1.
Four-leaf clover
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The four-leaf clover is a rare variation of the common three-leaf clover. Clovers can have more than four leaves, five-leaf clovers are less commonly found naturally than four-leaf clovers, however, they, too, have been successfully cultivated. Some four-leaf clover collectors, particularly in Ireland, regard the five-leaf clover, known as a rose clover, in exceptionally rare cases, clovers are able to grow with six leaves and more in nature. The most leaves ever found on a single stem is 56 and was discovered by Shigeo Obara of Hanamaki City, Iwate, Japan. It is debated whether the leaf is caused genetically or environmentally. Its relative rarity suggests a possible recessive gene appearing at a low frequency, alternatively, four-leaf clovers could be caused by somatic mutation or a developmental error of environmental causes. They could also be caused by the interaction of genes that happen to segregate in the individual plant. It is possible all four explanations could apply to individual cases and this means that multiple four-leaf clovers could be found in the same clover plant. Researchers from the University of Georgia have reported finding the gene that turns ordinary three-leaf clovers into the coveted four-leaf types, white clover has many genes that affect leaf color and shape, and the three in the study were very rare. These traits can be attractive, particularly if combined with others. There are some cultivars of white clover which regularly produce more than three leaflets, including purple-leaved T. repens Purpurascens Quadrifolium and green-leaved T. repens Quadrifolium, trifolium repens Good Luck is a cultivar which has three, four, or five green, dark-centered leaflets per leaf. Other plants may be mistaken for, or misleadingly sold as, four-leaf clovers, for example, other species that have been sold as four-leaf clovers include Marsilea quadrifolia. Italian automobile maker Alfa Romeo used to paint a four-leaf clover, or quadrifoglio and this tradition started in the 1923 Targa Florio race, when driver Ugo Sivocci decorated his car with a green clover on a white background. Los Angeles-based space exploration company SpaceX includes a four-leaf clover on each space mission embroidered patch as a luck charm. Celtic Football Club, a team from Glasgow, Scotland, have used the four leaf clover as the clubs official badge for over 40 years. Former Japanese game developer studio Clover Studio used a four-leaf clover as their logo, several businesses and organisations use a four-leaf clover in their logos to signify Celtic origins. The global network of youth organizations 4-H uses a green clover with a white H on each leaf. Some folk traditions assign a different attribute to each leaf of a clover, the first leaf represents hope, the second stands for faith, the third is for love and the fourth leaf brings luck to the finder
2.
Ireland
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Ireland is an island in the North Atlantic. It is separated from Great Britain to its east by the North Channel, the Irish Sea, Ireland is the second-largest island of the British Isles, the third-largest in Europe, and the twentieth-largest on Earth. Politically, Ireland is divided between the Republic of Ireland, which covers five-sixths of the island, and Northern Ireland, in 2011, the population of Ireland was about 6.4 million, ranking it the second-most populous island in Europe after Great Britain. Just under 4.6 million live in the Republic of Ireland, the islands geography comprises relatively low-lying mountains surrounding a central plain, with several navigable rivers extending inland. The island has lush vegetation, a product of its mild, thick woodlands covered the island until the Middle Ages. As of 2013, the amount of land that is wooded in Ireland is about 11% of the total, there are twenty-six extant mammal species native to Ireland. The Irish climate is moderate and classified as oceanic. As a result, winters are milder than expected for such a northerly area, however, summers are cooler than those in Continental Europe. Rainfall and cloud cover are abundant, the earliest evidence of human presence in Ireland is dated at 10,500 BC. Gaelic Ireland had emerged by the 1st century CE, the island was Christianised from the 5th century onward. Following the Norman invasion in the 12th century, England claimed sovereignty over Ireland, however, English rule did not extend over the whole island until the 16th–17th century Tudor conquest, which led to colonisation by settlers from Britain. In the 1690s, a system of Protestant English rule was designed to materially disadvantage the Catholic majority and Protestant dissenters, with the Acts of Union in 1801, Ireland became a part of the United Kingdom. Northern Ireland saw much civil unrest from the late 1960s until the 1990s and this subsided following a political agreement in 1998. In 1973 the Republic of Ireland joined the European Economic Community while the United Kingdom, Irish culture has had a significant influence on other cultures, especially in the fields of literature. Alongside mainstream Western culture, an indigenous culture exists, as expressed through Gaelic games, Irish music. The culture of the island shares many features with that of Great Britain, including the English language, and sports such as association football, rugby, horse racing. The name Ireland derives from Old Irish Eriu and this in turn derives from Proto-Celtic *Iveriu, which is also the source of Latin Hibernia. Iveriu derives from a root meaning fat, prosperous, during the last glacial period, and up until about 9000 years ago, most of Ireland was covered with ice, most of the time
3.
Saint Patrick
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Saint Patrick was a fifth-century Romano-British Christian missionary and bishop in Ireland. Known as the Apostle of Ireland, he is the patron saint of Ireland, along with saints Brigit of Kildare. He is also venerated in the Anglican Communion, the Old Catholic Church and in the Eastern Orthodox Church as equal-to-the-apostles and Enlightener of Ireland. The dates of Patricks life cannot be fixed with certainty but there is agreement that he was active as a missionary in Ireland during the second half of the 5th century. He has been generally so regarded ever since, despite evidence of some earlier Christian presence in Ireland, after becoming a cleric, he returned to northern and western Ireland. In later life, he served as a bishop, but little is known about the places where he worked, by the seventh century, he had already come to be revered as the patron saint of Ireland. Saint Patricks Day is observed on 17 March, the date of his death. It is celebrated inside and outside Ireland as a religious and cultural holiday, in the dioceses of Ireland, it is both a solemnity and a holy day of obligation, it is also a celebration of Ireland itself. Two Latin works survive which are accepted as having been written by St. Patrick. These are the Declaration and the Letter to the soldiers of Coroticus, the Declaration is the more biographical of the two. In it, Patrick gives an account of his life. Most available details of his life are from subsequent hagiographies and annals, the only name that Patrick uses for himself in his own writings is Pātricius, which gives Old Irish Pátraic and Modern Irish Pádraig, English Patrick and Welsh Padrig. Hagiography records other names he is said to have borne, Magonus appears in the ninth century Historia Brittonum as Maun, descending from British *Magunos, meaning servant-lad. Succetus, which appears in Muirchú moccu Machthenis seventh century Life as Sochet, is identified by Mac Neill as a word of British origin meaning swineherd. The dates of Patricks life are uncertain, there are conflicting regarding the year of his death. His own writings provide no evidence for any dating more precise than the 5th century generally, the Letter to Coroticus implies that the Franks were still pagans at the time of writing, their conversion to Christianity is dated to the period 496–508. The Irish annals for the century date Patricks arrival in Ireland at 432. The date 432 was probably chosen to minimise the contribution of Palladius, who was known to have sent to Ireland in 431
4.
Trinity
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The Christian doctrine of the Trinity holds that God is three consubstantial persons or hypostases—the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit—as one God in three Divine Persons. The three persons are distinct, yet are one substance, essence or nature, in this context, a nature is what one is, whereas a person is who one is. Reflection, proclamation, and dialogue led to the formulation of the doctrine that was felt to correspond to the data in the Bible. The simplest outline of the doctrine was formulated in the 4th century, further elaboration continued in the succeeding centuries. Scripture contains neither the word Trinity, nor an expressly formulated doctrine of the Trinity, rather, according to the Christian theology, it bears witness to the activity of a God who can only be understood in Trinitarian terms. The doctrine did not take its shape until late in the fourth century. During the intervening period, various solutions, some more. Trinitarianism contrasts with nontrinitarian positions which include Binitarianism, Unitarianism, Oneness Pentecostalism or Modalism, the word trinity is derived from Latin trinitas, meaning the number three, a triad. This abstract noun is formed from the adjective trinus, as the word unitas is the noun formed from unus. The corresponding word in Greek is tριάς, meaning a set of three or the number three, the first recorded use of this Greek word in Christian theology was by Theophilus of Antioch in about 170. He wrote, In like manner also the three days which were before the luminaries, are types of the Trinity, of God, and His Word, and His wisdom. And the fourth is the type of man, who needs light, that so there may be God, the Word, wisdom, man. The Ante-Nicene Fathers asserted Christs deity and spoke of Father, Son and Holy Spirit, Trinitarians view these as elements of the codified doctrine. Ignatius of Antioch provides early support for the Trinity around 110, exhorting obedience to Christ, and to the Father, and to the Spirit. Justin Martyr also writes, in the name of God, the Father and Lord of the universe, and of our Saviour Jesus Christ, the first of the early church fathers to be recorded using the word Trinity was Theophilus of Antioch writing in the late 2nd century. He defines the Trinity as God, His Word and His Wisdom in the context of a discussion of the first three days of creation, the first defence of the doctrine of the Trinity was in the early 3rd century by the early church father Tertullian. He explicitly defined the Trinity as Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, St. Justin and Clement of Alexandra used the Trinity in their doxologies and St. Basil likewise, in the evening lighting of lamps. The highly allegorical exegesis of the Valentinian school inclined it to interpret the relevant scriptural passages as affirming a Divinity that, the Valentinian Gospel of Phillip, which dates to approximately the time of Tertullian, upholds the Trinitarian formula
5.
Irish language
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Irish, also referred to as Gaelic or Irish Gaelic, is a Goidelic language of the Indo-European language family originating in Ireland and historically spoken by the Irish people. Irish is spoken as a first language by a minority of Irish people. Irish enjoys constitutional status as the national and first official language of the Republic of Ireland and it is also among the official languages of the European Union. The public body Foras na Gaeilge is responsible for the promotion of the language throughout the island of Ireland and it has the oldest vernacular literature in Western Europe. The fate of the language was influenced by the power of the English state in Ireland. Elizabethan officials viewed the use of Irish unfavourably, as being a threat to all things English in Ireland and its decline began under English rule in the 17th century. In the latter part of the 19th century, there was a decrease in the number of speakers. Irish-speaking areas were hit especially hard, by the end of British rule, the language was spoken by less than 15% of the national population. Since then, Irish speakers have been in the minority, efforts have been made by the state, individuals and organisations to preserve, promote and revive the language, but with mixed results. Around the turn of the 21st century, estimates of native speakers ranged from 20,000 to 80,000 people. In the 2011 Census, these numbers had increased to 94,000 and 1.3 million, there are several thousand Irish speakers in Northern Ireland. It has been estimated that the active Irish-language scene probably comprises 5 to 10 per cent of Irelands population, there has been a significant increase in the number of urban Irish speakers, particularly in Dublin. In Gaeltacht areas, however, there has been a decline of the use of Irish. Údarás na Gaeltachta predicted that, by 2025, Irish will no longer be the language in any of the designated Gaeltacht areas. Survey data suggest that most Irish people think highly of Irish as a marker of identity. It has also argued that newer urban groups of Irish speakers are a disruptive force in this respect. In An Caighdeán Oifigiúil the name of the language is Gaeilge, before the spelling reform of 1948, this form was spelled Gaedhilge, originally this was the genitive of Gaedhealg, the form used in Classical Irish. Older spellings of this include Gaoidhealg in Classical Irish and Goídelc in Old Irish, the modern spelling results from the deletion of the silent dh in the middle of Gaedhilge, whereas Goidelic languages, used to refer to the language family including Irish, comes from Old Irish
6.
Trifolium dubium
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Trifolium dubium, the lesser trefoil, suckling clover, little hop clover or lesser hop trefoil, is a flowering plant in the pea and clover family Fabaceae. This species is accepted as the primary plant to represent the traditional Irish shamrock. It is native to Europe, but can be found in parts of the world as an introduced species. It is probably an allotetraploid with 2n=32 that arose from the crossing of Trifolium campestre, white clover Jepson Manual Treatment Washington Burke Museum
7.
Trifolium repens
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Trifolium repens, the white clover, is a herbaceous perennial plant in the bean family Fabaceae. It is native to Europe and central Asia, one of the most widely cultivated types of clover, it has been widely introduced worldwide as a forage crop, and is now also common in most grassy areas of North America and New Zealand. The species includes varieties often classed as small, intermediate and large, according to height, the term “white clover” is applied to the species in general, “Dutch clover” is often applied to intermediate varieties, and “ladino clover” is applied to large varieties. The species name, repens, is Latin for creeping and it is a herbaceous, perennial plant. It is low growing, with heads of flowers, often with a tinge of pink or cream that may come on with the aging of the plant. The heads are generally 1. 5–2 centimetres wide, and are at the end of 7-cm peduncles or flower stalks, the flowers are mostly visited by bumblebees and often by honey bees. The leaves, are trifoliolate, smooth, elliptic to egg-shaped and long-petioled, the stems function as stolons, so white clover often forms mats, with the stems creeping as much as 18 cm a year, and rooting at the nodes. The leaves form the known as shamrock. White clover has been described as the most important forage legume of the temperate zones, symbiotic nitrogen fixation in root nodules of white clover obviates synthetic nitrogen fertilizer use for maintaining productivity on much temperate zone pasture land. Such species mixtures also tend to issues that could otherwise be associated with cyanogenic glycoside intake on pure or nearly pure stands of some white clover varieties. Formononetin and biochanin A play a role in arbuscular mycorrhiza formation on white clover roots, among forage plants, some white clover varieties tend to be favored by rather close grazing, because of their stoloniferous habit, which can contribute to competitive advantage. White clover grows well as a plant among turf grasses, grain crops, pasture grasses. White clover can tolerate close mowing and grazing, and it can grow on different types. As a leguminous and hardy plant, it is considered to be a component of natural or organic pasture management and lawn care due to its ability to fix nitrogen. Natural nitrogen fixing reduces leaching from the soil and by maintaining soil health can reduce the incidence of some diseases that are enhanced by the availability of synthetic fertilizer. For these reasons, it is used as a green manure. Besides making an excellent forage crop for livestock, clovers are a survival food, they are high in proteins, widespread. The fresh plants have been used for centuries as additives to salads and they are not easy for humans to digest raw, however, but this is easily fixed by boiling the harvested plants for 5–10 minutes
8.
Glossary of leaf morphology
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The following is a defined list of terms which are used to describe leaf morphology in the description and taxonomy of plants. Leaves may be simple or compound, the edge of the leaf may be regular or irregular, may be smooth or bearing hair, bristles or spines. For more terms describing other aspects of leaves besides their overall morphology see the leaf article, leaves of most plants include a flat structure called the blade or lamina, but not all leaves are flat, some are cylindrical. Leaves may be simple, with a leaf blade, or compound. In flowering plants, as well as the blade of the leaf, there may be a petiole and stipules, leaf structure is described by several terms that include, Being one of the more visible features, leaf shape is commonly used for plant identification. Edge and margin are both interchangeable in the sense that they refer to the perimeter of a leaf. Leaves may also be folded or rolled in various ways, the folding of leaves within a bud is vernation, ptyxis is the folding of an individual leaf in a bud
9.
Medicago lupulina
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Medicago lupulina, commonly known as black medick, nonesuch, or hop clover, is a familiar lawn plant belonging to the legume or clover family. Plants of the genus Medicago, or bur clovers, are related to the true clovers. Like the true clovers, black medick has three leaflets and a small, yellow flower closely resembling those of the lesser trefoil, Black medick belongs to the same genus as alfalfa. The generic name, Medicago, is derived from the Greek medike, the specific name, lupulina, means wolf-like, and refers to the hop, or willow-wolf. Its scientific name is a translation of the name, hop clover. Some of these names are applied to wildflowers of the related genera Trifolium. Medicago lupulina is an annual or short-lived perennial plant, growing each year from adventitious buds on the roots, mature plants measure from fifteen to eighty centimeters in height, with fine stems often lying flat at the beginning of growth and later erecting. The leaves are compound, each with three leaflets, carried on a short petiole, the center leaflet usually has a longer petiole. The leaflets are hairy, toothed toward the tip, and differ from those of the similar Trifolium dubium in that end in a short point. The fruit is a small, ovoid pod, between one and two millimeters in length, that does not open upon maturation, but hardens and turns black when ripe, each pod contains a single amber-colored seed. Like other legumes, the roots of black medick contain nodules hosting nitrogen-fixing bacteria, plants that survive for more than one year may develop a deep tap root. A native of the old world, black medick is found throughout Europe, north Africa, the near east, and most of Asia, including India, China, and Korea. It is naturalized in central Asia, Japan, South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, the United States, Canada, Black medick is found throughout the United States, including Hawaii and Alaska. Black medick thrives in dry to moist, well-drained soils containing sand, loam, or clay and it grows in alkaline, neutral, and mildly acidic conditions. It does not grow in shady areas and it is resistant to cold, and can be found on mountains up to 1,800 meters. A common sight in dry or well-drained lawns, where it may be considered a weed and it is frequently found in natural pastures, and may be planted in order to create artificial meadows, especially on dry land. The presence of black medick in large concentrations in a lawn may indicate that the soil is poor in nitrogen, however, because black medick and other clovers fix nitrogen in the soil, this deficiency can improve over time due to the presence of these plants. Black medick is sometimes used as a fodder plant and its hardiness and ability to grow in poor soils, as well as its tendency to fix nitrogen in the soil, make black medick a good choice for pasturage, although its fodder value is limited
10.
Trifolium pratense
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It is a herbaceous, short-lived perennial plant, variable in size, growing to 20–80 cm tall. The flowers are pink with a paler base, 12–15 mm long, produced in a dense inflorescence. The red clover is found natively in Europe, Western Asia, and northwest Africa, specifically, the red clover was brought to Argentina and Chile over 100 years ago, although it is not clear how exactly it was introduced. The red clover has become important as a source of economic stability in Chile. One important pollinator, which was brought from Europe, is Bombus ruderatus. This bumblebee has been one of the important pollinators of red clover in South America and it is widely grown as a fodder crop, valued for its nitrogen fixation, which increases soil fertility. For these reasons, it is used as a green manure crop, several cultivar groups have been selected for agricultural use, mostly derived from T. pratense var. sativum. It has become naturalised in many areas, including the Americas. Red clover is commonly used to make a herbal tea. It is an ingredient in recipes for essiac tea. Trifolium pratense is used in medicine of India as deobstruent, antispasmodic, expectorant, sedative, anti-inflammatory. In alternative medicine, red clover is promoted as a treatment for a variety of maladies, including symptoms of menopause, coughs, disorders of the lymphatic system. Dietary amounts of red clover are safe, but medicinal quantities may cause rash-like reactions, muscle ache, headache, nausea, vaginal bleeding in women, red clover contains coumestrol, a phytoestrogen. Due to its derivatives, T. pratense should be used in caution in individuals with coagulation disorders or currently undergoing anticoagulation therapy. It is metabolised by CYP3A4 and therefore caution should be used when taking it with other using this metabolic pathway. Red clover is subject to bacterial as well as diseases, including the red clover rust. Other problems include parasitic nematodes and viruses, trifolium pratense is the national flower of Denmark and the state flower of Vermont. Green manure List of ineffective cancer treatments Vleugels, Tim, Roldan-Ruiz, Isabel, Cnops, influence of flower and flowering characteristics on seed yield in diploid and tetraploid red clover
11.
Oxalis acetosella
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Oxalis acetosella is a rhizomatous flowering plant in the family Oxalidaceae, common in most of Europe and parts of Asia. The specific name is acetosella, refers to its sour taste, the common name wood sorrel is often used for other plants in the genus Oxalis. In much of its range it is the member of its genus. While common wood sorrel may be used to differentiate it from most other species of Oxalis, in North America and it is also known as Alleluia because it blossoms between Easter and Pentecost, when the Psalms which end with Hallelujah are sung. The plant has trifoliate leaves, the leaflets heart-shaped and folded through the middle. It flowers from spring to midsummer with small white flowers with pink streaks. Red or violet flowers occur rarely. During the night or when it rains the flowers close and the leaves fold, as with other species of wood sorrel, the leaves are sometimes eaten. An oxalate called sal acetosella was formerly extracted from the plant, the common wood sorrel is sometimes referred to as a shamrock and given as a gift on St. Patricks Day. This is due to its trifoliate clover-like leaf, and to early references to shamrock being eaten, despite this, it is generally accepted that the plant described as shamrock is a species of clover, usually white clover. Den virtuella floran, Oxalis acetosella Giftpflanzen. com — Waldsauerklee oxalis-acetosella. com — Oxalis acetosella
12.
Herbalism
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Herbalism is the study of botany and use of plants intended for medicinal purposes or for supplementing a diet. Plants have been the basis for medical treatments through much of human history, modern medicine recognizes herbalism as a form of alternative medicine, as the practice of herbalism is not strictly based on evidence gathered using the scientific method. Modern medicine makes use of many plant-derived compounds as the basis for evidence-based pharmaceutical drugs, the scope of herbal medicine is sometimes extended to include fungal and bee products, as well as minerals, shells and certain animal parts. General practices include ancient methods of traditional Chinese medicine and Ayurveda, practitioners of herbalism or phytotherapy are referred to as herbalists or phytotherapists. Products used in herbalism may be called herbal medicines, botanicals, natural products, herbal remedies, herbal supplements. Archaeological evidence indicates that the use of plants dates back to the Paleolithic age. Written evidence of herbal remedies dates back over 5,000 years, to the Sumerians, a number of ancient cultures wrote about plants and their medical uses in books called herbals. In ancient Egypt, herbs are mentioned in Egyptian medical papyri, depicted in tomb illustrations, or on rare occasions found in medical jars containing trace amounts of herbs. Among the oldest, lengthiest, and most important medical papyri of ancient Egypt, the Ebers Papyrus dates from about 1550 BC, the earliest known Greek herbals come from Theophrastus of Eresos who in the 4th c. B. C. wrote in Greek Historia Plantarum, from Diocles of Carystus who wrote during the 3rd century B. C, only a few fragments of these works have survived intact, but from what remains scholars have noted a large amount of overlap with the Egyptian herbals. Seeds likely used for herbalism have been found in sites of Bronze Age China dating from the Shang Dynasty. Over a hundred of the 224 drugs mentioned in the Huangdi Neijing, herbs also commonly featured in the medicine of ancient India, where the principal treatment for diseases was diet. The World Health Organization estimates that 80 percent of the population of some Asian and African countries presently use herbal medicine for some aspect of health care. Pharmaceuticals are prohibitively expensive for most of the population, half of whom lived on less than $2 U. S. per day in 2002. In comparison, herbal medicines can be grown from seed or gathered from nature for little or no cost, many of the pharmaceuticals currently available to physicians have a long history of use as herbal remedies, including opium, aspirin, digitalis, and quinine. According to the World Health Organization, approximately 25% of modern drugs used in the United States have been derived from plants, at least 7,000 medical compounds in the modern pharmacopoeia are derived from plants. In a 2010 global survey of the most common 1000 plant-derived compounds, preclinical studies were reported for about one-half of the plant products, while 12% of the plants, although available in the Western market, had no substantial studies of their properties. Strong evidence was found that 5 were toxic or allergenic, so that their use ought to be discouraged or forbidden, according to Cancer Research UK, there is currently no strong evidence from studies in people that herbal remedies can treat, prevent or cure cancer
13.
Motif (visual arts)
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In art and iconography, a motif is an element of an image. A motif may be repeated in a pattern or design, often many times, the related motif of confronted animals is often seen alone, but may also be repeated, for example in Byzantine silk and other ancient textiles. Ornamental or decorative art can usually be analysed into a number of different elements and these may often, as in textile art, be repeated many times in a pattern. Important examples in Western art include acanthus, egg and dart, many designs in Islamic culture are motifs, including those of the sun, moon, animals such as horses and lions, flowers, and landscapes. Motifs can have effects and be used for propaganda. The idea of a motif has become used more broadly in discussing literature, geometric, typically repeated, Meander, palmette, rosette, gul in Oriental rugs, acanthus, egg and dart, Bead and reel, Pakudos, Sauwastika, Adinkra symbols. Figurative, Master of Animals, confronted animals, velificatio, Death, dover Publications, ISBN 0-486-26869-1 Jones, Owen. Dover Publications, Revised edition, ISBN 0-486-25463-1 Welch, Patricia Bjaaland, chinese art, a guide to motifs and visual imagery. Turtle Publishing, ISBN 0-8048-3864-X Visual motifs Theater of Drawing
14.
Victorian era
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The Victorian era was the period of Queen Victorias reign, from 20 June 1837 until her death on 22 January 1901. It was a period of peace, prosperity, refined sensibilities. Some scholars date the beginning of the period in terms of sensibilities, the era followed the Georgian period and preceded the Edwardian period. The later half of the Victorian age roughly coincided with the first part of the Belle Époque era of continental Europe, culturally there was a transition away from the rationalism of the Georgian period and toward romanticism and mysticism with regard to religion, social values, and arts. The end of the saw the Boer War. Domestically, the agenda was increasingly liberal with a number of shifts in the direction of political reform, industrial reform. Two especially important figures in period of British history are the prime ministers Benjamin Disraeli and William Gladstone. Disraeli, favoured by the queen, was a gregarious Conservative and his rival Gladstone, a Liberal distrusted by the Queen, served more terms and oversaw much of the overall legislative development of the era. The population of England and Wales almost doubled from 16.8 million in 1851 to 30.5 million in 1901, Scotlands population also rose rapidly, from 2.8 million in 1851 to 4.4 million in 1901. However, Irelands population decreased sharply, from 8.2 million in 1841 to less than 4.5 million in 1901, mostly due to the Great Famine. Between 1837 and 1901 about 15 million emigrants departed the UK permanently, in search of a life in the United States, Canada, South Africa, New Zealand, Australia. During the early part of the era, politics in the House of Commons involved battles between the two parties, the Whigs/Liberals and the Conservatives. These parties were led by such prominent statesmen as Lord Melbourne, Sir Robert Peel, Lord Derby, Lord Palmerston, Gladstone, Disraeli, Victoria became queen in 1837 at age 18. Her long reign until 1901 was mainly a time of peace, Britain reached the zenith of its economic, political, diplomatic and cultural power. The era saw the expansion of the second British Empire, Historians have characterised the mid-Victorian era as Britains Golden Years. There was prosperity, as the income per person grew by half. There was peace abroad, and social peace at home, opposition to the new order melted away, says Porter. The Chartist movement peaked as a movement among the working class in 1848, its leaders moved to other pursuits, such as trade unions
15.
Botany
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Botany, also called plant science, plant biology or phytology, is the science of plant life and a branch of biology. A botanist or plant scientist is a scientist who specialises in this field, the term botany comes from the Ancient Greek word βοτάνη meaning pasture, grass, or fodder, βοτάνη is in turn derived from βόσκειν, to feed or to graze. Nowadays, botanists study approximately 410,000 species of plants of which some 391,000 species are vascular plants. Medieval physic gardens, often attached to monasteries, contained plants of medical importance and they were forerunners of the first botanical gardens attached to universities, founded from the 1540s onwards. One of the earliest was the Padua botanical garden and these gardens facilitated the academic study of plants. Efforts to catalogue and describe their collections were the beginnings of plant taxonomy, in the last two decades of the 20th century, botanists exploited the techniques of molecular genetic analysis, including genomics and proteomics and DNA sequences to classify plants more accurately. Modern botany is a broad, multidisciplinary subject with inputs from most other areas of science, dominant themes in 21st century plant science are molecular genetics and epigenetics, which are the mechanisms and control of gene expression during differentiation of plant cells and tissues. Botany originated as herbalism, the study and use of plants for their medicinal properties, many records of the Holocene period date early botanical knowledge as far back as 10,000 years ago. This early unrecorded knowledge of plants was discovered in ancient sites of human occupation within Tennessee, the early recorded history of botany includes many ancient writings and plant classifications. Examples of early works have been found in ancient texts from India dating back to before 1100 BC, in archaic Avestan writings. His major works, Enquiry into Plants and On the Causes of Plants, constitute the most important contributions to science until the Middle Ages. De Materia Medica was widely read for more than 1,500 years, important contributions from the medieval Muslim world include Ibn Wahshiyyas Nabatean Agriculture, Abū Ḥanīfa Dīnawarīs the Book of Plants, and Ibn Bassals The Classification of Soils. In the early 13th century, Abu al-Abbas al-Nabati, and Ibn al-Baitar wrote on botany in a systematic and scientific manner and these gardens continued the practical value of earlier physic gardens, often associated with monasteries, in which plants were cultivated for medical use. They supported the growth of botany as an academic subject, lectures were given about the plants grown in the gardens and their medical uses demonstrated. Botanical gardens came much later to northern Europe, the first in England was the University of Oxford Botanic Garden in 1621, throughout this period, botany remained firmly subordinate to medicine. German physician Leonhart Fuchs was one of the three German fathers of botany, along with theologian Otto Brunfels and physician Hieronymus Bock, Fuchs and Brunfels broke away from the tradition of copying earlier works to make original observations of their own. Bock created his own system of plant classification, physician Valerius Cordus authored a botanically and pharmacologically important herbal Historia Plantarum in 1544 and a pharmacopoeia of lasting importance, the Dispensatorium in 1546. Naturalist Conrad von Gesner and herbalist John Gerard published herbals covering the medicinal uses of plants, naturalist Ulisse Aldrovandi was considered the father of natural history, which included the study of plants
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John Gerard
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John Gerard, also spelt John Gerarde, was a botanist and herbalist. He maintained a large garden in London. His chief notability is as the author of a large illustrated Herball, first published in 1597, it was the most widely circulated botany book in English in the 17th century. Two decades after Gerards death, his Herball was corrected and expanded to about 1700 pages, the botanical genus Gerardia is named in Gerards honour. Gerard was born at Nantwich, Cheshire, towards the end of 1545, receiving his early and only schooling at nearby Willaston, nothing is known of his parentage, but the coat of arms on his Herball implies he was a member of the Gerards of Ince. Around the age of 17, in 1562 he became an Apprentice to Alexander Mason, Mason had a large surgical practice and had twice held the rank of Warden in the company, and later became Master. Gerard did well there, and after seven years was admitted to the freedom of the company on 9 December 1569, although he claimed to have learned much about plants from travelling to other parts of the world, his actual travels appear to have been limited. He married Anne, who died in 1620, and by her had five children, of only one, Elizabeth. He spent his adult life in Holborn, London, close to Barnards Inn. It is thought that he resided in a tenement with garden belonging to Lord Burghley, after his death in February 1612 he was buried at St Andrews, Holborn on February 18, but the grave is unmarked. Gerard had a career with the Barber–Surgeons Company. In the Annals of the company, published in 1890, a biography of Gerard appears under a list of Eminent Members. While he was studying he developed the tenement garden in Holborn, that he refers to frequently in his work and this became popular, and he received gifts of seeds and plants from around the world. He also received offers to supervise the gardens of noblemen, in 1577, he began work as superintendant at the gardens of William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley at the Strand and Theobalds, Hertfordshire, a position he continued in for more than 20 years. In 1586, the College of Physicians established a garden with Gerard as curator. Amongst his qualifications he wrote by reason of his travaile into farre countries his great practise, there is no evidence for this claim and nothing seems to have come of his application. In 1596 he requested that the Barber–Surgeons Company establish a physic garden in East Smithfield and it was reported that Queen Elizabeth held his achievements in high regard. According to Anna Pavord, Gerard was a doer, not a thinker, deborah Harkness notes that Gerard was not part of the community of Lime Street naturalists in London at the time
17.
Carl Linnaeus
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Carl Linnaeus, also known after his ennoblement as Carl von Linné, was a Swedish botanist, physician, and zoologist, who formalised the modern system of naming organisms called binomial nomenclature. He is known by the father of modern taxonomy. Many of his writings were in Latin, and his name is rendered in Latin as Carolus Linnæus, Linnaeus was born in the countryside of Småland, in southern Sweden. He received most of his education at Uppsala University. He lived abroad between 1735 and 1738, where he studied and also published a first edition of his Systema Naturae in the Netherlands and he then returned to Sweden, where he became professor of medicine and botany at Uppsala. In the 1740s, he was sent on journeys through Sweden to find and classify plants. In the 1750s and 1760s, he continued to collect and classify animals, plants, and minerals, at the time of his death, he was one of the most acclaimed scientists in Europe. The philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau sent him the message, Tell him I know no man on earth. The German writer Johann Wolfgang von Goethe wrote, With the exception of Shakespeare and Spinoza, Swedish author August Strindberg wrote, Linnaeus was in reality a poet who happened to become a naturalist. Among other compliments, Linnaeus has been called Princeps botanicorum, The Pliny of the North and he is also considered as one of the founders of modern ecology. In botany, the abbreviation used to indicate Linnaeus as the authority for species names is L. In older publications, sometimes the abbreviation Linn. is found, Linnæus was born in the village of Råshult in Småland, Sweden, on 23 May 1707. He was the first child of Nicolaus Ingemarsson and Christina Brodersonia and his siblings were Anna Maria Linnæa, Sofia Juliana Linnæa, Samuel Linnæus, and Emerentia Linnæa. One of a line of peasants and priests, Nils was an amateur botanist, a Lutheran minister. Christina was the daughter of the rector of Stenbrohult, Samuel Brodersonius, a year after Linnæus birth, his grandfather Samuel Brodersonius died, and his father Nils became the rector of Stenbrohult. The family moved into the rectory from the curates house, even in his early years, Linnæus seemed to have a liking for plants, flowers in particular. Whenever he was upset, he was given a flower, which calmed him. Nils spent much time in his garden and often showed flowers to Linnaeus, soon Linnæus was given his own patch of earth where he could grow plants
18.
Flora Lapponica
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Flora Lapponica is an account of the plants of Lapland written by botanist, zoologist and naturalist Carl Linnaeus following his expedition to Lapland. In Flora Lapponica Linnaeus’s ideas about nomenclature and classification were first used in a practical way, the account covered 534 species, used the Linnaean classification system and included, for the described species, geographical distribution and taxonomic notes. It was Augustin Pyramus de Candolle who attributed Linnaeus with Flora Lapponica as the first example in the genre of Flora writing. Greene described Flora Lapponica as “the most classic and delightful of Linnaeus’s writings”, a Lapland plant, Linnaea borealis, was named by the eminent botanist Jan Frederik Gronovius in commemoration of Linnaeuss achievements. In the Critica Botanica Linnaeus uses this name to advocate the use of personal names as botanical names
19.
Edmund Spenser
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Edmund Spenser was an English poet best known for The Faerie Queene, an epic poem and fantastical allegory celebrating the Tudor dynasty and Elizabeth I. He is recognized as one of the craftsmen of nascent Modern English verse. He was deeply affected by Irish faerie mythology, which he knew from his home at Kilcolman and his genocidal tracts against Gaelic culture were war propaganda. His house was burned to the ground during the war, causing him to flee Ireland, Edmund Spenser was born in East Smithfield, London, around the year 1552, though there is some ambiguity as to the exact date of his birth. As a young boy, he was educated in London at the Merchant Taylors School, while at Cambridge he became a friend of Gabriel Harvey and later consulted him, despite their differing views on poetry. In 1578, he became for a time secretary to John Young. In 1579, he published The Shepheardes Calender and around the time married his first wife. They had two children, Sylvanus and Katherine, in July 1580, Spenser went to Ireland in service of the newly appointed Lord Deputy, Arthur Grey, 14th Baron Grey de Wilton. Spenser served under Lord Gray with Walter Raleigh at the Siege of Smerwick massacre, when Lord Grey was recalled to England, Spenser stayed on in Ireland, having acquired other official posts and lands in the Munster Plantation. Raleigh acquired other nearby Munster estates confiscated in the Second Desmond Rebellion, some time between 1587 and 1589, Spenser acquired his main estate at Kilcolman, near Doneraile in North Cork. He later bought a second holding to the south, at Rennie and its ruins are still visible today. A short distance away grew a tree, locally known as Spensers Oak until it was destroyed in a strike in the 1960s. Local legend has it that he penned some of The Faerie Queene under this tree. In 1590, Spenser brought out the first three books of his most famous work, The Faerie Queene, having travelled to London to publish and promote the work and he was successful enough to obtain a life pension of £50 a year from the Queen. By 1594, Spensers first wife had died, and in that year he married Elizabeth Boyle, the marriage itself was celebrated in Epithalamion. They had a son named Peregrine, in 1596, Spenser wrote a prose pamphlet titled A View of the Present State of Ireland. This piece, in the form of a dialogue, circulated in manuscript and it is probable that it was kept out of print during the authors lifetime because of its inflammatory content. The pamphlet argued that Ireland would never be totally pacified by the English until its indigenous language and customs had been destroyed, in 1598, during the Nine Years War, Spenser was driven from his home by the native Irish forces of Aodh Ó Néill
20.
Wood sorrel
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Oxalis /ˈɒksəlᵻs/ is by far the largest genus in the wood-sorrel family Oxalidaceae, of the approximately 900 known species in the Oxalidaceae,800 belong here. The genus occurs throughout most of the world, except for the areas, species diversity is particularly rich in tropical Brazil, Mexico. Many of the species are known as wood sorrels as they have a taste reminiscent of the unrelated sorrel proper. Some species are called yellow sorrels or pink sorrels after the color of their flowers instead, other species are colloquially known as false shamrocks, and some called sourgrasses. For the genus as a whole, the term oxalises is also used and these plants are annual or perennial. The leaves are divided into three to ten or more obovate and top notched leaflets, arranged palmately with all the leaflets of roughly equal size, the majority of species have three leaflets, in these species, the leaves are superficially similar to those of some clovers. Some species exhibit rapid changes in angle in response to temporarily high light intensity to decrease photoinhibition. The flowers have five petals, which are fused at the base. The fruit is a capsule containing several seeds. The roots are tuberous and succulent, and several species also reproduce vegetatively by production of bulbils. Tuberous woodsorrels provide food for small herbivores – such as the Montezuma quail. The foliage is eaten by some Lepidoptera, such as the Polyommatini pale grass blue – which feeds on creeping wood sorrel and others –, Oxalis species are susceptible to rust. Wood sorrel is a wild plant that has been consumed by humans around the world for millennia. The fleshy, juicy edible tubers of the oca, have long been cultivated for food in Colombia, in India, creeping wood sorrel is eaten only seasonally, starting December–January. The leaves of wood sorrel may be used to make a lemony-tasting tea when dried. A characteristic of members of this genus is that they contain oxalic acid, giving the leaves, in very large amounts, oxalic acid may be considered slightly toxic, interfering with proper digestion and kidney function. However, oxalic acid is present in more commonly consumed foods such as spinach, broccoli, brussel sprouts, grapefruit, chives. General scientific consensus seems to be that the risk of toxicity, actual poisoning from oxalic acid
21.
James Ebenezer Bicheno
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James Ebenezer Bicheno was a British author and colonial official. Bicheno was born in Newbury, Berkshire, the son of the Rev. James Bicheno and he was called to the bar in 1822 but seems to have spent most of his time until 1832 in writing and natural history pursuits, especially with the Linnean Society. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in May,1827. In 1832 he left London to live at Ty Maen, South Cornelly, Glamorgan, where he had one of the founders of the Maesteg Ironworks in 1826. This investment ultimately failed and he needed to look for an income, during his years in south Wales Bicheno held conservative views at a time of considerable social and economic change. He was certainly anti-Chartist as his correspondence with the Marquis of Bute and he was ever vigilant regarding Chartism in the Maesteg district and sent regular reports of any radical activity to the Marquis. He was appointed secretary of Van Diemens Land in September 1842. He was an amateur botanist and experimented with plants on his small farm on the banks of the New Town Rivulet. He had several papers on botany and natural history published in its Transactions and he lectured on botany to the Mechanics Institute and had papers published in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Tasmania. Bicheno was a man, and it was said that he could fit three full bags of wheat in his trousers. Bicheno, a town on the east coast of Tasmania, Australia was named after him, bichenos finch was named to commemorate him
22.
James Britten
–
James Britten was an English botanist. Born in Chelsea, London, he moved to High Wycombe in 1865 to begin a medical career, however he became increasingly interested in botany, and began writing papers on the subject. His first publication was probably published in the Journal of Botany in 1863. In 1869 he was appointed an assistant at the Herbarium at the Royal Botanic Gardens. In 1871 he joined the Department of Botany at the British Museum, in 1879 he succeeded Henry Trimen as editor of the Journal of Botany, British and Foreign. He would hold the editorship for around 45 years, botanist Norman Hall wrote of Britten, Britten threw himself fully into the editorship, although his pungent remarks on papers submitted were not always appreciated. Britten was also involved in the Catholic Truth Society. This had lapsed in 1872, but Britten helped revive it in 1884, in 1896, during his time as secretary of the Society, they published Protestant Fiction. This earned him an appointment as Knight and later Knight Commander of the Order of St. Gregory the Great by Pope Leo XIII, john Fleming MD, botanist Britten, James, Holland, Robert. For the English Dialect Society, Trübner & Ludgate Hill, fine Rare Prints The Times, Obituary, James Britten
23.
Covent Garden
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Covent Garden is a district in London on the eastern fringes of the West End, between St Martins Lane and Drury Lane. It is associated with the former fruit-and-vegetable market in the square, now a popular shopping and tourist site, and with the Royal Opera House. The area was settled in the 7th century when it became the heart of the Anglo-Saxon trading town of Lundenwic. By 1200 part of it had been walled off by Westminster Abbey for use as arable land, referred to as the garden of the Abbey and Convent, and later the Covent Garden, it was seized by Henry VIII and granted to the Earls of Bedford in 1552. The 4th Earl commissioned Inigo Jones to build fine houses to attract wealthy tenants. Jones designed the Italianate arcaded square along with the church of St Pauls, the design of the square was new to London and had a significant influence on modern town planning, acting as the prototype for new estates as London grew. By 1654 a small open-air fruit-and-vegetable market had developed on the side of the fashionable square. Gradually, both the market and the area fell into disrepute, as taverns, theatres, coffee-houses. By the 18th century it had become a well-known red-light district, an Act of Parliament was drawn up to control the area, and Charles Fowlers neo-classical building was erected in 1830 to cover and help organise the market. The market grew and further buildings were added, the Floral Hall, Charter Market, by the end of the 1960s traffic congestion was causing problems, and in 1974 the market relocated to the New Covent Garden Market about three miles south-west at Nine Elms. With the postcode WC2, Covent Garden falls within the London boroughs of Westminster and Camden, the area has been served by the Piccadilly line at Covent Garden tube station since 1907, the journey from Leicester Square, at 300 yards, is the shortest in London. What would become the Strand on the boundary of the future Covent Garden was used during the Roman period as part of a route to Silchester. Excavations in 2006 at St Martin-in-the-Fields revealed a late Roman grave and these revealed Covent Garden as the centre of a trading town called Lundenwic, developed around 600 AD, which stretched from Trafalgar Square to Aldwych. Alfred the Great gradually shifted the settlement into the old Roman town of Londinium from around 886 AD onwards, leaving no mark of the old town, a document from 1200 AD mentions a walled garden owned by the Benedictine monks of the Abbey of St Peter, Westminster. A later document, dated between 1250 and 1283, refers to the garden of the Abbot and Convent of Westminster. By the 13th century this had become a 40-acre quadrangle of mixed orchard, meadow, pasture and arable land and this is how it was recorded from then on. After the Dissolution of the Monasteries in 1540, Henry VIII took the land belonging to Westminster Abbey for himself and his son, Edward VI, granted it to John Russell, 1st Earl of Bedford, in 1552. The Russell family, who in 1694 were advanced in their peerage from Earl to Duke of Bedford, held the land until 1918
24.
Saint Patrick's Day
–
Saint Patricks Day, or the Feast of Saint Patrick, is a cultural and religious celebration held on 17 March, the traditional death date of Saint Patrick, the foremost patron saint of Ireland. The day commemorates Saint Patrick and the arrival of Christianity in Ireland, celebrations generally involve public parades and festivals, cèilidhs, and the wearing of green attire or shamrocks. Saint Patricks Day is a holiday in the Republic of Ireland, Northern Ireland, the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador. It is also celebrated by the Irish diaspora around the world, especially in Great Britain, Canada, the United States, Argentina, Australia. Saint Patricks Day is celebrated in more countries than any other national festival, modern celebrations have been greatly influenced by those of the Irish diaspora, particularly those that developed in North America. In recent years, there has been criticism of Saint Patricks Day celebrations for having become too commercialised, Patrick was a 5th-century Romano-British Christian missionary and bishop in Ireland. Much of what is known about Saint Patrick comes from the Declaration and it is believed that he was born in Roman Britain in the fourth century, into a wealthy Romano-British family. His father was a deacon and his grandfather was a priest in the Christian church, according to the Declaration, at the age of sixteen, he was kidnapped by Irish raiders and taken as a slave to Gaelic Ireland. It says that he spent six years working as a shepherd. The Declaration says that God told Patrick to flee to the coast, after making his way home, Patrick went on to become a priest. According to tradition, Patrick returned to Ireland to convert the pagan Irish to Christianity, the Declaration says that he spent many years evangelising in the northern half of Ireland and converted thousands. Patricks efforts against the druids were eventually turned into an allegory in which he drove out of Ireland. Tradition holds that he died on 17 March and was buried at Downpatrick, over the following centuries, many legends grew up around Patrick and he became Irelands foremost saint. Todays St Patricks Day celebrations have been influenced by those that developed among the Irish diaspora. Until the late 20th century, St Patricks Day was often a celebration among the diaspora than it was in Ireland. Celebrations generally involve public parades and festivals, Irish traditional music sessions, there are also formal gatherings such as banquets and dances, although these were more common in the past. St Patricks Day parades began in North America in the 18th century, the participants generally include marching bands, the military, fire brigades, cultural organisations, charitable organisations, voluntary associations, youth groups, fraternities, and so on. However, over time, many of the parades have become akin to a carnival
25.
Nathaniel Colgan
–
Nathaniel Colgan was a self-taught Irish naturalist primarily known for his botanical work. Very little is known about Colgans early life, but it is believed his parents may have been Nathaniel Watson Colgan, after leaving school, Colgan began work as a clerk in the Dublin Metropolitan Police Court and remained there until his retirement in 1916. He began visiting Europe every summer from 1875, and these inspired many of the contributions to a magazine of literary manuscripts. He was a contributor to the magazine from 1873 and edited it for a number of years. Colgan also contributed to Irish Monthly, Tinsleys Magazine and Hibernia, Colgan never married and died in Dublin on 2nd October 1919. Colgan became an amateur botanist following his discovery in 1884 of the rare plant saw-wort in Wicklow and was encouraged by Alexander Goodman More to study botany further. Moving to Sandycove in 1900, Colgan developed an interest in marine invertebrates, particularly Mollusca, Colgan recorded the marine Mollusca collected during the Clare Island Survey and his large mollusc collections from Co. Dublin and Clare Island were subsequently donated to the Natural History Museum Dublin, Colgan is noted for his work in identifying the botanical species meant by the term shamrock in the 1890s. He did this by requesting people from around Ireland send him specimens of what they believed to be an Irish shamrock, after tending these specimens until they flowered, Colgan identified five most common plant species. The most common was yellow clover, followed by white clover, red clover, black medic, dr Charles Nelson repeated the experiment in 1988, marking a hundred years since Colgans original survey, and found that yellow clover was still the most commonly chosen. Yellow clover is also the species that is cultivated for sale in Ireland on Saint Patricks Day and has been nominated by Department of Agriculture as the official shamrock of Ireland. Partial list, The Shamrock, an attempt to fix its species The Irish Naturalist,5, 95-97, The Shamrock, a further attempt to fix its species The Irish Naturalist, a monthly journal of general Irish natural history, Vol.2, No. 8, 207-211, Flora of the County Dublin, Dublin 1907 Contributions to a natural history of Lambay, marine Mollusca. Irish Naturalist 16, 33-40 Clare Island Survey, Gaelic plant and animal names, proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy 31B, 1-30 Clare Island Survey, Marine Mollusca. Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy 31B, 1-36 The opisthobranch fauna of the shores, Irish Naturalist 23, 161-204 The marine Mollusca of the shores and shallow waters of County Dublin. Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy 39B, 391-42 Works by or about Nathaniel Colgan at Internet Archive
26.
Dublin
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Dublin is the capital and largest city of Ireland. Dublin is in the province of Leinster on Irelands east coast, the city has an urban area population of 1,345,402. The population of the Greater Dublin Area, as of 2016, was 1,904,806 people, founded as a Viking settlement, the Kingdom of Dublin became Irelands principal city following the Norman invasion. The city expanded rapidly from the 17th century and was briefly the second largest city in the British Empire before the Acts of Union in 1800, following the partition of Ireland in 1922, Dublin became the capital of the Irish Free State, later renamed Ireland. Dublin is administered by a City Council, the city is listed by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network as a global city, with a ranking of Alpha-, which places it amongst the top thirty cities in the world. It is a historical and contemporary centre for education, the arts, administration, economy, the name Dublin comes from the Irish word Dubhlinn, early Classical Irish Dubhlind/Duibhlind, dubh /d̪uβ/, alt. /d̪uw/, alt /d̪u, / meaning black, dark, and lind /lʲiɲ pool and this tidal pool was located where the River Poddle entered the Liffey, on the site of the castle gardens at the rear of Dublin Castle. In Modern Irish the name is Duibhlinn, and Irish rhymes from Dublin County show that in Dublin Leinster Irish it was pronounced Duílinn /d̪ˠi, other localities in Ireland also bear the name Duibhlinn, variously anglicized as Devlin, Divlin and Difflin. Historically, scribes using the Gaelic script wrote bh with a dot over the b and those without knowledge of Irish omitted the dot, spelling the name as Dublin. Variations on the name are found in traditionally Irish-speaking areas of Scotland, such as An Linne Dhubh. It is now thought that the Viking settlement was preceded by a Christian ecclesiastical settlement known as Duibhlinn, beginning in the 9th and 10th century, there were two settlements where the modern city stands. Baile Átha Cliath, meaning town of the ford, is the common name for the city in modern Irish. Áth Cliath is a name referring to a fording point of the River Liffey near Father Mathew Bridge. Baile Átha Cliath was an early Christian monastery, believed to have been in the area of Aungier Street, there are other towns of the same name, such as Àth Cliath in East Ayrshire, Scotland, which is Anglicised as Hurlford. Although the area of Dublin Bay has been inhabited by humans since prehistoric times and he called the settlement Eblana polis. It is now thought that the Viking settlement was preceded by a Christian ecclesiastical settlement known as Duibhlinn, beginning in the 9th and 10th century, there were two settlements where the modern city stands. The subsequent Scandinavian settlement centred on the River Poddle, a tributary of the Liffey in an area now known as Wood Quay, the Dubhlinn was a small lake used to moor ships, the Poddle connected the lake with the Liffey. This lake was covered during the early 18th century as the city grew, the Dubhlinn lay where the Castle Garden is now located, opposite the Chester Beatty Library in Dublin Castle
27.
National Botanic Gardens (Ireland)
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The National Botanic Gardens are located in Glasnevin,5 km north-west of Dublin city centre, Ireland. The 19.5 hectares are situated between Prospect Cemetery and the River Tolka where it forms part of that rivers floodplain, the gardens were founded in 1795 by the Dublin Society and they have grown to hold 20,000 living plants and many millions of dried plant specimens. There are several architecturally notable greenhouses, today the Glasnevin site is the headquarters of the National Botanic Gardens of Ireland which has a satellite garden at Kilmcurragh in county Wicklow. The botanic garden participates in national and international initiatives for biodiversity conservation, the Director, Dr. Matthew Jebb, is also Chairman of PlantNetwork, The Plant Collections Network of Britain and Ireland. It is Irelands seventh most visited attraction, and the second most visited free attraction, a double line of yew trees, known as Addisons Walk survives from this period. The original purpose of the gardens had been to advance knowledge of plants for agriculture, medicine, the gardens were the first location in Ireland where the infection responsible for the 1845–1847 potato famine was identified. Throughout the famine, research to stop the infection was undertaken at the gardens, Walter Wade and John Underwood, the first Director and Superintendent respectively, executed the layout of the gardens, but, when Wade died in 1825, they declined for some years. From 1834, Director Ninian Nivan brought new life into the gardens and this programme of change and development continued with the following Directors into the late 1960s. The gardens were placed into government care in 1877, in the winter of 1948/9 Ludwig Wittgenstein lived and worked in Ireland. He frequently came to the Palm House to sit and write, there is a plaque commemorating him on the steps he sat on. As well as being a tourist destination and an amenity for residents, it also serves as a centre for horticultural research. The soil at Glasnevin is strongly alkaline and this restricts the cultivation of plants such as rhododendrons to specially prepared areas. Nonetheless, the display a range of outdoor habitats such as a rockery, herbaceous border, rose garden, bog garden. A vegetable garden has also been established, the National Herbarium is also housed at the National Botanic Gardens. The museum collection contains some 20,000 samples of plant products, including fruits, seeds, wood, fibres, plant extracts and artefacts, the gardens contain noted and historically important collections of orchids. The newly restored Palm House houses many tropical and subtropical plants, in 2002, a new multistorey complex was built, it includes a cafe and a large lecture theatre. It has responsibility for the Arboretum at Kilmacurragh, County Wicklow and this is located some 50 kilometres south of Dublin. The gardens include some glasshouses of architectural importance, such as the Palm House, the Great Palm House is situated in the southern parts of the gardens, and is connected to the cactus house on its west side, and the orchid house on its east side
28.
St. Patrick's Day
–
Saint Patricks Day, or the Feast of Saint Patrick, is a cultural and religious celebration held on 17 March, the traditional death date of Saint Patrick, the foremost patron saint of Ireland. The day commemorates Saint Patrick and the arrival of Christianity in Ireland, celebrations generally involve public parades and festivals, cèilidhs, and the wearing of green attire or shamrocks. Saint Patricks Day is a holiday in the Republic of Ireland, Northern Ireland, the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador. It is also celebrated by the Irish diaspora around the world, especially in Great Britain, Canada, the United States, Argentina, Australia. Saint Patricks Day is celebrated in more countries than any other national festival, modern celebrations have been greatly influenced by those of the Irish diaspora, particularly those that developed in North America. In recent years, there has been criticism of Saint Patricks Day celebrations for having become too commercialised, Patrick was a 5th-century Romano-British Christian missionary and bishop in Ireland. Much of what is known about Saint Patrick comes from the Declaration and it is believed that he was born in Roman Britain in the fourth century, into a wealthy Romano-British family. His father was a deacon and his grandfather was a priest in the Christian church, according to the Declaration, at the age of sixteen, he was kidnapped by Irish raiders and taken as a slave to Gaelic Ireland. It says that he spent six years working as a shepherd. The Declaration says that God told Patrick to flee to the coast, after making his way home, Patrick went on to become a priest. According to tradition, Patrick returned to Ireland to convert the pagan Irish to Christianity, the Declaration says that he spent many years evangelising in the northern half of Ireland and converted thousands. Patricks efforts against the druids were eventually turned into an allegory in which he drove out of Ireland. Tradition holds that he died on 17 March and was buried at Downpatrick, over the following centuries, many legends grew up around Patrick and he became Irelands foremost saint. Todays St Patricks Day celebrations have been influenced by those that developed among the Irish diaspora. Until the late 20th century, St Patricks Day was often a celebration among the diaspora than it was in Ireland. Celebrations generally involve public parades and festivals, Irish traditional music sessions, there are also formal gatherings such as banquets and dances, although these were more common in the past. St Patricks Day parades began in North America in the 18th century, the participants generally include marching bands, the military, fire brigades, cultural organisations, charitable organisations, voluntary associations, youth groups, fraternities, and so on. However, over time, many of the parades have become akin to a carnival
29.
Clover
–
Clover or trefoil are common names for plants of the genus Trifolium, consisting of about 300 species of plants in the leguminous pea family Fabaceae. They are small annual, biennial, or short-lived perennial herbaceous plants. The leaves are trifoliate, with adnate to the leaf-stalk, and heads or dense spikes of small red, purple, white, or yellow flowers. Other closely related genera often called clovers include Melilotus and Medicago, several species of clover are extensively cultivated as fodder plants. The most widely cultivated clovers are white clover Trifolium repens and red clover Trifolium pratense, in many areas, particularly on acidic soil, clover is short-lived because of a combination of insect pests, diseases and nutrient balance, this is known as clover sickness. When crop rotations are managed so that clover does not recur at intervals shorter than eight years, clover sickness in more recent times may also be linked to pollinator decline, clovers are most efficiently pollinated by bumblebees, which have declined as a result of agricultural intensification. Honeybees can also pollinate clover, and beekeepers are often in demand from farmers with clover pastures. Farmers reap the benefits of increased reseeding that occurs with increased bee activity, beekeepers benefit from the clover bloom, as clover is one of the main nectar sources for honeybees. Trifolium repens, white or Dutch clover, is a perennial abundant in meadows, the flowers are white or pinkish, becoming brown and deflexed as the corolla fades. Trifolium hybridum, alsike or Swedish clover, is a perennial which was introduced early in the 19th century and has now become naturalized in Britain, the flowers are white or rosy, and resemble those of the last species. Trifolium medium, meadow or zigzag clover, a perennial with straggling flexuous stems, clovers occasionally have four leaflets, instead of the usual three. These four-leaf clovers, like other rarities, are considered lucky, clovers can also have five, six, or more leaflets, but these are rarer. The record for most leaflets is 56, set on 10 May 2009 and this beat the 21-leaf clover, a record set in June 2008 by the same discoverer, who had also held the prior Guinness World Record of 18. A common idiom is to be in clover, meaning to live a life of ease, comfort. The cloverleaf interchange is named for the resemblance to the leaflets of a clover when viewed from the air, quattrofolium Edibility of clover, Edible parts and visual identification of wild clover
30.
Oxalis
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Oxalis /ˈɒksəlᵻs/ is by far the largest genus in the wood-sorrel family Oxalidaceae, of the approximately 900 known species in the Oxalidaceae,800 belong here. The genus occurs throughout most of the world, except for the areas, species diversity is particularly rich in tropical Brazil, Mexico. Many of the species are known as wood sorrels as they have a taste reminiscent of the unrelated sorrel proper. Some species are called yellow sorrels or pink sorrels after the color of their flowers instead, other species are colloquially known as false shamrocks, and some called sourgrasses. For the genus as a whole, the term oxalises is also used and these plants are annual or perennial. The leaves are divided into three to ten or more obovate and top notched leaflets, arranged palmately with all the leaflets of roughly equal size, the majority of species have three leaflets, in these species, the leaves are superficially similar to those of some clovers. Some species exhibit rapid changes in angle in response to temporarily high light intensity to decrease photoinhibition. The flowers have five petals, which are fused at the base. The fruit is a capsule containing several seeds. The roots are tuberous and succulent, and several species also reproduce vegetatively by production of bulbils. Tuberous woodsorrels provide food for small herbivores – such as the Montezuma quail. The foliage is eaten by some Lepidoptera, such as the Polyommatini pale grass blue – which feeds on creeping wood sorrel and others –, Oxalis species are susceptible to rust. Wood sorrel is a wild plant that has been consumed by humans around the world for millennia. The fleshy, juicy edible tubers of the oca, have long been cultivated for food in Colombia, in India, creeping wood sorrel is eaten only seasonally, starting December–January. The leaves of wood sorrel may be used to make a lemony-tasting tea when dried. A characteristic of members of this genus is that they contain oxalic acid, giving the leaves, in very large amounts, oxalic acid may be considered slightly toxic, interfering with proper digestion and kidney function. However, oxalic acid is present in more commonly consumed foods such as spinach, broccoli, brussel sprouts, grapefruit, chives. General scientific consensus seems to be that the risk of toxicity, actual poisoning from oxalic acid
31.
Tailtiu
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Tailtiu or Tailltiu is the name of a presumed goddess from Irish mythology. The goddesss name is linked to Teltown in Co, meath, site of the Óenach Tailten. A legendary dindsenchas lore of places poem relates a myth connecting the presumed goddess Tailtiu with the site, however, linguistic analysis of the name reveals that Tailtiu as a place-name derives from a loan word of Brythonic origin represented by the Welsh telediw well formed, beautiful. The mythological character of Tailtiu likely derives her name from the place-name, according to the Book of Invasions, Tailtiu was the daughter of the king of Spain and the wife of Eochaid mac Eirc, last Fir Bolg High King of Ireland, who named his capital after her. She survived the invasion of the Tuatha Dé Danann and became the mother of Lugh. Tailtiu is said to have died of exhaustion after clearing the plains of Ireland for agriculture, Lugh established a harvest festival and funeral games, Áenach Tailteann, in her honour, which continued to be celebrated as late as the 18th century. The first Áenach Tailteann, later the Tailtin Fair, was held at Teltown, historically, the Áenach Tailteann was a time for contests of strength and skill, and a favoured time for contracting marriages and winter lodgings. A peace was declared at the festival, and religious celebrations were also held, aspects of the festival survive in the celebrations of Lughnasadh, and were revived as the Teltown Games for a period in the twentieth century. A similar Lughnasadh festival was held at Carmun, similar to Tailtiu, the festival at Carmun is celebrated by a dindsenchas poem that provides a psedo-etymology for the site. The poem claims that the festival is named after the mythological Carmun, but as with Tailtiu, this mythological figure likely derives its name from the place-name. In historical times the town of Tailtiu was where the assembly of the early Uí Néill dynasties was held. From the Locus Project at CELT, Tailte had one or two raths in Munster, ráith canann, a ráith of queen Tailte, LL201, limerick ráith con, rath of queen Tailte, LL201, in Tuath Tailten, UM 165b, Lec. 514, Stowe D ii 2,656, cf. Rathcon, cashel, Tax Rathcanann and Rath Con may or may not be identical. Tailltiu ingen Murchadha H. Mael Sechlainn ben Tairrdhelbaigh H. Concobuir M1170, tailltin, inghen Conchobhair Uí Maoil Sechlaind, ben Iomhair Uí Chathasaigh, tigherna Saithne
32.
Brigid of Kildare
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Saint Brigid of Kildare or Brigid of Ireland is one of Irelands patron saints, along with Patrick and Columba. Irish hagiography makes her an early Irish Christian nun, abbess, and foundress of several monasteries of nuns, including that of Kildare in Ireland and her feast day is 1 February, which was originally a pagan festival called Imbolc, marking the beginning of spring. Her feast day is shared by Dar Lugdach, whom tradition says was her student, the saint shares her name with an important Celtic goddess and there are many legends and folk customs associated with her. Some scholars suggest that the saint is merely a Christianization of the goddess, others suggest that she was a real person who took on the goddesss attributes. The saint has the name as the goddess Brigid, derived from the Proto-Celtic *Brigantī high, exalted. In Old Irish her name was spelled Brigit and pronounced, in Modern Irish it was spelled Briġid / BrighidBride and she is sometimes known as Mary of the Gael. In Welsh she is called Ffraid, as in places called Llansanffraid. There is some debate over whether St Brigid was a real person and she has the same name, associations and feast day as the Celtic goddess Brigid, and there are many supernatural events, legends and folk customs associated with her. Some scholars suggest that the saint is merely a Christianization of the goddess, others suggest that she was a real person who took on the goddesss attributes. Medieval Art Historian Pamela Berger argues that Christian monks took the ancient figure of the goddess and grafted her name. Professor Dáithí Ó hÓgáin and others suggest that the saint had been chief druidess at the temple of the goddess Brigid, after her death, the name and characteristics of the goddess became attached to the saint. Probably the earliest biography of St Brigid is that by St Broccán Clóen, a second Life was written by Cogitosus, a monk of Kildare in the eighth century, and is a fine example of Irish scholarship in the mid-eighth century. The Life attributed to Coelan dating ca,625, derives further significance from the fact that a foreword was later added to it by St Donatus, also an Irish monk, who became Bishop of Fiesole in 824. St Donatus refers to earlier biographies by St Ultan and St Aileran and these differing biographies, giving conflicting accounts of her life, have much literary merit in themselves. Brigid was born in the year 451 AD in Faughart, Dundalk, Ireland, because of the legendary quality of the earliest accounts of her life, there is much debate among many secular scholars and even Christians as to the authenticity of her biographies. Three biographies agree that her mother was Brocca, a Christian Pict and they name her father as Dubhthach, a chieftain of Leinster. The vitae say that Brigids mother was a slave and that Dubthachs wife forced him to sell her to a druid when she became pregnant, Brigid herself was born into slavery. From the start, it was clear that Brigid was holy, when the druid tried to feed her, she vomited due to his impurity
33.
Kern (soldier)
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A Kern was a Gaelic soldier, specifically a light infantryman in Ireland during the Middle Ages. The word kern is an anglicisation of the Middle Irish word ceithern or ceithrenn meaning a collection of persons, an individual member is a ceithernach. The word may derive from a conjectural proto-Celtic word *keternā, ultimately from an Indo-European root meaning a chain, Kern was adopted into English as a term for a Gaelic soldier in mediaeval Ireland and as cateran, meaning Highland marauder, bandit. Kerns notably accompanied bands of the mercenary Gallóglaigh as their light infantry forces and this two-tier army structure though should not be taken to reflect earlier Irish armies prior to the Norman invasions, as there were more locally trained soldiers filling various roles prior to this. The Gallowglass largely replaced the other forms of infantry though, as more Irish began to train to imitate them, creating Gallowglass of purely Irish origin. They would be armed from common stock or by what they owned themselves, as a result, they also found themselves fighting upon distant shores in Europe where they were famous as ferocious light infantrymen. Indeed, Desmond Seward is eloquent when he describes the Kerns in France, The Prior, the kern had made a strong impression by their outlandish dress and their ferocity, riding back from raids with severed heads dangling from their bareback ponies. There were other Irishmen who, led by the Butler family, made a small, the fourth earl of Ormonde-–Fra Thomas was his bastard son-–had been on Clarences chevauchee in 1412 and also took part in the siege of Rouen. Two more of his sons, Sir John and Sir James Butler were to be noted captains under Bedford, military equipment and tactics There is little evidence to suggest that the kern wore armour, though this point is disputed. Kerns were light troops who relied on speed and mobility, often utilising lightning strike tactics as a force-multiplier to engage much larger formations, in the words of one writer, they were, lighter and lustier than in travail and footmanship. The dart was the weapon of choice for the kern, the bow never achieving popularity in the country, Kerns were of great use in the warfare that revolved around cattle raiding in Ireland at the time. Their role was to herd captured cattle away from the enemy territory, when confronted by English style regiments, the kern would follow enemy troops on their march route, firing on them with darts, javelins, and stones from slings. Occasionally, provided the terrain and timing was right, kerns would move in for close combat. If their opponents broke and ran, they could easily be run down by the swift kern, on occasions where they were pursued into the more difficult terrain of bogs or woods, the hunters risked becoming the hunted as the kern could double back and eliminate isolated groups. Native Irish displaced by the Anglo-Norman invasion, operated as bandits in the forests of Ireland where they were known as wood kerns or Cethern Coille. I cannot strike at wretched kerns, whose arms Are hired to bear their staves, either thou, Macbeth, Or else my sword with an unbatterd edge I sheathe again undeeded
34.
Edmund Campion
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Saint Edmund Campion, S. J. was an English Roman Catholic Jesuit priest and martyr. While conducting a ministry in officially Anglican England, Campion was arrested by priest hunters. Convicted of high treason, he was hanged, drawn and quartered at Tyburn, Campion was beatified by Pope Leo XIII in 1886 and canonised in 1970 by Pope Paul VI as one of the Forty Martyrs of England and Wales. His feast is celebrated on 1 December, born in London on 24 January 1540, Campion was the son of a bookseller in Paternoster Row, near St Pauls Cathedral. He received his education at Christs Hospital school and, at the age of 13, was chosen to make the complimentary speech when Queen Mary visited the city in August 1553. He then attended St Johns College, Oxford, becoming fellow in 1557 and taking the required Oath of Supremacy. He took a degree at Oxford in 1564. Two years later, Campion welcomed Queen Elizabeth to the university and he was selected to lead a public debate in front of the Queen. By the time the Queen had left Oxford, Campion had earned the patronage of the powerful William Cecil and also the Earl of Leicester, when Sir Thomas White, the founder of the college, was buried in 1567, the Latin oration fell to the lot of Campion. Inwardly he took a remorse of conscience and detestation of mind, for some three months he eluded his pursuers, going by the name Mr Patrick and occupying himself by writing A Historie of Ireland. He entered the English College founded by William Allen, the enrollment of the college grew, and a papal subsidy was granted a little time after Campions arrival. Campion found himself reunited with Oxford friends and he was to teach rhetoric while there and finish studying for the degree of Bachelor of Divinity, which was granted him by the University of Douai on 21 January 1573. He received minor orders after this and was ordained sub-deacon, Campion then travelled to Rome on foot, alone and in the guise of a pilgrim, to join the Jesuits. In April 1573, in Rome, he became the first novice accepted into the Society of Jesus by Mercurianus and he was assigned to the Austrian Province as there was not yet an English province of the Jesuits and began his two-year novitiate at Brunn in Moravia. He was ordained deacon and priest by Anthony Brus, O. M. C. R. S, archbishop of Prague and said his first Mass on 8 September 1578. For six years, Campion taught at the Jesuit college in Prague as professor of rhetoric and philosophy. In 1580, the Jesuit mission to England began, the mission was strictly forbidden, according to Campions Brag, to deal in any respects with matters of state or policy of this realm. Robert Persons who, as superior, was intended to counterbalance his own fervour and he had been surprised to learn that he was chosen to take part in the mission, and expressed the fear that he lacked constitutional courage
35.
Desmond Rebellions
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The Desmond Rebellions occurred in 1569–1573 and 1579–1583 in the Irish province of Munster. They culminated in the destruction of the Desmond dynasty and the plantation or colonisation of Munster with English Protestant settlers, Desmond is the Anglicisation of the Irish Deasmumhain, meaning South Munster. The south of Ireland was dominated, as it had been for two centuries, by the Old English Butlers of Ormonde and the FitzGeralds of Desmond. Both families raised their own armed forces and imposed their own law, beginning in the 1530s, successive English administrations tried to expand English control over Ireland. His solution was the formation of lord presidencies—provincial military governors who would replace the local lords as military powers and keepers of the peace, the dynasties saw the presidencies as intrusions into their sphere of influence. Their interfamilial competition had seen the Butlers and FitzGeralds fight a battle against each other at Affane in County Waterford in 1565. in defiance of English law. Elizabeth I summoned the heads of houses to London to explain their actions. However, the treatment of the dynasties was not even-handed and this decapitated the natural leadership of the Munster Geraldines and left the Desmond earldom in the hands of a soldier, James FitzMaurice FitzGerald, the captain general of the Desmond military. FitzMaurice had little stake in a new demilitarised order in Munster and this ensured FitzMaurice the support of important Munster clans, notably MacCarthy Mór, OSullivan Beare and OKeefe, and two prominent Butlers, brothers of the Earl. Fitzmaurice himself had lost the land he had held at Kerricurrihy in County Cork and he was a devout Catholic, influenced by the counter-reformation, and saw the Protestant Elizabethan governors as his enemies. FitzMaurice had wider aims than simply the recovery of FitzGerald supremacy within the context of the English Kingdom of Ireland, before the rebellion, he secretly sent Maurice MacGibbon, Catholic Archbishop of Cashel, to seek military aid from Philip II of Spain. FitzMaurice first attacked the English colony at Kerrycurihy south of Cork city in June 1569, before attacking Cork itself, FitzMaurices force of 4,500 men went on to besiege Kilkenny, seat of the Earls of Ormonde, in July. In response, Sidney mobilised 600 English troops, who marched south from Dublin, thomas Butler, Earl of Ormonde, returned from London, where he had been at court, brought the Butlers out of the rebellion and mobilised Gaelic Irish clans antagonistic to the Geraldines. Together, Ormonde, Sidney and Humphrey Gilbert, appointed as governor of Munster, FitzMaurices forces broke up, as individual lords had to retire to defend their own territories. Gilbert, a half-brother of Sir Walter Raleigh, was the most notorious for terror tactics, killing civilians at random, Sidney forced FitzMaurice into the mountains of Kerry, from where he launched guerrilla attacks on the English and their allies. By 1570, most of FitzMaurices allies had submitted to Sidney, the most important, Donal MacCarthy Mór, surrendered in November 1569. Nevertheless, the campaign continued for three more years. In February 1571, John Perrot was made Lord President of Munster and he pursued FitzMaurice with 700 troops for over a year without success
36.
Whisky
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Whisky or whiskey is a type of distilled alcoholic beverage made from fermented grain mash. Various grains are used for different varieties, including barley, corn, rye, Whisky is typically aged in wooden casks, generally made of charred white oak. Whisky is a strictly regulated spirit worldwide with many classes and types, the typical unifying characteristics of the different classes and types are the fermentation of grains, distillation, and aging in wooden barrels. The word whiskey is an anglicisation of the Classical Gaelic word uisce meaning water, distilled alcohol was known in Latin as aqua vitae. This was translated to Classical Gaelic as uisce beatha, which became uisce beatha in Irish, early forms of the word in English included uskebeaghe, usquebaugh, usquebath, and usquebae. Much is made of the two spellings, whiskey and whisky. There are two schools of thought on the issue, there is general agreement that when quoting the proper name printed on a label, the spelling on the label should not be altered. Some writers refer to whisky or whisky/whiskey to acknowledge the variation, the spelling whiskey is common in Ireland and the United States, while whisky is used in all other whisky producing countries. In the US, the usage has not always been consistent, from the late eighteenth century to the mid twentieth century, American writers used both spellings interchangeably until the introduction of newspaper style guides. Since the 1960s, American writers have increasingly used whiskey as the spelling for aged grain spirits made in the US. Scotch is the internationally recognized term for Scotch whisky, the earliest certain chemical distillations were by Greeks in Alexandria in the 1st century AD, but these were not distillations of alcohol. The medieval Arabs adopted the technique of the Alexandrian Greeks, and written records in Arabic begin in the 9th century. Distilling technology passed from the medieval Arabs to the medieval Latins, the earliest records of the distillation of alcohol are in Italy in the 13th century, where alcohol was distilled from wine. An early description of the technique was given by Ramon Llull and its use spread through medieval monasteries, largely for medicinal purposes, such as the treatment of colic and smallpox. The art of distillation spread to Ireland and Scotland no later than the 15th century, the practice of medicinal distillation eventually passed from a monastic setting to the secular via professional medical practitioners of the time, The Guild of Barber Surgeons. The earliest Irish mention of whisky comes from the seventeenth-century Annals of Clonmacnoise, between 1536 and 1541, King Henry VIII of England dissolved the monasteries, sending their monks out into the general public. Whisky production moved out of a setting and into personal homes. The distillation process was still in its infancy, whisky itself was not allowed to age, renaissance-era whisky was also very potent and not diluted
37.
John Taylor (poet)
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John Taylor was an English poet who dubbed himself The Water Poet. He was born in Gloucester,24 August 1578, after his waterman apprenticeship he served in Essexs fleet, and was present at Flores in 1597 and at the siege of Cadiz. He details the uprisings in the pamphlets Iohn Taylors Manifestation. and in John Taylors Last Voyage and Adventure of 1641. Taylor discusses the watermens disputes with the companies in The True Cause of the Watermens Suit Concerning Players. An Arrant Thief says, All sorts of men, work all the means they can, To make a Thief of every waterman, And as it were in one consent they join, To trot by land i th dirt, and save their coin. When Queen Elizabeth came to the crown, A coach in England then was known, Then twas as rare to see one. Taylor was also the first poet to mention the deaths of William Shakespeare and Francis Beaumont in print, in his 1620 poem, both had died four years earlier. In paper, many a poet now survives Or else their lines had perishd with their lives. Old Chaucer, Gower, and Sir Thomas More, Sir Philip Sidney, who the laurel wore, Spenser, sylvester, Beaumont, Sir John Harrington, Forgetfulness their works would over run But that in paper they immortally Do live in spite of death, and cannot die. He was a prolific, if rough-hewn writer, with one hundred. Many were gathered into the compilation All the Workes of John Taylor the Water Poet, not included in the Folio edition of 1630. Although his work was not sophisticated, he was an observer of people and styles in the seventeenth century. An example is his 1621 work Taylors Motto, which included a list of then-current card games, from his journey to Scotland in 1618, on which he took no money, Taylor published his Pennyless Pilgrimage. Taylor is one of the few credited early authors of a palindrome, in 1614, he wrote Lewd did I live and he wrote a poem about Thomas Parr, a man who supposedly lived to the age of 152. He was also the author of a language called Barmoodan. Many of Taylors works were published by subscription, i. e. he would propose a book, ask for contributors, and write it when he had enough subscribers to undertake the printing costs. Those who defaulted on the subscription were chided the following year in a brochure entitled A Kicksey Winsey, or, A Lerry Come-Twang. By wondrous accident perchance one may Grope out a needle in a load of hay, And though a white crow be exceedingly rare, A blind man may, by fortune, catch a hare
38.
Wicklow
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Wicklow is the county town of County Wicklow and the capital of the Mid-East Region in Ireland. Located south of Dublin on the east coast of the island, the town is to the east of the N11 route between Dublin and Wexford. Wicklow is also linked to the network, with Dublin commuter services now extending to the town. Additional services connect with Arklow, Wexford and Rosslare Europort, a ferry port. There is also a port, mainly importing timber and textiles. The River Vartry is the river which flows through the town. Wicklow town forms a semicircle around Wicklow harbour. To the immediate north lies The Murrough, a popular walking area beside the sea. The eastern coastal strip includes Wicklow bay, a crescent shaped stone beach approximately 10 km in length, Ballyguile Hill is to the southwest of the town. Much of the developments of the 1970s and 1980s occurred in this area. The land rises into rolling hills to the west, going on to meet the Wicklow Mountains in the centre of the county, the dominant feature to the south is the rocky headlands of Brides Head and Wicklow Head, the easternmost mainland point of the Republic of Ireland. On a very clear day it is possible to see the Snowdonia mountain range in Wales, similar to much of the rest of northwestern Europe, Wicklow experiences a maritime climate with cool summers, mild winters, and a lack of temperature extremes. The average maximum January temperature is 9.2 °C, while the average maximum August temperature is 21.2 °C, on average, the sunniest month is May. The wettest month is October with 118.9 mm of rain, with the exceptions of October and November, rainfall is evenly distributed throughout the year with rainfall falling within a relatively narrow band of between 60 and 86 mm for any one month. However, a spike occurs in October and November each of which records almost double the typical rainfall of April. Wicklow is sheltered locally by Ballyguile hill and, more distantly by the Wicklow mountains and this sheltered location makes it one of the driest and warmest places in Ireland. It receives only about 60% the rainfall of the west coast, in addition because Wicklow is protected by the mountains from southwesterly and westerly winds, it enjoys higher average temperatures than much of Ireland. Its average high in August of 21.2 °C is a full 1 °C higher than the highest average month in Dublin, while its location is favorable for protection against the prevailing winds that is common to much of Ireland, Wicklow is particularly exposed to easterly winds
39.
Christianization
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Christianization is the conversion of individuals to Christianity or the conversion of entire groups at once. Various strategies and techniques were employed in Christianization campaigns from Late Antiquity, often the conversion of the ruler was followed by the compulsory baptism of his subjects. In essence, it was intended that the traditions and practices still existed, Early works of this type have tended to be downplayed and even dismissed as a form of Protestant apologetics aimed at purification of Christianity. The Council of Jerusalem, according to Acts 15, agreed that lack of circumcision could not be a basis for excluding Gentile believers from membership in the Jesus community. Rather, they instructed new believers to avoid pollution of idols, fornication, things strangled, the Apostolic Decree thus helped to establish nascent Christianity as a unique alternative among the forms of Judaism for prospective Proselytes. The Armenian and Ethiopian churches are the instances of imposition of Christianity by sovereign rulers predating the council of Nicaea. The initial conversion of the Roman Empire occurred mostly in areas of Europe. Later conversions happened among the Grecian-Roman-Celtic populations over centuries, often initially among its urban population, the term pagan is from Latin and means villager, rustic, civilian. It is derived from this historical transition, the root of that word is present in todays word paisan or paisano. The Christianization of the Roman Empire is typically divided into two phases, before and after the year 312, which marked the momentous quasi-conversion of Constantine. By this date, Christianity had already converted a significant but unknown proportion of at least the urban population of the empire, Constantine ended the intermittent persecution of Christianity with the Edict of Milan, which granted tolerance to all religions, but specifically mentioned Christianity. Under Constantines successors, Christianization of Roman society proceeded by fits and starts, Constantines sons, for example, banned pagan state religious sacrifices in 341, but did not close the temples. Although all state temples in all cities were ordered shut in 356, under Julian, the temples were reopened and state religious sacrifices performed once more. When Gratian declined the position and title of Pontifex Maximus, his act brought an end to the state religion due to the positions authority. Again, however, this process ended state official practices but not private religious devotion, however, many temples remained open until Theodosius Is edict of Thessalonica in 381 banned haruspices and other pagan religious practices. From 389 to 393 he issued a series of decrees which led to the banning of religious rites and by confiscating their property. Further laws were passed against remaining pagan practices over the course of the following years, the effectiveness of these laws empire-wide is debatable. Christianization of central Balkans is documented at the end of the 4th century, where Nicetas the Bishop of Remesiana brought the gospel to those mountain wolves, reportedly his mission was successful, and the worship of Dionysus and other Thracian gods was eventually replaced by Christianity
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