1.
Salwar
–
The Punjabi Salwar is part of the Punjabi suit which is the traditional attire of the Punjab region. It is known for its lively hues, rich fabrics and embroidery, the suit features three items - a kameez, salwar and dupatta. The womens Punjabi salwar suit style has become popular all over the sub-continent and it is also the national dress for Pakistan, since the later 1960s with the Punjabi salwar being used in government offices. The outfit has been a part of Punjabi tradition for centuries whether as the suthan kurta/kurti ensemble or the salwar jhaga /kurta combination, the outfit includes the Patiala salwar and the Saraiki shalwar suits of the Punjab region. The term Punjabi suit refers to the three piece ensemble comprising the head scarf, kameez and the salwar, however, the term also encompasses the older variety of the Punjabi suthan suit which is made up of the head scard, kurta/kurti and Punjabi suthan. The word suthan is derived from the Sanskrit word svasthana, which means tight fitting trousers which in turn is derived from the Central Asian word Samstamni. The suthan are trousers cut straight and tight, as opposed to the salwar, the tight suthan is loose to the knees but the loose Punjabi suthan is loose to the lower legs and very tight at the ankles. The salwar ends in a band which is loose fitting, despite this difference, people use the word suthan and salwar interchangeably to describe loose suthans and salwars, with the loose suthan resembling the salwar. Prior to the use of the term pajama, the suthan was used. Therefore, the woollen pajamas of Gilgit are also referred to as suthan, however, these are not of the Punjabi variety. The churidar pajama was also referred to as the suthan, the word suthana was also used in Hindi, to describe pajammas. The use of the suthan in the Punjab region also called suthana in Punjabi is a survival of the ancient svasthana, svasthana referred to a lower garment which can be described as a type of trousers. The svasthana was in use amongst the rulers in the Mauryan times, evidence of the use of svasthana amongst the ruling classes has also been observed in North India during the Kushan Empire between the 1st and 3rd centuries C. E. It was noted in use during the Gupta Empire between 4th and 6th centuries C. E. and during King Harshas rule during the 7th century C. E. A version of the svasthana has been noted in ancient India which sticks to the calves with narrow circumferences of the lower opening and this is similar to the Punjabi ghuttana which is loose at the thighs and tightens at the knees and ends at the calves. This suggests that the use of the suthan is indigenous to the Punjab region. E, the wearing of the suthan and kurta continued to be prevalent during the Mughal period between 1526-1748 C. E. and has been in use in unbroken succession since ancient times. The National Review notes that the suthan was in use in the Punjab, generally in white washable cloth. The svasthana was worn with the tunic called varbana which was tight fitting and this is the same as the modern straight cut kurta which has side slits and worn by women in Punjab
Salwar
–
Sheeba unveil her latest summer couture collection (14) Punjabi Salwar Suit
Salwar
–
20th (Punjab) Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry. Painting by Walter Fane (1828-85), 1868
Salwar
–
Phulkari kurta
Salwar
–
Women's Punjabi kurti
2.
Indian subcontinent
–
Geologically, the Indian subcontinent is related to the land mass that rifted from Gondwana and merged with the Eurasian plate nearly 55 million years ago. Geographically, it is the region in south-central Asia delineated by the Himalayas in the north, the Hindu Kush in the west. Politically, the Indian subcontinent usually includes Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, sometimes, the term South Asia is used interchangeably with Indian subcontinent. There is no consensus about which countries should be included in each and it is first attested in 1845 to refer to the North and South Americas, before they were regarded as separate continents. Its use to refer to the Indian subcontinent is seen from the twentieth century. It was especially convenient for referring to the region comprising both the British India and the states under British Paramountcy. The term Indian subcontinent also has a geological significance and it was, like the various continents, a part of the supercontinent of Gondwana. A series of tectonic splits caused formation of basins, each drifting in various directions. The geological region called the Greater India once included the Madagascar, Seychelles, Antartica, as a geological term, Indian subcontinent has meant that region formed from the collision of the Indian basin with Eurasia nearly 55 million years ago, towards the end of Paleocene. The Indian subcontinent has been a particularly common in the British Empire. The region, state Mittal and Thursby, has also labelled as India, Greater India. The BBC and some sources refer to the region as the Asian Subcontinent. Some academics refer to it as South Asian Subcontinent, the terms Indian subcontinent and South Asia are sometimes used interchangeably. There is no accepted definition on which countries are a part of South Asia or Indian subcontinent. In dictionary entries, the term subcontinent signifies a large, distinguishable subdivision of a continent, the region experienced high volcanic activity and plate subdivisions, creating Madagascar, Seychelles, Antartica, Austrolasia and the Indian subcontinent basin. The Indian subcontinent drifted northeastwards, colliding with the Eurasian plate nearly 55 million years ago and this geological region largely includes Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. The zone where the Eurasian and Indian subcontinent plates meet remains one of the active areas. The English term mainly continues to refer to the Indian subcontinent, physiographically, it is a peninsular region in south-central Asia delineated by the Himalayas in the north, the Hindu Kush in the west, and the Arakanese in the east
Indian subcontinent
–
Indian subcontinent
3.
National dress
–
A folk costume expresses an identity through costume, which is usually associated with a geographic area or a period of time in history. It can also indicate social, marital and/or religious status, such costumes often come in two forms, one for everyday occasions, the other for festivals and formal wear. Following the outbreak of nationalism, the peasantry of Europe came to serve as models for all that appeared genuine. Their dress crystallised into so-called typical forms, and enthusiasts adopted that attire as part of their symbolism, in areas where Western dress codes have become usual, traditional garments are often worn at special events or celebrations, particularly those connected with cultural traditions, heritage or pride. International events may cater for non-Western attendees with a dress code such as business suit or national dress. In modern times, there are instances where traditional garments are required by sumptuary laws, in Bhutan, the traditional Tibetan-style clothing of gho and kera for men, kira and toego for women, must be worn by all citizens, including those not of Tibetan heritage. In Saudi Arabia, women are required to wear the abaya in public. Tibet – Chuba Inner Mongolia – Deel Japan – Kimono, Junihitoe, also, all aboriginal tribes have a distinct tribal costume. Every ethnic group in the country has their national costume, kebayas, sarongs and the Beskap jacket of the Javanese and the Kain batik and dance costumes of Bali are some examples. Vietnam – Áo giao lĩnh, Áo dài, Áo tứ thân, abkhazia – Chokha Armenia – Each region has its own style of folk costume. Kuwait – Thawb Oman – Dishdasha Ossetia – Chokha Qatar – Kandura Palestine – Keffiyeh, Taqiyah, Saudi Arabia – Thawb, Ghutrah, Agal, Bisht, Abaya, Jilbab, Niqab Syria – Dishdasha Turkey – Fez, Kaftan, Shalvar. United Arab Emirates – Kandura Yemen – Similar to Saudi Arabia, scotland – Highland dress, Kilt or trews, tam oshanter or Balmoral bonnet, doublet, Aboyne dress, and brogues or ghillies. Greek fishermans caps in many villages by the Aegean sea. Italy – Italian folk dance costumes, Roman clothing, Toga, Stola South Tyrol – Tracht, slovenia – Gorenjska noša Spain – Every autonomous region has its own national costume. For example, Bavarias well-known Tracht, Lederhosen and Dirndl, liechtenstein – Tracht, Dirndl Netherlands – Dutch cap, Klompen, poffer Switzerland – Every canton has its own specific design of a national costume. A good example is seen in the attire of Paul Bunyan. Deep South and other parts of the American South – Traditional Southern US wear includes white seersucker suits and string ties for men and these short pants remained commonplace among young urban American boys until the mid 20th century. Nantucket – Summer residents of Nantucket will often wear Nantucket Reds, amish, the Pennsylvania Dutch and some sects of Mormon fundamentalism preserve traditional 19th century clothing styles
National dress
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Faroese folk dance club with some members in national costumes.
National dress
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Ugandan women in
gomesi
National dress
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Somali woman in traditional attire
National dress
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Berber boys in folk wear
4.
Sirwal
–
The sirwal, saroual, seroual, sarouel or serouel, also known as punjabi pants and in some contexts as Harem pants, are a form of baggy trousers predating the Christian era. They are typically worn in Muslim countries, but also extensively in the Greek countryside prior to World War II, the trousers are not originally an Arab garment but were introduced from Persia to Muslim countries. The sirwal is also worn by other communities in North India, the drawstring allows the sirwal to be worn at either the waist or hip level. Sirwal are worn by men under the thawb, or alone with some sort of loose top and it is usually made from cotton, linen/flax, or polyester. There are two types of sirwal, long and short, short sarawil are worn by most Saudi men. Men of the Western Region usually wear long sarawil, the seroual formed part of the standard uniform for the Mameluke squadrons of Napoleons Imperial Guard, and for the Zouave and other North African regiments of the French Army from 1830 to 1962. The French Army version of the seroual was notable for being cut so widely that it did not require two separate trouser legs
Sirwal
–
A long sirwal
Sirwal
–
Algerian soldier of the French Army wearing seroual trousers as part of his zouave style uniform 1913.
5.
Persian language
–
Persian, also known by its endonym Farsi, is one of the Western Iranian languages within the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European language family. It is primarily spoken in Iran, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan and it is mostly written in the Persian alphabet, a modified variant of the Arabic script. Its grammar is similar to that of many contemporary European languages, Persian gets its name from its origin at the capital of the Achaemenid Empire, Persis, hence the name Persian. A Persian-speaking person may be referred to as Persophone, there are approximately 110 million Persian speakers worldwide, with the language holding official status in Iran, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan. For centuries, Persian has also been a cultural language in other regions of Western Asia, Central Asia. It also exerted influence on Arabic, particularly Bahrani Arabic. Persian is one of the Western Iranian languages within the Indo-European family, other Western Iranian languages are the Kurdish languages, Gilaki, Mazanderani, Talysh, and Balochi. Persian is classified as a member of the Southwestern subgroup within Western Iranian along with Lari, Kumzari, in Persian, the language is known by several names, Western Persian, Parsi or Farsi has been the name used by all native speakers until the 20th century. Since the latter decades of the 20th century, for reasons, in English. Tajiki is the variety of Persian spoken in Tajikistan and Uzbekistan by the Tajiks, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, the term Persian as a language name is first attested in English in the mid-16th century. Native Iranian Persian speakers call it Fārsi, Farsi is the Arabicized form of Pārsi, subsequent to Muslim conquest of Persia, due to a lack of the phoneme /p/ in Standard Arabic. The origin of the name Farsi and the place of origin of the language which is Fars Province is the Arabicized form of Pārs, in English, this language has historically been known as Persian, though Farsi has also gained some currency. Farsi is encountered in some literature as a name for the language. In modern English the word Farsi refers to the language while Parsi describes Zoroastrians, some Persian language scholars such as Ehsan Yarshater, editor of Encyclopædia Iranica, and University of Arizona professor Kamran Talattof, have also rejected the usage of Farsi in their articles. The international language-encoding standard ISO 639-1 uses the code fa, as its system is mostly based on the local names. The more detailed standard ISO 639-3 uses the name Persian for the dialect continuum spoken across Iran and Afghanistan and this consists of the individual languages Dari and Iranian Persian. Currently, Voice of America, BBC World Service, Deutsche Welle, Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty also includes a Tajik service and an Afghan service. This is also the case for the American Association of Teachers of Persian, The Centre for Promotion of Persian Language and Literature, Persian is an Iranian language belonging to the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European family of languages
Persian language
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Old Persian
Persian language
–
Ferdowsi 's
Shahnameh
Persian language
–
Kalilah va Dimna, an influential work in Persian literature.
6.
Urdu language
–
Urdu is a persianized standard register of the Hindustani language. It is the language and lingua franca of Pakistan. It is also one of the 22 official languages recognized in the Constitution of India, hyderabad, Rampur, Bhopal and Lucknow are noted Urdu-speaking cities of India. Urdu is historically associated with the Muslims of the northern Indian subcontinent, apart from specialized vocabulary, Urdu is mutually intelligible with Standard Hindi, another recognized register of Hindustani. Urdu, like Hindi, is a form of Hindustani, Urdu developed under the influence of the Persian and Arabic languages, both of which have contributed a significant amount of vocabulary to formal speech. Around 99% of Urdu verbs have their roots in Sanskrit and Prakrit, Urdu words originating from Chagatai and Arabic were borrowed through Persian and hence are Persianized versions of the original words. For instance, the Arabic ta marbuta changes to he or te, nevertheless, contrary to popular belief, Urdu did not borrow from the Turkish language, but from Chagatai. Urdu and Turkish borrowed from Arabic and Persian, hence the similarity in pronunciation of many Urdu, Arabic influence in the region began with the late first-millennium Arab invasion of India in the 7th century. The Persian language was introduced into the subcontinent a few centuries later by various Persianized Central Asian Turkic and Afghan dynasties including that of the Delhi Sultanate. With the advent of the British Raj, Persian was no longer the language of administration but Hindustani, still written in the Persian script, the name Urdu was first used by the poet Ghulam Hamadani Mushafi around 1780. From the 13th century until the end of the 18th century Urdu was commonly known as Hindi, the language was also known by various other names such as Hindavi and Dehlavi. The communal nature of the language lasted until it replaced Persian as the language in 1837 and was made co-official. Urdu was promoted in British India by British policies to counter the previous emphasis on Persian and this triggered a Brahman backlash in northwestern India, which argued that the language should be written in the native Devanagari script. At independence, Pakistan established a highly Persianized literary form of Urdu as its national language, English has exerted a heavy influence on both as a co-official language. Owing to interaction with other languages, Urdu has become localized wherever it is spoken, similarly, the Urdu spoken in India can also be distinguished into many dialects like Dakhni of South India, and Khariboli of the Punjab region since recent times. Because of Urdus similarity to Hindi, speakers of the two languages can understand one another if both sides refrain from using specialized vocabulary. The syntax, morphology, and the vocabulary are essentially identical. Thus linguists usually count them as one language and contend that they are considered as two different languages for socio-political reasons
Urdu language
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Autograph and a couplet of Last
Mughal Emperor,
Bahadur Shah II, dated 29 April 1844
Urdu language
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Urdu in
Perso-Arabic script (
Nastaliq style)
Urdu language
–
A trilingual
signboard in the
UAE
Urdu language
–
A multilingual
New Delhi railway station board
7.
Arabic language
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Arabic is a Central Semitic language that was first spoken in Iron Age northwestern Arabia and is now the lingua franca of the Arab world. Arabic is also the language of 1.7 billion Muslims. It is one of six languages of the United Nations. The modern written language is derived from the language of the Quran and it is widely taught in schools and universities, and is used to varying degrees in workplaces, government, and the media. The two formal varieties are grouped together as Literary Arabic, which is the language of 26 states. Modern Standard Arabic largely follows the standards of Quranic Arabic. Much of the new vocabulary is used to denote concepts that have arisen in the post-Quranic era, Arabic has influenced many languages around the globe throughout its history. During the Middle Ages, Literary Arabic was a vehicle of culture in Europe, especially in science, mathematics. As a result, many European languages have borrowed many words from it. Many words of Arabic origin are found in ancient languages like Latin. Balkan languages, including Greek, have acquired a significant number of Arabic words through contact with Ottoman Turkish. Arabic has also borrowed words from languages including Greek and Persian in medieval times. Arabic is a Central Semitic language, closely related to the Northwest Semitic languages, the Ancient South Arabian languages, the Semitic languages changed a great deal between Proto-Semitic and the establishment of the Central Semitic languages, particularly in grammar. Innovations of the Central Semitic languages—all maintained in Arabic—include, The conversion of the suffix-conjugated stative formation into a past tense, the conversion of the prefix-conjugated preterite-tense formation into a present tense. The elimination of other prefix-conjugated mood/aspect forms in favor of new moods formed by endings attached to the prefix-conjugation forms, the development of an internal passive. These features are evidence of descent from a hypothetical ancestor. In the southwest, various Central Semitic languages both belonging to and outside of the Ancient South Arabian family were spoken and it is also believed that the ancestors of the Modern South Arabian languages were also spoken in southern Arabia at this time. To the north, in the oases of northern Hijaz, Dadanitic and Taymanitic held some prestige as inscriptional languages, in Najd and parts of western Arabia, a language known to scholars as Thamudic C is attested
Arabic language
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The Galland Manuscript of
One Thousand and One Nights, 14th century
Arabic language
–
al-ʿArabiyyah in written Arabic (
Naskh script)
Arabic language
–
Bilingual traffic sign in
Qatar.
Arabic language
–
Examples of how the Arabic root and form system works.
8.
Turkish language
–
Outside of Turkey, significant smaller groups of speakers exist in Germany, Bulgaria, Macedonia, Northern Cyprus, Greece, the Caucasus, and other parts of Europe and Central Asia. Cyprus has requested that the European Union add Turkish as an official EU language, in 1928, as one of Atatürks Reforms in the early years of the Republic of Turkey, the Ottoman Turkish alphabet was replaced with a Latin alphabet. The distinctive characteristics of Turkish are vowel harmony and extensive agglutination, the basic word order of Turkish is subject–object–verb. Turkish has no classes or grammatical gender. Turkish has a strong T–V distinction and usage of honorifics, Turkish uses second-person pronouns that distinguish varying levels of politeness, social distance, age, courtesy or familiarity toward the addressee. The plural second-person pronoun and verb forms are used referring to a person out of respect. Turkic languages belong to the Altaic language group, the Turkic family comprises some 30 living languages spoken across Eastern Europe, Central Asia, and Siberia. Turkish is a member of the Oghuz group of languages, a subgroup of the Turkic language family, there is a high degree of mutual intelligibility between Turkish and the other Oghuz Turkic languages, including Azerbaijani, Turkmen, Qashqai, Gagauz, and Balkan Gagauz Turkish. The earliest known Old Turkic inscriptions are the three monumental Orkhon inscriptions found in modern Mongolia, erected in honour of the prince Kul Tigin and his brother Emperor Bilge Khagan, these date back to the second Turk Kaghanate. The Seljuqs of the Oghuz Turks, in particular, brought their language, following the adoption of Islam c. Turkish literature during the Ottoman period, particularly Divan poetry, was influenced by Persian, including the adoption of poetic meters. One of the tasks of the newly established association was to initiate a reform to replace loanwords of Arabic. By banning the usage of imported words in the press, the association succeeded in removing several hundred words from the language. While most of the words introduced to the language by the TDK were newly derived from Turkic roots, owing to this sudden change in the language, older and younger people in Turkey started to differ in their vocabularies. While the generations born before the 1940s tend to use the terms of Arabic or Persian origin. The past few decades have seen the work of the TDK to coin new Turkish words to express new concepts and technologies as they enter the language. Many of these new words, particularly information technology terms, have received widespread acceptance, however, the TDK is occasionally criticized for coining words which sound contrived and artificial. Some earlier changes—such as bölem to replace fırka, political party—also failed to meet with popular approval, some words restored from Old Turkic have taken on specialized meanings, for example betik is now used to mean script in computer science
Turkish language
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Old Turkic inscription with the
Orkhon script (c. 8th century).
Kyzyl, Russia
Turkish language
–
Countries where Turkish is an official language
Turkish language
–
Road signs in
Prizren,
Republic of Kosovo. Official languages are:
Albanian (top),
Serbian (middle) and Turkish (bottom).
Turkish language
–
Map of the main subgroups of
Turkish dialects.
9.
Turkish salvar
–
Turkish şalvar, are traditional baggy trousers. Men may add the traditional loose coat, called a jubba, mustafa Kemal Pasha changed the dress code in Turkey in the 1920s as part of his revolutions. However, men and women wear the şalvar in many areas of Turkey. The traditional clothing for women of Turkey includes the şalvar which is worn with upper garments of varying styles. The traditional şalvar suits are a part of Turkeys culture dating back to the Ottoman era, the şalvars are of varying degrees of bagginess and are gathered at the ankle. Bright colours and flowered prints are favoured by rural women, the total female ensemble includes the gömlek, şalvar and entari. The traditional male dress includes the şalvar, yelek and cebken, the mens salvar is popular in eastern Turkey, especially in the districts of Cilicia, Urfa and Diyarbakir
Turkish salvar
–
Selcuk woman in shalwar of Turkey
Turkish salvar
–
Constan
Turkish salvar
–
Turkish traditional fashion
Turkish salvar
–
Turska narodna nošnja
10.
Punjabi language
–
Punjabi /pʌnˈdʒɑːbi/ is an Indo-Aryan language spoken by over 100 million native speakers worldwide, making it the 10th most widely spoken language in the world. It is the language of the Punjabi people who inhabit the historical Punjab region of India. Among the Indo-European languages it is unusual in being a tonal language, Punjabi is the most widely spoken language in Pakistan, the 11th most widely spoken in India and the third-most spoken native language in the Indian Subcontinent. Punjabi is the fourth-most spoken language in the United Kingdom and third-most spoken native language in Canada, the language also has a significant presence in the United Arab Emirates, United States, Saudi Arabia, and Australia. The Punjabi language is written in the Shahmukhi and Gurmukhi scripts, the word Punjabi is derived from the word Panj-āb, Persian for Five Waters, referring to the five major eastern tributaries of the Indus River. Panj is cognate with Sanskrit pañca and Greek πέντε five, the historical Punjab region, now divided between India and Pakistan, is defined physiographically by the Indus River and these five tributaries. One of the five, the Beas River, is a tributary of another, Punjabi developed from Sanskrit through Prakrit language and later Apabhraṃśa From 600 BC Sanskrit gave birth to many regional languages in different parts of India. These all languages are called Prakrit language collectively, Shauraseni Prakrit was one of these Prakrit languages, which was spoken in north and north-western India and Punjabi and western dialects of Hindi developed from this Prakrit. Later in northern India Shauraseni Prakrit gave rise to Shauraseni Aparbhsha, Punjabi emerged as an Apabhramsha, a degenerated form of Prakrit, in the 7th century A. D. and became stable by the 10th century. By the 10th century, many Nath poets were associated with earlier Punjabi works, Arabic and Persian influence in the historical Punjab region began with the late first millennium Muslim conquests on the Indian subcontinent. The Persian language was introduced in the subcontinent a few centuries later by various Persianized Central Asian Turkic, many Persian and Arabic words were incorporated in Punjabi. Punjabi has more Persian and Arabic vocabulary than Bengali, Marathi, later, it was influenced by Portuguese and English, though these influences have been minor in comparison to Persian and Arabic. However, in India English words in the language are more widespread than Hindi. Punjabi is the most widely spoken language in Pakistan, the seventh-most widely spoken in India, Punjabi is the most widely spoken language in Pakistan. Punjabi is the language in the Punjab Province of Pakistan. Punjabi is spoken as a language by over 44. 15% of Pakistanis. About 70. 0% of the people of Pakistan speak Punjabi as either their first or second language, Lahore, the capital of the Punjab Province of Pakistan, is the largest Punjabi-speaking city in the world. 86% of the population of Lahore is native Punjabi and Islamabad
Punjabi language
–
Varan Gyan Ratnavali by 16th century historian
Bhai Gurdas
Punjabi language
–
Gurmukhi alphabetic excluding vowels.
Punjabi language
–
Administrative divisions of Punjab Pakistan
Punjabi language
–
Southall Station (United Kingdom) sign in Punjabi, in the Gurmukhī script
11.
Gujarati language
–
Gujarati /ɡʊdʒəˈrɑːti/ is an Indo-Aryan language native to the Indian state of Gujarat. It is part of the greater Indo-European language family, Gujarati is descended from Old Gujarati. In India, it is the language in the state of Gujarat, as well as an official language in the union territories of Daman and Diu and Dadra. Gujarati is the language of the Gujjars, who had ruled Rajputana, according to the Central Intelligence Agency,4. 5% of the Indian population speaks Gujarati, which amounts to 54.6 million speakers in India. There are about 65.5 million speakers of Gujarati worldwide, Gujarati was the first language of Mahatma Gandhi and Muhammad Ali Jinnah. Gujarati is a modern IA language evolved from Sanskrit, Central, in Gujarati/Rajasthani, Western Hindi, and Punjabi/Lahanda/Sindhi, on the basis of innovation of auxiliary verbs and postpositions in Gujarati/Rajasthani. Gujarati/Rajasthani into Gujarati and Rajasthani through development of such characteristics as auxiliary ch-, grammatically, a new plural marker of -o developed. In literature, the quarter of the 19th century saw a series of milestones for Gujarati. The printing was introduced in Gujarati in 1812, the first printed book published was the Gujarati translation of Dabestan-e Mazaheb prepared and printed by Parsi priest Fardunjee Marzban in 1815. 1822, first Gujarati newspaper, Mumbai Samachar, the oldest newspaper in India still in circulation, 1840s, personal diary composition, Nityanondh, Durgaram Mehta. 1845, first modern Gujarati poem, Bapani Piparu, Dalpatram 1851, first essay, Mandaḷī Maḷvāthi Thātā Lābh, Narmadashankar Dave 1866, first original novel, Karaṇ Ghelo, Nandshankar Mehta. 1866, first social novel, Sasu Vahu ni Ladai, Mahipatram Rupram Nilkanth 1866, first autobiography, Mārī Hakīkat,1900, first original short story, Shantidas, Ambalal Desai. Of the approximately 46 million speakers of Gujarati in 1997, roughly 45, however, Gujarati community leaders in Pakistan claim that there are 3 million Gujarati speakers in Karachi. There is an amount of Mauritian population and a large amount of Réunion Island people who are from Gujarati descent among which some of them still speak Gujarati. According to the 2011 census, Gujarati is the seventeenth most spoken language in the Greater Toronto Area, most, with British passports, settled in the UK. Gujarati is offered as a GCSE subject for students in the UK, a distribution of the geographical area can be found in Linguistic Survey of India by George A. Grierson. Gujarati is one of the recognized constitutional languages and fourteen regional languages of India. It is officially recognized in the state of Gujarat, India, in A simplified grammar of the Gujarati language by William Tisdall, two major dialects of Gujarati are mentioned, a standard Hindu dialect and a Parsi dialect
Gujarati language
Gujarati language
–
Distribution of native Gujarati speakers in India
Gujarati language
Gujarati language
–
India Square,
Jersey City,
New Jersey, USA. Gujarati has achieved high linguistic prominence in many urban districts worldwide, including the
New York City Metropolitan Area.
12.
Hindi language
–
Hindi, or Modern Standard Hindi is a standardised and Sanskritised register of the Hindustani language. Along with the English language, Hindi written in the Devanagari script, is the language of the Government of India. It is also one of the 22 scheduled languages of the Republic of India, Hindi is the lingua franca of the so-called Hindi belt of India. Outside India, it is a language which is known as Fiji Hindi in Fiji, and is a recognised regional language in Mauritius, Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana. Hindi is the fourth most-spoken first language in the world, after Mandarin, apart from specialized vocabulary, Hindi is mutually intelligible with Standard Urdu, another recognized register of Hindustani. Part XVII of the Indian Constitution deals with Official Language, under Article 343, official language of the Union has been prescribed, which includes Hindi in Devanagari script and English. Gujarat High Court, in 2010, has observed that there was nothing on record to suggest that any provision has been made or order issued declaring Hindi as a language of India. Article 343 of the Indian constitution states The official language of the Union shall be Hindi in Devanagari script, the form of numerals to be used for the official purposes of the Union shall be the international form of Indian numerals. It was envisioned that Hindi would become the working language of the Union Government by 1965. Each may also designate a co-official language, in Uttar Pradesh, for instance, depending on the formation in power. Similarly, Hindi is accorded the status of language in the following Union Territories, Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Chandigarh, Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Daman & Diu. National-language status for Hindi is a long-debated theme, an Indian court clarified that Hindi is not the national language of India because the constitution does not mention it as such. Outside Asia, Hindi is a language in Fiji as per the 1997 Constitution of Fiji. It is spoken by 380,000 people in Fiji, Hindi is also spoken by a large population of Madheshis of Nepal. Hindi is quite easy to understand for some Pakistanis, who speak Urdu, apart from this, Hindi is spoken by the large Indian diaspora which hails from, or has its origin from the Hindi Belt of India. Like other Indo-Aryan languages, Hindi is considered to be a descendant of an early form of Sanskrit, through Sauraseni Prakrit. It has been influenced by Dravidian languages, Turkic languages, Persian, Arabic, Portuguese, Hindi emerged as Apabhramsha, a degenerated form of Prakrit, in the 7th century A. D. By the 10th century A. D. it became stable, Braj Bhasha, Bhojpuri, Awadhi, Khari Boli etc. are the dialects of Hindi
Hindi language
–
The word "Hindi" in
Devanagari script
13.
Bengali language
–
Bengali, also known by its endonym Bangla, is an Indo-Aryan language spoken in South Asia. With over 210 million speakers, Bengali is the seventh most spoken language in the world. Dominant in the last group was Persian, which was also the source of some grammatical forms, more recent studies suggest that the use of native and foreign words has been increasing, mainly because of the preference of Bengali speakers for the colloquial style. Today, Bengali is the language spoken in Bangladesh and the second most spoken language in India. Both the national anthems of Bangladesh and India were composed in Bengali, in 1952, the Bengali Language Movement successfully pushed for the languages official status in the Dominion of Pakistan. In 1999, UNESCO recognized 21 February as International Mother Language Day in recognition of the movement in East Pakistan. Language is an important element of Bengali identity and binds together a diverse region. Sanskrit was spoken in Bengal since the first millennium BCE, during the Gupta Empire, Bengal was a hub of Sanskrit literature. The Middle Indo-Aryan dialects were spoken in Bengal in the first millennium when the region was a part of the Magadha Realm and these dialects were called Magadhi Prakrit. They eventually evolved into Ardha Magadhi, Ardha Magadhi began to give way to what are called Apabhraṃśa languages at the end of the first millennium. Along with other Eastern Indo-Aryan languages, Bengali evolved circa 1000–1200 AD from Sanskrit, for example, Ardhamagadhi is believed to have evolved into Abahatta around the 6th century, which competed with the ancestor of Bengali for some time. Proto-Bengali was the language of the Pala Empire and the Sena dynasty, during the medieval period, Middle Bengali was characterized by the elision of word-final অ ô, the spread of compound verbs and Arabic and Persian influences. Bengali was a court language of the Sultanate of Bengal. Muslim rulers promoted the development of Bengali as part of efforts to Islamize. Bengali became the most spoken language in the Sultanate. This period saw borrowing of Perso-Arabic terms into Bengali vocabulary, major texts of Middle Bengali include Chandidas Shreekrishna Kirtana. The modern literary form of Bengali was developed during the 19th and early 20th centuries based on the dialect spoken in the Nadia region, a west-central Bengali dialect. Bengali presents a case of diglossia, with the literary
Bengali language
–
Shohid Minar, or the Martyr's monument, in
Dhaka, commemorates the struggle for the Bengali language.
Bengali language
–
The word "Bangla" in the
Bengali alphabet
Bengali language
–
Pages from the
Charyapada.
Bengali language
–
An example of handwritten Bengali. Part of a poem written in Bengali (and with its English translation below each Bengali paragraph) by Nobel Laureate
Rabindranath Tagore in 1926 in Hungary.
14.
Christian era
–
The terms anno Domini and before Christ are used to label or number years in the Julian and Gregorian calendars. The term anno Domini is Medieval Latin and means in the year of the Lord, There is no year zero in this scheme, so the year AD1 immediately follows the year 1 BC. This dating system was devised in 525 by Dionysius Exiguus of Scythia Minor, the Gregorian calendar is the most widely used calendar in the world today. Traditionally, English followed Latin usage by placing the AD abbreviation before the year number, however, BC is placed after the year number, which also preserves syntactic order. The abbreviation is widely used after the number of a century or millennium. Because BC is the English abbreviation for Before Christ, it is sometimes concluded that AD means After Death. However, this would mean that the approximate 33 years commonly associated with the life of Jesus would not be included in either of the BC, astronomical year numbering and ISO8601 avoid words or abbreviations related to Christianity, but use the same numbers for AD years. The Anno Domini dating system was devised in 525 by Dionysius Exiguus to enumerate the years in his Easter table. His system was to replace the Diocletian era that had used in an old Easter table because he did not wish to continue the memory of a tyrant who persecuted Christians. The last year of the old table, Diocletian 247, was followed by the first year of his table. Thus Dionysius implied that Jesus Incarnation occurred 525 years earlier, without stating the year during which his birth or conception occurred. Blackburn & Holford-Strevens briefly present arguments for 2 BC,1 BC, There were inaccuracies in the list of consuls There were confused summations of emperors regnal years It is not known how Dionysius established the year of Jesuss birth. It is convenient to initiate a calendar not from the day of an event. For example, the Islamic calendar begins not from the date of the Hegira, at the time, it was believed by some that the Resurrection and end of the world would occur 500 years after the birth of Jesus. The old Anno Mundi calendar theoretically commenced with the creation of the based on information in the Old Testament. It was believed that, based on the Anno Mundi calendar, Anno Mundi 6000 was thus equated with the resurrection and the end of the world but this date had already passed in the time of Dionysius. The Anglo-Saxon historian the Venerable Bede, who was familiar with the work of Dionysius Exiguus, used Anno Domini dating in his Ecclesiastical History of the English People, completed in 731. e. On the continent of Europe, Anno Domini was introduced as the era of choice of the Carolingian Renaissance by the English cleric and scholar Alcuin in the late eighth century
Christian era
–
Dionysius Exiguus invented Anno Domini years to
date Easter.
Christian era
–
Anno Domini inscription at a cathedral in
Carinthia,
Austria.
Christian era
–
Statue of
Charlemagne by
Agostino Cornacchini (1725), at
St. Peter's Basilica, Vatican, Italy. Charlemagne promoted the usage of the Anno Domini epoch throughout the
Carolingian Empire
15.
Muslim
–
A Muslim is someone who follows or practices Islam, a monotheistic Abrahamic religion. Muslims consider the Quran, their book, to be the verbatim word of God as revealed to the Islamic prophet. They also follow the teachings and practices of Muhammad as recorded in traditional accounts, Muslim is an Arabic word meaning one who submits. Most Muslims will accept anyone who has publicly pronounced Shahadah as a Muslim, the shahadah states, There is no god but the God and Muhammad is the last messenger of the God. The testimony authorized by God in the Quran that can found in Surah 3,18 states, There is no god except God, which in Arabic, is the exact testimony which God Himself utters, as well as the angels and those who possess knowledge utter. The word muslim is the active participle of the verb of which islām is a verbal noun, based on the triliteral S-L-M to be whole. A female adherent is a muslima, the plural form in Arabic is muslimūn or muslimīn, and its feminine equivalent is muslimāt. The Arabic form muslimun is the stem IV participle of the triliteral S-L-M, the ordinary word in English is Muslim. It is sometimes transliterated as Moslem, which is an older spelling, the word Mosalman is a common equivalent for Muslim used in Central Asia. Until at least the mid-1960s, many English-language writers used the term Mohammedans or Mahometans, although such terms were not necessarily intended to be pejorative, Muslims argue that the terms are offensive because they allegedly imply that Muslims worship Muhammad rather than God. Other obsolete terms include Muslimite and Muslimist, musulmán/Mosalmán is a synonym for Muslim and is modified from Arabic. In English it was sometimes spelled Mussulman and has become archaic in usage, the Muslim philosopher Ibn Arabi said, A Muslim is a person who has dedicated his worship exclusively to God. Islam means making ones religion and faith Gods alone. The Quran states that men were Muslims because they submitted to God, preached His message and upheld His values. Thus, in Surah 3,52 of the Quran, Jesus disciples tell him, We believe in God, and you be our witness that we are Muslims. In Muslim belief, before the Quran, God had given the Tawrat to Moses, the Zabur to David and the Injil to Jesus, who are all considered important Muslim prophets. The most populous Muslim-majority country is Indonesia, home to 12. 7% of the worlds Muslims, followed by Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Egypt. About 20% of the worlds Muslims lives in the Middle East and North Africa, Sizable minorities are found in India, China, Russia, Ethiopia. The country with the highest proportion of self-described Muslims as a proportion of its population is Morocco
Muslim
–
Afghan Muslims praying inside
Gardens of Babur in
Kabul,
Afghanistan.
Muslim
–
Famous
Muslim converts from various fields.
16.
Greece
–
Greece, officially the Hellenic Republic, historically also known as Hellas, is a country in southeastern Europe, with a population of approximately 11 million as of 2015. Athens is the capital and largest city, followed by Thessaloniki. Greece is strategically located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, situated on the southern tip of the Balkan peninsula, it shares land borders with Albania to the northwest, the Republic of Macedonia and Bulgaria to the north, and Turkey to the northeast. Greece consists of nine regions, Macedonia, Central Greece, the Peloponnese, Thessaly, Epirus, the Aegean Islands, Thrace, Crete. The Aegean Sea lies to the east of the mainland, the Ionian Sea to the west, the Cretan Sea and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. Greece has the longest coastline on the Mediterranean Basin and the 11th longest coastline in the world at 13,676 km in length, featuring a vast number of islands, eighty percent of Greece is mountainous, with Mount Olympus being the highest peak at 2,918 metres. From the eighth century BC, the Greeks were organised into various independent city-states, known as polis, which spanned the entire Mediterranean region and the Black Sea. Greece was annexed by Rome in the second century BC, becoming a part of the Roman Empire and its successor. The Greek Orthodox Church also shaped modern Greek identity and transmitted Greek traditions to the wider Orthodox World, falling under Ottoman dominion in the mid-15th century, the modern nation state of Greece emerged in 1830 following a war of independence. Greeces rich historical legacy is reflected by its 18 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, among the most in Europe, Greece is a democratic and developed country with an advanced high-income economy, a high quality of life, and a very high standard of living. A founding member of the United Nations, Greece was the member to join the European Communities and has been part of the Eurozone since 2001. Greeces unique cultural heritage, large industry, prominent shipping sector. It is the largest economy in the Balkans, where it is an important regional investor, the names for the nation of Greece and the Greek people differ from the names used in other languages, locations and cultures. The earliest evidence of the presence of human ancestors in the southern Balkans, dated to 270,000 BC, is to be found in the Petralona cave, all three stages of the stone age are represented in Greece, for example in the Franchthi Cave. Neolithic settlements in Greece, dating from the 7th millennium BC, are the oldest in Europe by several centuries and these civilizations possessed writing, the Minoans writing in an undeciphered script known as Linear A, and the Mycenaeans in Linear B, an early form of Greek. The Mycenaeans gradually absorbed the Minoans, but collapsed violently around 1200 BC and this ushered in a period known as the Greek Dark Ages, from which written records are absent. The end of the Dark Ages is traditionally dated to 776 BC, the Iliad and the Odyssey, the foundational texts of Western literature, are believed to have been composed by Homer in the 7th or 8th centuries BC. With the end of the Dark Ages, there emerged various kingdoms and city-states across the Greek peninsula, in 508 BC, Cleisthenes instituted the worlds first democratic system of government in Athens
Greece
–
Fresco displaying the Minoan ritual of "bull leaping", found in
Knossos,
Crete.
Greece
–
Flag
Greece
–
The
Lion Gate,
Mycenae
Greece
–
The
Parthenon on the
Acropolis of Athens is one of the best known symbols of
classical Greece.
17.
Balkans
–
The Balkan Peninsula, or the Balkans, is a peninsula and a cultural area in Eastern and Southeastern Europe with various and disputed borders. The region takes its name from the Balkan Mountains that stretch from the Serbia-Bulgaria border to the Black Sea, the highest point of the Balkans is Mount Musala 2,925 metres in the Rila mountain range. In Turkish, Balkan means a chain of wooded mountains, the name is still preserved in Central Asia with the Balkan Daglary and the Balkan Province of Turkmenistan. A less popular hypothesis regarding its etymology is that it derived from the Persian Balā-Khāna, from Antiquity through the Middle Ages, the Balkan Mountains had been called by the local Thracian name Haemus. According to Greek mythology, the Thracian king Haemus was turned into a mountain by Zeus as a punishment, a reverse name scheme has also been suggested. D. Dechev considers that Haemus is derived from a Thracian word *saimon, a third possibility is that Haemus derives from the Greek word haema meaning blood. The myth relates to a fight between Zeus and the monster/titan Typhon, Zeus injured Typhon with a thunder bolt and Typhons blood fell on the mountains, from which they got their name. The earliest mention of the name appears in an early 14th-century Arab map, the Ottomans first mention it in a document dated from 1565. There has been no other documented usage of the word to refer to the region before that, there is also a claim about an earlier Bulgar Turkic origin of the word popular in Bulgaria, however it is only an unscholarly assertion. The word was used by the Ottomans in Rumelia in its meaning of mountain, as in Kod̲j̲a-Balkan, Čatal-Balkan, and Ungurus-Balkani̊. The concept of the Balkans was created by the German geographer August Zeune in 1808, during the 1820s, Balkan became the preferred although not yet exclusive term alongside Haemus among British travelers. Among Russian travelers not so burdened by classical toponymy, Balkan was the preferred term, zeunes goal was to have a geographical parallel term to the Italic and Iberian Peninsula, and seemingly nothing more. The gradually acquired political connotations are newer and, to a large extent, after the dissolution of Yugoslavia beginning in June 1991, the term Balkans again received a negative meaning, especially in Croatia and Slovenia, even in casual usage. A European Union initiative of 1999 is called the Stability Pact for South Eastern Europe, and its northern boundary is often given as the Danube, Sava and Kupa Rivers. The Balkan Peninsula has an area of about 470,000 km2. It is more or less identical to the known as Southeastern Europe. As of 1920 until World War II, Italy included Istria, the current territory of Italy includes only the small area around Trieste inside the Balkan Peninsula. However, the regions of Trieste and Istria are not usually considered part of the Balkans by Italian geographers, the Western Balkans is a neologism coined to describe the countries of ex-Yugoslavia and Albania
Balkans
–
The Balkan Peninsula, as defined by the
Danube -
Sava -
Kupa line
Balkans
–
The Peninsula's most extensive definition, bordered by water on three sides and connected with a line on the fourth
Balkans
–
Panorama of
Stara Planina. Its highest peak is
Botev at a height of 2,376 m.
Balkans
–
View toward
Rila, the highest mountain in the Balkans which reaches 2925 m
18.
Ottoman Turks
–
After 1354, the Ottomans crossed into Europe, and with the conquest of the Balkans the Ottoman Beylik was transformed into a transcontinental empire. The Ottomans ended the Byzantine Empire with the 1453 conquest of Constantinople by Mehmed the Conqueror, at the beginning of the 17th century the empire contained 32 provinces and numerous vassal states. Some of these were later absorbed into the Ottoman Empire, while others were granted various types of autonomy during the course of centuries. With Constantinople as its capital and control of lands around the Mediterranean basin, while the empire was once thought to have entered a period of decline following the death of Suleiman the Magnificent, this view is no longer supported by the majority of academic historians. The empire continued to maintain a flexible and strong economy, society, however, during a long period of peace from 1740 to 1768, the Ottoman military system fell behind that of their European rivals, the Habsburg and Russian Empires. While the Empire was able to hold its own during the conflict, it was struggling with internal dissent. Starting before World War I, but growing increasingly common and violent during it, major atrocities were committed by the Ottoman government against the Armenians, Assyrians and Pontic Greeks. The word Ottoman is an anglicisation of the name of Osman I. Osmans name in turn was the Turkish form of the Arabic name ʿUthmān, in Ottoman Turkish, the empire was referred to as Devlet-i ʿAlīye-yi ʿOsmānīye, or alternatively ʿOsmānlı Devleti. In Modern Turkish, it is known as Osmanlı İmparatorluğu or Osmanlı Devleti, the Turkish word for Ottoman originally referred to the tribal followers of Osman in the fourteenth century, and subsequently came to be used to refer to the empires military-administrative elite. In contrast, the term Turk was used to refer to the Anatolian peasant and tribal population, the term Rūmī was also used to refer to Turkish-speakers by the other Muslim peoples of the empire and beyond. In Western Europe, the two names Ottoman Empire and Turkey were often used interchangeably, with Turkey being increasingly favored both in formal and informal situations and this dichotomy was officially ended in 1920–23, when the newly established Ankara-based Turkish government chose Turkey as the sole official name. Most scholarly historians avoid the terms Turkey, Turks, and Turkish when referring to the Ottomans, as the power of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum declined in the 13th century, Anatolia was divided into a patchwork of independent Turkish principalities known as the Anatolian Beyliks. One of these beyliks, in the region of Bithynia on the frontier of the Byzantine Empire, was led by the Turkish tribal leader Osman, osmans early followers consisted both of Turkish tribal groups and Byzantine renegades, many but not all converts to Islam. Osman extended the control of his principality by conquering Byzantine towns along the Sakarya River and it is not well understood how the early Ottomans came to dominate their neighbours, due to the scarcity of the sources which survive from this period. One school of thought which was popular during the twentieth century argued that the Ottomans achieved success by rallying religious warriors to fight for them in the name of Islam, in the century after the death of Osman I, Ottoman rule began to extend over Anatolia and the Balkans. Osmans son, Orhan, captured the northwestern Anatolian city of Bursa in 1326 and this conquest meant the loss of Byzantine control over northwestern Anatolia. The important city of Thessaloniki was captured from the Venetians in 1387, the Ottoman victory at Kosovo in 1389 effectively marked the end of Serbian power in the region, paving the way for Ottoman expansion into Europe
Ottoman Turks
–
Battle of Nicopolis in 1396. Painting from 1523.
Ottoman Turks
–
Flag (1844–1923)
Ottoman Turks
–
Battle of Mohács in 1526
Ottoman Turks
–
Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha defeats the
Holy League of
Charles V under the command of
Andrea Doria at the
Battle of Preveza in 1538.
19.
World War II
–
World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
World War II
–
Clockwise from top left: Chinese forces in the
Battle of Wanjialing, Australian
25-pounder guns during the
First Battle of El Alamein, German
Stuka dive bombers on the
Eastern Front in December 1943, a U.S. naval force in the
Lingayen Gulf,
Wilhelm Keitel signing the
German Instrument of Surrender, Soviet troops in the
Battle of Stalingrad
World War II
–
The
League of Nations assembly, held in
Geneva,
Switzerland, 1930
World War II
–
Adolf Hitler at a German
National Socialist political rally in
Weimar, October 1930
World War II
–
Italian soldiers recruited in 1935, on their way to fight the
Second Italo-Abyssinian War
20.
Persia
–
Iran, also known as Persia, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, is a sovereign state in Western Asia. Comprising a land area of 1,648,195 km2, it is the second-largest country in the Middle East, with 82.8 million inhabitants, Iran is the worlds 17th-most-populous country. It is the country with both a Caspian Sea and an Indian Ocean coastline. The countrys central location in Eurasia and Western Asia, and its proximity to the Strait of Hormuz, Tehran is the countrys capital and largest city, as well as its leading economic and cultural center. Iran is the site of to one of the worlds oldest civilizations, the area was first unified by the Iranian Medes in 625 BC, who became the dominant cultural and political power in the region. The empire collapsed in 330 BC following the conquests of Alexander the Great, under the Sassanid Dynasty, Iran again became one of the leading powers in the world for the next four centuries. Beginning in 633 AD, Arabs conquered Iran and largely displaced the indigenous faiths of Manichaeism and Zoroastrianism by Islam, Iran became a major contributor to the Islamic Golden Age that followed, producing many influential scientists, scholars, artists, and thinkers. During the 18th century, Iran reached its greatest territorial extent since the Sassanid Empire, through the late 18th and 19th centuries, a series of conflicts with Russia led to significant territorial losses and the erosion of sovereignty. Popular unrest culminated in the Persian Constitutional Revolution of 1906, which established a monarchy and the countrys first legislative body. Following a coup instigated by the U. K. Growing dissent against foreign influence and political repression led to the 1979 Revolution, Irans rich cultural legacy is reflected in part by its 21 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, the third-largest number in Asia and 11th-largest in the world. Iran is a member of the UN, ECO, NAM, OIC. Its political system is based on the 1979 Constitution which combines elements of a democracy with a theocracy governed by Islamic jurists under the concept of a Supreme Leadership. A multicultural country comprising numerous ethnic and linguistic groups, most inhabitants are Shia Muslims, the largest ethnic groups in Iran are the Persians, Azeris, Kurds and Lurs. Historically, Iran has been referred to as Persia by the West, due mainly to the writings of Greek historians who called Iran Persis, meaning land of the Persians. As the most extensive interactions the Ancient Greeks had with any outsider was with the Persians, however, Persis was originally referred to a region settled by Persians in the west shore of Lake Urmia, in the 9th century BC. The settlement was then shifted to the end of the Zagros Mountains. In 1935, Reza Shah requested the international community to refer to the country by its native name, opposition to the name change led to the reversal of the decision, and Professor Ehsan Yarshater, editor of Encyclopædia Iranica, propagated a move to use Persia and Iran interchangeably
Persia
–
Cave painting in Doushe cave,
Lorestan, Iran,
8th millennium BC
Persia
–
Flag
Persia
–
A depiction of the united
Medes and
Persians in
Apadana,
Persepolis
Persia
–
Ruins of the
Gate of All Nations,
Persepolis
21.
Kabul
–
Kabul is the capital of Afghanistan as well as its largest city, located in the eastern section of the country. According to a 2015 estimate, the population of the city was around 3,678,033 which includes all the ethnic groups. Rapid urbanization had made Kabul the worlds 64th largest city and the fifth fastest-growing city in the world, Kabul is said to be over 3,500 years old, mentioned since at least the time of the Achaemenid Empire. The city is at a location along the trade routes of South and Central Asia. It has been part of the Achaemenids, Seleucids, Mauryans, Kushans, Kabul Shahis, Saffarids, Ghaznavids, Later, it was controlled by the Mughal Empire until finally becoming part of the Durrani Empire in 1747. The city is located high up in a valley between the Hindu Kush mountains. Kabul became the capital of Afghanistan during the reign of Timur Shah Durrani, in the early 19th century, the British occupied the city but were compelled to abandon it. Relations between Afghanistan and Great Britain were later established, the city was occupied by the Soviets in 1979 but they too abandoned it after the 1988 Geneva Accords were signed. A civil war in the 1990s between various rebel groups destroyed much of the city, resulting in many casualties, since the removal of the Taliban from power in late 2001, the city gradually began rebuilding itself with assistance by the international community. Despite the many terrorist attacks by elements, the city is growing and developing. The city is divided into about 18 districts, the Kabul International Airport is located in the Wazir Akbar Khan district a few miles from the foreign embassies. The Parliament of Afghanistan, built by India, is located in the Kārte Seh district, Kabul, also spelled Cabool, Caubul, Kabol, or Cabul. The word Kubhā is mentioned in the Rigveda, one of the four sacred texts of Hinduism, and the Avesta. The Rigveda praises it as a city, a vision of paradise set in the mountains. The area in which the Kabul valley sits was ruled by the Medes before falling to the Achaemenids, there is a reference to a settlement called Kabura by the rulers of the Achaemenid Empire, It became a center of Zoroastrianism followed by Buddhism and Hinduism. The region became part of the Seleucid Empire but was given to the Indian Maurya Empire. The Greco-Bactrians captured Kabul from the Mauryans in the early 2nd century BC, indo-Scythians expelled the Indo-Greeks by the mid 1st century BC, but lost the city to the Kushan Empire about 100 years later. Some historians ascribe Kabul the Sanskrit name of Kamboja and it is mentioned as Kophes or Kophene in some classical writings
Kabul
Kabul
Kabul
Kabul
22.
Lahnda language
–
Western Punjabi, Lahnda or Lahndi, is a macrolanguage consisting of a series of dialects spoken in Pakistani Punjab, and parts of Azad Kashmir and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. These terms are exonyms and are not used by the speakers themselves, the emerging languages of this dialect area are Saraiki, Hindko and Pothohari. The validity of Lahnda as a grouping is not established. It was coined by William St. Clair Tisdall probably around 1890 and this term has currency only among linguists. The southern varieties are locally called Saraiki, and northwestern varieties Hindko or Panjistani, recently, Saraiki and Hindko are being cultivated as literary languages. The development of the standard written Saraiki began in the 1960s, the national census of Pakistan has counted Saraiki and Hindko speakers since 1981. Khetrani is commonly included, but may be a remnant of a Dardic language, some of the northern dialects of what has for geographical reasons been considered Gujarati are actually closer to Lahnda. There is also a Lahnda language in Afghanistan and Ukraine in the form of Jakati, Lahnda has several traits that distinguish it from Punjabi, such as a future tense in -s-. Like Sindhi, Siraiki retains breathy-voiced consonants, has developed implosives, Hindko, also called Panjistani or Pahari, is more like Punjabi in this regard, though the equivalent of the low-rising tone of Punjabi is a high-falling tone in Peshawar Hindko. Sindhi, Lahnda, Punjabi, and Western Pahari form a continuum with no clear-cut boundaries. Ethnologue classifies the western dialects of Punjabi as Lahnda, so that the Lahnda–Punjabi isogloss approximates the Pakistani–Indian border, Saraiki political movement, its impact in south Punjab. Lahore, Department of English Language & Literature, University of the Punjab, lewis, M. Paul, Simons, Gary F. Fennig, Charles D. eds. Lewis, M. Paul, Simons, Gary F. Fennig, Siraiki, A Language Movement in Pakistan. Problems of classification in Pakistan Panjab, map of Lahnda dialects from Griersons early 20th-century Linguistic Survey of India
Lahnda language
–
Lahnda
23.
Pashto language
–
Pashto, known in Persian literature as Afghānistani and in Urdu and Hindi literature as Paṭhānī, is the South-Central Asian language of the Pashtuns. Its speakers are called Pashtuns or Pukhtuns and sometimes Afghans or Pathans and it is an Eastern Iranian language, belonging to the Indo-European family. Pashto is one of the two languages of Afghanistan, and it is the second-largest regional language of Pakistan, mainly spoken in the west and northwest of the country. Pakistans Federally Administered Tribal Areas are almost 100% Pashto-speaking, while it is the majority language of the province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pashto is the main language among the Pashtun diaspora around the world. The total number of Pashto-speakers is estimated to be 45–60 million people worldwide, Pashto belongs to the Northeastern Iranian group of the Indo-Iranian branch, but Ethnologue lists it as Southeastern Iranian. Pashto has two main groups, “soft” and “hard”, the latter known as Pakhto. As a national language of Afghanistan, Pashto is primarily spoken in the east, south, and southwest, the exact numbers of speakers are unavailable, but different estimates show that Pashto is the mother tongue of 45–60% of the total population of Afghanistan. In Pakistan Pashto is spoken as a first language by about 15. 42% of Pakistans 170 million people and it is the main language of the Pashtun-majority regions of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Federally Administered Tribal Areas and northern Balochistan. It is also spoken in parts of Mianwali and Attock districts of the Punjab province and in Islamabad, modern Pashto-speaking communities are found in the cities of Karachi and Hyderabad in Sindh. Other communities of Pashto speakers are found in Tajikistan, and further in the Pashtun diaspora, there are also communities of Pashtun descent in the southwestern part of Jammu and Kashmir. Pashto is one of the two languages of Afghanistan, along with Dari. Since the early 18th century, all the kings of Afghanistan were ethnic Pashtuns except for Habibullah Kalakani, Persian as the literary language of the royal court was more widely used in government institutions while Pashto was spoken by the Pashtun tribes as their native tongue. Although officially strengthening the use of Pashto, the Afghan elite regarded Persian as a “sophisticated language, king Zahir Shah thus followed suit after his father Nadir Khan had decreed in 1933, that both Persian and Pashto were to be studied and utilized by officials. Thus Pashto became a language, a symbol for Afghan nationalism. The status of language was reaffirmed in 1964 by the constitutional assembly when Afghan Persian was officially renamed to Dari. The lyrics of the anthem of Afghanistan are in Pashto. In Pakistan, Urdu and English are the two official languages, Pashto has no official status at the federal level. On a provincial level, Pashto is the language of Khyber Pukhtunkhwa, Federally Administered Tribal Areas
Pashto language
–
Pashto language on the map of Afghanistan.The brown areas speak Pashto.
Pashto language
–
The word Pax̌tō written in the
Pashto alphabet
24.
India
–
India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
India
–
Flag
India
–
The granite
tower of
Brihadeeswarar Temple in
Thanjavur was completed in 1010 CE by
Raja Raja Chola I.
India
–
Writing the will and testament of the Mughal king court in Persian, 1590–1595
25.
Sibilant
–
Examples of sibilants are the consonants at the beginning of the English words sip, zip, ship, chip, and jump, and the second consonant in vision. The symbols in the International Phonetic Alphabet used to denote the sibilant sounds in words are. More specifically, the sounds, as in chip and jump, are affricates, Sibilants have a characteristically intense sound, which accounts for their paralinguistic use in getting ones attention. In the alveolar hissing sibilants and, the back of the forms a narrow channel to focus the stream of air more intensely. With the hushing sibilants, such as English, and, the tongue is flatter, because all sibilants are also stridents, the terms are sometimes used interchangeably. However, the terms do not mean the same thing, the English stridents are /f, v, s, z, ʃ, ʒ, tʃ, dʒ/. The English sibilants are a high pitched subset of the stridents. The English sibilants are /s, z, ʃ, ʒ, tʃ, /f/ and /v/ are stridents, but not sibilants, because they are lower in pitch. Non-sibilant fricatives and affricates produce their characteristic sound directly with the tongue or lips etc. however, there is a great deal of variety among sibilants as to tongue shape, point of contact on the tongue, and point of contact on the upper side of the mouth. For example, a laminal denti-alveolar grooved sibilant occurs in Polish, the main distinction is the shape of the tongue. Most sibilants have a running down the centerline of the tongue that helps focus the airstream. Because of the prominence of these sounds, they are the most common and they occur in English, where they are denoted with a letter s or z, as in soon or zone. Alveolo-palatal, with a convex, V-shaped tongue, and highly palatalized and these sounds occur in English, where they are denoted with letter combinations such as sh, ch, g, j or si, as in shin, chin, gin and vision. Retroflex, with a flat or concave tongue, and no palatalization and these sounds occur in a large number of varieties, some of which also go by other names. The subapical palatal or true retroflex sounds are the very dullest, the latter three post-alveolar types of sounds are often known as hushing sounds because of their quality, as opposed to the hissing alveolar sounds. The alveolar sounds in fact occur in several varieties, in addition to the sound of English s, Palatalized. Palatalized alveolars are transcribed e. g. and occur in Russian, lisping, Alveolar sibilants made with the tip of the tongue near the upper teeth have a softer sound reminiscent of the lisping sound of English think. In these dialects, the sibilant is the normal pronunciation of the letters s and z, as well as c before i or e
Sibilant
–
voiceless alveolar sibilant
26.
United Kingdom
–
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
United Kingdom
–
Stonehenge, in
Wiltshire, was erected around 2500 BC.
United Kingdom
–
Flag
United Kingdom
–
The
Bayeux Tapestry depicts the
Battle of Hastings, 1066, and the events leading to it.
United Kingdom
–
The
Treaty of Union led to a single united kingdom encompassing all Great Britain.
27.
Qamis
–
The term qamis, also known as kameez and qameez refers to a long tunic or gown worn in many cultures. The word is of Arabic origin and it is a long top that can be of varying lengths. It can be worn with or without lower garments and it is similar to Arabian thawb
Qamis
–
Morocco Djellaba
Qamis
–
Musicians in
Egypt wearing (urban)
Jellabiya
Qamis
–
Emirati Qamis
Qamis
–
Man in Afghan qamis
perahan
28.
Shriya Saran
–
Shriya Saran (pronounced, also known by the mononym Shriya, is an Indian film actress and model. She has acted in Telugu, Tamil, and Hindi language films, as well as a few films in English, Malayalam, Saran was born in Dehradun and spent most of her childhood in Haridwar. In 2001, her master gave her the opportunity to appear in Renoo Nathans debut music video Thirakti Kyun Hawa. Although Saran aspired to become a dancer, she was offered a leading role. Thus, Saran made her debut in 2001 with the Telugu film Ishtam and had her first commercial success with Santhosham. She subsequently appeared in several more Telugu films, while making in-roads in the Hindi, in 2007, Saran starred in Sivaji, the highest-grossing Tamil film at that time. She also gained acclaim for her role in the 2007 Bollywood film Awarapan. In 2008, Saran played the role in her first English film. She achieved further success by starring in films such as Pavitra and Chandra. In 2014, Saran starred in the critically acclaimed Telugu film Manam, in addition to her work in films, Saran has been the brand ambassador for brands across India, endorsing beauty and health products. Among other philanthropic activities, she has volunteered for charity organizations, in 2011 she opened a spa employing exclusively visually challenged people. She also was the brand ambassador Celebrity Cricket League for its two first seasons, Shriya Saran Bhatnagar was born on 11 September 1982 in the Haridwar in Northern India, to Pushpendra Saran Bhatnagar and Neeraja Saran Bhatnagar. Her father worked for Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited and her mother was a teacher in Delhi Public School, Ranipur in Haridwar and Delhi Public School, Mathura Road. Saran completed her schooling from both schools where her mother had taught and she has an elder brother named Abhiroop who lives in Mumbai. Her family lived in the town of BHEL colony in Haridwar when she was growing up. She later studied at Lady Shri Ram College in Delhi and received a Bachelor of Arts degree in literature and she was first trained as a child by her mother in Kathak and Rajasthani folk dance, and later trained in Kathak style by Shovana Narayan. She was involved with many teams in college and with her teacher. They would incorporate social issues into their dance routines, while in her sophomore year at the LSR College in Delhi, Saran got her first opportunity to appear in front of the camera for a video shoot
Shriya Saran
–
Shriya Saran at the press meet of SIIMA Awards in Dubai
Shriya Saran
–
Saran in 2011
Shriya Saran
–
Saran in 2014
Shriya Saran
–
Shriya Saran cheering at the
Celebrity Cricket League, 2011 in India
29.
Sleeveless
–
A sleeveless shirt is a shirt manufactured without sleeves, or one whose sleeves have been cut off. Sleeveless shirts are worn by either sex, depending on the style and they are often used as undershirts, are often worn by athletes in sports such as track and field and triathlon, and are regarded as acceptable public casual dress in most warm weather locales. The term A-shirt is short for athletic shirt because it is worn in sports, such as basketball. In the United States and Canada, it is known as a tank top or by its pejorative nicknames, wife-beater. In the UK an A-shirt, especially used as an undershirt, is known as a vest. Another term is singlet, used in England, Scotland, Ireland, Australia, Ghana, Nigeria, Hong Kong, Singapore, in the Philippines, when used as an undershirt it is called a sando. In Bangladesh and the State of West Bengal in India it is called as sando-genji, in India it is known as a Banian and is used extensively as an undershirt to absorb sweat and prevent its penetration to outer layers of clothing. In addition to athletic usage, A-shirts have traditionally used as undershirts, especially with suits. They are sometimes worn alone without a shirt or top shirt during very warm and/or humid weather, mainly in North America where the climate is warmer. A-shirts are often worn alone under very casual settings, as lounge wear, the build of an A-shirt is simple, the neck and armholes are often reinforced for durability. One usually has large armholes and neck holes and a neckline that can reach down as far as the bottom of the chest and they are also sometimes made long to make tucking into a pair of jeans/shorts easier. In almost all cases, they are buttonless, collarless, an A-shirt worn as an undershirt is designed for a tight fit and is often made of ribbed cotton. A tank top consists of a shirt with low neck. It is named after tank suits, one-piece bathing suits of the 1920s worn in tanks or swimming pools, the upper garment is worn commonly by both men and women. A camisole, also called just cami, is an undergarment for women. Originally worn as an undershirt, like the A-shirt they have increasingly used as warm-weather outerwear. The camisole is usually made of satin, nylon, or cotton, beginning around the year 2000, Western and Chinese fashion has also begun incorporating them as a sleeveless and backless shirt for women. A halter top is a shirt in which a strap goes around the back of the neck
Sleeveless
–
Tye dyed sleeveless shirt
Sleeveless
–
A man wearing an A-shirt
Sleeveless
–
A woman wearing a camisole as an outergarment
Sleeveless
–
Andrea Petkovic wearing a sleeveless shirt
30.
Embroidery
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Embroidery is the handicraft of decorating fabric or other materials with needle and thread or yarn. Embroidery may also incorporate materials such as, pearls, beads, quills. Today, embroidery is most often seen on caps, hats, coats, blankets, dress shirts, denim, stockings, Embroidery is available with a wide variety of thread or yarn color. The process used to tailor, patch, mend and reinforce cloth fostered the development of sewing techniques, indeed, the remarkable stability of basic embroidery stitches has been noted, It is a striking fact that in the development of embroidery. There are no changes of materials or techniques which can be felt or interpreted as advances from a primitive to a later, on the other hand, we often find in early works a technical accomplishment and high standard of craftsmanship rarely attained in later times. The art of embroidery has been found world-wide and several examples have been found. Works in China have been dated to the Warring States period, depending on time, location and materials available, embroidery could be the domain of a few experts or a wide-spread, popular technique. This flexibility led to a variety of works, from the royal to the mundane, in 18th century England and its colonies, samplers employing fine silks were produced by the daughters of wealthy families. Embroidery was a marking a girls path into womanhood as well as conveying rank. Conversely, embroidery is also an art, using materials that were accessible to nonprofessionals. Examples include Hardanger from Norway, Merezhka from Ukraine, Mountmellick embroidery from Ireland, Nakshi kantha from Bangladesh and West Bengal, many techniques had a practical use such as Sashiko from Japan, which was used as a way to reinforce clothing. Embroidery was an important art in the Medieval Islamic world, the 17th century Turkish traveler Evliya Çelebi called it the craft of the two hands. Because embroidery was a sign of social status in Muslim societies. Craftsmen embroidered items with gold and silver thread, Embroidery cottage industries, some employing over 800 people, grew to supply these items. Taste for fine material has become general, and the drapery of embroidered fabrics used at feasts surpasses every description. The development of embroidery and its mass production came about in stages in the Industrial Revolution. The earliest machine embroidery used a combination of machine looms and teams of women embroidering the textiles by hand and this was done in France by the mid-1800s. The manufacture of machine-made embroideries in St. Gallen in eastern Switzerland flourished in the half of the 19th century
Embroidery
–
Exquisite gold embroidery on the gognots (apron) of a 19th-century
Armenian bridal dress from
Akhaltsikhe.
Embroidery
–
Traditional embroidery in chain stitch on a
Kazakh rug, contemporary.
Embroidery
–
Caucasus embroidery
Embroidery
–
Morocco fez horse cover metal silver thread 18th - 19th
31.
Dupatta
–
Dupatta is a long, multi-purpose scarf that is essential to many South Asian womens suits and matches the womans garments. The dupatta is most commonly used with shalwar kameez and the kurta, the dupatta has long been a symbol of modesty in South Asian dress. The word dupatta is a combination of du- meaning two, and patta meaning strip of cloth, originally from Sanskrit, Dupatta veil is believed to have evolved from ancient Uttariya veil, worn by women in ancient period as part of three-piece attire. Dupatta is worn in many regional styles across South Asia, originally, it was worn as a symbol of modesty. While that symbolism still continues, many today wear it as just a decorative accessory, there is no single way of wearing the dupatta, and as time evolves and fashion modernizes, the style of the dupatta has also evolved. A dupatta is worn across both shoulders and around head. However, the dupatta can be worn like a cape around the entire torso, the material for the dupatta varies according to the suit. There are various modes of wearing dupatta, when not draped over the head in the traditional style, it is usually worn with the middle portion of the dupatta resting on the chest like a garland with the ends thrown over each shoulder. When the dupatta is worn with the salwar-kameez it is allowed to flow down the front. In current fashions, the dupatta is draped over one shoulder. Another recent trend is the dupatta, which is more a scarf or a stole, often worn with kurtas. Essentially, the dupatta is often treated as an accessory in current urban fashion, when entering a mosque, dargah, church, gurdwara or mandir, it is the habit in the Indian subcontinent for women to cover their head with a dupatta. Indian Dupatta From Behind the Veil, an article about the dupatta
Dupatta
–
Women from
Jaipur,
India wearing
salwar kameez and dupatta
32.
Backless dress
–
A backless dress is a dress designed to expose the wearers back. A backless dress is most commonly worn on formal occasions or as evening wear or as wedding dresses and can be of any length, backless dresses first appeared in the 1920s. In the 1930s, the style associated with the sun tanning fashions of the time. The wearer usually had to be slim to be able to pull off the effect, in December 1937, the actress Micheline Patton was controversially filmed from behind while wearing a backless dress in the final episode of the early BBC fashion documentary Clothes-Line. The illusion of nudity led to outraged viewers writing in to complain, and Pearl Binder, a backless dress can be held up in a number of ways. The most common is by a piece of cloth or strap which passes behind the wearers neck. The neck strap can itself be covered by the wearers hair, alternatively, the dress may be held up by short sleeves or by a single or two spaghetti straps, which hold the dress up at the shoulders. A stick-on dress or nude netting are other ways that a dress can be held up, the amount of the back exposed by a backless dress can also vary, with some styles leaving the upper or upper and middle back uncovered, and exposing the shoulder blades. Some backless dresses plunge nearly to the buttocks and some start from the depth, usually with a zipper opening. The backless style is found in the choli, the upper garment worn by Indian women along with saris. The back is either partially exposed with a low cut or fully exposed by use of strings and it was created mainly due to the influence of Western fashion. It takes a woman to carry off this without feeling self-conscious. It was made popular by Madhuri Dixit when she wore it, the drape and the blouse make the saree a sexy ensemble, and my blouses are always low back because I love the peep of the skin against so much fabric. - Indian Actress Vidya Balan Breast support may be an issue for women when wearing a backless dress. Bra designs are available that offer breast support with backless dresses, some bra designs use convertible styles, adhesive bras, underwire and strapless bras. Some bra designs can also be worn by women with larger cup sizes
Backless dress
–
Clara Bow in a backless dress, mid-1920s
Backless dress
Backless dress
Backless dress
33.
Chemise
–
The term chemise or shift can refer to the classic smock, or else can refer to certain modern types of womens undergarments and dresses. In the classical use it is a garment worn next to the skin to protect clothing from sweat and body oils. The English chemise evolved from French, the word is a cognate of the Italian word camicia, and the Spanish / Portuguese language word camisa, all deriving ultimately from the Latin camisia, itself coming from Celtic. The English called the same shirt a smock, in modern usage, a chemise is generally a womans garment that vaguely resembles the older shirts but is typically more delicate, and usually more revealing. Most commonly the term refers to a loose-fitting, sleeveless undergarment or type of lingerie which is unfitted at the waist and it can also refer to a short, sleeveless dress that hangs straight from the shoulders and fits loosely at the waist. A chemise typically does not have any buttons or other fasteners and is put on by either dropping it over the head or stepping into it, as lingerie, a chemise is similar to a babydoll, which is also a short, loose-fitting, sleeveless garment. Typically, though, babydolls are looser fitting at the hips, the chemise seems to have developed from the Roman tunica and first became popular in Europe in the Middle Ages. Women wore a shift or chemise under their gown or robe, while men wore a chemise with their trousers or braies, until the late 18th century, a chemise referred to an undergarment. It was the underwear worn until the end of Regency period in the 1820s. In the 1810s, the term also to be applied to an outergarment. Mens chemises may be said to have survived as the common T-shirt, the chemise also morphed into the smock-frock, a garment worn by English laborers until the early 20th century. Its loose cut and wide sleeves were well adapted to heavy labor, the name smock is nowadays still used for military combat jackets in the UK, whereas in the Belgian army the term has been corrupted to smoke-vest. A chemise, shift, or smock was usually sewn at home and it was assembled from rectangles and triangles cut from one piece of cloth so as to leave no waste. The poor would wear skimpy chemises pieced from a piece of rough cloth, while the rich might have voluminous chemises pieced from thin. Camisole Kirtle Shalwar kameez Slip Smock Cut My Cote, by Dorothy Burnham, a survey of shirt patterns over the ages, with diagrams. A Plain Linen Shift, Plain Sewing Makes the Most of Your Fabric, by Kathleen R. Smith, Threads Magazine, how to make an 18th-century chemise Womens smocks in the 13th-15th centuries 18th-century womens shifts
Chemise
–
Fashionable young man in early 16th century Germany showing a lot of fine linen in a studied
negligee. This gentleman has a band of "smocking" round the collar of his shift.
Chemise
–
A modern-day chemise
Chemise
–
This chemise or shift of the 1830s has elbow-length sleeves and is worn under a
corset and
petticoats.
34.
Tunic
–
A tunic is any of several types of garment for the body, usually simple in style, reaching from the shoulders to a length somewhere between the hips and the ankles. The name derives from the Latin tunica, the garment worn by both men and women in Ancient Rome, which in turn was based on earlier Greek garments that covered people around their waist. The Roman tunica was adopted by the Roman citizens in the 3rd century BC and it was worn by citizens and non-citizens alike, citizens, though, might wear it under the toga, especially at formal occasions. The length of the garment, the presence or lack of stripes, as well as their width and ornamentation, Roman senators, for example, used the Laticlavus, with broad purple stripes, and members of the equestrian class wore the Angusticlavia, with narrower stripes. Soldiers, slaves and manual workers generally had tunics to a little above the knee, the tunic or chiton was worn as a shirt or gown by both genders among the ancient Romans. The body garment was loose-fitting for males, usually beginning at the neck, a womans garment could be either close fitting or loose, beginning at the neck and extending over a skirt or skirts. Tunics were also worn in ancient Greece, whence the Roman version was adopted, later Greek and Roman tunics were an evolution from the very similar chiton, chitoniskos, and exomis all of which can be considered versions of the garment. In Ancient Greece, a persons tunic was decorated at the hem-line to represent the city-state in which he lived, similar tunics were eventually taken up by the Romans, and found their way into the Byzantine Empire. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the long sleeved Celto-Germanic tunic continued to be worn, being used by both Vikings and Normans, the garment continued as a general male garment into the Middle Ages, still being used in Norway as late as the 17th century. The tunic continued to be the basic garment of the Byzantine Romans of both throughout the medieval period. Except for the military or riding-dress, men and women of higher status wore tunics that came down to the ankles, tunics were often dyed or richly embroidered, although the plainer ones could be used when layering different types. Beyond the reduced empire, the continued to be worn with varying sleeve. Often reaching the knees or ankles, it was worn over underclothes consisting of a shirt. It may be accompanied by hose, wool and Linen were common fabrics used, though the wealthy sometimes wore fancy silk tunics, or a lesser fabric with silk trim. Tunics worn during the Early Middle Ages often featured decorative embroidery or tablet-woven braids along the neck, hem and this was the case, for instance, with tunics worn by both rich and poor Anglo-Saxons before the Norman Conquest. Around 1830, small boys began to be dressed in sashed or belted tunics over trousers, during the Crimean War in the 1850s, it was realized that the waist length jackets which had been worn by British soldiers since Napoleonic times were unsuitable for fighting in winter conditions. A new longer jacket was introduced which reached down to the mid thigh and this type of jacket soon became standard for most armies. In Western culture, its use primarily in a religious
Tunic
–
Wool
Coptic -
Byzantine tunic, small enough for a child (6th century AD) (
Walters Art Museum)
Tunic
–
Germanic tunic of the 4th Century, A.D. found at the
Thorsberg moor
Tunic
–
Tunic (Uncu), ca. 17th century, made in Peru,
Brooklyn Museum
35.
Royal Ontario Museum
–
The Royal Ontario Museum is a museum of art, world culture and natural history in Toronto, Canada. The museum is north of Queens Park, in the University of Toronto district, the Museum subway station of the Toronto Transit Commission is named after the ROM, and since 2008, it is decorated to resemble the institutions collection. St. George station is close to the new entrance as well. Established on 16 April 1912 and opened on 19 March 1914, the museum was under the direct control and management of the University of Toronto until 1968, when it became an independent Crown agency of the government of Ontario. Today, the museum is Canadas largest field-research institution, with research, with more than six million items and forty galleries, the museums diverse collections of world culture and natural history contribute to its international reputation. The museum contains collections of dinosaurs, minerals and meteorites, Near Eastern and African art, Art of East Asia, European history. It houses the worlds largest collection of fossils from the Burgess Shale with more than 150,000 specimens, the museum also contains an extensive collection of design and fine arts, including clothing, interior, and product design, especially Art Deco. The Royal Ontario Museum was formally established on 16 April 1912, and was governed by the Government of Ontario. Its first assets were transferred from the University and the provincial Department of Education, coming from its predecessor the Museum of Natural History and Fine Arts at the Toronto Normal School. On 19 March 1914, at 3,00 pm, the Duke of Connaught, also the Governor General of Canada, officially opened the Royal Ontario Museum to the public. The museums location at the edge of Torontos built-up area, far from the central business district, was selected mainly for its proximity to the University of Toronto. This was the first phase of a construction plan that intended on expanding the museum towards Queens Park Crescent. The first expansion to the Royal Ontario Museum publicly opened on 12 October 1933, the renovation saw the construction of the south wing fronting onto Queens Park, and required the demolition of Argyle House, a Victorian mansion once located at 100 Queens Park. As this occurred during the Great Depression, an effort was made to use primarily local building materials, teams of workers alternated weeks of service due to the physically draining nature of the job. In 1947, the ROM was dissolved as a body corporate and this would continue until 1968, when the Museum and the McLaughlin Planetarium were separated from the University to form a new corporation. On 26 October 1968, the ROM opened the McLaughlin Planetarium on the end of the property after receiving a $2 million donation from Colonel R. Samuel McLaughlin. By the 1980s, however, the audiences were dwindling. The space temporarily reopened from 1998 to 2002, after being leased to Childrens Own Museum, in 2009, the ROM sold the building to the University of Toronto for $22 million, and ensured that it would continue to be used for institutional and academic purposes
Royal Ontario Museum
–
East-facing façade of the Royal Ontario Museum, built in 1933.
Royal Ontario Museum
–
Location of the gallery in Toronto
Royal Ontario Museum
–
Michael Lee-Chin Crystal opened in June 2007, an addition to the Royal Ontario Museum.
Royal Ontario Museum
–
The
mosaic ceiling of the
rotunda. The middle of the dome reads, "That all men may know His work."
36.
Djellaba
–
Djellaba /dʒᵻˈlɑːbə/ is a berber, long loose-fitting unisex outer robe with full sleeves, worn in the Maghreb region of North Africa. Traditionally, djellabas are made of wool in different shapes and colours, traditionally, djellabas reached down to the ground but lightweight djellabas are somewhat slimmer and shorter. Men often wear a light-coloured djellaba sometimes along with a traditional arab red fez hat and soft yellow babouche slippers for religious celebrations, almost all djellabas of both styles include a baggy hood called a qob that comes to a point at the back. The hood is important for both sexes, as it protects the wearer from the sun, and in earlier times was used as a defence against sand being blown into the face by strong desert winds. In colder climes, as in the mountains of Morocco and Algeria, it serves the same function as a winter hat, preventing heat loss through the head and protecting the face from snow. It is not uncommon for the hood to be used as a pocket during times of warm weather. Traditional djellabas are made of two types of material, cotton for summer wear and coarse wool for the winter. The wool is obtained from sheep living in the surrounding mountains. Abaya Bekishe Dashiki Jellabiya Jilbāb Kaftan Takchita Tallit Thawb Moroccan Clothing
Djellaba
–
Djellaba
37.
Jellabiya
–
The jellabiya is a traditional Sudanese and Egyptian garment native to the Nile Valley. It differs from the Arabian thawb in that it has a cut, no collar. In case of farmers, these sleeves can be very wide and they are then used to store small items such as tobacco or money. Jellabiya colours are white in the summer. During winter, thicker fabric in other such as grey, dark green, olive, blue, tan or striped fabrics are used. The garment is worn with an ammama. Bekishe Djellaba Hijab Jilbāb Thawb Qamis What is Gallabia
Jellabiya
–
Musicians in
Egypt wearing (urban) gellabiya
Jellabiya
–
Shalatin tribe
Beja people wearing Gellabiya.
38.
Urdu
–
Urdu is a persianized standard register of the Hindustani language. It is the language and lingua franca of Pakistan. It is also one of the 22 official languages recognized in the Constitution of India, hyderabad, Rampur, Bhopal and Lucknow are noted Urdu-speaking cities of India. Urdu is historically associated with the Muslims of the northern Indian subcontinent, apart from specialized vocabulary, Urdu is mutually intelligible with Standard Hindi, another recognized register of Hindustani. Urdu, like Hindi, is a form of Hindustani, Urdu developed under the influence of the Persian and Arabic languages, both of which have contributed a significant amount of vocabulary to formal speech. Around 99% of Urdu verbs have their roots in Sanskrit and Prakrit, Urdu words originating from Chagatai and Arabic were borrowed through Persian and hence are Persianized versions of the original words. For instance, the Arabic ta marbuta changes to he or te, nevertheless, contrary to popular belief, Urdu did not borrow from the Turkish language, but from Chagatai. Urdu and Turkish borrowed from Arabic and Persian, hence the similarity in pronunciation of many Urdu, Arabic influence in the region began with the late first-millennium Arab invasion of India in the 7th century. The Persian language was introduced into the subcontinent a few centuries later by various Persianized Central Asian Turkic and Afghan dynasties including that of the Delhi Sultanate. With the advent of the British Raj, Persian was no longer the language of administration but Hindustani, still written in the Persian script, the name Urdu was first used by the poet Ghulam Hamadani Mushafi around 1780. From the 13th century until the end of the 18th century Urdu was commonly known as Hindi, the language was also known by various other names such as Hindavi and Dehlavi. The communal nature of the language lasted until it replaced Persian as the language in 1837 and was made co-official. Urdu was promoted in British India by British policies to counter the previous emphasis on Persian and this triggered a Brahman backlash in northwestern India, which argued that the language should be written in the native Devanagari script. At independence, Pakistan established a highly Persianized literary form of Urdu as its national language, English has exerted a heavy influence on both as a co-official language. Owing to interaction with other languages, Urdu has become localized wherever it is spoken, similarly, the Urdu spoken in India can also be distinguished into many dialects like Dakhni of South India, and Khariboli of the Punjab region since recent times. Because of Urdus similarity to Hindi, speakers of the two languages can understand one another if both sides refrain from using specialized vocabulary. The syntax, morphology, and the vocabulary are essentially identical. Thus linguists usually count them as one language and contend that they are considered as two different languages for socio-political reasons
Urdu
–
Autograph and a couplet of Last
Mughal Emperor,
Bahadur Shah II, dated 29 April 1844
Urdu
–
Urdu in
Perso-Arabic script (
Nastaliq style)
Urdu
–
A trilingual
signboard in the
UAE
Urdu
–
A multilingual
New Delhi railway station board
39.
Hindi
–
Hindi, or Modern Standard Hindi is a standardised and Sanskritised register of the Hindustani language. Along with the English language, Hindi written in the Devanagari script, is the language of the Government of India. It is also one of the 22 scheduled languages of the Republic of India, Hindi is the lingua franca of the so-called Hindi belt of India. Outside India, it is a language which is known as Fiji Hindi in Fiji, and is a recognised regional language in Mauritius, Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana. Hindi is the fourth most-spoken first language in the world, after Mandarin, apart from specialized vocabulary, Hindi is mutually intelligible with Standard Urdu, another recognized register of Hindustani. Part XVII of the Indian Constitution deals with Official Language, under Article 343, official language of the Union has been prescribed, which includes Hindi in Devanagari script and English. Gujarat High Court, in 2010, has observed that there was nothing on record to suggest that any provision has been made or order issued declaring Hindi as a language of India. Article 343 of the Indian constitution states The official language of the Union shall be Hindi in Devanagari script, the form of numerals to be used for the official purposes of the Union shall be the international form of Indian numerals. It was envisioned that Hindi would become the working language of the Union Government by 1965. Each may also designate a co-official language, in Uttar Pradesh, for instance, depending on the formation in power. Similarly, Hindi is accorded the status of language in the following Union Territories, Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Chandigarh, Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Daman & Diu. National-language status for Hindi is a long-debated theme, an Indian court clarified that Hindi is not the national language of India because the constitution does not mention it as such. Outside Asia, Hindi is a language in Fiji as per the 1997 Constitution of Fiji. It is spoken by 380,000 people in Fiji, Hindi is also spoken by a large population of Madheshis of Nepal. Hindi is quite easy to understand for some Pakistanis, who speak Urdu, apart from this, Hindi is spoken by the large Indian diaspora which hails from, or has its origin from the Hindi Belt of India. Like other Indo-Aryan languages, Hindi is considered to be a descendant of an early form of Sanskrit, through Sauraseni Prakrit. It has been influenced by Dravidian languages, Turkic languages, Persian, Arabic, Portuguese, Hindi emerged as Apabhramsha, a degenerated form of Prakrit, in the 7th century A. D. By the 10th century A. D. it became stable, Braj Bhasha, Bhojpuri, Awadhi, Khari Boli etc. are the dialects of Hindi
Hindi
–
The word "Hindi" in
Devanagari script
40.
Gagra choli
–
As well in Hindi speaking regions of Nepal. In Punjab it was worn with the kurti and salwar. It is an outfit of a Lehenga, tight Choli. A choli, is a blouse shell garment in the Indian and Nepalese sari costume worn in India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh. The choli is cut to fit tightly to the body and has short sleeves, the choli is usually cropped, allowing exposure of the navel, the cropped design is particularly well-suited for wear in the hot South Asian summers. It is also worn with a dupatta or long shawl Lehenga, Chaniya, or Ghagra is a form of skirt which is long and it is worn as the bottom portion of a Gagra choli. It is secured at the waist or hips and leaves the lower back and this was one of the earliest forms of a clumsily stitched skirt. It was worn using drawstring or nada, the ghagri was a narrow skirt six feet long the same length as original antariya. This style can still be worn by Jain nuns in India. Until the early 20th century, women irrespective of class largely wore gagras which reached down to ankles and this was largely due to jeweled toes showed marital status of women as both married and unmarried women observed Ghoonghat. Most commonly used dyes were Indigo, Lac and Haldi and this style can still be seen in rural areas of Haryana, Uttar Pradesh & Madhya Pradesh particularly during folk festivals. This reflects simplistic early style of unstitched gagras worn in ancient times, the Dupatta is a shawl or large scarf that is worn together with the lehenga and the choli. Until the early 21st century dupatta was the most decorative part of gagra choli, while rest of the garment was more simplistic, Dupatta is worn in many regional styles across India. While women who worked in the farms tucked both ends of dupatta into their choli and it is worn as a symbol of modesty. There is no way of wearing the dupatta, and as time evolves and fashion modernizes. The lehengas are made of a number of such as Silk, Cotton, Khadi, Georgette, Crape, Net, Satin, Brocade. Even though designers have used the various kinds of fabrics for making the lehenga. Apart from the fabric, decorative stitching patterns also play a role, lehengas come with a wide variety of decoration and embroidery work like Gota, Phulkari, Shisha, Chikankari, Zari, Zardozi, Nakshi, Kundan, etc
Gagra choli
–
Women in Ghagra Choli ca 1872.
Gagra choli
–
Women in traditional style of gagra choli worn in
Hindi belt.
Gagra choli
–
Illustration of different regional variations of Ghagra choli worn by women in
India.
Gagra choli
–
Women in Gagra and long front covering
choli tied at the back
41.
Lehenga
–
It is worn as the bottom portion of a Gagra choli or Langa Voni. It is secured at the waist and leaves the lower back, in India and Pakistan various types of traditional embroidery work are done on lehenga, with Gota patti embroidery being one of popular types for the festivals and weddings. This was one of the earliest forms of a stitched skirt and it was worn using drawstring or nada. The ghagri was a narrow skirt six feet long the length as original antariya. This style can still be worn by Jain nuns in India. In Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka it is known as Langa and part of the dress Langa Voni, lehnga choli, ghaghara are famous from Rajasthan and Gujarat in India, where women wear them in various folk dances and traditional parties, marriages. You can find the best collection of Lehengas at Delhi, Mumbai, Jaipur, best designers in India for Lehengas are Anita Dongre, Sabyasachi, Manish Malhotra, Neeta Lulla, Masaba
Lehenga
–
Lehenga with
Gota Embroidery
42.
Sari
–
There are various styles of sari draping, the most common being the Nivi style, which originated in Andhra Pradesh. The sari is worn over a petticoat, with a fitted upper garment commonly called a blouse. The blouse has short sleeves and is cropped at the midriff. The sari is associated with grace and is regarded as a symbol of grace in cultures of the Indian subcontinent. The word sari described in Sanskrit शाटी śāṭī which means strip of cloth and शाडी śāḍī or साडी sāḍī in Pali, the word Sattika is mentioned as describing womens attire in ancient India in Sanskrit literature and Buddhist literature called Jatakas. This could be equivalent to modern day Sari, the term for female bodice, the choli evolved from ancient Stanapatta. Rajatarangini, a literary work by Kalhana, states that the choli from the Deccan was introduced under the royal order in Kashmir. In the history of Indian clothing the sari is traced back to the Indus Valley Civilisation, cotton was first cultivated and woven in Indian subcontinent around 5th millennium BC. Dyes used during this period are still in use, particularly indigo, lac, red madder, silk was woven around 2450 BC and 2000 BC. The earliest known depiction of the sari in the Indian subcontinent is the statue of an Indus Valley priest wearing a drape. The sari evolved from an ensemble comprising the Antariya, the lower garment, the Uttariya, a veil worn over the shoulder or the head, and the Stanapatta. This ensemble is mentioned in Sanskrit literature and Buddhist Pali literature during the 6th century B. C and this complete three-piece dress was known as Poshak, generic term for costume. Ancient Antariya closely resembled dothi wrap in the version which was passed through legs, covered the legs loosely and then flowed into a long. It further evolved into Bhairnivasani skirt, today known as ghagri, Uttariya was a shawl-like veil worn over the shoulder or head, it evolved into what is known today known as dupatta and ghoongat. Likewise, Stanapatta evolved into choli by 1st century A. D. Between 2nd century B. C to 1st century A. D, Antariya and Uttariya was merged to form a single garment known as sari mentioned in Pali literature, which served the purpose of two garments in one-piece. The ancient Sanskrit work, Kadambari by Banabhatta and ancient Tamil poetry, such as the Silappadhikaram, in ancient India, although women wore saris that bared the midriff, the Dharmasastra writers stated that women should be dressed such that the navel would never become visible. By which for some time the navel became a taboo
Sari
–
Woman and girl dressed in traditional Maharashtra sari
Sari
–
Galaxy of Musicians by
Raja Ravi Varma depicting women in various styles of sari
Sari
–
Illustration of different styles of sari & clothing worn by women in South Asia
Sari
–
Women in
choli (blouse) and antariya CE 320
Gupta Empire
43.
Veil
–
A veil is an article of clothing or cloth hanging that is intended to cover some part of the head or face, or an object of some significance. It is especially associated with women and sacred objects, one view is that as a religious item, it is intended to show honor to an object or space. The first recorded instance of veiling for women is recorded in the Bible in Genesis, chapter 24, verse 65, when Rebecca first sees Isaac, and veils herself. Another is found later from an Assyrian legal text from the 13th century BC, the Mycenaean Greek term
Veil
–
Standing woman holding her veil. Terracotta figurine, ca. 400–375 BC.
Veil
–
Depiction of
Isabeau of Bavaria, queen of France, wearing veiling
Veil
–
Praying Jewish woman wearing
Tichel
Veil
–
Aër covering a
chalice and
diskos on the
prothesis
44.
Kalasha Desh
–
The Kalasha Valleys are valleys in Chitral District in northern Pakistan. The valleys are surrounded by the Hindu Kush mountain range, the inhabitants of the valley are the Kalash people, who have a unique culture, language and follow a form of ancient Hinduism. As such, the Kalasha Valleys are a source of attraction for Pakistani as well as International tourists, the largest and most populous valley is Bumburet, reached by a road from Ayun in the Kunar Valley. Rumbur and Acholgah are side valleys north of Bumburet, the third valley, Biriu, is s side valley of the Kunar Valley south of Bumburet. Kalash people are the smallest religious as well as the minority of Pakistan. Their customs and traditions are contradictory to the Islamic and Pakistani culture, the Kalash religion is polytheist faith and the people offer sacrifices for their gods. Their culture is interlinked with their religion and based upon several festivals, the people generally do not mix up with the local Muslims but neither are they hostile towards them. The people are although under legal and constitutional protection of the State of Pakistan, some people of the Kalash community have also been forcibly converted to Islam. Many local and foreign human rights activists as well as many primary politicians such as Imran Khan have called on the government for protection of the community, pakistans Council of Islamic Ideology has also condemned the violence declaring forcible conversions and honor killings of non-Muslims as UnIslamic. Kalash people Ancient Greeks Alexander the Great Kaghan Valley Neelam Valley Hunza Valley
Kalasha Desh
45.
Chitral
–
Chitral, also spelled Chetrar, translated as field, is the capital of the Chitral District, situated on the western bank of the Chitral River, in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. It also served as the capital of the state of Chitral until 1969. The town is at the foot of Tirich Mir, the highest peak of the Hindu Kush and it has a population of 20,000. Nothing definitive is recorded about the towns first settlers, in the 3rd century, Kanishka, the Buddhist ruler of the Kushan empire, occupied Chitral. In the 4th century, the Chinese overran the valley, raees rule over Chitral began in 1320 and came to an end in the 15th century. From 1571 onwards Chitral was the dominion of the Kator Dynasty until 1969, the city has an average elevation of 1,500 m. The easiest access to Chitral, other than by air, is from the southwest along the Kunar Valley, however the Afghan-Pakistan border and cross border tensions prevent this from being used as an internal route to the rest of Pakistan. There are other routes over the mountain passes, to the south. In the north, the easiest route during summer runs over the 3, to the east, there is a 405 kilometres route to Gilgit over the 3, 719-metre Shandur Pass. The territory is cut off by snow from the rest of the country for up to six months a year, Chitral has a Mediterranean climate, with warm summers and cold winters. As of July 2011, the population of the city is above 19,700, kohwari, is the most widely spoken language. Other seven spoken languages are, Burushaski, Shina, Yidgha, Tajiki, Pashayi, Pashto, Yidgha, urdu and Pushto, are also spoken. Unlike the rest of Pakistan where cricket dominates, polo and soccer are popular in Chitral. A number of festivals and tournaments are held throughout the year. Chitral has also produced some national such as Muhammad Rasool who plays for the national football team. And An Epitome of Part III of the authors The Languages and Races of Dardistan, official website Government of Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa Government website section on Lower Dir United Nations
Chitral
–
View of valley and river
46.
Pajamas
–
Pajamas or pyjamas, often shortened to PJs, jimmies, jimjams or jammies, can refer to several related types of clothing. Pajamas are loose-fitting garments derived from the garment and worn chiefly for sleeping. More generally, pajamas may refer to several garments, for both daywear and nightwear, derived from traditional pajamas and involving variations of style and material, the word pyjama was borrowed c.1800 from Urdu pāy-jāma پايجامه, itself borrowed from Persian pāy-jāmeh پايجامه lit. leg-garment. The original pyjāmā are loose, lightweight trousers fitted with drawstring waistbands worn by Muslims in India and adopted by Europeans during East India Company rule in India. The worldwide use of pajamas is the result of adoption by British colonists in India in the 18th and 19th centuries, Pajamas had been introduced to England as lounging attire as early as the seventeenth century, then known as moguls breeches but they soon fell out of fashion. The word pajama is recorded in English use in the first half of the nineteenth century and they did not become a fashion in Britain and the Western world as sleeping attire for men until the Victorian period, from about 1870. Thus Pyrard says, in speaking of Goa Hospital, Ils ont force calsons sans quoy ne couchent iamais les Portugais des Indes The word is now used in London shops, traditional pajamas consist of a jacket-and-pants combination made of soft fabric, such as flannel or lightweight cotton. The jacket element usually has a front and its sleeves have no cuffs. Many people opt to sleep or lounge in just the pajama pants, either with a t-shirt, or, for males, for this reason, pajama pants for men and boys are often sold as separates. In colloquial speech, these traditional pajamas are often called PJs, jim jams, in South Asia and South Africa, they are sometimes referred to as night suits. Some pajamas feature a seat, a buttoned opening in the seat. Drop seats were common on pajamas made before the 1950s. Contemporary pajamas are derived from traditional pajamas, there are many variations in style such as short sleeve pajamas, pajama bottoms of varying length, or, on occasion, one-piece pajamas, and pajamas incorporating various materials. Chiefly in the US, stretch-knit sleep apparel with rib-knit trimmings are common, usually worn by children, these garments often have pullover tops or have zippers down the fronts, and may also be footed. Although pajamas are usually distinguished from non-bifurcated sleeping garments such as nightgowns, in the US, babydoll pyjamas have a kind of short dress top over shorts or short pants. Examples of these include capri pajamas, beach pajamas, and hostess pajamas, Pajamas are usually loose fitting and designed for comfort, using soft materials such as cotton or silk or satin. Synthetic materials such as polyester and Lycra are also available, Pajamas often contain visual references to a thing that may hold some special appeal to the wearer. Images of sports, animals, balloons, polka dots, flowers, stripes, plaids, foulards, paisleys and other motifs may all be used for decoration
Pajamas
–
A Muslim girl in India wearing pajamas and
kurti (lithograph from
Emily Eden 's Portraits of the Princes and People of India, 1844)
Pajamas
–
Girl in
short sleeve PJs;
doll in traditional.
Pajamas
–
Boys in
stretch-knit pajamas.
Pajamas
–
Toddler in
footed pajamas.
47.
Trousers
–
Trousers or pants are an item of clothing worn from the waist to the ankles, covering both legs separately. In the UK, the word generally means underwear and not trousers. Shorts are similar to trousers, but with legs that come only to around the area of the knee. To distinguish them from shorts, trousers may be called long trousers in certain such as school uniform. Made of wool, the trousers had straight legs and wide crotches, breeches were worn instead of trousers in early modern Europe by some men in higher classes of society. Since the mid-20th century, trousers have increasingly been worn by women as well, jeans, made of denim, are a form of trousers for casual wear, now widely worn all over the world by both sexes. Shorts are often preferred in hot weather or for sports and also often by children. Trousers are worn on the hips or waist and may be held up by their own fastenings, leggings are form-fitting trousers, of a clingy material, often knitted cotton and spandex. In Scotland, trousers are occasionally known as trews, which is the root of the word trousers. Trousers are also known as breeks in Scots, a related to breeches. The item of clothing worn under trousers is underpants, in North America and Australia pants is the general category term, whereas trousers often refers more specifically to tailored garments with a waistband, belt-loops, and a fly-front. So informal elastic-waist knitted garments would be called pants, but not trousers, North Americans call undergarments underwear, underpants, undies, jockey shorts, shorts, long johns or panties to distinguish them from other pants that are worn on the outside. The term drawers normally refers to undergarments, but in dialects, may be found as a synonym for breeches. In these dialects, the term underdrawers is used for undergarments, many North Americans refer to their undergarments by their type, such as boxers or briefs. In Australia, mens underwear also has various terms including under-dacks, undies. In New Zealand mens underwear is known as undies, or y-fronts, various people in the fashion industry use the words trouser or pant instead of trousers or pants. The words trousers and pants are pluralia tantum, nouns that generally appear in plural form—much like the words scissors. However, the form is used in some compound words, such as trouser-leg, trouser-press
Trousers
–
A man wearing trousers
Trousers
–
Scythian archer. Interior from an
Ancient Greek Attic
red-figure plate, ca. 520–500 BC, from
Vulci.
British Museum, London.
Trousers
–
Germanic trousers of the 4th century found in the
Thorsberg moor, Germany
Trousers
–
Amazon wearing trousers and carrying a shield with an attached patterned cloth and a quiver.
Ancient Greek Attic white-ground
alabastron, ca. 470 BC,
British Museum, London
48.
Mandarin collar
–
A mandarin collar is a short unfolded stand-up collar style on a shirt or jacket. Mandarin collars start at the neckline and typically rise vertically two to five centimeters, the style derives its Western name from the gowns worn by Mandarins in Imperial China. The length along a mandarin collar is straight, with straight or rounded edges at top of the centre front. The edges of the collar either barely meet at the front or overlap slightly. Overlapping mandarin collars are often a continuation of a shirts placket and have a button on the collar to secure the two sides of the shirt together, a similar style known as the Nehru collar is also found in some modern Indian mens clothing, such as the Nehru jacket. A band is often a mandarin collar and this term is also used for shirts that have only a flat finishing around the neckline, originally such garments were designed for use with a detachable collar, a largely forgotten usage. In contemporary Western dress, mandarin collars are found in oriental-style, womens mandarin-collared jackets often include other vaguely oriental elements, such as silk knots as closures instead of buttons. Since mandarin collars are short and do not fold over, neckties are not worn with mandarin-collared dress shirts and this lack of ties may have led to the recent rising popularity of mandarin collars. Mandarin collars are also utilised heavily in military combat uniforms like the US Armys Advanced Combat Uniform. The presence of the collar on the Advanced Combat Uniform makes the wearing of body armor more comfortable by lifting the collar up to prevent chafing. Stand collars are common on historically based military dress uniforms, such as dress uniforms of the British Army, US Navy. The collar is used for the required sport fencing dress. Mandarin collars feature in costumes in some films, where they are employed either as a futuristic style fashion or to create a distinctive appearance for sinister characters. The mandarin collar can also be found in the uniform of the Empires officers in the Star Wars films
Mandarin collar
–
U.S. Army soldier shown wearing the
Army Combat Uniform (ACU) uniform with the coat's mandarin collar worn in the upright position as required when wearing protective combat gear
49.
Kurta
–
A kurta is an upper garment for men and women, originating in the Indian subcontinent, with regional variations of form. The word kurta is a borrowing from Urdu, Hindustani, originally from either Sanskrit kuratu/kurtaka or Persian and it was first used in English in the 20th century. A kurta worn by females is called a kurti, the kurta is traditionally worn in Pakistan, Bangladesh, and India, and is also popular in Nepal and Sri Lanka. The kurta is worn with a dhoti, paijama, shalwar, the kurta is similar to the perahan worn in Afghanistan, the phiran of Kashmir, and the daura of Nepal. The straight-cut kurta is a loose shirt falling either just above or somewhere below the knees of the wearer, however, women do also wear the straight-cut kurta or its shorter version, the kurti. They were traditionally worn with loose-fitting paijama, loose-fitting shalwars, semi-tight churidars, or wrapped-around dhotis, kurtas are worn both as casual everyday wear and as formal dress. Imported straight-cut kurtas were fashionable in the United States in the 1960s and 1970s, as an element of fashion, fell from favor briefly. South Asian women may wear this Western adaptation of South Asian fashion. Some styles button or are tied at the seam and have plackets rather than slits. The opening may be centered on the chest, or positioned off center, traditional forms of kurta do not have a collar. Modern variants may feature stand-up collars of the known to tailors. These are the sort of collars seen on achkans, sherwanis. A kali or kalidar kurta is similar to a frock and has many panels, the kalidar kurta is made up of several geometrical pieces. It has two central panels in the back and the front. The kali kurta is worn by men and women, the Bhopali kurta is a loose kurta with pleats at the waist, flowing like a skirt reaching midway between the knees and the ankles. It is worn with a straight pajama, the Bhopali kurta was popular with the local royal families and is believed to have been adopted from the dress of Turkey by Sultan Jehan Begum who reigned between 1901 and 1926 A. D. The Hyderabadi kurta is named after the royal state of Hyderabad and is a short top which sits around the waist. It was popular with the royal households
Kurta
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Chikan embroidery,
Lucknow
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Kurta - Mens
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Men and boys wearing a variation of the suthan and Dogri kurta
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Man on the right in overlapping kurta 1848.
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South Asia
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Topographically, it is dominated by the Indian Plate, which rises above sea level as Nepal and northern parts of India situated south of the Himalayas and the Hindu Kush. South Asia is bounded on the south by the Indian Ocean and on land by West Asia, Central Asia, East Asia, the current territories of Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Maldives, Nepal, India, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka form the countries of South Asia. The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation is an economic cooperation organisation in the region which was established in 1985, South Asia covers about 5.1 million km², which is 11. 51% of the Asian continent or 3. 4% of the worlds land surface area. The population of South Asia is about 1.749 billion or about one fourth of the worlds population, overall, it accounts for about 39. 49% of Asias population and is home to a vast array of peoples. The area of South Asia and its extent is not clear cut as systemic. Aside from the region of South Asia, formerly part of the British Empire, there is a high degree of variation as to which other countries are included in South Asia. Modern definitions of South Asia are consistent in including Afghanistan, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar is included by some scholars in South Asia, but in Southeast Asia by others. Some do not include Afghanistan, others question whether Afghanistan should be considered a part of South Asia or the Middle East, the mountain countries of Nepal and Bhutan, and the island countries of Sri Lanka and Maldives are generally included as well. Myanmar is often added, and by various deviating definitions based on often substantially different reasons, the British Indian Ocean Territory, the common concept of South Asia is largely inherited from the administrative boundaries of the British Raj, with several exceptions. The Aden Colony, British Somaliland and Singapore, though administered at various times under the Raj, have not been proposed as any part of South Asia. Additionally Burma was administered as part of the Raj until 1937, the 562 princely states that were protected by but not directly ruled by the Raj became administrative parts of South Asia upon joining Union of India or Dominion of Pakistan. China and Myanmar have also applied for the status of members of SAARC. This bloc of countries include two independent countries that were not part of the British Raj – Nepal, and Bhutan, Afghanistan was a British protectorate from 1878 until 1919, after the Afghans lost to the British in the Second Anglo-Afghan war. The United Nations Statistics Divisions scheme of sub-regions include all eight members of the SAARC as part of Southern Asia, population Information Network includes Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Burma, India, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka as part of South Asia. Maldives, in view of its characteristics, was admitted as a member Pacific POPIN subregional network only in principle, the Hirschman–Herfindahl index of the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific for the region includes only the original seven signatories of SAARC. The British Indian Ocean Territory is connected to the region by a publication of Janes for security considerations, the inclusion of Myanmar in South Asia is without consensus, with many considering it a part of southeast Asia and others including it within South Asia. Afghanistan was of importance to the British colonial empire, especially after the Second Anglo-Afghan War over 1878–1880, Afghanistan remained a British protectorate until 1919, when a treaty with Vladimir Lenin included the granting of independence to Afghanistan. Following Indias partition, Afghanistan has generally included in South Asia
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While South Asia had never been a coherent
geopolitical region, it has a distinct geographical identity
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South Asia
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Ethno-linguistic families of South Asia.
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