1.
Foreign concession
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Usually, it is conceded, that is, allowed or even surrendered by a weaker state to a stronger power. One of the concessions in Tianjin, in China, officially surrendered by Austria in 1919 and Hungary in 1920 respectively. Belgian colonizing efforts ceased after a few years, due to the lack of financial means, on 19 December 1984, the UK agreed to restore all of Hong Kong — including the territories ceded in perpetuity — to China on 1 July 1997. The British concession in Tianjin, in which the trade centred, was situated on the bank of the river Peiho below the native city. It was held on a lease in perpetuity granted by the Chinese government to the British Crown, the local management was entrusted to a municipal council organized on lines similar to those at Shanghai. The British concession on the Shamian Island in Guangzhou, tati Concessions Land 1872–1911, in a small part of present Botswana, detached from the Matabele kingdom. Between 1882 and 1884, the Qing Empire obtained concessions in Korea at Incheon, the concessions were occupied by Japan in 1894 after the outbreak of the First Sino-Japanese War. The concessions were formally abolished in 1898,6 April 1849 French concession in Shanghai established,17 July 1854 Municipal Council established. Relinquished by Vichy France to a Japan-sponsored puppet government in China, on 23 August 1914, Republic of China canceled the German lease. The concession was occupied by Japan on 7 November 1914, One of the Concessions in Tianjin One of the concessions in Hankou A concession zone in Tianjin was conceded to the Kingdom of Italy by Qing China on 7 September 1901. It was administered by Italys Consul and had a population of 6,261 in 1935, several ships of the Italian Royal Navy were based at Tianjin. During World War II, the primary Italian vessels based at Tianjin were the minelayer Lepanto, on 10 September 1943, the Italian concession at Tianjin was occupied by Japan. On 10 February 1947, by treaty, the zone was formally returned to Nationalist China by the Republic of Italy. In China, the only non-Western concession in Tianjin, the only non-Western concession in Hankou. The concession turned into a Portuguese colony in mid-19th Century, the Chinese government assumed sovereignty over Macau on 20 December 1999, ending 329 years of Portuguese colonial rule. One of the Concessions in Tianjin, One of the concessions of Hankou. In both cases, the Soviets limited themselves to a command, without any civilian administration. Guantanamo Bay, leased from Cuba under 1903 and 1934 treaties in perpetuity, no civilian administration, One of the Concessions in Tianjin
2.
French Third Republic
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It came to an end on 10 July 1940. Harsh reparations exacted by the Prussians after the war resulted in the loss of the French regions of Alsace and Lorraine, social upheaval, and the establishment of the Paris Commune. The early governments of the Third Republic considered re-establishing the monarchy, but confusion as to the nature of that monarchy, thus, the Third Republic, which was originally intended as a provisional government, instead became the permanent government of France. The French Constitutional Laws of 1875 defined the composition of the Third Republic and it consisted of a Chamber of Deputies and a Senate to form the legislative branch of government and a president to serve as head of state. The period from the start of World War I to the late 1930s featured sharply polarized politics, Adolphe Thiers called republicanism in the 1870s the form of government that divides France least, however, politics under the Third Republic were sharply polarized. On the left stood Reformist France, heir to the French Revolution, on the right stood conservative France, rooted in the peasantry, the Roman Catholic Church and the army. The Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871 resulted in the defeat of France, after Napoleons capture by the Prussians at the Battle of Sedan, Parisian deputies led by Léon Gambetta established the Government of National Defence as a provisional government on 4 September 1870. The deputies then selected General Louis-Jules Trochu to serve as its president and this first government of the Third Republic ruled during the Siege of Paris. After the French surrender in January 1871, the provisional Government of National Defence disbanded, French territories occupied by Prussia at this time did not participate. The resulting conservative National Assembly elected Adolphe Thiers as head of a provisional government, due to the revolutionary and left-wing political climate that prevailed in the Parisian population, the right-wing government chose the royal palace of Versailles as its headquarters. The new government negotiated a settlement with the newly proclaimed German Empire. To prompt the Prussians to leave France, the government passed a variety of laws, such as the controversial Law of Maturities. The following repression of the communards would have consequences for the labor movement. The Orléanists supported a descendant of King Louis Philippe I, the cousin of Charles X who replaced him as the French monarch in 1830, his grandson Louis-Philippe, Comte de Paris. The Bonapartists were marginalized due to the defeat of Napoléon III and were unable to advance the candidacy of any member of his family, the Bonaparte family. Legitimists and Orléanists came to a compromise, eventually, whereby the childless Comte de Chambord would be recognised as king, consequently, in 1871 the throne was offered to the Comte de Chambord. Chambord believed the monarchy had to eliminate all traces of the Revolution in order to restore the unity between the monarchy and the nation, which the revolution had sundered apart. Compromise on this was if the nation were to be made whole again
3.
Vichy France
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Vichy France is the common name of the French State headed by Marshal Philippe Pétain during World War II. In particular, it represents the southern, unoccupied Free Zone that governed the southern part of the country, from 1940 to 1942, while the Vichy regime was the nominal government of France as a whole, Germany militarily occupied northern France. Thus, while Paris remained the de jure capital of France, following the Allied landings in French North Africa in November 1942, southern France was also militarily occupied by Germany and Italy. The Vichy government remained in existence, but as a de facto client and it vanished in late 1944 when the Allies occupied all of France. After being appointed Premier by President Albert Lebrun, Marshal Pétain ordered the French Governments military representatives to sign an armistice with Germany on 22 June 1940, Pétain subsequently established an authoritarian regime when the National Assembly of the French Third Republic granted him full powers on 10 July 1940. At that point, the Third Republic was dissolved, calling for National Regeneration, the French Government at Vichy reversed many liberal policies and began tight supervision of the economy, with central planning a key feature. Labour unions came under government control. The independence of women was reversed, with a put on motherhood. Paris lost its status in European art and culture. The media were tightly controlled and stressed virulent anti-Semitism, and, after June 1941, the French State maintained nominal sovereignty over the whole of French territory, but had effective full sovereignty only in the unoccupied southern zone libre. It had limited and only civil authority in the zones under military occupation. The occupation was to be a state of affairs, pending the conclusion of the war. The French Government at Vichy never joined the Axis alliance, Germany kept two million French soldiers prisoner, carrying out forced labour. They were hostages to ensure that Vichy would reduce its forces and pay a heavy tribute in gold, food. French police were ordered to round up immigrant Jews and other such as communists. Public opinion in some quarters turned against the French government and the occupying German forces over time, when it became clear that Germany was losing the war, and resistance to them increased. Most of the legal French governments leaders at Vichy fled or were subject to show trials by the GPRF, thousands of collaborators were summarily executed by local communists and the Resistance in so-called savage purges. The last of the French State exiles were captured in the Sigmaringen enclave by de Gaulles French 1st Armoured Division in April 1945, in 1940, Marshal Pétain was known as a First World War hero, the victor of the battle of Verdun
4.
Shanghai County
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Shanghai County, was a county located in south of Shanghais Puxi districts until it was fully absorbed by Minhang District in 1992. Shanghai County was originally a county surrounding Shanghai Municipality, much of the northwestern section of the county got absorbed by the Puxi districts which the northeastern section was split into Chuansha County. In 1951 Shanghai was transferred from Jiangsu Province into Shanghai Municipality direct rule, on 22 February 1981 a strip of land west of the Huangpu River was split into Minhang District. By 26 September 1992 Shanghai County was dissolved by the formerly split Minhang District absorbed the remaining land of Shanghai County
5.
Huangpu District, Shanghai
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Huangpu District, makes up the eastern part of Shanghais traditional urban core and is today the most central of Shanghais 18 districts. The Huangpu District is one of the most densely populated districts in the world. The Huangpu District is located in central Shanghai, Peoples Republic of China on the bank of Huangpu River, after which the district is named. It is opposite to Pudong and is bounded by Suzhou Creek to the north, todays Huangpu District is sometimes referred to as new Huangpu to distinguish it from the pre-merger Huangpu District which existed before 2000. In 2000, the pre-merger Huangpu and Nanshi districts were combined to form a new district, in June 2011, the existing Huangpu District was combined with Luwan District to form a further new district, again called Huangpu. As a result of merger, it currently has an area of 20.43 square kilometres and 678,670 inhabitants. Of the three districts that make up todays Huangpu, the pre-merger Huangpu District is located to the north, bounded by Suzhou Creek in the north. South of the per-merger Huangpu District was Nanshi District, bounded by the Huangpu River to the east, west of Nanshi District was Luwan District, bounded by the Huangpu River to the south. Each of these have a history and character. The former Nanshi District, literally southern city, was the core of Shanghai. It included the old, walled city as well as the nearby docklands on both sides of the Huangpu River, Shanghai County was established at the beginning of the Ming Dynasty. A city wall was built to repel the Wokou, and this Ming Dynasty wall defined the extent of urban Shanghai for the few centuries. In 1842, the north of the old city was established as the British concession in Shanghai. At the time, the concession was referred to by locals as the city while the walled Chinese city was the southern city. From this reference was derived the name Nanshi. Upon the defeat of Japan at the end of World War II, in 1945, after the Republic of China government took control, the old city was divided into the Third District and the Fourth District. In 1959 these were merged to form Nanshi District, the pre-merger Huangpu District was largely located in the former Shanghai International Settlement. In the later part of the 19th century and the early 20th century, the International Settlement was handed back to the Chinese government in 1943
6.
Xuhui District
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Xuhui District is a district of Shanghai. It has an area of 54.76 km² and a population of 982,200 as of 2008. The Xuhui District is centred on Xujiahui, after which it is named, Xujiahui was historically land owned by Ming dynasty bureaucrat and scientist Xu Guangqi, and later donated to the Roman Catholic Church. Being the core of Catholic Shanghai, the Xuhui District formed, together with neighbouring Luwan District, vestiges of the French influence can still be seen in the St. Ignatius Cathedral of Shanghai, Xuhui College, the Xujiahui Observatory, and some remaining boulevards and French-style districts. Parts of todays Xuhui District were once the residential districts of Shanghai. After the revolution, however, the large estates near Xujiahui were turned into factories, in the 1990s, the Shanghai municipal government developed the district as a commercial zone. Xujiahui itself has been redeveloped as a centre, with a proliferation of large-scale shopping centres. Now it is a shopping destination in the city, with shopping malls such as Grand Gateway Shanghai. The educational tradition begun by Jesuits in Xuhui continues with Shanghai Jiao Tong University, the district also has some of the best secondary schools in the municipality, such as South West Weiyu Middle School, Shanghai High School and Nanyang Model High School. A number of residences of prominent personalities remain, including Soong Ching-ling. Yao Ming of Houston Rockets was a resident of the district, luo Ferrari 430 Feichi currently lives in Xuhui. Xuhui District has 10 sub-districts and two townships, home Inn has its headquarters in Xuhui. Toei Animation Shanghai has its office in Unit 807 of Feidiao International Plaza in the district. Xuhui District has twelve subdistricts, one town and one special township-level division, Xuhui District Education Bureau Exchanges with Logan City, Australia Xu Guangqi Xujiahui
7.
Chinese language
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Chinese is a group of related, but in many cases mutually unintelligible, language varieties, forming a branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family. Chinese is spoken by the Han majority and many ethnic groups in China. Nearly 1.2 billion people speak some form of Chinese as their first language, the varieties of Chinese are usually described by native speakers as dialects of a single Chinese language, but linguists note that they are as diverse as a language family. The internal diversity of Chinese has been likened to that of the Romance languages, There are between 7 and 13 main regional groups of Chinese, of which the most spoken by far is Mandarin, followed by Wu, Min, and Yue. Most of these groups are mutually unintelligible, although some, like Xiang and certain Southwest Mandarin dialects, may share common terms, all varieties of Chinese are tonal and analytic. Standard Chinese is a form of spoken Chinese based on the Beijing dialect of Mandarin. It is the language of China and Taiwan, as well as one of four official languages of Singapore. It is one of the six languages of the United Nations. The written form of the language, based on the logograms known as Chinese characters, is shared by literate speakers of otherwise unintelligible dialects. Of the other varieties of Chinese, Cantonese is the spoken language and official in Hong Kong and Macau. It is also influential in Guangdong province and much of Guangxi, dialects of Southern Min, part of the Min group, are widely spoken in southern Fujian, with notable variants also spoken in neighboring Taiwan and in Southeast Asia. Hakka also has a diaspora in Taiwan and southeast Asia. Shanghainese and other Wu varieties are prominent in the lower Yangtze region of eastern China, Chinese can be traced back to a hypothetical Sino-Tibetan proto-language. The first written records appeared over 3,000 years ago during the Shang dynasty, as the language evolved over this period, the various local varieties became mutually unintelligible. In reaction, central governments have sought to promulgate a unified standard. Difficulties have included the great diversity of the languages, the lack of inflection in many of them, in addition, many of the smaller languages are spoken in mountainous areas that are difficult to reach, and are often also sensitive border zones. Without a secure reconstruction of proto-Sino-Tibetan, the structure of the family remains unclear. A top-level branching into Chinese and Tibeto-Burman languages is often assumed, the earliest examples of Chinese are divinatory inscriptions on oracle bones from around 1250 BCE in the late Shang dynasty
8.
Pinyin
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Pinyin, or Hànyǔ Pīnyīn, is the official romanization system for Standard Chinese in mainland China, Malaysia, Singapore, and Taiwan. It is often used to teach Standard Chinese, which is written using Chinese characters. The system includes four diacritics denoting tones, Pinyin without tone marks is used to spell Chinese names and words in languages written with the Latin alphabet, and also in certain computer input methods to enter Chinese characters. The pinyin system was developed in the 1950s by many linguists, including Zhou Youguang and it was published by the Chinese government in 1958 and revised several times. The International Organization for Standardization adopted pinyin as a standard in 1982. The system was adopted as the standard in Taiwan in 2009. The word Hànyǔ means the language of the Han people. In 1605, the Jesuit missionary Matteo Ricci published Xizi Qiji in Beijing and this was the first book to use the Roman alphabet to write the Chinese language. Twenty years later, another Jesuit in China, Nicolas Trigault, neither book had much immediate impact on the way in which Chinese thought about their writing system, and the romanizations they described were intended more for Westerners than for the Chinese. One of the earliest Chinese thinkers to relate Western alphabets to Chinese was late Ming to early Qing Dynasty scholar-official, the first late Qing reformer to propose that China adopt a system of spelling was Song Shu. A student of the great scholars Yu Yue and Zhang Taiyan, Song had been to Japan and observed the effect of the kana syllabaries. This galvanized him into activity on a number of fronts, one of the most important being reform of the script, while Song did not himself actually create a system for spelling Sinitic languages, his discussion proved fertile and led to a proliferation of schemes for phonetic scripts. The Wade–Giles system was produced by Thomas Wade in 1859, and it was popular and used in English-language publications outside China until 1979. This Sin Wenz or New Writing was much more sophisticated than earlier alphabets. In 1940, several members attended a Border Region Sin Wenz Society convention. Mao Zedong and Zhu De, head of the army, both contributed their calligraphy for the masthead of the Sin Wenz Societys new journal. Outside the CCP, other prominent supporters included Sun Yat-sens son, Sun Fo, Cai Yuanpei, the countrys most prestigious educator, Tao Xingzhi, an educational reformer. Over thirty journals soon appeared written in Sin Wenz, plus large numbers of translations, biographies, some contemporary Chinese literature, and a spectrum of textbooks
9.
Shanghainese
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The Shanghainese language, also known as the Shanghai dialect, Hu language or Hu dialect, is a variety of Wu Chinese spoken in the central districts of the City of Shanghai and its surrounding areas. It is classified as part of the Sino-Tibetan language family, in English, Shanghainese sometimes refers to all Wu languages, variants and dialects, although they are only partially intelligible with one another. Shanghainese proper is a language of Taihu Wu, it contains vocabulary and expressions from the entire Taihu Wu area of southern Jiangsu. With nearly 14 million speakers, Shanghainese is also the largest single form of Wu Chinese and it serves as the lingua franca of the entire Yangtze River Delta region. Shanghainese is rich in vowels and in consonants, like other Taihu Wu dialects, Shanghainese has voiced initials. Neither Cantonese nor Mandarin has voiced initial stops or affricates, the Shanghainese tonal system is also significantly different from other Chinese varieties, sharing more similarities with the Japanese pitch accent. Shanghainese has two level tonal contrasts, while Cantonese and Mandarin are typical of contour tonal languages, Shanghai did not become a regional center of commerce until it was opened to foreign investment during the late Qing dynasty. Consequently, languages and dialects spoken around Shanghai had long been subordinate to those spoken around Jiaxing, in the late 19th century, most vocabulary of the Shanghai region had been a hybrid between Southern Jiangsu and Ningbonese. It underwent sustained growth that reached a hiatus in the 1930s during the Republican era, after 1949, the government imposed Mandarin as the official language of the whole nation of China. The dominance and influence of Shanghainese began to wane slightly, especially since Chinese economic reform began in 1978, Shanghai became home to a great number of migrants from all over the country. Due to the prominence of Mandarin, learning Shanghainese was no longer necessary for migrants. However, Shanghainese remained a vital part of the citys culture. In the 1990s, it was common for local radio. In 1995, the TV series Sinful Debt featured extensive Shanghainese dialogues, the Shanghainese TV series Lao Niang Jiu was broadcast from 1995 to 2007 and received tremendous popularity among Shanghainese residents. Shanghainese programming has since declined, over concerns of regionalist/localist accusations. From 1992 onward, Shanghainese use was discouraged in schools, in addition, Shanghais emergence as a cosmopolitan global city consolidated the status of Mandarin as the standard language of business and services, at the expense of the local language. Since 2005, new movements have emerged to protect Shanghainese from fading away, Shanghais former party boss Chen Liangyu, a native Shanghainese himself, reportedly supported her proposal. There have been talks of re-integrating Shanghainese into pre-kindergarten education, because children are unable to speak any Shanghainese
10.
Concessions in China
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Concessions in China were a group of concessions within China, governed and occupied by foreign powers, that are frequently associated with colonialism. Most had extraterritoriality and were enclaves inside key cities that became treaty ports, other than other minor extraterritorial regions, these concessions no longer exist. Imperial China granted the concessions during the latter Qing Dynasty period and they began in 1842s Treaty of Nanjing with the United Kingdom. Under each Unequal Treaty, China was usually obligated to open treaty ports for trade and lease out more territory as part of the concession. The one exception that preceding this period was Macau, which had leased in 1557 to the Kingdom of Portugal. There were a number of concessions in each city. For example, the concessions in Tianjin reached a total of nine at the height of the era, the concessions were usually under the control of a single Western power or the Empire of Japan. However, in the Shanghai International Settlement, the United Kingdom, in these concessions, the citizens of each foreign power were given the right to freely inhabit, trade, do missionary reductions, and travel. They developed their own sub-cultures, isolated and distinct from the intrinsic Chinese culture, churches, public houses, and various other western commercial institutions sprang up in the concessions. In the case of Japan, its own traditions and language naturally flourished, ironically, some of these concessions eventually had more advanced architecture of each originating culture than most cities back in the countries of the foreign powers origin. They eventually became the majority of the residents inside the concessions, non-Chinese in the concessions were generally subject to consular law, and some of these laws applied to the Chinese residents. Each concession also had its own force, and different legal jurisdictions with their own separate laws. Thus, an activity might be legal in one concession but illegal in another, many of the concessions also maintained their own military garrison and standing army. Military and police forces of the Chinese government were sometimes present, some police forces allowed Chinese, others did not. The foreign concessions continued in the Republic of China period, in major cities like Shanghai and Tianjin because there were so many jurisdictions, criminals could commit a crime in one jurisdiction and then easily escape to another. This became a problem during the Republic of China period, with the rise of post–Imperial warlord era. Crime often flourished, especially organized crime by different warlord groups, some efforts were made by the foreign powers to have the different police forces cooperate and work together, but not with significant success. The image of gangsters and Triad societies connected with the major cities, at the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War, the standing army in the Japanese concessions would be used against the Republic of China and Chinese forces
11.
Nazi Germany
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Nazi Germany is the common English name for the period in German history from 1933 to 1945, when Germany was governed by a dictatorship under the control of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party. Under Hitlers rule, Germany was transformed into a fascist state in which the Nazi Party took totalitarian control over all aspects of life. The official name of the state was Deutsches Reich from 1933 to 1943, the period is also known under the names the Third Reich and the National Socialist Period. The Nazi regime came to an end after the Allied Powers defeated Germany in May 1945, Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany by the President of the Weimar Republic Paul von Hindenburg on 30 January 1933. The Nazi Party then began to eliminate all opposition and consolidate its power. Hindenburg died on 2 August 1934, and Hitler became dictator of Germany by merging the powers and offices of the Chancellery, a national referendum held 19 August 1934 confirmed Hitler as sole Führer of Germany. All power was centralised in Hitlers person, and his word became above all laws, the government was not a coordinated, co-operating body, but a collection of factions struggling for power and Hitlers favour. In the midst of the Great Depression, the Nazis restored economic stability and ended mass unemployment using heavy military spending, extensive public works were undertaken, including the construction of Autobahnen. The return to economic stability boosted the regimes popularity, racism, especially antisemitism, was a central feature of the regime. The Germanic peoples were considered by the Nazis to be the purest branch of the Aryan race, millions of Jews and other peoples deemed undesirable by the state were murdered in the Holocaust. Opposition to Hitlers rule was ruthlessly suppressed, members of the liberal, socialist, and communist opposition were killed, imprisoned, or exiled. The Christian churches were also oppressed, with many leaders imprisoned, education focused on racial biology, population policy, and fitness for military service. Career and educational opportunities for women were curtailed, recreation and tourism were organised via the Strength Through Joy program, and the 1936 Summer Olympics showcased the Third Reich on the international stage. Propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels made effective use of film, mass rallies, the government controlled artistic expression, promoting specific art forms and banning or discouraging others. Beginning in the late 1930s, Nazi Germany made increasingly aggressive territorial demands and it seized Austria and Czechoslovakia in 1938 and 1939. Hitler made a pact with Joseph Stalin and invaded Poland in September 1939. In alliance with Italy and smaller Axis powers, Germany conquered most of Europe by 1940, reichskommissariats took control of conquered areas, and a German administration was established in what was left of Poland. Jews and others deemed undesirable were imprisoned, murdered in Nazi concentration camps and extermination camps, following the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, the tide gradually turned against the Nazis, who suffered major military defeats in 1943
12.
Nanjing
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Nanjing has a prominent place in Chinese history and culture, having served as the capitals of various Chinese dynasties, kingdoms and republican governments dating from the 3rd century CE to 1949. When being the capital of a state, for instance, the ROC, Nanjing is particularly known as Jinling or Ginling and the old name has been used since the Warring States period in Zhou Dynasty. Located in Yangtze River Delta area and the center of east China and it has also been awarded the title of 2008 Habitat Scroll of Honour of China, Special UN Habitat Scroll of Honour Award and National Civilized City. Nanjing boasts many high-quality universities and research institutes, with the number of universities listed in 100 National Key Universities ranking third, the ratio of college students to total population ranks No.1 among large cities nationwide. Nanjing is one of the three Chinese top research centers according to Nature Index, Key cultural facilities include Nanjing Library, Nanjing Museum and Art Museum. Archaeological discovery shows that Nanjing Man lived in more than 500 thousand years ago, zun, a kind of wine vessel, was found to exist in Beiyinyangying culture of Nanjing in about 5000 years ago. According to a legend quoted by an artist in Ming dynasty, Chen Yi, Fuchai, King of the State of Wu, later in 473 BCE, the State of Yue conquered Wu and constructed the fort of Yuecheng on the outskirts of the present-day Zhonghua Gate. In 333 BCE, after eliminating the State of Yue, the State of Chu built Jinling Yi in the part of present-day Nanjing. It was renamed Moling during reign of Qin Shi Huang, since then, the city experienced destruction and renewal many times. Nanjing was later the city of Danyang Prefecture, and had been the capital city of Yangzhou for about 400 years from late Han to early Tang. This city would soon play a role in the following centuries. Shortly after the unification of the region, the Western Jin dynasty collapsed, First the rebellions by eight Jin princes for the throne and later rebellions and invasion from Xiongnu and other nomadic peoples that destroyed the rule of the Jin dynasty in the north. Its the first time that the capital of the moved to southern part. During the period of North–South division, Nanjing remained the capital of the Southern dynasties for more than two and a half centuries, during this time, Nanjing was the international hub of East Asia. Based on historical documents, the city had 280,000 registered households, assuming an average Nanjing household had about 5.1 people at that time, the city had more than 1.4 million residents. As the old capital of China, many legendary stories happened here, residents in Nanjing all have the warmest affection for this city. Throughout glory and darkness in past centuries, Nanjing becomes a low-key city, GDP growth rate significantly exceeds the average rate in China for decades, which also maintain a fast developing model. Possibly the best preserved of them is the ensemble of the Tomb of Xiao Xiu, the period of division ended when the Sui Dynasty reunified China and almost destroyed the entire city, turning it into a small town
13.
Roman Catholicism in China
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Catholic Church in China has a long and complicated history. Christianity has existed in China in various forms since at least the Tang Dynasty in the 8th century AD, in 1957, the Chinese government established the Chinese Patriotic Catholic Association, which rejects the authority of the Holy See and appoints its own bishops. The Nestorian Christian Rabban Bar Sauma travelled from China to Europe to meet Pope Nicholas IV, missionary priests of the Latin Church of the Catholic Church in Europe are first recorded to have entered China in the 13th century. The Italian Franciscan priest John of Montecorvino arrived in Beijing in 1294, in 1299 he built a church and in 1305 a second opposite the imperial palace. Having made a study of the language, he began to translate the New Testament. Estimates of converts range from 6,000 to 30,000 by the year 1300, in 1307 Pope Clement V sent seven Franciscan bishops to consecrate John of Montecorvino as Archbishop of Peking. The three who survived the journey did so in 1308 and succeeded each other as bishops of Zaiton, in 1312 three more Franciscan bishops arrived from Rome to aid John until his death in 1328. The mission had some success during the rule of the Mongol Yuan Dynasty and he converted Armenians in China and Alans in Beijing to Catholicism. Armenians in Quanzhou were also Franciscan Catholics, the Franciscan Odoric of Pordenone visited China during this era. Katarina Vilionis Catholic tombstone was found in Yangzhou, hayton of Corycus wrote about China. Rome, and the progress of Mohammedanism, sapped the foundations of their ancient churches, the Roman Catholics also considered the Nestorians as heretical. Armenian King Hethum I, Giovanni da Pian del Carpine and William Rubruck visited Mongolia, during the Catholic Reformations explosion of missionary efforts around the world, particularly in Asia, Jesuit and other Roman Catholic missionaries attempted to enter China. They had mixed success at first, but eventually came to have an impact, particularly in inter-cultural scientific and artistic exchanges among the upper classes of China. The permanent mission was established in 1601 by the efforts of Matteo Ricci and his whole approach was quite subtle, interesting the Emperor and the Chinese authorities in aspects of western technology and learning as a point of opening. He also made attempts to reconcile Christianity with the Classic Confucian texts, though he was hostile, along with the members of his order. Ricci died in 1610 but the Jesuit mission went on to become an important part of the Imperial civil service, in 1644 a German Jesuit, Adam Schall von Bell, was appointed Director of the Board of Astronomy by the new Qing dynasty. Jesuits were also given posts as mechanics, musicians, painters, instrument makers, the Jesuits pragmatic accommodation with Confucianism was later to lead to conflict with the Dominican friars, who came to Beijing from the Philippines in the middle of the century. Dominican leader Domingo Fernández Navarrete in responding to the question, Was Confucius saved, said that since Greek philosophers such as Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Seneca and others were all damned how much the more Confucius, who was not worthy to kiss their feet
14.
Old City (Shanghai)
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The Cochin or Cochin China, is a breed of chicken. In China itself, the name 九斤黄 is actually used for any large chicken or even a dish made from one and this chicken was originally bred in China and later exported to Britain and America in the mid 19th century. As a very distinctive breed of chicken, it created a bit of a craze among poultry lovers in the English-speaking world. It was successfully bred into other birds, there is also a bantam version, which is often called the Pekin bantam, but this should not be confused with the separate and true Pekin bantam. As above, the most distinctive feature of the Cochin is the excessive plumage that covers leg, the skin beneath the feathers is yellow and the egg colour is light brown. Eggs are also medium in size, standard weight is 5 kg for a cock,4 kg for a cockerel,3.9 kg for a hen, and 3.2 kg for a pullet. Colour varieties include buff, black, partridge, blue, silver laced, splash, golden laced, cochins can be frizzled, with the feathers curling outwards. Cochins are well known as mothers, even as foster mothers for other breeds, and they can lay many eggs. Cochins are also known to be good pet hens for the garden, as they are tame, cochins are rather quiet chickens, and tend to be quite calm as well. Delayed feathering in chickens, a found in this breed. Media related to Cochin at Wikimedia Commons
15.
Yan'an Road
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Yanan Road is a road in Shanghai, China, a major east-west thoroughfare through the centre of the city. The modern Yanan Road is in three sections, reflecting three connected streets which existed pre-1945, Avenue Edward VII, Avenue Foch and the Great Western Road. The streets were joined together under a name by the Republic of China government in 1945. The road is named after Yanan, the Communist base during the Chinese Civil War, Yanan Road East stretches from the southern end of the Bund in the east to Xizang Road in the west. Yanan Road East follows the course of an ancient canal, the West Yangjing Bang, the Yangjing Bang was the boundary between the British Concession to the north, and the Shanghai French Concession in the south. It was also close to the walled Chinese city, the mix of nationalities in this area gave rise to the Chinese name Yangjing Bang English for Chinese Pidgin English. In 1914-15, authorities in the two concessions co-operated to fill in the Yangjing Bang, the former canal along with the two narrow roads which ran alongside it together became a wide avenue and a major thoroughfare. In 1916, the two agreed to name the new road Avenue Edward VII, after Edward VII of the United Kingdom. In 1943, as part of a renaming of Western road names in Shanghai. In 1945, the Republic of China government, after recovering Shanghai at the end of World War II, renamed the road Zhongzheng Road East, after Chiang Kai-shek. The new Communist government of Shanghai renamed it Yanan Road East in 1950 as part of the renaming of roads. The eastern end of Yanan Road East features a group of historic skyscrapers dating from the early 20th century, further west, the road is today mainly lined with large contemporary skyscrapers, as well as several government office buildings. Other important historic sites along Yanan Road East include the Shanghai Natural History Museum, the Great World entertainment centre, Yanan Road Central also follows the course of a small canal. The canal also became the boundary between the International Settlement and the French Concession after the two concessions expanded west in 1899 and 1914 respectively, in 1920, the canal was filled in, and the concession authorities agreed to name it Avenue Foch, after French marshal Ferdinand Foch. In 1943 it was renamed Luoyang Road, in 1945 it was renamed Zhongzheng Road Central, after Chiang Kai-shek, Yanan Road Central is lined with commercial and residential buildings. Yanan Road West was built by the International Settlements municipal council in two part, the eastern part in 1910 within the western extension of the International Settlement by filling in another canal, the Chaixing Bang. The western part was an extra-settlement road, built in 1922 beyond the boundary of the concession. The road was named the Great Western Road, in 1943 it was renamed Changan Road, then in 1945 it became Zhongzheng Road West, and in 1950, Yanan Road West
16.
Guan Yu
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Guan Yu, courtesy name Yunchang, was a general serving under the warlord Liu Bei in the late Eastern Han dynasty. He played a significant role in the events led to the collapse of the dynasty. After Liu Bei gained control of Yi Province in 214, Guan Yu remained in Jing Province to govern, by the time Guan Yu found out about the loss of Jing Province after his defeat at Fancheng, it was too late. He was subsequently captured in an ambush by Sun Quans forces, Guan Yu is respected as an epitome of loyalty and righteousness. He is portrayed as having a red face, Guan Yu was deified as early as the Sui dynasty and is still worshipped by many Chinese people today in mainland China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and among many overseas Chinese communities. In religious devotion he is called the Divus Guan or Lord Guan. He is a deity worshipped in Chinese folk religion, popular Confucianism, Taoism, and Chinese Buddhism and his hometown Yuncheng has also named its airport after him. The authoritative historical source on Guan Yus life is the Records of the Three Kingdoms, during the fifth century, Pei Songzhi annotated the Sanguozhi by incorporating information from other sources to Chen Shous original work and adding his personal commentary. No descriptions of Guan Yus physical appearance exist in historical records, traditionally, he is portrayed as a red-faced warrior with a long lush beard. He had an air and looked quite majestic. Alternatively, the idea of his red face could have borrowed from opera representation. In illustrations of Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Guan Yu is traditionally depicted wearing a green robe over his body armour, supposedly, Guan Yus weapon was a guan dao named Green Dragon Crescent Blade, which resembled a glaive and was said to weigh 82 catties. A wooden replica can be today in the Emperor Guan Temple in Xiezhou County. Guan Yu was from Xie County, Hedong Commandery, which is in present-day Yuncheng and his original courtesy name was Changsheng. He was very interested in the Zuo Zhuan and could fluently recite lines from the book and he fled from his hometown after committing a serious crime and arrived in Zhuo Commandery. When the Yellow Turban Rebellion broke out in the 180s, Guan Yu and Zhang Fei joined a militia formed by Liu Bei. When Liu Bei was appointed as the Chancellor of Pingyuan State, Guan Yu and Zhang Fei were appointed as Majors of Separate Command, the three of them shared a brotherly-like relationship, to the point of sharing the same room. Zhang Fei and Guan Yu also stood guard beside Liu Bei when he sat down at meetings and they followed him on his exploits and protected him from danger
17.
Huangpu River
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It is the last significant tributary of the Yangtze before it empties into the East China Sea. The Bund and Lujiazui are located along the river, the Huangpu is the largest river in Shanghai, with Suzhou Creek being its major tributary. It is on average 400 metres wide and 9 metres deep and it divides the city into two regions, Pudong and Puxi. Songpu Bridge Xupu Bridge Lupu Bridge Nanpu Bridge Yangpu Bridge Many lines of the Shanghai Metro cross underneath the river, there are also many tunnels crossing under the river. There are currently several ferry lines operated by Shanghai Ferry, in March 2013, thousands of pig carcasses were found floating in the Huangpu River in Shanghai. Some of the pigs carried ear tags saying they were from Jiaxing, so that city in Zhejiang may be the source, geography of China List of rivers in China Sladen, Douglas, Bits of China, The Japs at Home, 5th ed. New York, New Amsterdam Book Co. pp. 276–354
18.
Huaihai Road
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Huaihai Road or Huaihai Lu is one of the two major shopping streets in Shanghai, China, the other is Nanjing Road. Compared with the more touristy Nanjing Road, Huaihai Road is more upscale, Huaihai Road comprises three sections, the main section being Middle Huaihai Road in the former French Concession of Shanghai. Middle Huaihai Road is also known by its former French name Avenue Joffre. Todays Huaihai Road comprises three sections, which were three distinct streets. West Huaihai Road, formerly called Jordan Road, is 1,510 meters long, east Huaihai Road, formerly Ningbo Road, is 373 meters long and was the boundary road between Huangpu and Nanshi districts before the two districts merged. Middle Huaihai Road, the section, is 5,500 meters long. Most of this lies in the former Luwan District, and extends west into Xuhui. Middle Huaihai Road was built in 1901 as Rue Sikiang, five years later it was renamed Route Paul Brunat. It was renamed again in 1915 to Avenue Joffre to honor the French general Joseph Joffre, in the 1920s Avenue Joffre became an enclave of a large community of Russians fleeing the Communist revolution in their homeland. The Japanese occupied Shanghai during World War II, taking over the concessions in 1941. In 1943 Avenue Joffre was renamed Taishan Road after Mount Taishan, however, the Communists in turn defeated the Kuomintang in the Chinese Civil War, and took over Shanghai in 1949. A year later the Communist government gave the street the current name, the 5. 5-kilometer long Middle Huaihai Road has a large number of shops lining its route, from small boutiques to major department stores and shopping malls, as well as hotels and restaurants. The eastern section of Middle Huaihai Road near the popular Xintiandi precinct has recently seen an influx of a number of Western luxury brands, including Louis Vuitton, Rolex, Coach. Balenciaga, Dior, Burberry, Moschino, Valentino SpA, Versace, Dolce & Gabbana, Miu Miu, Marks & Spencer, UGG, cartier, Gucci, Prada, Victorias Secret, Hermès, Vivienne Westwood, Giorgio Armani SpA, Chanel and Ermenegildo Zegna. Many of the stores were opened in 2010 to coincide with the Shanghai Expo, east Huaihai Road is served by the Dashijie Station on Metro Line 8. Wukang Mansion Wukang Road Xintiandi Huaihai Road Map of Middle Huaihai Road
19.
Wukang Road
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Wukang Road, originally Route Ferguson, is a historic road in the Xuhui District of Shanghai, China, located in the western part of the former French Concession area of the city. In 2011 Wukang Road was recognized as one of the National Historic, Wukang Road is only 1.17 kilometres long, but is lined with 37 officially protected historic buildings. The buildings in the road incorporate a range of architectural styles, including Mediterranean, French Renaissance, English. The area is characterized by quiet streets lined with wutong trees, well-known blogger Wang Jianshuo calls it his favourite street in Shanghai. In Ang Lees 2007 film Lust, Caution, Route Ferguson is where the hero, the road is also featured in Chen Danyans novel Shanghai Memorabilia. It is a popular sightseeing location for tourists interested in the architecture, there is a tourist information center at 393 Wukang Road that provides self-guided walking tours. In 1897, John Calvin Ferguson, an American educator and president of Nanyang Public School, built the road with his own salary to make it easier for colleagues, the road was thus named Route Ferguson in his honour. It was paved in 1907 and broadened by the government of the French Concession and it was renamed Wukang Road in 1943, after Wukang County in nearby Zhejiang province, but its original name is still well known to locals. Wukang Road has been home for numerous Chinese celebrities, especially during the mid-20th century, in 1937, Tang Shaoyi, the first prime minister of the Republic of China, bought a house on Route Ferguson and retired there. The following year, the Imperial Japanese Army invaded and occupied Shanghai, fearing Tang may collaborate with the Japanese, the Kuomintang assassinated him at his home on 30 September 1938. The Wukang Mansion, at the end of Wukang Road. It was designed by the renowned Hungarian-Slovak architect László Hudec in the French Renaissance style, and was completed in 1924. It was home to celebrities including famous actors and actresses Wu Yin, Wang Renmei, Qin Yi, Zhao Dan, Sun Daolin, Wang Wenjuan, Shangguan Yunzhu. Soong Ching-ling, the widow of President Sun Yat-sen, lived at the end of Wukang Road across Huaihai Road and her home is now open to the public as the Soong Ching-ling Memorial Residence. The road was the residence for a number of notable people. 2, the Former Residence of Mo Shangqing, silk czar,1, the Former Residence of Tang Shaoyi, politician. 4, the Former Residence of Yan Fuqing, academic,67, the Former Residence of Chen Lifu, politician. 99, the Former Residence of the British executive of the Zhengguanghe beverage company,2, the Former Residence of Chen Guofu, politician
20.
Qing dynasty
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It was preceded by the Ming dynasty and succeeded by the Republic of China. The Qing multi-cultural empire lasted almost three centuries and formed the base for the modern Chinese state. The dynasty was founded by the Jurchen Aisin Gioro clan in Manchuria, in the late sixteenth century, Nurhaci, originally a Ming vassal, began organizing Banners, military-social units that included Jurchen, Han Chinese, and Mongol elements. Nurhaci formed the Jurchen clans into an entity, which he renamed as the Manchus. By 1636, his son Hong Taiji began driving Ming forces out of Liaodong and declared a new dynasty, in 1644, peasant rebels led by Li Zicheng conquered the Ming capital, Beijing. The Ten Great Campaigns of the Qianlong Emperor from the 1750s to the 1790s extended Qing control into Central Asia, the early rulers maintained their Manchu ways, and while their title was Emperor, they used khan to the Mongols and they were patrons of Tibetan Buddhism. They governed using Confucian styles and institutions of government and retained the imperial examinations to recruit Han Chinese to work under or in parallel with Manchus. They also adapted the ideals of the system in dealing with neighboring territories. The Qianlong reign saw the apogee and initial decline in prosperity. The population rose to some 400 million, but taxes and government revenues were fixed at a low rate, corruption set in, rebels tested government legitimacy, and ruling elites did not change their mindsets in the face of changes in the world system. Following the Opium War, European powers imposed unequal treaties, free trade, the Taiping Rebellion and the Dungan Revolt in Central Asia led to the deaths of some 20 million people, most of them due to famines caused by war. In spite of disasters, in the Tongzhi Restoration of the 1860s, Han Chinese elites rallied to the defense of the Confucian order. The initial gains in the Self-Strengthening Movement were destroyed in the First Sino-Japanese War of 1895, in which the Qing lost its influence over Korea, New Armies were organized, but the ambitious Hundred Days Reform of 1898 was turned back by Empress Dowager Cixi, a conservative leader. Sun Yat-sen and other revolutionaries competed with reformist monarchists such as Kang Youwei, after the deaths of Cixi and the Guangxu Emperor in 1908, the hardline Manchu court alienated reformers and local elites alike. The Wuchang Uprising on October 11,1911, led to the Xinhai Revolution, General Yuan Shikai negotiated the abdication of Puyi, the last emperor, on February 12,1912. Nurhaci declared himself the Bright Khan of the Later Jin state in both of the 12–13th century Jurchen Jin dynasty and of his Aisin Gioro clan. His son Hong Taiji renamed the dynasty Great Qing in 1636, there are competing explanations on the meaning of Qīng. The character Qīng is composed of water and azure, both associated with the water element and this association would justify the Qing conquest as defeat of fire by water
21.
Xujiahui
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Xujiahui, also spelt Zikawei or Ziccawei from Shanghainese, is a locality in Shanghai, China. It is an area of commerce and culture administratively within Xuhui District. The area is a precinct for shopping and entertainment in Shanghai. It is served by the Xujiahui Station of the Shanghai Metro, Xujiahui literally means Xus junction - or, more precisely, property of Xu family at the junction of two rivers in Mandarin. The Xu family refers to the family of Xu Guangqi, Chinas most notable Catholic convert, most of what is now Xujiahui was once the ancestral home of the Xu family. Baptized by famed Italian Jesuit, Matteo Ricci, Xu Guangqi and his descendants donated large plots of land to the Catholic Church, pronounced in the Shanghainese dialect of Wu Chinese, it is called zi-ga-wei. During the 18th century it was known by Shanghais western residents as Ziccawei or Siccawei or Zikawei or Zi-ka-wei, in addition to the cathedral, the French Jesuits also built orphanages, monasteries, schools, libraries and the Xujiahui observatory. In time to become the stronghold of Catholics in East Asia, one of the first structures to be built by the Jesuits was the St. Ignatius Cathedral in 1847, later reconstructed in 1906. The Cathedral is located on what is now known as North Caoxi Road and is referred to in English as the St. Ignatius Cathedral. The sign on the calls it simply Catholic Church. The cathedral was featured in the scenes of Steven Spielbergs 1987 film Empire of the Sun. A number of structures survive from its days as a centre of Catholicism. One is Xuhui College on 68 Hongqiao Road, now renamed Xuhui High School, established by Jesuits in 1850, Xuhui College was the first educational institution in China to offer a fully western curriculum. Another is the Bibliotheca Zikawei, now a branch of Shanghai Library, several of the convent buildings scattered around Xujiahui are still visible in various states of preservation, one serves as the office of the Xuhui District Government and Peoples Procurate. The educational institutions founded by the Catholic church led to Xujiahui also becoming a centre of learning, the Aurora University was founded the Jesuits in Xujiahui. Fudan University, also one of Shanghais most prestigious, was located in Xujiahui until 1922, from 1914, Xujiahui sat just outside the borders of the French Concession, and remained under heavy French influence. Catholic Xujiahui came to an end with the Communist victory in the Chinese Civil War. A few years after the Peoples Liberation Army entered Shanghai, Jesuits had abandoned Xujiahui, many of those who remained were imprisoned by Communist authorities
22.
Yuan Shikai
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There the Yuans had built a fortified village, Yuanzhaicun. Yuans family was affluent enough to provide Yuan with a traditional Confucian education, as a young man he enjoyed riding, boxing, and entertainment with friends. His career began with the purchase of an official title in 1880. Using his fathers connections, Yuan travelled to Tengzhou, Shandong, Yuans first marriage was in 1876 to a woman of the Yu family who bore him a first son, Keding, in 1878. Yuan Shikai married nine more concubines throughout the course of his life, after the Meiji Restoration, Japan had adopted an aggressive foreign policy, contesting Chinese domination of the peninsula. Under the unequal Treaty of Ganghwa, which the Koreans signed with reluctance in 1876, Japan was allowed to send missions to Hanseong. Amidst an internal struggle which resulted in the queens exile. The Korean king proposed training 500 troops in the art of modern warfare, Li Hongzhang also recommended Yuans promotion, with Yuan given the rank of sub-prefect. In 1885, Yuan was appointed Imperial Resident of Seoul, on the surface the position equalled that of ambassador but in practice, as head official from the suzerain, Yuan had become the supreme adviser on all Korean government policies. Perceiving Chinas increasing influence on the Korean government, Japan sought more influence through co-suzerainty with China, a series of documents were released to Yuan Shikai, claiming the Korean government had changed its stance towards Chinese protection and would rather turn to Russia for protection. Yuan was outraged yet skeptical, and asked Li Hongzhang for advice, in a treaty signed between Japan and Qing, the two parties agreed only to send troops into Korea after notifying the other. Although the Korean government was now stable, it was still a protectorate of Qing, another more radicalised group, the Donghak Society, promoting an early nationalist doctrine based partly upon Confucian principles, rose in rebellion against the government. Yuan and Li Hongzhang sent troops into Korea to protect Seoul and Qings interests, tensions boiled over between Japan and China when Japan refused to withdraw its forces and placed a blockade at the 38th Parallel. Li Hongzhang wanted at all costs to avoid a war with Japan, Japan refused, and war broke out. Yuan, having put in an ineffective position, was recalled to Tianjin in July 1894. Yuans rise to fame began with his participation in the First Sino-Japanese War as commander of the Chinese garrison forces in Korea. Unlike other officers, however, he avoided the humiliation of Chinese defeat by having been recalled to Beijing several days before the outbreak of conflict, as an ally of Li Hongzhang, Yuan was appointed the commander of the first New army in 1895. The Qing court relied heavily on his army due to the proximity of its garrison to the capital, of the new armies that formed part of the Self-Strengthening Movement, Yuans was the best trained and most effective
23.
Shikumen
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Shikumen is a traditional Shanghainese architectural style combining Western and Chinese elements that first appeared in the 1860s. Shikumen is classified as one type of residences, sometimes translated as lane houses in English. In 2010, construction techniques of shikumen lilong architecture was recognised by the Chinese government on the national cultural heritage register. Shikumen houses were introduced to other port cities in China. For example, many were built in the concessions of Hankou. Shikumens are two- or three-story structures resembling Western terrace houses or townhouses, the name stone gate references these strong gateways. Each residence abuts another and all are arranged in straight side alleys called longtang, the entrance to each alley is usually surmounted by a stylistic stone arch. The shikumen is a blend of the elements found in Western architecture with traditional Lower Yangtze architecture. Traditional Chinese dwellings had a courtyard, and the Shikumen was no exception, the courtyard also allowed sunlight and improved ventilation into the rooms. This style of housing originally developed when local developers adapted Western-style terrace houses to Chinese conditions, migrant labourers from surrounding provinces entered Shanghai in large numbers with the establishment of Shanghai as a treaty port in 1843. The 1853 Small Swords Rebellion and the Taiping Revolution drove more migrants, with the upsurge in demand, property developers began to build a large number of residential buildings for the new Chinese residents of the city. At first, these tended to be wooden buildings that were cheap and these wooden buildings were built as terraces, and usually name with Li as suffix. These were the first lilong buildings in Shanghai, within 10 months from 1853,800 dwellings of this type were built. Because of their flammability, this type of construction was banned by authorities in Shanghai. However, with a property development market in Shanghai, developers adapted these wooden terraces into the Shikumen. Shikumen residences had a smaller footprint than traditional courtyard residences. They were also cheaper to build than Western-style houses, although more expensive to build than the wooden terraces they replaced, they were sturdier and so attracted higher rents. They were first built in the British concession, but quickly became popular throughout the Old City and Chinese zones, the high profit attracted a whole swathe of property companies to enter the shikumen market
24.
White movement
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Remnants and continuations of the movement, some of which only had narrow support, endured within the wider White émigré community until after the fall of Communism. The Whites had the aim of bringing about law and order and the salvation of Russia, fighting against traitors, barbarians. They worked to remove Soviet organizations and functionaries in White-controlled territory, overall, the White Army was nationalistic, rejected ethnic particularism and separatism. The White Army generally believed in a united multinational Russia, amongst White Army members, anti-Semitism was widespread. Western sponsors expressed dismay at this, especially as the Bolsheviks had prohibited anti-Semitism, many of the White leaders were conservative, accepting autocracy while remaining suspicious of politics. Aside from being anti-Bolshevik and patriotic, the Whites had no set ideology or main leader, the White Armies did acknowledge a single provisional head of state, the so-called Supreme Governor of Russia, but this post was prominent only under the leadership of Admiral Alexander Kolchak. The movement had no set plan for foreign policy, Whites differed on policies toward Germany, the Whites wanted to keep from alienating any potential supporters and allies, and thus saw an exclusively monarchist position as a detriment to their cause and recruitment. White-movement leaders such as Anton Denikin advocated for Russians to create their own government, Admiral Alexander Kolchak succeeded in creating a temporary wartime government in Omsk, acknowledged by most other White leaders, only for it to fall with the loss of his armies. Some warlords who were aligned with the White movement, such as Grigory Semyonov and Roman Ungern von Sternberg, did not acknowledge any authority, consequently, the White movement had no set political leanings, members could be monarchists, republicans, rightists, Kadets, etc. Moreover, other parties supported the anti-Bolshevik White Army, among them the Socialist-Revolutionary Party. But depending on the time and place, those White Army supporters might also exchange right-wing allegiance for allegiance to the Red Army, the Volunteer Army in South Russia became the most prominent and the largest of the various and disparate White forces. Starting off as a small and well-organized military in January 1918, the Kuban Cossacks joined the White Army, and conscription of both peasants and Cossacks began. In late February 1918,4,000 soldiers under the command of General Aleksei Kaledin were forced to retreat from Rostov-on-Don due to the advance of the Red Army, in 1919 the Don Cossacks joined and the Army began drafting Ukrainian peasants. In that year, between May and October, the Volunteer Army grew from 64,000 to 150,000 soldiers and was better supplied than its Red counterpart. The White Armys rank-and-file comprised active anti-Bolsheviks, such as Cossacks, nobles, the White movement had access to various naval forces, both sea-going and river-based. Note especially the use of the Black Sea Fleet, aerial forces available to the Whites included the Slavo-British Aviation Corps. The Russian ace Alexander Kazakov operated within this unit, the White movements leaders and first members came mainly from the ranks of military officers. Many came from outside the nobility, such as generals Mikhail Alekseev, the White generals never mastered administration, they often utilized prerevolutionary functionaries or military officers with monarchististic inclinations for administering White-controlled regions
25.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
26.
Tianjin
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Tianjin, formerly known in English as Tientsin, is a metropolis in northern coastal Mainland China and one of the five national central cities of the country, with a total population of 15,469,500. It is governed as one of the four direct-controlled municipalities of the PRC and is thus under direct administration of the central government, Tianjin borders Hebei Province and Beijing Municipality, bounded to the east by the Bohai Gulf portion of the Yellow Sea. Part of the Bohai Economic Rim, it is the largest coastal city in northern China, in terms of urban population, Tianjin is the fourth largest in China, after Shanghai, Beijing, and Guangzhou. In terms of area population, Tianjin ranks fifth in Mainland China. The walled city of Tianjin was built in 1404, as a treaty port since 1860, Tianjin has been a major seaport and gateway to Beijing. During the Boxer Rebellion the city was the seat of the Tianjin Provisional Government, under the Ta-tsing Empire, and the Republic of China, Tianjin became one of the largest cities in the region. At that time, numerous European-style buildings and mansions were constructed in concessions, after the founding of the Peoples Republic of China, Tianjin suffered a depression due to the policy of the central government and Tangshan earthquake, but recovered from 1990s. As of the end of 2010, around 285 Fortune 500 companies have set up base in Binhai, Tianjin is the pinyin romanization of the Chinese characters 天津, which mean Heavenly Ford or Ford of Heaven. The origin of the name is obscure, one folk etymology is that it was an homage to the patriotic Chu poet Qu Yuan, whose Li Sao includes the verse. departing from the Ford of Heaven at dawn. Another is that it honors a former name of the Girl, a third is that it derives from a place name noted in the River Record of the History of Jin. The most common are that it was bestowed by the Yongle Emperor of the Ming, before this time, it was open sea. The opening of the Grand Canal during the Sui dynasty prompted the development of Tianjin into a trading center, during the Qing dynasty Tianjin was promoted to a prefecture or Zhou in 1725 with Tianjin County established under the prefecture in 1731. Later it was to upgraded to a prefecture or Fu before becoming a relay station under the command of the Viceroy of Zhili. In 1856, Chinese soldiers boarded The Arrow, a Chinese-owned ship registered in Hong Kong flying the British flag and suspected of piracy, smuggling and they captured 12 men and imprisoned them. In response, the British and French sent gunboats under the command of Admiral Sir Michael Seymour to capture the Taku forts near Tianjin in May 1858. At the end of the first part of the Second Opium War in June of the year, the British and French prevailed, and the Treaties of Tianjin were signed. The treaties were ratified by the Emperor of China in 1860, and Tianjin was formally opened to Great Britain and France and these nations left many architectural reminders of their rule, notably churches and thousands of villas. Today those villas provide a flavour to Tianjin
27.
Hankou
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Hankou, formerly romanized as Hankow, was one of the three cities whose merging formed modern-day Wuhan municipality, the capital of the Hubei province, China. It stands north of the Han and Yangtze Rivers where the Han falls into the Yangtze, Hankou is connected by bridges to its former sister cities Hanyang and Wuchang. Hankou is the port of Hubei province. The citys name literally means Mouth of the Han, from its position at the confluence of the Han with the Yangtze River, the name appears in a Tang Dynasty poem by Liu Changqing. Other historical names for the city include Xiakou, Miankou, Hankou, from the Ming to late Qing, was under the administration of the local government in Hanyang, although it was already one of the four major national markets in Ming dynasty. It was not until 1899 that Zhang Zhidong decided to separate Hankou from Hanyang, Hankou was then divided into four districts, which are Juren, Youyi, Xunli, and Dazhi. Some of the names can still be found in modern-day Wuhan, where there are names such as Xunlimen, Jurenmen. In 1926, Hankou was officially established as a city, where its government was built in Jianghan district. In the same year, the Northern Expedition reached Hankou, and merged Hankou with adjacent Wuchang and Hanyang to make it the seat of the national capital, Wuhan. But in 1927, when Nanjing succeeded in the fight to be the capital, Wuhan was returned to its original form. This time Hankou was established as a Special Municipality, which resembles a direct-controlled municipality in present day, before 1949, Hankou has shifted between being a special municipality and a provincial city. In 1949, Hankou was finally merged with Hanyang and Wuchang to become Wuhan, Hankou was the destination on the escape route of groups of missionaries fleeing the Boxers in the Northern provinces around 1900. The flight of some missionaries from the Tai-yüan massacre in Shan-si is recorded in the work A Thousand Miles of Miracles in China, by Reverend A E Glover], one of the fleeing missionaries. The Qing Dynasty Army recaptured Hankou later, but as the spread throughout China, eventually the town. Hankou used to have five foreign concessions belonging to the United Kingdom, France, Russia, Germany, the German and Russian concessions ended in 1917 and 1920 respectively and those areas were administered by the Chinese government as the First and the Second Special Area. The Chen-OMalley Agreement of February 1927 provided for a combined British-Chinese administration of the concession, from then on it was administered by the Chinese authorities as the Third Special Area. While the event as such was comparatively minor, as was the territory involved, the government of Vichy France relinquished the French concession in 1943 while the Japanese concession came to an end with the surrender of Japan in 1945. Hankou was captured by the Japanese invaders in 1938, an important logistical center, the city was heavily bombed in December 1944 by the US aircraft based in the Chengdu area
28.
Guangzhou
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Guangzhou, traditionally romanised as Canton, is the capital and most populous city of the province of Guangdong in southern China. Guangzhou is currently, the third city in mainland China, behind Beijing and Shanghai, holds sub-provincial administrative status. In 2015 the citys area was estimated to have a population of 13,501,100. Some estimates place the population of the area of the Pearl River Delta Mega City as high as 44 million without the Hong Kong SAR and 54 million including it. Guangzhou is ranked as a Beta+ Global city, in recent years, there has been a rapidly increasing number of foreign residents and illegal immigrants from Southeast Asia, the Middle East and Eastern Europe, as well as from Africa. This has led to it being dubbed the Capital of the Third World, the migrant population from other provinces of China in Guangzhou was 40 percent of the citys total population in 2008. Long the only Chinese port accessible to foreign traders, the city fell to the British during the First Opium War. No longer enjoying a monopoly after the war, it lost trade to ports such as Hong Kong and Shanghai. In modern commerce, Guangzhou is best known for its annual Canton Fair, for the three consecutive years 2013–2015, Forbes ranked Guangzhou as the best commercial city on the Chinese mainland. Guǎngzhōu is the pinyin romanisation of the Chinese name 廣州, which was simplified in mainland China to 广州 in the 1950s, before acquiring its current name, the town was known as Panyu, a name still borne by one of Guangzhous districts. The origin of the name is uncertain, with 11 various explanations being offered. The city has sometimes been known as Guangzhou Fu or Guangfu after its status as the capital of a commandery. From this latter name, Guangzhou was known to medieval Persians such as Al-Masudi, under the Southern Han, the city was renamed Xingwang. Under the Qing, it was known to its inhabitants as simply The Provincial Capital. The Chinese abbreviation for Guangzhou is 穗, after its nickname Rice City, the former name City of the Immortals came from the same story. The more recent City of Flowers is usually taken as a reference to the areas greenery. The English name Canton derived from Portuguese Cantão or Cidade de Cantão, although it originally and chiefly applied to the walled city, it was also used in English in reference to Guangdong generally. It was adopted as the Postal Map Romanization of Guangzhou and remained in use until the gradual adoption of pinyin
29.
Chiang Kai-shek
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Chiang Kai-shek, also romanized as Jiang Jieshi and known as Jiang Zhongzheng, was a Chinese political and military leader who served as the leader of the Republic of China between 1928 and 1975. Chiang was an member of the Kuomintang, the Chinese Nationalist Party. He became the Commandant of the Kuomintangs Whampoa Military Academy and took Suns place as leader of the KMT, having neutralized the partys left wing, Chiang then led Suns long-postponed Northern Expedition, conquering or reaching accommodations with Chinas many warlords. From 1928 to 1948, he served as chairman of the National Military Council of the Nationalist Government of the Republic of China, unable to maintain Suns good relations with the Communists, he purged them in a massacre at Shanghai and repression of uprisings at Guangzhou and elsewhere. After the defeat of the Japanese, the American-sponsored Marshall Mission, the Chinese Civil War resumed, with the Chinese Communist Party defeating the Nationalists and declaring the Peoples Republic of China in 1949. Chiangs government and army retreated to Taiwan, where Chiang imposed martial law, after evacuating to Taiwan, Chiangs government continued to declare its intention to retake mainland China. Chiang ruled Taiwan securely as President of the Republic of China, like many other Chinese historical figures, Chiang used several names throughout his life. That inscribed in the records of his family is Jiang Zhoutai. This so-called register name is the one under which his relatives knew him. In deference to tradition, family members did not use the name in conversation with people outside of the family. In fact, the concept of real or original name is not as clear-cut in China as it is in the Western world, in honor of tradition, Chinese families waited a number of years before officially naming their offspring. In the meantime, they used a name, given to the infant shortly after his birth. Thus, the name that Chiang received at birth was Jiang Ruiyuan. In 1903, the 16-year-old Chiang went to Ningbo to be a student and this was actually the formal name of a person, used by older people to address him, and the one he would use the most in the first decades of his life. The school name that Chiang chose for himself was Zhiqing, for the next fifteen years or so, Chiang was known as Jiang Zhiqing. This is the name under which Sun Yat-sen knew him when Chiang joined the republicans in Guangzhou in the 1910s. In 1912, when Jiang Zhiqing was in Japan, he started to use the name Chiang Kai-shek as a pen name for the articles that he published in a Chinese magazine he founded, Voice of the Army. Jieshi is the Pinyin romanization of this name, based on Mandarin, kai-shek/Jieshi soon became Chiangs courtesy name
30.
Kuomintang
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The Kuomintang of China is a major political party in the Republic of China. It is currently the second-largest in the country, the predecessor of the KMT, the Revolutionary Alliance, was one of the major advocates of the overthrow of the Qing Dynasty and the establishment of a republic. The KMT was founded by Song Jiaoren and Sun Yat-sen shortly after the Xinhai Revolution of 1911, Sun was the provisional president but he did not have military power and ceded the first presidency to the military leader Yuan Shikai. After Yuans death, China was divided by warlords, while the KMT was able to only part of the south. Later led by Chiang Kai-shek, the KMT formed the National Revolutionary Army and it was the ruling party in mainland China from 1928 until its retreat to Taiwan in 1949 after being defeated by the Communist Party of China during the Chinese Civil War. In Taiwan, the KMT continued as the ruling party until the reforms in the late 1970s through the 1990s loosened its grip on power. Since 1987, the Republic of China is no longer a single-party state, however, the KMT is currently the main opposition party in the Legislative Yuan. The guiding ideology is the Three Principles of the People, advocated by Sun Yat-sen and its party headquarters are located in Taipei. The KMT is a member of the International Democrat Union, the previous president, Ma Ying-jeou, elected in 2008 and re-elected in 2012, was the seventh KMT member to hold the office of the presidency. Together with the People First Party and New Party, the KMT forms what is known as the Taiwanese Pan-Blue Coalition, however, the KMT has been forced to moderate its stance by advocating the political and legal status quo of modern Taiwan. However, since 2008, in order to ease tensions with the PRC, the group planned and supported the Xinhai Revolution of 1911 and the founding of the Republic of China on 1 January 1912. However, Sun did not have power and ceded the provisional presidency of the republic to Yuan Shikai. On 25 August 1912, the Nationalist Party was established at the Huguang Guild Hall in Peking, Sun, the then-President of the ROC, was chosen as the party chairman with Huang Xing as his deputy. The party opposed constitutional monarchists and sought to check the power of Yuan, the Nationalists won an overwhelming majority of the first National Assembly election in December 1912. But Yuan soon began to ignore the parliament in making presidential decisions, Song Jiaoren was assassinated in Shanghai in 1913. Yuan, claiming subversiveness and betrayal, expelled adherents of the KMT from the parliament, Yuan dissolved the Nationalists in November and dismissed the parliament early in 1914. Yuan Shikai proclaimed himself emperor in December 1915, in order tonary Party, members must take an oath of personal loyalty to Sun, which many old revolutionaries regarded as undemocratic and contrary to the spirit of the revolution. Thus, many old revolutionaries did not join Suns new organisation, Sun returned to China in 1917 to establish a military junta at Canton, in order to against the Beiyang government, but was soon forced out of office and exiled to Shanghai
31.
French Indochina
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French Indochina, officially known as the Indochinese Union after 1887 and the Indochinese Federation after 1947, was a grouping of French colonial territories in Southeast Asia. A grouping of the three Vietnamese regions of Tonkin, Annam, and Cochinchina with Cambodia was formed in 1887, Laos was added in 1893 and the leased Chinese territory of Guangzhouwan in 1898. The capital was moved from Saigon to Hanoi in 1902 and again to Da Lat in 1939, in 1945 it was moved back to Hanoi. After the Fall of France during World War II, the colony was administered by the Vichy government and was under Japanese occupation until March 1945, beginning in May 1941, the Viet Minh, a communist army led by Hồ Chí Minh, began a revolt against the Japanese. In August 1945 they declared Vietnamese independence and extended the war, known as the First Indochina War, in Saigon, the anti-Communist State of Vietnam, led by former Emperor Bảo Đại, was granted independence in 1949. On 9 November 1953, the Kingdom of Laos and the Kingdom of Cambodia became independent, following the Geneva Accord of 1954, the French evacuated Vietnam and French Indochina came to an end. France–Vietnam relations started as early as the 17th century with the mission of the Jesuit missionary Alexandre de Rhodes, at this time, Vietnam was only just beginning to occupy the Mekong Delta, former territory of the Indianised kingdom of Champa which they had defeated in 1471. European involvement in Vietnam was confined to trade during the 18th century, pigneau died in Vietnam but his troops fought on until 1802 in the French assistance to Nguyễn Ánh. France was heavily involved in Vietnam in the 19th century, protecting the work of the Paris Foreign Missions Society in the country was presented as a justification. In 1858, the period of unification under the Nguyễn dynasty ended with a successful attack on Da Nang by French Admiral Charles Rigault de Genouilly under the orders of Napoleon III. Diplomat Charles de Montignys mission having failed, Genouillys mission was to stop attempts to expel Catholic missionaries and his orders were to stop the persecution of missionaries and assure the unimpeded propagation of the faith. In September 1858, fourteen French gunships,3,000 men and 300 Filipino troops provided by the Spanish attacked the port of Tourane, causing significant damage, after a few months, Rigault had to leave the city due to supply issues and illnesses. Sailing south, de Genouilly then captured the poorly defended city of Saigon on 18 February 1859, on 13 April 1862, the Vietnamese government was forced to cede the three provinces of Biên Hòa, Gia Định and Định Tường to France. French policy four years saw a reversal, with the French continuing to accumulate territory. In 1862, France obtained concessions from Emperor Tự Đức, ceding three treaty ports in Annam and Tonkin, and all of Cochinchina, the latter being formally declared a French territory in 1864. In 1867 the provinces of Châu Đốc, Hà Tiên and Vĩnh Long were added to French-controlled territory, in 1863, the Cambodian king Norodom had requested the establishment of a French protectorate over his country. France obtained control over northern Vietnam following its victory over China in the Sino-French War, French Indochina was formed on 17 October 1887 from Annam, Tonkin, Cochinchina and the Kingdom of Cambodia, Laos was added after the Franco-Siamese War in 1893. The federation lasted until 21 July 1954, French troops landed in Vietnam in 1858 and by the mid-1880s they had established a firm grip over the northern region
32.
Guangzhouwan
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Guangzhouwan was a small enclave on the southern coast of China ceded by Qing China to France as a leased territory and administered as an outlier of French Indochina. The territory did not experience the growth in population that other parts of coastal China experienced. Industries included shipping and coal mining, japan occupied the territory in February 1943. The French briefly took it back in 1945 before returning it to China in 1946, at which point it was given the name Zhanjiang, the capital of the territory was Fort-Bayard. The old spellings Tsankiang, Chankiang and Tsamkong were replaced by the pinyin romanisation Zhanjiang by the Chinese government in 1958. The leased territory was situated in Guangdong Province on the east side of the Leizhou Peninsula, north of Hainan, around a bay then called Kwangchowan, the bay forms the estuary of the Maxie River. The Maxie is navigable as far as 19 kilometres inland even by large warships, the territory ceded to France included the islands lying in the bay, which enclosed an area 29 km long by 10 km wide and a minimum water depth of 10 metres. The islands were recognized at the time as a natural defense. The total land area of the territory was 1,300 square kilometres. The city of Fort-Bayard was developed as a port, Kwangchow Wan was effectively placed under the authority of the French Resident Superior in Tonkin, the French Resident was represented locally by Administrators. As a result, France demanded and obtained mining rights in the three adjoining prefectures. The population in 1911 was recorded as 189,000, the return of the leased territory to China was promised by France at the Washington Naval Conference of 1921–1922 but this plan was in fact never realised. Industries included shipping and coal mining, as an adjunct of French Indochina, Kwangchow Wan generally endured the same fate as Indochina proper during World War II. From then on, Kwanchow Wan was de facto under full military Japanese occupation, the Administrator resigned in disgust and Adrien Roques, a local pro-Vichy militant, was appointed to replace him. In May of the year, Roques signed a convention with the local Japanese military authorities in which the French authorities promised to cooperate fully with the Japanese. However, the route was closed when the Japanese occupied the area in February 1943. A French-language school, École Franco-Chinoise de Kouang-Tchéou-Wan, as well as a branch of the Banque de lIndochine, were set up in Fort-Bayard, in addition, a Roman Catholic church constructed during the colonial period is still preserved today. China-France relations French colonial empire List of French possessions and colonies Zhanjiang Sino-Vietnamese Railway Anslinger, H. J. Tompkins, annales de Géographie, Volume 34, Nr
33.
Communist Party of China
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The Communist Party of China is the founding and ruling political party of the Peoples Republic of China. It was founded in 1921, chiefly by Chen Duxiu and Li Dazhao, the CPC is currently the worlds second largest political party with a membership of 88.76 million as of 2016. It also controls the worlds largest armed force, the Peoples Liberation Army, the highest body of the CPC is the National Congress, convened every fifth year. The partys leader holds the offices of General Secretary, Chairman of the Central Military Commission, through these posts the party leader is the countrys paramount leader. The current party leader is Xi Jinping, elected at the 18th National Congress, the CPC is still committed to communist thought and continues to participate in the International Meeting of Communist and Workers Parties each year. The official explanation for Chinas economic reforms is that the country is in the stage of socialism. The planned economy established under Mao Zedong was replaced by the socialist market economy, the CPC has its origins in the May Fourth Movement of 1919, during which radical ideologies like Marxism and anarchism gained traction among Chinese intellectuals. Other influences stemming from the Bolshevik revolution and Marxist theory inspired the Communist Party of China, Li Dazhao was the first leading Chinese intellectual who publicly supported Leninism and world revolution. In contrast to Chen Duxiu, Li did not renounce participation in the affairs of the Republic of China, both of them regarded the October Revolution in Russia as groundbreaking, believing it to herald a new era for oppressed countries everywhere. The CPC was modeled on Vladimir Lenins theory of a vanguard party, Study circles were, according to Cai Hesen, the rudiments. Several study circles were established during the New Culture Movement, the founding National Congress of the CPC was held on 23–31 July 1921. With only 50 members in the beginning of 1921, the CPC organization, while it was originally planned to be held in Shanghai French Concession, police officers interrupted the meeting on 3 July. Because of that, the congress was moved to a tourist boat on South Lake in Jiaxing, Zhejiang province, only 12 delegates attended the congress, with neither Li nor Chen being able to attend. Chen sent a representative to attend the congress. The resolutions of the called for the establishment of a communist party. The communists dominated the left wing of the KMT, a party organized on Leninist lines, when KMT leader Sun Yat-sen died in March 1925, he was succeeded by a rightist, Chiang Kai-shek, who initiated moves to marginalize the position of the communists. Fresh from the success of the Northern Expedition to overthrow the warlords, Chiang Kai-shek turned on the communists, ignoring the orders of the Wuhan-based KMT government, he marched on Shanghai, a city controlled by communist militias. Although the communists welcomed Chiangs arrival, he turned on them, Chiangs army then marched on Wuhan, but was prevented from taking the city by CPC General Ye Ting and his troops
34.
Luwan District
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Luwan District, formerly romanized as Lokawei, was a district located in central Shanghai, China until its merger with Huangpu District, Shanghai in June 2011. It had an area of 8.05 km² and population of 350,000 as of 2001, Luwan district was located directly south of Peoples Square. The northern part of Luwan included one of the best sections of Huaihai Road, famous for its international fashion shops, Luwan was a part of the old French Concession area, one of the most prestigious sections of the city. It was famous for its boulevards, the plane trees lining the main streets were imported from France over 100 years ago. The district included the historical residences of Sun Yat-sen, Mao Zedong, Zhou Enlai, Agnes Smedley and it was announced on June 8,2011 that the proposed plan of merging Luwan and Huangpu districts had been approved by the State Council. Since the new district would still maintain the name Huangpu, Luwan as a district ceased to exist, the district was named after Lujia Wan, literally Lus Bay, formerly a bend in a local river which had since been covered up. The name survived in bus stops located near the location of the bay. Known as Lukawei during the French concession period, this was the location of the police depot. Huangpu District, Shanghai Shanghai French Concession Xuhui District Lupu Bridge Lippo Plaza, Shanghai
35.
The Bund
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The documentary released by CCTV, directed by Zhou Bing. The Bund or Waitan is a waterfront area in central Shanghai, the area centers on a section of Zhongshan Road within the former Shanghai International Settlement, which runs along the western bank of the Huangpu River in the eastern part of Huangpu District. The area along the faces the modern skyscrapers of Lujiazui in the Pudong District. The Bund usually refers to the buildings and wharves on this section of the road and it is one of the most famous tourist destinations in Shanghai. Building heights are restricted in the area, the word bund means an embankment or an embanked quay. The word comes from the Persian word band, through Hindustani, meaning an embankment, mumbais Apollo Bunder and city names like Bandar Abbas and Banda Aceh share the same etymology. In these Chinese port cities, the English term came to mean, especially, in English, Bund is pronounced to rhyme with fund. There are numerous sites in India, China, and Japan that are called bunds, however, The Bund, without qualification to location, usually refers to this stretch of embanked riverfront in Shanghai. The Bund lies north of the old, walled city of Shanghai and it was initially a British settlement, later the British and American settlements were combined in the International Settlement. Magnificent commercial buildings in the Beaux Arts style sprung up in the years around the turn of the 20th century as the Bund developed into a financial center of east Asia. Directly to the south, and just northeast of the old walled city, by the 1940s, the Bund housed the headquarters of many, if not most, of the major financial institutions operating in China, including the big four national banks in the Republic of China era. However, with the Communist victory in the Chinese civil war, many of the institutions were moved out gradually in the 1950s. The statues of figures and foreign worthies which had dotted the riverside were also removed. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, with the thawing of economic policy in the Peoples Republic of China, government institutions were moved out in favour of financial institutions, while hotels resumed trading as such. The Bunds revitalization began in 1986 with a new promenade by the Dutch Architect Paulus Snoeren and has changed the streetscape of the Bund. In the 1990s, Zhongshan Road, the road on which the Bund is centred, was widened to ten lanes, as a result, most of the parkland which had existed along the road disappeared. Also in this period, the ferry connecting the Bund and Pudong. A number of pleasure cruises still operate from some nearby wharves, in its expanded form, the term Bund was used to refer to areas south of the Yanan Road, and a stretch of riverfront north of the Suzhou River
36.
Shanghai International Settlement
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The settlements were established following the defeat of the Qing army by the British in the First Opium War. The British also established a base on Hong Kong under an extensive lease, American and French involvement followed closely on the heels of the British and their enclaves were established north and south, respectively, of the British area. Unlike the colonies of Hong Kong and Weihaiwei, which were sovereign British territories, however, during the Small Sword Society uprising of 1853–55, the Qing government gave up sovereignty in the concessions to the foreign powers in exchange of their support to suppress the rebellion. In 1854, the three countries created the Shanghai Municipal Council to serve all their interests, but, in 1862, the following year the British and American settlements formally united to create the Shanghai International Settlement. The international settlement came to an end in December 1941 when Japanese troops stormed in immediately following the attack on Pearl Harbor. The French later surrendered their privileges in a separate 1946 agreement, the next morning Balfour sent word to the circuit intendant of Shanghai, Gong Mujiu, requesting a meeting, at which he indicated his desire to find a house to live in. Balfour, his interpreter Walter Henry Medhurst, surgeon Dr. Hale and it served as the consulate during construction of a Western-style building within the official Settlement boundaries just to the south of Suzhou Creek. This was completed within a year and this soon became the epicenter of the British settlement. Under the Treaty of Wanghia, Americans gained the rights as those enjoyed by the British in Chinas treaty ports. It also contained a clause that effectively carved out Shanghai as a zone within Imperial China. It was only in 1845 that Britain followed in Americas footsteps, the American consular presence did not create a problem for the British because it was never intended to have a post in person. Since American traders in China were prohibited from engaging in the opium trade, their business transactions were conducted under the auspices of British firms. The only serious incident of political complaint against the Americans was in 1845, when the Stars and Stripes was raised by the acting US Consul, Henry G. Wolcott, neither the British nor the Chinese governor approved of the display. In 1848, France established its own French concession under French consular jurisdiction and they also claimed the right to exclude Chinese troops from the concession areas. Chinese entry was subsequently legalised and continued to grow, the aims of this first Council were simply to assist in the formation of roads, refuse collection, and taxation across the disparate Concessions. In 1863 the American concession—land fronting the Huangpu River to the north-east of Soochow Creek —officially joined the British Settlement to become the Shanghai International Settlement, the French concession remained independent and the Chinese retained control over the original walled city and the area surrounding the foreign enclaves. This would later result in sometimes absurd administrative outcomes, such as needing three drivers licenses to travel through the complete city, by the late-1860s Shanghais official governing body had been practically transferred from the individual concessions to the Shanghai Municipal Council. The British Consul was the de jure authority in the Settlement, instead, he and the other consulates deferred to the Council
37.
Edward VII
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Edward VII was King of the United Kingdom and the British Dominions and Emperor of India from 22 January 1901 until his death in 1910. The eldest son of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, before his accession to the throne, he served as heir apparent and held the title of Prince of Wales for longer than any of his predecessors. During the long reign of his mother, he was excluded from political power. He travelled throughout Britain performing ceremonial duties, and represented Britain on visits abroad. His tours of North America in 1860 and the Indian subcontinent in 1875 were popular successes, as king, Edward played a role in the modernisation of the British Home Fleet and the reorganisation of the British Army after the Second Boer War. He reinstituted traditional ceremonies as public displays and broadened the range of people with whom royalty socialised and he died in 1910 in the midst of a constitutional crisis that was resolved the following year by the Parliament Act 1911, which restricted the power of the unelected House of Lords. Edward was born at 10,48 in the morning on 9 November 1841 in Buckingham Palace and he was the eldest son and second child of Queen Victoria and her husband Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. He was christened Albert Edward at St Georges Chapel, Windsor Castle and he was named Albert after his father and Edward after his maternal grandfather Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn. He was known as Bertie to the family throughout his life. As the eldest son of the British sovereign, he was automatically Duke of Cornwall, as a son of Prince Albert, he also held the titles of Prince of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha and Duke of Saxony. He was created Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester on 8 December 1841, Earl of Dublin on 17 January 1850, a Knight of the Garter on 9 November 1858, and a Knight of the Thistle on 24 May 1867. In 1863, he renounced his rights to the Duchy of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha in favour of his younger brother. Queen Victoria and Prince Albert were determined that their eldest son should have an education that would prepare him to be a constitutional monarch. At age seven, Edward embarked on an educational programme devised by Prince Albert. Unlike his elder sister Victoria, Edward did not excel in his studies and he tried to meet the expectations of his parents, but to no avail. Although Edward was not a diligent student—his true talents were those of charm, sociability and tact—Benjamin Disraeli described him as informed, intelligent, after the completion of his secondary-level studies, his tutor was replaced by a personal governor, Robert Bruce. After an educational trip to Rome, undertaken in the first few months of 1859, he spent the summer of that year studying at the University of Edinburgh under, among others, in October, he matriculated as an undergraduate at Christ Church, Oxford. Now released from the strictures imposed by his parents, he enjoyed studying for the first time
38.
Ferdinand Foch
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Marshal Ferdinand Jean Marie Foch was a French general and Marshal of France, Great Britain and Poland, a military theorist and the Supreme Allied Commander during the First World War. Ordered west to defend Paris, Fochs prestige soared as a result of the victory at the Marne, at the end of 1916, partly owing to the disappointing results of the latter offensive and partly owing to wartime political rivalries, Foch was transferred to Italy. Foch was ultimately appointed Commander-in-Chief of the Allied Armies on 26 March 1918 following being the Commander-in-Chief of Western Front with title Généralissime in 1918. He played a role in halting a renewed German advance on Paris in the Second Battle of the Marne. Addington says, to an extent the final Allied strategy which won the war on land in Western Europe in 1918 was Fochs alone. On 11 November 1918 Foch accepted the German request for an armistice, Foch advocated peace terms that would make Germany unable to pose a threat to France ever again. Foch considered the Treaty of Versailles too lenient on Germany and as the Treaty was being signed on 28 June 1919, he declared and it is an armistice for twenty years. His words proved prophetic, the Second World War started twenty years and 64 days later, Foch was born at Tarbes, Hautes-Pyrénées, the son of a civil servant from Comminges. His German surname was of his paternal side ancestry which originally came from Alsace in the 18th century and he attended school at Tarbes, Rodez and the Jesuit College at Saint-Étienne. His brother later became a Jesuit priest, which may initially have hindered Fochs rise through the ranks of the French Army since the Republican government of France was anti-clerical. At the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War in 1870, Foch enlisted in the French 4th Infantry Regiment which did not take part in combat, in 1871, he entered the École Polytechnique, choosing the school of artillery. In 1876, he attended the school of Saumur to train as a mounted artillery officer. On 30 September 1878 he became a Captain and arrived in Paris on 24 September 1879 as an assistant in the Central Personnel Service Depot of the artillery, in 1885 Foch undertook a course at the Ecole Supérieur de Guerre where he was later an instructor from 1895 to 1901. He was promoted Lieutenant-Colonel in 1898, and colonel in 1903, as a colonel he became regimental commander of the 35th Artillery Regiment at Vannes. An extremely short man, Foch was known for his physical strength, Foch was a quiet man, known for saying little and when he did speak, it was a volley of words accompanied by much gesturing of his hands that required some knowledge of him to understand properly. One of Fochs favorite phrases was Pas de protocole, in 1907 Foch was promoted to Général de Brigade, and in the same year he assumed command of the French War College. He held this position until 1911, the year in which he was appointed Général de Division, Foch influenced General Joseph Joffre when he drafted the French plan of campaign in 1913. In 1913 he took command of XX Corps at Nancy, Foch was later acclaimed as the most original military thinker of his generation
39.
Annam (French protectorate)
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Annam was a French protectorate encompassing the central region of Vietnam. Before the protectorates establishment, the name Annam was used in the West to refer to Vietnam as a whole, Vietnamese were referred to as Annamites. The protectorate of Annam became in 1887 a part of French Indochina, two other Vietnamese regions, Cochinchina in the South and Tonkin in the North, were also units of French Indochina. The region had a system of French and Vietnamese administration. The Nguyễn Dynasty still nominally ruled Annam, with a puppet emperor residing in Huế, in 1948, the protectorate was merged in the Provisional Central Government of Vietnam, which was replaced the next year by the newly established State of Vietnam. The region was divided between communist North Vietnam and anti-communist South Vietnam under the terms of the Geneva Accord of 1954, Annam means Pacified South in Sino-Vietnamese, the toponym being derived from the Chinese An Nan. The name has also applied to the Annamite Range, a 1,100 km mountain range with a height ranging up to 2,958 metres that divides Vietnam. An Nam is usually considered offensively demeaning to Vietnamese people, Trung Kì or Trung Kỳ is instead used in formal contexts. Before this, in 1787, Gia Long had concluded a treaty with Louis XVI, whereby in return for a promise of aid he ceded Tourane and that treaty marks the beginning of French influence in Indochina. After conquering Cochinchina in 1858–1862, the French resumed in 1883 their expansion in Southern Asia, the first protectorate treaty was signed in 1883, although it was replaced the next year by a slightly milder treaty. With the treaty of Tientsin, China recognised the French protectorate over Annam and Tonkin, Annam and Tonkin became part of French Indochina in 1887. On 9 May 1889, they were split in two Résidences supérieures, each subordinated to the Governor-General of French Indochina, the Nguyễn dynasty still nominally ruled over both protectorates. Tonkin was de facto ruled directly by the French, while the government maintained some degree of authority over Annam. On 27 September 1897, the Vietnamese imperial council in Annam was replaced by a council of ministers, Annam comprised a sinuous strip of territory measuring between 750 and 800 miles in length, with an approximate area of 52,000 square miles. It had a rich, well-watered soil which yields tropical crops, the country consisted chiefly of a range of plateaus and wooded mountains, running north and south and declining on the coast to a narrow band of plains varying between 12 and 50 miles in breadth. The mountains are cut transversely by short narrow valleys, through which run rivers, most of which are dry in summer and torrential in winter. The Song Ma and the Song Ca in the north, the chief harbour is that afforded by the bay of Tourane at the centre of the coastline. South of this point, the coast curves outwards and is broken by peninsulas and indentations, to the north it is concave and bordered in places by dunes
40.
Taiping Rebellion
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The war was mostly fought in the provinces of Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Anhui, Jiangxi and Hubei, but over 14 years of war the Taiping Army had marched through every province of China proper except Gansu. Hostilities began on January 1,1851, when the Qing Green Standard Army launched an attack against the God Worshipping Society at the town of Jintian, Guangxi. Hong declared himself the Heavenly King of the Heavenly Kingdom of Peace, the Taipings began marching north in September 1851 to escape Qing forces closing in on them. On March 19,1853, the Taipings captured the city of Nanjing and Hong declared it the Heavenly Capital of his kingdom. For a decade the Taiping occupied and fought much of the mid and lower Yangzi valley. Qing imperial troops proved to be ineffective in halting Taiping advances. In Hunan Province a local irregular army called the Xiang Army or Hunan Army, under the leadership of Zeng Guofan. Zengs Xiang Army proved effective in turning back the Taiping advance in the western theater of the war. In 1856 the Taiping were weakened after infighting following a coup led by the East King, Yang Xiuqing. During this time the Xiang Army managed to retake much of Hubei. While Taiping forces were preoccupied in Jiangsu, Zengs forces moved down the Yangzi River, in May 1862 the Xiang Army began directly besieging Nanjing and managed to hold firm despite numerous attempts by the numerically superior Taiping Army to dislodge them. Hong died on June 1,1864, and Nanjing fell shortly after, the terms used for the movement often reflect the viewpoint of the writer. The Qing referred to the Taiping as Yue Bandits in official sources, in the 19th century Western observers, depending on their ideological position, referred to the Taiping as the revolutionaries, insurgents or rebels. The conflict in general has been called the Taiping Rebellion by many Western historians and they argue, instead, that the conflict should be called a civil war. The government, led by ethnic Manchus, was seen by many Han Chinese as ineffective, anti-Manchu sentiments were strongest in southern China among the Hakka community, a Han Chinese subgroup. In 1837 Hong Xiuquan, a Hakka from a mountain village, once again failed the imperial examination. He returned home, fell sick and was bedridden for several days and it was his duty to spread his message and overthrow the Qing dynasty. One of Hongs associates, Yang Xiuqing--a firewood merchant from Guangxi--also declared that he heard the voice of God
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Shanghai American School
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Shanghai American School is a non-profit, co-educational international preparatory school established in 1912 in Shanghai, China. It has a history of more than a 100 years and is well-known among the schools in Shanghai. SAS has two campuses in Shanghai, the Puxi campus is located in Huacao Town, Minhang District and the Pudong campus is located in the Shanghai Links Executive Community in Pudong. The SAS Mission Statement states that it inspires in all students a passion for learning, a commitment to act with integrity and compassion, and the courage to live their dreams. Shanghai American School, an organization, opened its doors on September 17,1912. Today, there are more than 3000 students from approximately 40 countries, both campuses offer an American-based curriculum from pre-kindergarten to 12th grade, and offer the AP and IB education systems from 9th to 12th grade. Shanghai American School offers courses in both the International Baccalaureate and Advanced Placement as well as the AP Capstone Diploma, SAS offers a wide variety of course selections within both programs, and course selection outside of the IB or AP. There are separate buildings for the Elementary/Kindergarten, Middle School, and High School, with a building for the HS Social Studies, English. Additional facilities include a house, library, two media centres, and two connected cafeterias. Puxi campus cafeteria food is provided by Sodexo, students are given a wide variety of meal options, including Italian, American, and Asian cuisine, as well as self-served salad bars, custom sandwich bars, and cafes. The elementary school is located north west of the campus and the middle school, established in 1998, the Pudong campus is based in the grounds of the Shanghai Links Executive Community, north of the Pudong International Airport. The complex includes a Pre-K3, Pre-K4, Kindergarten, Elementary School, Middle School and High School, other facilities include two cafeterias, multiple gymnasiums, a fitness room, an Aquatics Center, a Performing Arts Center, and three fields. Pudong campus cafeteria food is provided by Eurest, students are given a wide variety of meal options, including Italian, American, and Asian cuisine, as well as self-served salad bars, custom sandwich bars, and cafes. It is also a participant of the China Cup of sports, the Middle School participates in the China International Schools Sports Association League. Students of both Pudong and Puxi campuses are participants of APAC, High school MUN members have the opportunity to attend conferences such as THIMUN Singapore and NAIMUN, in addition to smaller conferences throughout the year. SAS Puxi also hosts SHAMUN in the semester, a two-day MUN conference for international students around Shanghai. SAS Pudong hosts SHASMUN in the first semester, a three-day international MUN conference, the Puxi campus hosted the first Relay for Life event in Shanghai in April 2007, and it is now an annual event on both campuses. The Pudong campus hosted its first 30 Hour Famine in 2008 and it also offers a wide variety of extra curricular activities, with over 100 clubs in the high school alone
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Hengshan Road
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Hengshan Road, formerly Avenue Pétain, is a street in the former French Concession of Shanghai, China. Named after Philippe Pétain, Marshal of France, the boulevarde was constructed in 1922 to link the heart of the French Concession with Zikawei, now Xujiahui, the centre of Catholicism in Shanghai. It stretched from Rue Pottier and Rue Henri Riviere in the east, to the intersection of Avenue Haig and this American presence can still be seen in the form of the former American College, and the Community Church. A large number of mansions were built along the road in the 1920s, the Shanghai headquarters of Pathé Records was also located on Avenue Petain. The French Concession was handed over by Vichy France to the Wang Jingwei government in 1943, which renamed the boulevard as Hengshan Road, after Mount Heng, a sacred mountain in Hunan province. In the 1990s, many of the mansions were converted into bars, night clubs and restaurants. Many of the restaurants and bars are located in side streets off Hengshan Road, particularly, Dongping Road, the Community Church is open to foreigners and has services on Sundays. There is an alley on Hengshan Road where many foreigners. Just off Hengshan Road near the Hengshan Road Metro station, on Gaoan Road, are some of the few remaining manhole entrances mark CMF, the man hole covers have been replaced, but the metal structures around the outside are original. The central part of Hengshan Road can be reached by taking Shanghai Metro Line 1 to Hengshan Road station and it is also a short ride by taxi from central Shanghai. The leisure street at Hengshan Road
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