafters, joists, the joints began to become bolted or nailed instead of being mortised and tenoned. The inventor and patentee of the Jennings Barn claimed his design used less lumber, less work, less time, concrete block began to be used for barns in the early 20th century in the U. S
32.
Ranch-style house
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Ranch is a domestic architectural style originating in the United States. The ranch house is noted for its long, close-to-the-ground profile, the house style fused modernist ideas and styles with notions of the American Western period of wide open spaces to create a very informal and casual living style. First built in the 1920s, the style was extremely popular with the booming post-war middle class of the 1940s to 1970s. The style was exported to other nations and their popularity waned in the late 20th century as neo-eclectic house styles, a return to using historical and traditional decoration, became popular. Preservationist movements have begun in some ranch house neighborhoods, as well as renewed interest in the style from a generation who did not grow up in ranch-style houses. The following features are considered key elements of the ranch house style. It may be built into a hill to some degree, such that the size of the house is not evident from the curb. However, it not become a raised ranch simply by having two floors. For it to be a ranch, you will have to climb a flight of steps to get to the main living floor - if not it is just a bi-level house. Among real estate agents, this term is commonly misused, the ranch house style was adapted for commercial use during the time of the styles popularity. As the concept of a drive in shopping center was being created and popularized, the 20th century ranch house style has its roots in North American Spanish colonial architecture of the 17th to 19th century. These buildings used single story floor plans and native materials in a style to meet the needs of their inhabitants. Walls were often built of brick and covered with plaster, or more simply used board. Roofs were low and simple, and usually had wide eaves to help shade the windows from the Southwestern heat, buildings often had interior courtyards which were surrounded by a U shaped floor plan. Large front porches were also common and these low slung, thick-walled, rustic working ranches were common in the Southwestern states. By the 1950s, the California ranch house, by now called simply the ranch house or rambler house. Ranch houses were built throughout America and were given regional facelifts to suit regional tastes. The Colonial Ranch of the Midwest and Northeast is one such noted variant, in the 1960s, the ranch house echoed the national trend towards sleekness in design, with the homes becoming even simpler as this trend continued
33.
Usonia
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Usonia was a word used by American architect Frank Lloyd Wright to refer to his vision for the landscape of the United States, including the planning of cities and the architecture of buildings. Usonian is a term referring to a group of approximately sixty middle-income family homes designed by Frank Lloyd Wright beginning in 1936 with the Jacobs House. The Usonian Homes are typically small, single-story dwellings without a garage or much storage and they are often L-shaped to fit around a garden terrace on unusual and inexpensive sites. A strong visual connection between the interior and exterior spaces is an important characteristic of all Usonian homes, the word carport was coined by Wright to describe an overhang for sheltering a parked vehicle. The Usonia Historic District is a community in Pleasantville, New York built in the 1950s following this concept. Wright designed 3 of the 47 homes himself, variants of the Jacobs House design are still in existence today. The Usonian design is considered among the origins of the ranch-style house popular in the American west of the 1950s. In 2013, Florida Southern College constructed the 13th Wright building on their campus according to plans that he created in 1939, the 1,700 sq. ft. Named the Usonian House, it was originally designed as one of twenty faculty housing units. The building is home to the Sharp Family Tourism and Education Center, the word Usonian appears to have been coined by James Duff Law, an American writer born in 1865. He went on to acknowledge that some author had proposed Usona, perhaps the earliest published use by Wright was in 1927, But why this term America has become representative as the name of these United States at home and abroad is past recall. Samuel Butler fitted us with a good name and he called us Usonians, and our Nation of combined States, Usonia. –Frank Lloyd Wright on Architecture, Selected Writings 1894–1940, p.100, however, this seems to be a misattribution, as there is as yet no published evidence that Butler ever used the word. It has become the name for the United States in Esperanto. The creator of Esperanto, L. L. Zamenhof, used Usono in his speech at the 1910 World Congress of Esperanto in Washington, D. C. coincidentally the same year Wright was in Europe. Zamenhofs aprobo José F. Buscaglia-Salgado reclaims the term Usonian to refer to the peoples, national ideology, miguel Torres-Castro uses the term Usonian to refer to the origin of the Atlantic Puffin bird used in the childrens book Jupu the Puffin, A Usonian Story. The bird is a puffin from Maine, USA
34.
National Register of Historic Places
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The National Register of Historic Places is the United States federal governments official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects deemed worthy of preservation. The passage of the National Historic Preservation Act in 1966 established the National Register, of the more than one million properties on the National Register,80,000 are listed individually. The remainder are contributing resources within historic districts, each year approximately 30,000 properties are added to the National Register as part of districts or by individual listings. For most of its history the National Register has been administered by the National Park Service and its goals are to help property owners and interest groups, such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation, coordinate, identify, and protect historic sites in the United States. While National Register listings are mostly symbolic, their recognition of significance provides some financial incentive to owners of listed properties, protection of the property is not guaranteed. During the nomination process, the property is evaluated in terms of the four criteria for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places, the application of those criteria has been the subject of criticism by academics of history and preservation, as well as the public and politicians. Occasionally, historic sites outside the proper, but associated with the United States are also listed. Properties can be nominated in a variety of forms, including individual properties, historic districts, the Register categorizes general listings into one of five types of properties, district, site, structure, building, or object. National Register Historic Districts are defined geographical areas consisting of contributing and non-contributing properties, some properties are added automatically to the National Register when they become administered by the National Park Service. These include National Historic Landmarks, National Historic Sites, National Historical Parks, National Military Parks/Battlefields, National Memorials, on October 15,1966, the Historic Preservation Act created the National Register of Historic Places and the corresponding State Historic Preservation Offices. Initially, the National Register consisted of the National Historic Landmarks designated before the Registers creation, approval of the act, which was amended in 1980 and 1992, represented the first time the United States had a broad-based historic preservation policy. To administer the newly created National Register of Historic Places, the National Park Service of the U. S. Department of the Interior, hartzog, Jr. established an administrative division named the Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation. Hartzog charged OAHP with creating the National Register program mandated by the 1966 law, ernest Connally was the Offices first director. Within OAHP new divisions were created to deal with the National Register, the first official Keeper of the Register was William J. Murtagh, an architectural historian. During the Registers earliest years in the late 1960s and early 1970s, organization was lax and SHPOs were small, understaffed, and underfunded. A few years later in 1979, the NPS history programs affiliated with both the U. S. National Parks system and the National Register were categorized formally into two Assistant Directorates. Established were the Assistant Directorate for Archeology and Historic Preservation and the Assistant Directorate for Park Historic Preservation, from 1978 until 1981, the main agency for the National Register was the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service of the United States Department of the Interior. In February 1983, the two assistant directorates were merged to promote efficiency and recognize the interdependency of their programs, jerry L. Rogers was selected to direct this newly merged associate directorate
35.
Westport, Connecticut
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Westport is a coastal town of colonial origin located along Long Island Sound in Fairfield County, Connecticut,47 miles northeast of New York City in the United States. The town had a population of 26,391 according to the 2010 U. S. Census, the earliest known inhabitants of the Westport area as identified through archaeological finds date back 7,500 years. Records from the first white settlers report the Pequot Indians living in the area which they called Machamux translated by the colonialists as beautiful land, settlement by colonialists dates back to the five Bankside Farmers, whose families grew and prospered into a community that continued expanding. The community had its own society, supported by independent civil and religious elements. The settlers arrived in 1693, having followed cattle to the area known to the Pequot as the beautiful land. Minutemen from Westport and the surrounding areas crouched hiding whilst Tryons troops passed, a statue on Compo beach commemorates this plan of attack with a crouching Minuteman facing away from the beach, looking onto what would have been the rear of the troops. The Town of Westport was officially incorporated on May 28,1835, with lands from Fairfield, Weston, daniel Nash led 130 people of Westport in the petitioning of the Town of Fairfield for Westport’s incorporation. The driving force behind the petition was to assist their seaport’s economic viability that was being undermined by neighboring towns’ seaports, for several decades after that, Westport was a prosperous agricultural community distinguishing itself as the leading onion-growing center in the U. S. Blight caused the collapse of Westports onion industry leading to the mills, agriculture was Westport’s first major industry. By the 19th century, Westport had become a center in part to transport onions to market. Starting around 1910 the town experienced a cultural expansion, during this period artists, musicians, and authors such as F. Scott Fitzgerald moved to Westport to be free from the commuting demands experienced by business people. The roots of Westport’s reputation as a center can be traced back to this period during which it was known as a creative heaven. Westport changed from a community of farmers to a suburban development, in the 1950s through to the 1970s, New Yorkers relocating from the city to the suburbs discovered Westports culture of artists, musicians and authors. The population grew rapidly, assisted by the ease of commuting to New York City and back again to rolling hills, by this time Westport had chic New York-type fashion shopping and a school system with a good reputation, both factors contributing to the growth. By the 21st century, Westport had developed into a center for finance and insurance, according to the United States Census Bureau, Westport has a total area of 33.3 square miles. 20.0 square miles or 60. 02% of it is land and 13.3 square miles or 39. 98% is water. Westport is bordered by Norwalk on the west, Weston to the north, Wilton to the northwest, Fairfield to the east, both the train station and a total of 26 percent of town residents live within the 100-year floodplain. Saugatuck – around the Westport railroad station near the corner of the town – a built-up area with some restaurants
36.
Weston, Connecticut
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Weston is a town in Fairfield County, Connecticut. The population was 10,179 at the 2010 census, the town is served by Route 57 and Route 53, both of which run through the town center. About 19% of the workforce commutes to New York City. Like many towns in southwestern Connecticut, Weston is among the most affluent communities in the United States, data collected in 2011 showed that Weston had the highest median household income in Fairfield County, Connecticut, at US$205,173. In 2011 Connecticut Magazine named Weston as the one town in Connecticut among towns with populations of 10. The rating considers education, crime, economy, cost and leisure, Weston is bordered by Wilton to the west, Redding to the north, Easton to the east, Fairfield to the southeast, and Westport to the south. Aside from a handful of stores that form the town’s center, residential development is limited by two-acre zoning. Most of Devils Den Preserve, a 1, 746-acre nature reserve, in the 17th century, Westons first English settlers were mostly farmers living in the town of Fairfield, Connecticut, the boundaries of which extended to Weston until the late 18th century. The Norfield Parish was created in the now occupied by the towns of Weston and Easton. In 1787, the area was incorporated as the Town of Weston. In 1845, the Town of Easton was split off from Weston, a meteor exploded above the town December 14,1807. Six pieces, totaling 28 pounds, were recovered and examined by scientists and this was the first time that people realized the nature of meteors. Despite rocky soil, farmers in town grew apples, onions, grist, cider, lumber, and fulling mills were built. The town had nine manufacturers by 1850, but two decades later only the Bradley Edge Tool Company still thrived and that factory burned down in 1911. Unlike other nearby towns, Weston never had a railroad built through it, between the Civil War and the Great Depression, the towns population dropped from approximately 1,000 to a low of 670, by 1930. Artists, writers, and actors from New York became attracted to the community in the 1930s, construction of the Merritt Parkway, which arrived to the south of Weston in 1938, resulted in further population growth. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has an area of 20.7 square miles, of which 19.8 square miles is land and 0.9 square miles. The Saugatuck River begins to the north in Redding and it flows through the town and ends in Long Island Sound in neighboring Westport
37.
Paraffin wax
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Paraffin wax is a white or colourless soft solid derivable from petroleum, coal or oil shale, that consists of a mixture of hydrocarbon molecules containing between twenty and forty carbon atoms. It is solid at room temperature and begins to melt above approximately 37 °C, common applications for paraffin wax include lubrication, electrical insulation, and candles, dyed paraffin wax can be made into crayons. It is distinct from kerosene, another product that is sometimes called paraffin. Paraffin candles are odorless, and bluish-white in color, paraffin wax was first created in the 1850s, and marked a major advancement in candlemaking technology, as it burned more cleanly and reliably than tallow candles, and was cheaper to produce. In chemistry, paraffin is used synonymously with alkane, indicating hydrocarbons with the general formula CnH2n+2, the name is derived from Latin parum + affinis, meaning lacking affinity or lacking reactivity, referring to paraffins unreactive nature. Paraffin wax is mostly found as a white, odorless, tasteless, waxy solid and it is insoluble in water, but soluble in ether, benzene, and certain esters. Paraffin is unaffected by most common chemical reagents but burns readily and its heat of combustion is 42 kJ/g. Paraffin wax is an excellent electrical insulator, with a resistivity of between 1013 and 1017 ohm metre and this is better than nearly all other materials except some plastics. It is a neutron moderator and was used in James Chadwicks 1932 experiments to identify the neutron. Paraffin wax is an excellent material for storing heat, with a heat capacity of 2. 14–2.9 J g−1 K−1. Paraffin wax phase-change cooling coupled with retractable radiators was used to cool the electronics of the Lunar Rover, wax expands considerably when it melts and this allows its use in wax thermostatic element thermostats for industrial, domestic and, particularly, automobile purposes. Paraffin wax was first created in the 1850s when chemists first developed the means to efficiently separate, paraffin represented a major advance in the candlemaking industry because it burned more cleanly and reliably, and was cheaper to manufacture than any other candle fuel. Paraffin wax initially suffered from having a low melting point, however, the production of paraffin wax enjoyed a boom in the early 20th century as a result of the growth of the meatpacking and oil industries, which created paraffin and stearic acid as byproducts. The feedstock for paraffin is slack wax, which is a mixture of oil and wax, the first step in making paraffin wax is to remove the oil from the slack wax. The oil is separated through crystallization, most commonly, the slack wax is heated, mixed with one or more solvents such as a ketone and then cooled. As it cools wax crystallizes out of the solution, leaving only oil in the solution and this mixture is filtered into two streams, solid and liquid. After the solvent is recovered by distillation, the products are called product wax. The lower the percentage of oil in the wax the more refined it is considered, the product wax may be further processed to remove colors and odors
38.
Transcendentalism
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Transcendentalism is a philosophical movement that developed in the late 1820s and 1830s in the eastern United States. It arose as a reaction to or protest against the state of intellectualism. The doctrine of the Unitarian church as taught at Harvard Divinity School was of particular interest, miller and Versluis regard Emanuel Swedenborg as a pervasive influence on transcendentalism. It was also influenced by Hindu texts on philosophy of the mind and spirituality, a core belief of transcendentalism is in the inherent goodness of people and nature. Adherents believe that society and its institutions have corrupted the purity of the individual, Transcendentalism emphasizes subjective intuition over objective empiricism. Adherents believe that individuals are capable of generating completely original insights with as little attention, Transcendentalism is closely related to Unitarianism, the dominant religious movement in Boston in the early nineteenth century. Rather than as a rejection of Unitarianism, Transcendentalism evolved as a consequence of the Unitarian emphasis on free conscience. They were not, however, content with the sobriety, mildness, instead, they longed for a more intense spiritual experience. Stated in alternate terms, Transcendentalism was not born as a counter-movement to Unitarianism, from 1840, the group frequently published in their journal The Dial, along with other venues. By the late 1840s, Emerson believed the movement was dying out, all that can be said, Emerson wrote, is that she represents an interesting hour and group in American cultivation. There was, however, a wave of transcendentalists, including Moncure Conway, Octavius Brooks Frothingham, Samuel Longfellow. Notably, the transgression of the spirit, most often evoked by the poets voice, is said to endow in the reader a sense of purposefulness. This is the theme in the majority of transcendentalist essays. Though the group was made up of struggling aesthetes, the wealthiest among them was Samuel Gray Ward. Transcendentalists are strong believers in the power of the individual and their beliefs are closely linked with those of the Romantics, but differ by an attempt to embrace or, at least, to not oppose the empiricism of science. The transcendental movement can be described as an American outgrowth of English Romanticism, Transcendentalists believe that society and its institutions—particularly organized religion and political parties—corrupt the purity of the individual. They have faith that people are at their best when truly self-reliant and independent and it is only from such real individuals that true community can form. Even with this necessary individuality, transcendentalists also believe all people possess a piece of the Over-soul
39.
Fort Worth, Texas
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Fort Worth is the 16th-largest city in the United States and the fifth-largest city in the state of Texas. The city is in North Central Texas and covers nearly 350 square miles in the counties of Denton, Parker, Wise, according to the 2015 census, estimates, Fort Worths population is 833,319. The city is the second-largest in the Dallas–Fort Worth–Arlington metropolitan area, the city was established in 1849 as an Army outpost on a bluff overlooking the Trinity River. Today, Fort Worth still embraces its Western heritage and traditional architecture, USS Fort Worth is the first ship of the United States Navy named after the city. Fort Worth is home to the Van Cliburn International Piano Competition, also of note is the Modern Art Museum of Fort Worth, designed by Tadao Ando. The Amon Carter Museum of American Art, designed by Philip Johnson, the Sid Richardson Museum, redesigned by David M. Schwarz, has one of the most focused collections of Western Art in the U. S. emphasizing Frederic Remington and Charles Russell. The Treaty of Birds Fort between the Republic of Texas and several Native American tribes was signed in 1843 at Birds Fort in present-day Arlington, Texas. Article XI of the treaty provided that no one may pass the line of trading houses without permission of the President of Texas and these trading houses were later established at the junction of the Clear Fork and West Fork of the Trinity River in present-day Fort Worth. At this river junction, the U. S, War Department established Fort Worth in 1849 as the northernmost of a system of 10 forts for protecting the American Frontier following the end of the Mexican–American War. The City of Fort Worth continues to be known as where the West begins, originally 10 forts had been proposed by Major General William Jenkins Worth, who commanded the Department of Texas in 1849. In January 1849, Worth proposed a line of 10 forts to mark the western Texas frontier from Eagle Pass to the confluence of the West Fork, One month later, Worth died from cholera in South Texas. General William S. Harney assumed command of the Department of Texas, Arnold to find a new fort site near the West Fork and Clear Fork. On June 6,1849, Arnold, advised by Middleton Tate Johnson, established a camp on the bank of the Trinity River, in August 1849, Arnold moved the camp to the north-facing bluff, which overlooked the mouth of the Clear Fork of the Trinity River. The United States War Department officially named the post Fort Worth on November 14,1849, E. S. Terrell from Tennessee claimed to be the first resident of Fort Worth. The fort was flooded the first year and moved to the top of the bluff, the fort was abandoned September 17,1853. As a stop on the legendary Chisholm Trail, Fort Worth was stimulated by the business of the cattle drives, millions of head of cattle were driven north to market along this trail. Fort Worth became the center of the drives, and later. It was given the nickname of Cowtown, during Civil War, Fort Worth suffered from shortages of money, food, and supplies
40.
Nutley, New Jersey
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Nutley is a township in Essex County, New Jersey, United States. What is now Nutley was originally incorporated as Franklin Township by an act of the New Jersey Legislature on February 18,1874, Nutley was incorporated as a Town on March 5,1902, replacing Franklin Township. Nutley derived its name from the estate of the Satterthwaite family, established in 1844, New Jersey Monthly magazine ranked Nutley as its 38th best place to live in its 2008 rankings of the Best Places To Live in New Jersey. Nutley grew slowly as Newark developed, the first European settler in the area, recorded in the minutes of a Newark town meeting in 1693, was a Dutch painter named Bastian Van Giesen. His house, known as Vreeland Homestead, still today on Chestnut Street and is the location of the Nutley Womens Club. John Treat and Thomas Stagg purchased lots adjacent to Van Geisens in 1695 and 1698 respectively, the Van Riper House is another building from the era. The first brownstone quarry in Nutley is believed to have been in operation by the early 18th century and was the towns first major industry, jobs at the brownstone quarry in the Avondale section of Nutley provided work for many Italian and Irish immigrants. Mills situated along the Third River in the now known as Memorial Park I became Nutleys second major industry. John and Thomas Speer, Joseph Kingsland, and Henry Duncan all operated mills in the town during the 1800s, current streets in Nutley are named after these mill owners. Henry Duncan built several mills throughout the town and established the village of Franklinville consisting of 30 homes, one of Duncans buildings has been modified and now serves as the town hall. Kingsland Manor is a historic place. During the late 1880s, painter Frank Fowler founded a colony on The Enclosure, a dead-end street that is near the Third River. Later artist residents of the street included Frederick Dana Marsh, Reginald Marsh, gary T. Erbe, a Trompe-lœil painter, currently resides there. The Nutley Historical Society manages the operation of The Nutley Historical Museum, local resident Chris Economaki wrote extensively about the Nutley Velodrome in his autobiographical racing history Let Them All Go. as the Velodrome was the first racetrack he had visited as a child. According to the United States Census Bureau, the township had an area of 3.428 square miles. Unincorporated communities, localities and place names located partially or completely within the township include Avondale, Franklin, Glendale, the township borders Belleville and Bloomfield in Essex County, Lyndhurst in Bergen County, and Clifton in Passaic County. As of the census of 2010, there were 28,370 people,11,314 households, the population density was 8,384.1 per square mile. There were 11,789 housing units at a density of 3,484.0 per square mile
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Foley Square
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The space is bordered by Worth Street, Centre Street and Lafayette Street and lies between City Hall and Canal Street, near Manhattans Chinatown and east of TriBeCa. It was named after a prominent Tammany Hall district leader and local saloon owner, Foley Square sits on part of the former site of the Collect Pond, specifically the smaller portion known as Little Collect Pond which used to lie to the south of Collect Pond proper. This was one of the fresh water sources for the city. The neighborhood around the pond was the notorious Five Points neighborhood, javits Federal Building and Court of International Trade. This burial ground has been preserved as the African Burial Ground National Monument, in 2005, Tom Paine Park was established as a part of the square. Foley Square has been used several times for special purposes and it was used as a triage center on September 11,2001. Because of its proximity to Chinatown, Foley Square is often host to a group of people performing tai chi in the mornings. On November 17,2011, Foley Square was the site of a protest which was part of the Occupy Wall Street movement, thousands of people attended the rally, including members of a dozen different unions. Foley Square has been the site of other protests and rallys. In December 2014, many gathered there to protest the decision in the death of Eric Garner. In November 2016, in protest of the Dakota Access Pipeline and in solidarity with Standing Rock water protectors, in January 2017, to protest the inauguration of Donald Trump, a collection of activist groups organized a rally titled, NYC Stand Against Trump, held at Foley Square. Film In the film of The Godfather, but not in the original 1969 novel, one scene of the film Spider-Man 3 was shot in Foley Square. Television Foley Square was the name of a series starring Margaret Colin. Foley Square is often seen on the television series Law & Order, Foley Square was seen in the opening and closing credits of the 1960s dramatic series The Defenders. Foley Square trial Notes Photographs of Foley Square buildings and surroundings
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Whitney Museum of American Art
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The Whitney Museum of American Art – known informally as the Whitney – is an art museum located in Manhattan. It was founded in 1931 by Gertrude Vanderbilt Whitney, a wealthy and prominent American socialite, the Whitney focuses on 20th- and 21st-century American art. Its permanent collection more than 21,000 paintings, sculptures, drawings, prints, photographs, films, videos. The museums Annual and Biennial exhibitions have long been a venue for younger, from 1966 to 2014, the Whitney was located at 945 Madison Avenue at East 75th Street in Manhattans Upper East Side. Gertrude Vanderbilt Whitney, the namesake and founder, was herself a well-regarded sculptor as well as a serious art collector. With the aid of her assistant, Juliana R. Force, in 1929, she offered to donate over 500 works of art to the Metropolitan Museum of Art, but the museum declined the gift. This, along with the apparent preference for European modernism at the recently opened Museum of Modern Art, led Whitney to start her own museum, exclusively for American art, in 1929. Force became the first director of the museum, and under her guidance, in 1954, the museum left its original location and moved to a small structure on 54th Street connected to and behind the Museum of Modern Art on 53rd Street. On April 15,1958, a fire on the floor of MOMA that killed one person forced the evacuation of paintings. Among the paintings moved in the evacuation was A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte which had been on loan from the Art Institute of Chicago, in 1961, the museum began seeking a site for a larger building. The Whitney settled in 1966 at the southeast corner of Madison Avenue at 75th Street in Manhattans Upper East Side, in 1967, Mauricio Lasansky showed The Nazi Drawings. The exhibition traveled to the Whitney Museum of American Art in New York, the institution grappled with space problems for decades. From 1973 to 1983 the Whitney operated its first branch at 55 Water Street, in 1983 Philip Morris installed a Whitney branch in the lobby of its Park Avenue headquarters. In 1981 the museum opened a space in Stamford, Connecticut. Each museum had its own director, and all plans were to be approved by a Whitney committee, but each time the effort was abandoned, either because of the cost or the design or both. In order to secure space for the museums collections, then-director Thomas N. Armstrong III developed plans for a 10-story. The proposed addition, designed by Michael Graves and announced in 1985, Graves had proposed demolishing the flanking brownstones down to the East 74th Street corner for a complementary addition. After the project gradually lost the support of many of the museum’s trustees, between 1995 and 1998, the building underwent a renovation and addition by Richard Gluckman
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Corcoran Gallery of Art
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The Corcoran Gallery of Art was an art museum in Washington, D. C. Prior to its closing, it was one of the oldest privately supported cultural institutions in the United States capital, starting in 1890, a museum school, later known as the Corcoran College of Art + Design, co-existed with the gallery. The museums main focus was American art, when the gallery was founded in 1869 by William Wilson Corcoran, the co-founder of Riggs Bank, it was one of the first fine art galleries in the country. Corcoran established the gallery, supported with an endowment, for the establishment and encouragement of the Fine Arts. While an independent institution, the Corcoran was the oldest and largest non-federal art museum in the District of Columbia and its mission was dedicated to art and used solely for the purpose of encouraging the American genius. The Corcoran Gallery of Art was originally located at 17th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue, construction of that building started before the Civil War. The building, near completion, was used by the government as a warehouse during the Civil War and it was finally completed in 1874 and the gallery opened to the public. By 1897, the Corcoran Gallery collection outgrew the space of its original building, a new building was constructed, designed by Ernest Flagg in a Beaux-Arts style. The 135,000 square feet building was built to house an expanded Corcoran collection in addition to the nascent school, which had been formally founded in 1890. In 1928, the art collection of former Senator William A. Clark joined the Corcoran in a new wing designed by Charles Adam Platt, for decades, the Corcoran examined the possibility of adding on a final wing which would complete the campus footprint. These plans abruptly ended in 2005 after a Frank O. Gehry -designed wing was scrapped due to lack of funding, throughout the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s, the gallery continued to display its main collection from Corcoran, Clark, and a few select major donors. In 1989, the Corcoran Gallery of Art had agreed to host a solo exhibit of Robert Mapplethorpes works. Mapplethorpe decided to show a new series that he had explored shortly before his death, Robert Mapplethorpe, several Trustees of the Corcoran and U. S. The Coalition of Washington Artists organized a demonstration to protest the Corcoran Gallerys cancellation of the exhibit, an estimated 700 people attended the demonstration. In June 1989, pop artist Lowell Blair Nesbitt became involved with a scandal involving Mapplethorpes work and it was at this time that Nesbitt, a long-time friend of Mapplethorpe, revealed that he had a $1.5 million bequest to the museum in his will. Nesbitt publicly promised that if the museum refused to host the exhibition he would revoke his bequest, the Corcoran refused and Nesbitt bequeathed the money to the Phillips Collection instead. The 1990 NEA Appropriations Bill included language against obscene work, as a result of the scandal, more than a dozen artists canceled exhibitions while the director, Christina Orr-Cahall, resigned and moved to the Norton Museum of Art. In its final years, the museum and its art and design college Corcoran College of Art and Design together had a staff of about 140
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Telfair Museums
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Telfair Museums, in the historic district of Savannah, Georgia, was the first public art museum in the Southern United States. Each of the three buildings represents an innovative expression of its time, and houses a collection corresponding to the era in which it was built. The Owens-Thomas House boasts an arts collection composed primarily of Owens family furnishings. Additionally the site includes intact urban slave quarters and a parterre garden and it contains the famous Bird Girl statue. Media related to Telfair Academy at Wikimedia Commons Media related to Telfair Museum of Art at Wikimedia Commons www. telfair. org Official web site
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Dallas Museum of Art
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The Dallas Museum of Art is a major art museum located in the Arts District of downtown Dallas, Texas, along Woodall Rodgers Freeway between St. Paul and Harwood. In 1984, the museum moved from its previous location in Fair Park to the Arts District, the new building was designed by Edward Larrabee Barnes, the 2007 winner of the American Institute of Architects Gold Medal. The museum collection is made up of more than 24,000 objects and it is also defined by its dynamic exhibition policy and award-winning educational programs. The Mildred R. and Frederick M. Mayer Library contains over 50,000 volumes available to curators, with 159,000 square feet of exhibition spaces, it is one of the largest art museums in the United States. The museums history began with the establishment in 1903 of the Dallas Art Association, frank Reaugh, a Texas artist, saw in the new library the opportunity to display works of art. This idea was championed by May Dickson Exall, who was the first president of the Dallas Public Library. ”The museum’s collections started growing from this moment on and it soon became necessary to find a new permanent home. The museum, renamed the Dallas Museum of Fine Arts in 1932, relocated to a new art deco facility within Fair Park in 1936 and this new facility was designed by a consortium of Dallas architects in consultation with Paul Cret of Philadelphia. It is still possible to visit this building, in 1943, Jerry Bywaters became the director of the museum, a position he held for the next twenty-one years. Artist, art critic, and teacher, Bywaters gave a sense of identity and community to the museum, under Bywaters tenure, impressionist, abstract, and contemporary masterpieces were acquired and the Texas identity of the museum was emphasized. This identity is represented by works by Alexandre Hogue, Olin Herman Travis, Bywaters himself. In 1963, the Dallas Museum of Fine Arts merged with the Dallas Museum of Contemporary Art, rueppel became the director of the newly merged Museum. In 1965, the museum held an exhibition called The Art of Piet Mondrian and one entitled Sculpture, by the late 1970s, the greatly enlarged permanent collection and the ambitious exhibition program fostered a need for a new museum facility. Under Harry Parker’s direction, the museum was able to once again, to its current venue. The $54 million facility, designed by New York architect Edward Larrabee Barnes, was financed by a 1979 City bond election, the project was galvanized by the slogan “A Great City Deserves a Great Museum, ” and the new building opened in January 1984. The museums collections include more than 24,000 works of art from around the world ranging from ancient to modern times and they are conceived as a celebration of the human power of creation. Objects in the museum’s African collection come from West Africa and Central Africa, the objects date primarily from the 16th to the 20th centuries, although the earliest object is a Nok terracotta bust from Nigeria that dates from somewhere between 200 BC to 200 AD. Some works in the collection were created as symbols of leadership and status, the American art collection includes paintings, sculptures, and works on paper from the United States from the colonial period to World War II, and art from Mexico, and Canada. One of the most important pieces in the collection is The Icebergs by Frederic Edwin Church and this painting had long been referred to as a lost masterpiece
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Virtual International Authority File
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The Virtual International Authority File is an international authority file. It is a joint project of national libraries and operated by the Online Computer Library Center. The project was initiated by the US Library of Congress, the German National Library, the National Library of France joined the project on October 5,2007. The project transitions to a service of the OCLC on April 4,2012, the aim is to link the national authority files to a single virtual authority file. In this file, identical records from the different data sets are linked together, a VIAF record receives a standard data number, contains the primary see and see also records from the original records, and refers to the original authority records. The data are available online and are available for research and data exchange. Reciprocal updating uses the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting protocol, the file numbers are also being added to Wikipedia biographical articles and are incorporated into Wikidata. VIAFs clustering algorithm is run every month, as more data are added from participating libraries, clusters of authority records may coalesce or split, leading to some fluctuation in the VIAF identifier of certain authority records
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Integrated Authority File
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The Integrated Authority File or GND is an international authority file for the organisation of personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies from catalogues. It is used mainly for documentation in libraries and increasingly also by archives, the GND is managed by the German National Library in cooperation with various regional library networks in German-speaking Europe and other partners. The GND falls under the Creative Commons Zero license, the GND specification provides a hierarchy of high-level entities and sub-classes, useful in library classification, and an approach to unambiguous identification of single elements. It also comprises an ontology intended for knowledge representation in the semantic web, available in the RDF format
