1.
Similarity (geometry)
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Two geometrical objects are called similar if they both have the same shape, or one has the same shape as the mirror image of the other. More precisely, one can be obtained from the other by uniformly scaling and this means that either object can be rescaled, repositioned, and reflected, so as to coincide precisely with the other object. If two objects are similar, each is congruent to the result of a uniform scaling of the other. A modern and novel perspective of similarity is to consider geometrical objects similar if one appears congruent to the other zoomed in or out at some level. For example, all circles are similar to other, all squares are similar to each other. On the other hand, ellipses are not all similar to other, rectangles are not all similar to each other. If two angles of a triangle have measures equal to the measures of two angles of triangle, then the triangles are similar. Corresponding sides of similar polygons are in proportion, and corresponding angles of similar polygons have the same measure and it can be shown that two triangles having congruent angles are similar, that is, the corresponding sides can be proved to be proportional. This is known as the AAA similarity theorem, due to this theorem, several authors simplify the definition of similar triangles to only require that the corresponding three angles are congruent. There are several statements each of which is necessary and sufficient for two triangles to be similar,1, the triangles have two congruent angles, which in Euclidean geometry implies that all their angles are congruent. That is, If ∠BAC is equal in measure to ∠B′A′C′, and ∠ABC is equal in measure to ∠A′B′C′, then this implies that ∠ACB is equal in measure to ∠A′C′B′, all the corresponding sides have lengths in the same ratio, AB/A′B′ = BC/B′C′ = AC/A′C′. This is equivalent to saying that one triangle is an enlargement of the other, two sides have lengths in the same ratio, and the angles included between these sides have the same measure. For instance, AB/A′B′ = BC/B′C′ and ∠ABC is equal in measure to ∠A′B′C′ and this is known as the SAS Similarity Criterion. When two triangles △ABC and △A′B′C′ are similar, one writes △ABC ∼ △A′B′C′, there are several elementary results concerning similar triangles in Euclidean geometry, Any two equilateral triangles are similar. Two triangles, both similar to a triangle, are similar to each other. Corresponding altitudes of similar triangles have the ratio as the corresponding sides. Two right triangles are similar if the hypotenuse and one side have lengths in the same ratio. Given a triangle △ABC and a line segment DE one can, with ruler and compass, the statement that the point F satisfying this condition exists is Walliss Postulate and is logically equivalent to Euclids Parallel Postulate
2.
Surface (mathematics)
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In mathematics, a surface is a generalization of a plane which needs not be flat, that is, the curvature is not necessarily zero. This is analogous to a curve generalizing a straight line, there are several more precise definitions, depending on the context and the mathematical tools that are used for the study. Often, a surface is defined by equations that are satisfied by the coordinates of its points and this is the case of the graph of a continuous function of two variables. The set of the zeros of a function of three variables is a surface, which is called an implicit surface, if the defining three-variate function is a polynomial, the surface is an algebraic surface. For example, the sphere is an algebraic surface, as it may be defined by the implicit equation x 2 + y 2 + z 2 −1 =0. A surface may also be defined as the image, in space of dimension at least 3. In this case, one says that one has a parametric surface, for example, the unit sphere may be parametrized by the Euler angles, also called longitude u and latitude v by x = cos cos y = sin cos z = sin . Parametric equations of surfaces are often irregular at some points, for example, all but two points of the unit sphere, are the image, by the above parametrization, of exactly one pair of Euler angles. For the remaining two points, one has cos v =0, and the longitude u may take any values, also, there are surfaces for which there cannot exits a single parametrization that covers the whole surface. Therefore, one often considers surfaces which are parametrized by several parametric equations and this allows defining surfaces in spaces of dimension higher than three, and even abstract surfaces, which are not contained in any other space. On the other hand, this excludes surfaces that have singularities, in classical geometry, a surface is generally defined as a locus of a point or a line. A ruled surface is the locus of a moving line satisfying some constraints, in modern terminology, a surface is a surface. In this article, several kinds of surfaces are considered and compared, a non-ambiguous terminology is thus necessary for distinguish them. Therefore, we call topological surfaces the surfaces that are manifolds of dimension two and we call differential surfaces the surfaces that are differentiable manifolds. Every differential surface is a surface, but the converse is false. For simplicity, unless stated, surface will mean a surface in the Euclidean space of dimension 3 or in R3. A surface, that is not supposed to be included in another space, is called an abstract surface, the graph of a continuous function of two variables, defined over a connected open subset of R2 is a topological surface. If the function is differentiable, the graph is a differential surface, a plane is together an algebraic surface and a differentiable surface
3.
Geon (psychology)
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Geons are the simple 2D or 3D forms such as cylinders, bricks, wedges, cones, circles and rectangles corresponding to the simple parts of an object in Biedermans Recognition-by-components theory. The theory proposes that the input is matched against structural representations of objects in the brain. These structural representations consist of geons and their relations, only a modest number of geons are assumed. When combined in different relations to other and coarse metric variation such as aspect ratio and 2D orientation, billions of possible 2-. Typically, such identifications are not viewpoint-invariant, objects represented as an arrangement of geons would, similarly, be viewpoint invariant. Invariance to illumination direction and surface markings and texture, high distinctiveness, The geons differ qualitatively, with only two or three levels of an attributes, such as straight vs. curved, parallel vs. non parallel, positive vs. negative curvature. These qualitative differences can be readily distinguished thus rendering the geons readily distinguishable, an L, fork, or an arrow, and Whether a pair of contours is parallel or not. When not parallel, the contours can be straight or curved, with positive or negative curvature forming a convex or concave, envelope, respectively. NAPs can be distinguished from metric properties, such as the degree of curvature of a contour or its length. A depth discontinuity is where the line of sight jumps from the surface of an object to the background. The same contour might mark both an orientation and depth discontinuity, as with the edge of a brick. Because the geons are based on these discontinuities, they are invariant to variations in the direction of lighting, shadows, the geons constitute a partition of the set of generalized cones, which are the volumes created when a cross section is swept along an axis. For example, a circle swept along a straight axis would define a cylinder, a rectangle swept along a straight axis would define a brick. Four dimensions with contrastive values define the current set of geons, Shape of cross section, for example, as stated above, a rectangle swept along a straight axis would define a brick and the cross section would be straight. Size of cross-section as it is swept along an axis, constant vs. expanding vs. expanding then contracting vs. contracting then expanding, the cross section size of a brick would be constant. Termination of geon with constant sized cross-sections, truncated vs. converging to a point vs. rounded and these variations in the generating of geons create shapes that differ in NAPs. There is now considerable support for the assumptions of geon theory. Some studies reported modest costs in matching geons at new orientations in depth, there is a lot of research out about geons and how they are interpreted
4.
Polygon
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In elementary geometry, a polygon /ˈpɒlɪɡɒn/ is a plane figure that is bounded by a finite chain of straight line segments closing in a loop to form a closed polygonal chain or circuit. These segments are called its edges or sides, and the points where two edges meet are the vertices or corners. The interior of the polygon is called its body. An n-gon is a polygon with n sides, for example, a polygon is a 2-dimensional example of the more general polytope in any number of dimensions. The basic geometrical notion of a polygon has been adapted in various ways to suit particular purposes, mathematicians are often concerned only with the bounding closed polygonal chain and with simple polygons which do not self-intersect, and they often define a polygon accordingly. A polygonal boundary may be allowed to intersect itself, creating star polygons and these and other generalizations of polygons are described below. The word polygon derives from the Greek adjective πολύς much, many and it has been suggested that γόνυ knee may be the origin of “gon”. Polygons are primarily classified by the number of sides, Polygons may be characterized by their convexity or type of non-convexity, Convex, any line drawn through the polygon meets its boundary exactly twice. As a consequence, all its interior angles are less than 180°, equivalently, any line segment with endpoints on the boundary passes through only interior points between its endpoints. Non-convex, a line may be found which meets its boundary more than twice, equivalently, there exists a line segment between two boundary points that passes outside the polygon. Simple, the boundary of the polygon does not cross itself, there is at least one interior angle greater than 180°. Star-shaped, the interior is visible from at least one point. The polygon must be simple, and may be convex or concave, self-intersecting, the boundary of the polygon crosses itself. Branko Grünbaum calls these coptic, though this term does not seem to be widely used, star polygon, a polygon which self-intersects in a regular way. A polygon cannot be both a star and star-shaped, equiangular, all corner angles are equal. Cyclic, all lie on a single circle, called the circumcircle. Isogonal or vertex-transitive, all lie within the same symmetry orbit. The polygon is cyclic and equiangular
5.
Triangle
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A triangle is a polygon with three edges and three vertices. It is one of the shapes in geometry. A triangle with vertices A, B, and C is denoted △ A B C, in Euclidean geometry any three points, when non-collinear, determine a unique triangle and a unique plane. This article is about triangles in Euclidean geometry except where otherwise noted, triangles can be classified according to the lengths of their sides, An equilateral triangle has all sides the same length. An equilateral triangle is also a polygon with all angles measuring 60°. An isosceles triangle has two sides of equal length, some mathematicians define an isosceles triangle to have exactly two equal sides, whereas others define an isosceles triangle as one with at least two equal sides. The latter definition would make all equilateral triangles isosceles triangles, the 45–45–90 right triangle, which appears in the tetrakis square tiling, is isosceles. A scalene triangle has all its sides of different lengths, equivalently, it has all angles of different measure. Hatch marks, also called tick marks, are used in diagrams of triangles, a side can be marked with a pattern of ticks, short line segments in the form of tally marks, two sides have equal lengths if they are both marked with the same pattern. In a triangle, the pattern is no more than 3 ticks. Similarly, patterns of 1,2, or 3 concentric arcs inside the angles are used to indicate equal angles, triangles can also be classified according to their internal angles, measured here in degrees. A right triangle has one of its interior angles measuring 90°, the side opposite to the right angle is the hypotenuse, the longest side of the triangle. The other two sides are called the legs or catheti of the triangle, special right triangles are right triangles with additional properties that make calculations involving them easier. One of the two most famous is the 3–4–5 right triangle, where 32 +42 =52, in this situation,3,4, and 5 are a Pythagorean triple. The other one is a triangle that has 2 angles that each measure 45 degrees. Triangles that do not have an angle measuring 90° are called oblique triangles, a triangle with all interior angles measuring less than 90° is an acute triangle or acute-angled triangle. If c is the length of the longest side, then a2 + b2 > c2, a triangle with one interior angle measuring more than 90° is an obtuse triangle or obtuse-angled triangle. If c is the length of the longest side, then a2 + b2 < c2, a triangle with an interior angle of 180° is degenerate
6.
Quadrilateral
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In Euclidean plane geometry, a quadrilateral is a polygon with four edges and four vertices or corners. Sometimes, the quadrangle is used, by analogy with triangle. The origin of the quadrilateral is the two Latin words quadri, a variant of four, and latus, meaning side. Quadrilaterals are simple or complex, also called crossed, simple quadrilaterals are either convex or concave. The interior angles of a simple quadrilateral ABCD add up to 360 degrees of arc and this is a special case of the n-gon interior angle sum formula × 180°. All non-self-crossing quadrilaterals tile the plane by repeated rotation around the midpoints of their edges, any quadrilateral that is not self-intersecting is a simple quadrilateral. In a convex quadrilateral, all angles are less than 180°. Irregular quadrilateral or trapezium, no sides are parallel, trapezium or trapezoid, at least one pair of opposite sides are parallel. Isosceles trapezium or isosceles trapezoid, one pair of sides are parallel. Alternative definitions are a quadrilateral with an axis of symmetry bisecting one pair of opposite sides, parallelogram, a quadrilateral with two pairs of parallel sides. Equivalent conditions are that opposite sides are of length, that opposite angles are equal. In other words, parallelograms include all rhombi and all rhomboids, rhombus or rhomb, all four sides are of equal length. An equivalent condition is that the diagonals bisect each other. Rhomboid, a parallelogram in which adjacent sides are of unequal lengths, not all references agree, some define a rhomboid as a parallelogram which is not a rhombus. Rectangle, all four angles are right angles, an equivalent condition is that the diagonals bisect each other and are equal in length. Square, all four sides are of length, and all four angles are right angles. An equivalent condition is that opposite sides are parallel, that the diagonals bisect each other. A quadrilateral is a if and only if it is both a rhombus and a rectangle
7.
Pentagon
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In geometry, a pentagon is any five-sided polygon or 5-gon. The sum of the angles in a simple pentagon is 540°. A pentagon may be simple or self-intersecting, a self-intersecting regular pentagon is called a pentagram. A regular pentagon has Schläfli symbol and interior angles are 108°, a regular pentagon has five lines of reflectional symmetry, and rotational symmetry of order 5. The diagonals of a regular pentagon are in the golden ratio to its sides. The area of a regular convex pentagon with side length t is given by A = t 225 +1054 =5 t 2 tan 4 ≈1.720 t 2. A pentagram or pentangle is a regular star pentagon and its sides form the diagonals of a regular convex pentagon – in this arrangement the sides of the two pentagons are in the golden ratio. The area of any polygon is, A =12 P r where P is the perimeter of the polygon. Substituting the regular pentagons values for P and r gives the formula A =12 ×5 t × t tan 2 =5 t 2 tan 4 with side length t, like every regular convex polygon, the regular convex pentagon has an inscribed circle. The apothem, which is the r of the inscribed circle. Like every regular polygon, the regular convex pentagon has a circumscribed circle. For a regular pentagon with successive vertices A, B, C, D, E, the regular pentagon is constructible with compass and straightedge, as 5 is a Fermat prime. A variety of methods are known for constructing a regular pentagon, one method to construct a regular pentagon in a given circle is described by Richmond and further discussed in Cromwells Polyhedra. The top panel shows the construction used in Richmonds method to create the side of the inscribed pentagon, the circle defining the pentagon has unit radius. Its center is located at point C and a midpoint M is marked halfway along its radius and this point is joined to the periphery vertically above the center at point D. Angle CMD is bisected, and the bisector intersects the axis at point Q. A horizontal line through Q intersects the circle at point P, to determine the length of this side, the two right triangles DCM and QCM are depicted below the circle. Using Pythagoras theorem and two sides, the hypotenuse of the triangle is found as 5 /2
8.
Equilateral triangle
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In geometry, an equilateral triangle is a triangle in which all three sides are equal. In the familiar Euclidean geometry, equilateral triangles are also equiangular and they are regular polygons, and can therefore also be referred to as regular triangles. Thus these are properties that are unique to equilateral triangles, the three medians have equal lengths. The three angle bisectors have equal lengths, every triangle center of an equilateral triangle coincides with its centroid, which implies that the equilateral triangle is the only triangle with no Euler line connecting some of the centers. For some pairs of triangle centers, the fact that they coincide is enough to ensure that the triangle is equilateral, in particular, A triangle is equilateral if any two of the circumcenter, incenter, centroid, or orthocenter coincide. It is also equilateral if its circumcenter coincides with the Nagel point, for any triangle, the three medians partition the triangle into six smaller triangles. A triangle is equilateral if and only if any three of the triangles have either the same perimeter or the same inradius. A triangle is equilateral if and only if the circumcenters of any three of the triangles have the same distance from the centroid. Morleys trisector theorem states that, in any triangle, the three points of intersection of the adjacent angle trisectors form an equilateral triangle, a version of the isoperimetric inequality for triangles states that the triangle of greatest area among all those with a given perimeter is equilateral. That is, PA, PB, and PC satisfy the inequality that any two of them sum to at least as great as the third. By Eulers inequality, the triangle has the smallest ratio R/r of the circumradius to the inradius of any triangle, specifically. The triangle of largest area of all those inscribed in a circle is equilateral. The ratio of the area of the incircle to the area of an equilateral triangle, the ratio of the area to the square of the perimeter of an equilateral triangle,1123, is larger than that for any other triangle. If a segment splits an equilateral triangle into two regions with equal perimeters and with areas A1 and A2, then 79 ≤ A1 A2 ≤97, in no other triangle is there a point for which this ratio is as small as 2. For any point P in the plane, with p, q, and t from the vertices A, B. For any point P on the circle of an equilateral triangle, with distances p, q. There are numerous triangle inequalities that hold with equality if and only if the triangle is equilateral, an equilateral triangle is the most symmetrical triangle, having 3 lines of reflection and rotational symmetry of order 3 about its center. Its symmetry group is the group of order 6 D3
9.
Isosceles triangle
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In geometry, an isosceles triangle is a triangle that has two sides of equal length. By the isosceles triangle theorem, the two angles opposite the sides are themselves equal, while if the third side is different then the third angle is different. By the Steiner–Lehmus theorem, every triangle with two angle bisectors of equal length is isosceles, in an isosceles triangle that has exactly two equal sides, the equal sides are called legs and the third side is called the base. The angle included by the legs is called the vertex angle, the vertex opposite the base is called the apex. In the equilateral triangle case, since all sides are equal, any side can be called the base, if needed, and the term leg is not generally used. A triangle with two equal sides has exactly one axis of symmetry, which goes through the vertex angle. Thus the axis of symmetry coincides with the bisector of the vertex angle, the median drawn to the base, the altitude drawn from the vertex angle. Whether the isosceles triangle is acute, right or obtuse depends on the vertex angle, in Euclidean geometry, the base angles cannot be obtuse or right because their measures would sum to at least 180°, the total of all angles in any Euclidean triangle. The Euler line of any triangle goes through the orthocenter, its centroid. In an isosceles triangle with two equal sides, the Euler line coincides with the axis of symmetry. This can be seen as follows, if the vertex angle is acute, then the orthocenter, the centroid, and the circumcenter all fall inside the triangle. In an isosceles triangle the incenter lies on the Euler line, the Steiner inellipse of any triangle is the unique ellipse that is internally tangent to the triangles three sides at their midpoints. For any isosceles triangle with area T and perimeter p, we have 2 p b 3 − p 2 b 2 +16 T2 =0. By substituting the height, the formula for the area of a triangle can be derived from the general formula one-half the base times the height. This is what Herons formula reduces to in the isosceles case, if the apex angle and leg lengths of an isosceles triangle are known, then the area of that triangle is, T =2 = a 2 sin cos . This is derived by drawing a line from the base of the triangle. The bases of two right triangles are both equal to the hypotenuse times the sine of the bisected angle by definition of the term sine. For the same reason, the heights of these triangles are equal to the times the cosine of the bisected angle
10.
Acute and obtuse triangles
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An acute triangle is a triangle with all three angles acute. An obtuse triangle is one with one angle and two acute angles. Since a triangles angles must sum to 180°, no triangle can have more than one obtuse angle, acute and obtuse triangles are the two different types of oblique triangles—triangles that are not right triangles because they have no 90° angle. However, while the orthocenter and the circumcenter are in an acute triangles interior, the orthocenter is the intersection point of the triangles three altitudes, each of which perpendicularly connects a side to the opposite vertex. In the case of a triangle, all three of these segments lie entirely in the triangles interior, and so they intersect in the interior. But for a triangle, the altitudes from the two acute angles intersect only the extensions of the opposite sides. These altitudes fall entirely outside the triangle, resulting in their intersection with each other occurring in the triangles exterior, the right triangle is the in-between case, both its circumcenter and its orthocenter lie on its boundary. In any triangle, any two angle measures A and B opposite sides a and b respectively are related according to A > B if and this implies that the longest side in an obtuse triangle is the one opposite the obtuse-angled vertex. An acute triangle has three inscribed squares, each with one side coinciding with part of a side of the triangle, however, an obtuse triangle has only one inscribed square, one of whose sides coincides with part of the longest side of the triangle. All triangles in which the Euler line is parallel to one side are acute and this property holds for side BC if and only if =3. If the triangle is then a 2 + b 2 > c 2, b 2 + c 2 > a 2, c 2 + a 2 > b 2. If C is the greatest angle and hc is the altitude from vertex C, then for an acute triangle 1 h c 2 <1 a 2 +1 b 2, with the opposite inequality if C is obtuse. The median mc from the longest side is greater or less than the circumradius for an acute or obtuse triangle respectively, m c > R for acute triangles, with the opposite for obtuse triangles. Onos inequality for the area A,27222 ≤6, holds for all acute triangles but not for all obtuse triangles. For an acute triangle we have, for angles A, B, for an acute triangle, sin 2 A + sin 2 B + sin 2 C >2, with the reverse inequality for an obtuse triangle. For an acute triangle, sin A ⋅ sin B + sin B ⋅ sin C + sin C ⋅ sin A ≤2, for any triangle the triple tangent identity states that the sum of the angles tangents equals their product. We have tan A + tan B + tan C ≥2 for acute triangles, for all acute triangles,2 ≥2 +2 +2. For all acute triangles with inradius r and circumradius R, a tan A + b tan B + c tan C ≥10 R −2 r, for an acute triangle with area K,2 ≤ K r 2
11.
Rectangle
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In Euclidean plane geometry, a rectangle is a quadrilateral with four right angles. It can also be defined as a quadrilateral, since equiangular means that all of its angles are equal. It can also be defined as a parallelogram containing a right angle, a rectangle with four sides of equal length is a square. The term oblong is occasionally used to refer to a non-square rectangle, a rectangle with vertices ABCD would be denoted as ABCD. The word rectangle comes from the Latin rectangulus, which is a combination of rectus and angulus, a crossed rectangle is a crossed quadrilateral which consists of two opposite sides of a rectangle along with the two diagonals. It is a case of an antiparallelogram, and its angles are not right angles. Other geometries, such as spherical, elliptic, and hyperbolic, have so-called rectangles with sides equal in length. Rectangles are involved in many tiling problems, such as tiling the plane by rectangles or tiling a rectangle by polygons, a convex quadrilateral with successive sides a, b, c, d whose area is 12. A rectangle is a case of a parallelogram in which each pair of adjacent sides is perpendicular. A parallelogram is a case of a trapezium in which both pairs of opposite sides are parallel and equal in length. A trapezium is a quadrilateral which has at least one pair of parallel opposite sides. A convex quadrilateral is Simple, The boundary does not cross itself, star-shaped, The whole interior is visible from a single point, without crossing any edge. De Villiers defines a more generally as any quadrilateral with axes of symmetry through each pair of opposite sides. This definition includes both right-angled rectangles and crossed rectangles, quadrilaterals with two axes of symmetry, each through a pair of opposite sides, belong to the larger class of quadrilaterals with at least one axis of symmetry through a pair of opposite sides. These quadrilaterals comprise isosceles trapezia and crossed isosceles trapezia, a rectangle is cyclic, all corners lie on a single circle. It is equiangular, all its corner angles are equal and it is isogonal or vertex-transitive, all corners lie within the same symmetry orbit. It has two lines of symmetry and rotational symmetry of order 2. The dual polygon of a rectangle is a rhombus, as shown in the table below, the figure formed by joining, in order, the midpoints of the sides of a rectangle is a rhombus and vice versa
12.
Rhombus
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In Euclidean geometry, a rhombus is a simple quadrilateral whose four sides all have the same length. Another name is equilateral quadrilateral, since equilateral means that all of its sides are equal in length, every rhombus is a parallelogram and a kite. A rhombus with right angles is a square, the word rhombus comes from Greek ῥόμβος, meaning something that spins, which derives from the verb ῥέμβω, meaning to turn round and round. The word was used both by Euclid and Archimedes, who used the term solid rhombus for two right circular cones sharing a common base, the surface we refer to as rhombus today is a cross section of this solid rhombus through the apex of each of the two cones. This is a case of the superellipse, with exponent 1. Every rhombus has two diagonals connecting pairs of vertices, and two pairs of parallel sides. Using congruent triangles, one can prove that the rhombus is symmetric across each of these diagonals and it follows that any rhombus has the following properties, Opposite angles of a rhombus have equal measure. The two diagonals of a rhombus are perpendicular, that is, a rhombus is an orthodiagonal quadrilateral, the first property implies that every rhombus is a parallelogram. Thus denoting the common side as a and the diagonals as p and q, not every parallelogram is a rhombus, though any parallelogram with perpendicular diagonals is a rhombus. In general, any quadrilateral with perpendicular diagonals, one of which is a line of symmetry, is a kite, every rhombus is a kite, and any quadrilateral that is both a kite and parallelogram is a rhombus. A rhombus is a tangential quadrilateral and that is, it has an inscribed circle that is tangent to all four sides. As for all parallelograms, the area K of a rhombus is the product of its base, the base is simply any side length a, K = a ⋅ h. The inradius, denoted by r, can be expressed in terms of the p and q as. The dual polygon of a rhombus is a rectangle, A rhombus has all sides equal, a rhombus has opposite angles equal, while a rectangle has opposite sides equal. A rhombus has a circle, while a rectangle has a circumcircle. A rhombus has an axis of symmetry through each pair of opposite vertex angles, the diagonals of a rhombus intersect at equal angles, while the diagonals of a rectangle are equal in length. The figure formed by joining the midpoints of the sides of a rhombus is a rectangle, a rhombohedron is a three-dimensional figure like a cube, except that its six faces are rhombi instead of squares. The rhombic dodecahedron is a polyhedron with 12 congruent rhombi as its faces
13.
Trapezoids
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The parallel sides are called the bases of the trapezoid and the other two sides are called the legs or the lateral sides. A scalene trapezoid is a trapezoid with no sides of equal measure, the first recorded use of the Greek word translated trapezoid was by Marinus Proclus in his Commentary on the first book of Euclids Elements. This article uses the term trapezoid in the sense that is current in the United States, in many other languages using a word derived from the Greek for this figure, the form closest to trapezium is used. A right trapezoid has two adjacent right angles, right trapezoids are used in the trapezoidal rule for estimating areas under a curve. An acute trapezoid has two adjacent acute angles on its longer base edge, while an obtuse trapezoid has one acute, an acute trapezoid is also an isosceles trapezoid, if its sides have the same length, and the base angles have the same measure. An obtuse trapezoid with two pairs of sides is a parallelogram. A parallelogram has central 2-fold rotational symmetry, a Saccheri quadrilateral is similar to a trapezoid in the hyperbolic plane, with two adjacent right angles, while it is a rectangle in the Euclidean plane. A Lambert quadrilateral in the plane has 3 right angles. A tangential trapezoid is a trapezoid that has an incircle, there is some disagreement whether parallelograms, which have two pairs of parallel sides, should be regarded as trapezoids. Some define a trapezoid as a quadrilateral having one pair of parallel sides. Others define a trapezoid as a quadrilateral with at least one pair of parallel sides, the latter definition is consistent with its uses in higher mathematics such as calculus. The former definition would make such concepts as the trapezoidal approximation to a definite integral ill-defined and this article uses the inclusive definition and considers parallelograms as special cases of a trapezoid. This is also advocated in the taxonomy of quadrilaterals, under the inclusive definition, all parallelograms are trapezoids. Rectangles have mirror symmetry on mid-edges, rhombuses have mirror symmetry on vertices, while squares have mirror symmetry on both mid-edges and vertices. Four lengths a, c, b, d can constitute the sides of a non-parallelogram trapezoid with a and b parallel only when | d − c | < | b − a | < d + c. The quadrilateral is a parallelogram when d − c = b − a =0, the angle between a side and a diagonal is equal to the angle between the opposite side and the same diagonal. The diagonals cut each other in mutually the same ratio, the diagonals cut the quadrilateral into four triangles of which one opposite pair are similar. The diagonals cut the quadrilateral into four triangles of which one pair have equal areas
14.
Square
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In geometry, a square is a regular quadrilateral, which means that it has four equal sides and four equal angles. It can also be defined as a rectangle in which two adjacent sides have equal length, a square with vertices ABCD would be denoted ◻ ABCD. e. A rhombus with equal diagonals a convex quadrilateral with sides a, b, c, d whose area is A =12 =12. Opposite sides of a square are both parallel and equal in length, all four angles of a square are equal. All four sides of a square are equal, the diagonals of a square are equal. The square is the n=2 case of the families of n-hypercubes and n-orthoplexes, a truncated square, t, is an octagon. An alternated square, h, is a digon, the perimeter of a square whose four sides have length ℓ is P =4 ℓ and the area A is A = ℓ2. In classical times, the power was described in terms of the area of a square. This led to the use of the square to mean raising to the second power. The area can also be calculated using the diagonal d according to A = d 22. In terms of the circumradius R, the area of a square is A =2 R2, since the area of the circle is π R2, in terms of the inradius r, the area of the square is A =4 r 2. Because it is a polygon, a square is the quadrilateral of least perimeter enclosing a given area. Dually, a square is the quadrilateral containing the largest area within a given perimeter. Indeed, if A and P are the area and perimeter enclosed by a quadrilateral, then the isoperimetric inequality holds,16 A ≤ P2 with equality if. The diagonals of a square are 2 times the length of a side of the square and this value, known as the square root of 2 or Pythagoras constant, was the first number proven to be irrational. A square can also be defined as a parallelogram with equal diagonals that bisect the angles, if a figure is both a rectangle and a rhombus, then it is a square. If a circle is circumscribed around a square, the area of the circle is π /2 times the area of the square, if a circle is inscribed in the square, the area of the circle is π /4 times the area of the square. A square has an area than any other quadrilateral with the same perimeter
15.
Point (geometry)
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In modern mathematics, a point refers usually to an element of some set called a space. More specifically, in Euclidean geometry, a point is a primitive notion upon which the geometry is built, being a primitive notion means that a point cannot be defined in terms of previously defined objects. That is, a point is defined only by some properties, called axioms, in particular, the geometric points do not have any length, area, volume, or any other dimensional attribute. A common interpretation is that the concept of a point is meant to capture the notion of a location in Euclidean space. Points, considered within the framework of Euclidean geometry, are one of the most fundamental objects, Euclid originally defined the point as that which has no part. This idea is easily generalized to three-dimensional Euclidean space, where a point is represented by a triplet with the additional third number representing depth. Further generalizations are represented by an ordered tuplet of n terms, many constructs within Euclidean geometry consist of an infinite collection of points that conform to certain axioms. This is usually represented by a set of points, As an example, a line is a set of points of the form L =. Similar constructions exist that define the plane, line segment and other related concepts, a line segment consisting of only a single point is called a degenerate line segment. In addition to defining points and constructs related to points, Euclid also postulated a key idea about points, in spite of this, modern expansions of the system serve to remove these assumptions. There are several inequivalent definitions of dimension in mathematics, in all of the common definitions, a point is 0-dimensional. The dimension of a space is the maximum size of a linearly independent subset. In a vector space consisting of a point, there is no linearly independent subset. The zero vector is not itself linearly independent, because there is a non trivial linear combination making it zero,1 ⋅0 =0, if no such minimal n exists, the space is said to be of infinite covering dimension. A point is zero-dimensional with respect to the covering dimension because every open cover of the space has a refinement consisting of a open set. The Hausdorff dimension of X is defined by dim H , = inf, a point has Hausdorff dimension 0 because it can be covered by a single ball of arbitrarily small radius. Although the notion of a point is considered fundamental in mainstream geometry and topology, there are some systems that forgo it, e. g. noncommutative geometry. More precisely, such structures generalize well-known spaces of functions in a way that the operation take a value at this point may not be defined
16.
Line (geometry)
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The notion of line or straight line was introduced by ancient mathematicians to represent straight objects with negligible width and depth. Lines are an idealization of such objects, the straight line is that which is equally extended between its points. In modern mathematics, given the multitude of geometries, the concept of a line is tied to the way the geometry is described. When a geometry is described by a set of axioms, the notion of a line is left undefined. The properties of lines are determined by the axioms which refer to them. One advantage to this approach is the flexibility it gives to users of the geometry, thus in differential geometry a line may be interpreted as a geodesic, while in some projective geometries a line is a 2-dimensional vector space. This flexibility also extends beyond mathematics and, for example, permits physicists to think of the path of a light ray as being a line, to avoid this vicious circle certain concepts must be taken as primitive concepts, terms which are given no definition. In geometry, it is frequently the case that the concept of line is taken as a primitive, in those situations where a line is a defined concept, as in coordinate geometry, some other fundamental ideas are taken as primitives. When the line concept is a primitive, the behaviour and properties of lines are dictated by the axioms which they must satisfy, in a non-axiomatic or simplified axiomatic treatment of geometry, the concept of a primitive notion may be too abstract to be dealt with. In this circumstance it is possible that a description or mental image of a notion is provided to give a foundation to build the notion on which would formally be based on the axioms. Descriptions of this type may be referred to, by some authors and these are not true definitions and could not be used in formal proofs of statements. The definition of line in Euclids Elements falls into this category, when geometry was first formalised by Euclid in the Elements, he defined a general line to be breadthless length with a straight line being a line which lies evenly with the points on itself. These definitions serve little purpose since they use terms which are not, themselves, in fact, Euclid did not use these definitions in this work and probably included them just to make it clear to the reader what was being discussed. In an axiomatic formulation of Euclidean geometry, such as that of Hilbert, for example, for any two distinct points, there is a unique line containing them, and any two distinct lines intersect in at most one point. In two dimensions, i. e. the Euclidean plane, two lines which do not intersect are called parallel, in higher dimensions, two lines that do not intersect are parallel if they are contained in a plane, or skew if they are not. Any collection of many lines partitions the plane into convex polygons. Lines in a Cartesian plane or, more generally, in affine coordinates, in two dimensions, the equation for non-vertical lines is often given in the slope-intercept form, y = m x + b where, m is the slope or gradient of the line. B is the y-intercept of the line, X is the independent variable of the function y = f
17.
Plane (geometry)
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In mathematics, a plane is a flat, two-dimensional surface that extends infinitely far. A plane is the analogue of a point, a line. When working exclusively in two-dimensional Euclidean space, the article is used, so. Many fundamental tasks in mathematics, geometry, trigonometry, graph theory and graphing are performed in a space, or in other words. Euclid set forth the first great landmark of mathematical thought, a treatment of geometry. He selected a small core of undefined terms and postulates which he used to prove various geometrical statements. Although the plane in its sense is not directly given a definition anywhere in the Elements. In his work Euclid never makes use of numbers to measure length, angle, in this way the Euclidean plane is not quite the same as the Cartesian plane. This section is concerned with planes embedded in three dimensions, specifically, in R3. In a Euclidean space of any number of dimensions, a plane is determined by any of the following. A line and a point not on that line, a line is either parallel to a plane, intersects it at a single point, or is contained in the plane. Two distinct lines perpendicular to the plane must be parallel to each other. Two distinct planes perpendicular to the line must be parallel to each other. Specifically, let r0 be the vector of some point P0 =. The plane determined by the point P0 and the vector n consists of those points P, with position vector r, such that the vector drawn from P0 to P is perpendicular to n. Recalling that two vectors are perpendicular if and only if their dot product is zero, it follows that the plane can be described as the set of all points r such that n ⋅ =0. Expanded this becomes a + b + c =0, which is the form of the equation of a plane. This is just a linear equation a x + b y + c z + d =0 and this familiar equation for a plane is called the general form of the equation of the plane
18.
Conic section
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In mathematics, a conic section is a curve obtained as the intersection of the surface of a cone with a plane. The three types of conic section are the hyperbola, the parabola, and the ellipse, the circle is a special case of the ellipse, and is of sufficient interest in its own right that it was sometimes called a fourth type of conic section. The conic sections have been studied by the ancient Greek mathematicians with this work culminating around 200 BC, the conic sections of the Euclidean plane have various distinguishing properties. Many of these have used as the basis for a definition of the conic sections. The type of conic is determined by the value of the eccentricity, in analytic geometry, a conic may be defined as a plane algebraic curve of degree 2, that is, as the set of points whose coordinates satisfy a quadratic equation in two variables. This equation may be written in form, and some geometric properties can be studied as algebraic conditions. In the Euclidean plane, the conic sections appear to be different from one another. By extending the geometry to a projective plane this apparent difference vanishes, further extension, by expanding the real coordinates to admit complex coordinates, provides the means to see this unification algebraically. The conic sections have been studied for thousands of years and have provided a source of interesting. A conic is the curve obtained as the intersection of a plane, called the cutting plane and we shall assume that the cone is a right circular cone for the purpose of easy description, but this is not required, any double cone with some circular cross-section will suffice. Planes that pass through the vertex of the cone will intersect the cone in a point and these are called degenerate conics and some authors do not consider them to be conics at all. Unless otherwise stated, we assume that conic refers to a non-degenerate conic. There are three types of conics, the ellipse, parabola, and hyperbola, the circle is a special kind of ellipse, although historically it had been considered as a fourth type. The circle and the ellipse arise when the intersection of the cone and plane is a closed curve, if the cutting plane is parallel to exactly one generating line of the cone, then the conic is unbounded and is called a parabola. In the remaining case, the figure is a hyperbola, in this case, the plane will intersect both halves of the cone, producing two separate unbounded curves. A property that the conic sections share is often presented as the following definition, a conic section is the locus of all points P whose distance to a fixed point F is a constant multiple of the distance from P to a fixed line L. For 0 < e <1 we obtain an ellipse, for e =1 a parabola, a circle is a limiting case and is not defined by a focus and directrix, in the plane. The eccentricity of a circle is defined to be zero and its focus is the center of the circle, an ellipse and a hyperbola each have two foci and distinct directrices for each of them
19.
Ellipse
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In mathematics, an ellipse is a curve in a plane surrounding two focal points such that the sum of the distances to the two focal points is constant for every point on the curve. As such, it is a generalization of a circle, which is a type of an ellipse having both focal points at the same location. The shape of an ellipse is represented by its eccentricity, which for an ellipse can be any number from 0 to arbitrarily close to, ellipses are the closed type of conic section, a plane curve resulting from the intersection of a cone by a plane. Ellipses have many similarities with the two forms of conic sections, parabolas and hyperbolas, both of which are open and unbounded. The cross section of a cylinder is an ellipse, unless the section is parallel to the axis of the cylinder and this ratio is called the eccentricity of the ellipse. Ellipses are common in physics, astronomy and engineering, for example, the orbit of each planet in our solar system is approximately an ellipse with the barycenter of the planet–Sun pair at one of the focal points. The same is true for moons orbiting planets and all other systems having two astronomical bodies, the shapes of planets and stars are often well described by ellipsoids. It is also the simplest Lissajous figure formed when the horizontal and vertical motions are sinusoids with the same frequency, a similar effect leads to elliptical polarization of light in optics. The name, ἔλλειψις, was given by Apollonius of Perga in his Conics, in order to omit the special case of a line segment, one presumes 2 a > | F1 F2 |, E =. The midpoint C of the segment joining the foci is called the center of the ellipse. The line through the foci is called the major axis and it contains the vertices V1, V2, which have distance a to the center. The distance c of the foci to the center is called the distance or linear eccentricity. The quotient c a is the eccentricity e, the case F1 = F2 yields a circle and is included. C2 is called the circle of the ellipse. This property should not be confused with the definition of an ellipse with help of a directrix below, for an arbitrary point the distance to the focus is 2 + y 2 and to the second focus 2 + y 2. Hence the point is on the ellipse if the condition is fulfilled 2 + y 2 +2 + y 2 =2 a. The shape parameters a, b are called the major axis. The points V3 =, V4 = are the co-vertices and it follows from the equation that the ellipse is symmetric with respect to both of the coordinate axes and hence symmetric with respect to the origin
20.
Circle
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A circle is a simple closed shape in Euclidean geometry. The distance between any of the points and the centre is called the radius, a circle is a simple closed curve which divides the plane into two regions, an interior and an exterior. Annulus, the object, the region bounded by two concentric circles. Arc, any connected part of the circle, centre, the point equidistant from the points on the circle. Chord, a segment whose endpoints lie on the circle. Circumference, the length of one circuit along the circle, or the distance around the circle and it is a special case of a chord, namely the longest chord, and it is twice the radius. Disc, the region of the bounded by a circle. Lens, the intersection of two discs, passant, a coplanar straight line that does not touch the circle. Radius, a line segment joining the centre of the circle to any point on the circle itself, or the length of such a segment, sector, a region bounded by two radii and an arc lying between the radii. Segment, a region, not containing the centre, bounded by a chord, secant, an extended chord, a coplanar straight line cutting the circle at two points. Semicircle, an arc that extends from one of a diameters endpoints to the other, in non-technical common usage it may mean the diameter, arc, and its interior, a two dimensional region, that is technically called a half-disc. A half-disc is a case of a segment, namely the largest one. Tangent, a straight line that touches the circle at a single point. The word circle derives from the Greek κίρκος/κύκλος, itself a metathesis of the Homeric Greek κρίκος, the origins of the words circus and circuit are closely related. The circle has been known since before the beginning of recorded history, natural circles would have been observed, such as the Moon, Sun, and a short plant stalk blowing in the wind on sand, which forms a circle shape in the sand. The circle is the basis for the wheel, which, with related inventions such as gears, in mathematics, the study of the circle has helped inspire the development of geometry, astronomy and calculus. Some highlights in the history of the circle are,1700 BCE – The Rhind papyrus gives a method to find the area of a circular field. The result corresponds to 256/81 as a value of π.300 BCE – Book 3 of Euclids Elements deals with the properties of circles
21.
Parabola
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A parabola is a two-dimensional, mirror-symmetrical curve, which is approximately U-shaped when oriented as shown in the diagram below, but which can be in any orientation in its plane. It fits any of several different mathematical descriptions which can all be proved to define curves of exactly the same shape. One description of a parabola involves a point and a line, the focus does not lie on the directrix. The parabola is the locus of points in that plane that are equidistant from both the directrix and the focus, a parabola is a graph of a quadratic function, y = x2, for example. The line perpendicular to the directrix and passing through the focus is called the axis of symmetry, the point on the parabola that intersects the axis of symmetry is called the vertex, and is the point where the parabola is most sharply curved. The distance between the vertex and the focus, measured along the axis of symmetry, is the focal length, the latus rectum is the chord of the parabola which is parallel to the directrix and passes through the focus. Parabolas can open up, down, left, right, or in some arbitrary direction. Any parabola can be repositioned and rescaled to fit exactly on any other parabola — that is, conversely, light that originates from a point source at the focus is reflected into a parallel beam, leaving the parabola parallel to the axis of symmetry. The same effects occur with sound and other forms of energy and this reflective property is the basis of many practical uses of parabolas. The parabola has many important applications, from an antenna or parabolic microphone to automobile headlight reflectors to the design of ballistic missiles. They are frequently used in physics, engineering, and many other areas, the earliest known work on conic sections was by Menaechmus in the fourth century BC. He discovered a way to solve the problem of doubling the cube using parabolas, the name parabola is due to Apollonius who discovered many properties of conic sections. It means application, referring to application of concept, that has a connection with this curve. The focus–directrix property of the parabola and other conics is due to Pappus, Galileo showed that the path of a projectile follows a parabola, a consequence of uniform acceleration due to gravity. The idea that a reflector could produce an image was already well known before the invention of the reflecting telescope. Designs were proposed in the early to mid seventeenth century by many mathematicians including René Descartes, Marin Mersenne, when Isaac Newton built the first reflecting telescope in 1668, he skipped using a parabolic mirror because of the difficulty of fabrication, opting for a spherical mirror. Parabolic mirrors are used in most modern reflecting telescopes and in satellite dishes, solving for y yields y =14 f x 2. The length of the chord through the focus is called latus rectum, one half of it semi latus rectum
22.
Polyhedron
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In geometry, a polyhedron is a solid in three dimensions with flat polygonal faces, straight edges and sharp corners or vertices. The word polyhedron comes from the Classical Greek πολύεδρον, as poly- + -hedron, a convex polyhedron is the convex hull of finitely many points, not all on the same plane. Cubes and pyramids are examples of convex polyhedra, a polyhedron is a 3-dimensional example of the more general polytope in any number of dimensions. Convex polyhedra are well-defined, with several equivalent standard definitions, however, the formal mathematical definition of polyhedra that are not required to be convex has been problematic. Many definitions of polyhedron have been given within particular contexts, some more rigorous than others, some of these definitions exclude shapes that have often been counted as polyhedra or include shapes that are often not considered as valid polyhedra. As Branko Grünbaum observed, The Original Sin in the theory of polyhedra goes back to Euclid, the writers failed to define what are the polyhedra. Nevertheless, there is agreement that a polyhedron is a solid or surface that can be described by its vertices, edges, faces. Natural refinements of this definition require the solid to be bounded, to have a connected interior, and possibly also to have a connected boundary. However, the polyhedra defined in this way do not include the self-crossing star polyhedra, their faces may not form simple polygons, definitions based on the idea of a bounding surface rather than a solid are also common. If a planar part of such a surface is not itself a convex polygon, ORourke requires it to be subdivided into smaller convex polygons, cromwell gives a similar definition but without the restriction of three edges per vertex. Again, this type of definition does not encompass the self-crossing polyhedra, however, there exist topological polyhedra that cannot be realized as acoptic polyhedra. One modern approach is based on the theory of abstract polyhedra and these can be defined as partially ordered sets whose elements are the vertices, edges, and faces of a polyhedron. A vertex or edge element is less than an edge or face element when the vertex or edge is part of the edge or face, additionally, one may include a special bottom element of this partial order and a top element representing the whole polyhedron. However, these requirements are relaxed, to instead require only that the sections between elements two levels apart from line segments. Geometric polyhedra, defined in other ways, can be described abstractly in this way, a realization of an abstract polyhedron is generally taken to be a mapping from the vertices of the abstract polyhedron to geometric points, such that the points of each face are coplanar. A geometric polyhedron can then be defined as a realization of an abstract polyhedron, realizations that forgo the requirement of planarity, that impose additional requirements of symmetry, or that map the vertices to higher dimensional spaces have also been considered. Unlike the solid-based and surface-based definitions, this perfectly well for star polyhedra. However, without restrictions, this definition allows degenerate or unfaithful polyhedra
23.
Ellipsoid
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An ellipsoid is a surface that may be obtained from a sphere by deforming it by means of directional scalings, or more generally, of an affine transformation. An ellipsoid is a surface, that is a surface that may be defined as the zero set of a polynomial of degree two in three variables. Among quadric surfaces, an ellipsoid is characterized by any of the two following properties, every planar cross section is either an ellipse, or is empty, or is reduced to a single point. It is bounded, which means that it may be enclosed in a large sphere. An ellipsoid has three perpendicular axes of symmetry which intersect at a center of symmetry, called the center of the ellipsoid. The line segments that are delimited on the axes of symmetry by the ellipsoid are called the principal axes, if the three axes have different lengths, the ellipsoid is said to be tri-axial or scalene, and the axes are uniquely defined. If two of the axes have the length, then the ellipsoid is an ellipsoid of revolution. In this case, the ellipsoid is invariant under a rotation around the third axis, if the third axis is shorter, the ellipsoid is an oblate spheroid, if it is longer, it is prolate spheroid. If the three axes have the length, the ellipsoid is a sphere. The points, and lie on the surface, the line segments from the origin to these points are called the semi-principal axes of the ellipsoid, because a, b, c are half the length of the principal axes. They correspond to the axis and semi-minor axis of an ellipse. If a = b > c, one has an oblate spheroid, if a = b < c, one has a prolate spheroid, if a = b = c, one has a sphere. It is easy to check, The intersection of a plane, remark, The contour of an ellipsoid, seen from a point outside the ellipsoid or from infinity, is in any case a plane section, hence an ellipse. The ellipsoid may be parameterized in several ways, which are simpler to express when the ellipsoid axes coincide with coordinate axes. A common choice is x = a cos cos , y = b cos sin , z = c sin and these parameters may be interpreted as spherical coordinates. More precisely, π /2 − θ is the polar angle, and φ is the azimuth angle of the point of the ellipsoid. More generally, an arbitrarily oriented ellipsoid, centered at v, is defined by the x to the equation T A =1. The eigenvectors of A define the axes of the ellipsoid and the eigenvalues of A are the reciprocals of the squares of the semi-axes
24.
Cylinder
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In its simplest form, a cylinder is the surface formed by the points at a fixed distance from a given straight line called the axis of the cylinder. It is one of the most basic curvilinear geometric shapes, commonly the word cylinder is understood to refer to a finite section of a right circular cylinder having a finite height with circular ends perpendicular to the axis as shown in the figure. If the ends are open, it is called an open cylinder, if the ends are closed by flat surfaces it is called a solid cylinder. The formulae for the area and the volume of such a cylinder have been known since deep antiquity. The area of the side is known as the lateral area. An open cylinder does not include either top or bottom elements, the surface area of a closed cylinder is made up the sum of all three components, top, bottom and side. Its surface area is A = 2πr2 + 2πrh = 2πr = πd=L+2B, for a given volume, the closed cylinder with the smallest surface area has h = 2r. Equivalently, for a surface area, the closed cylinder with the largest volume has h = 2r. Cylindric sections are the intersections of cylinders with planes, for a right circular cylinder, there are four possibilities. A plane tangent to the cylinder meets the cylinder in a straight line segment. Moved while parallel to itself, the plane either does not intersect the cylinder or intersects it in two line segments. All other planes intersect the cylinder in an ellipse or, when they are perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder, a cylinder whose cross section is an ellipse, parabola, or hyperbola is called an elliptic cylinder, parabolic cylinder, or hyperbolic cylinder respectively. Elliptic cylinders are also known as cylindroids, but that name is ambiguous, as it can also refer to the Plücker conoid. The volume of a cylinder with height h is V = ∫0 h A d x = ∫0 h π a b d x = π a b ∫0 h d x = π a b h. Even more general than the cylinder is the generalized cylinder. The cylinder is a degenerate quadric because at least one of the coordinates does not appear in the equation, an oblique cylinder has the top and bottom surfaces displaced from one another. There are other unusual types of cylinders. Let the height be h, internal radius r, and external radius R, the volume is given by V = π h
25.
Cone
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A cone is a three-dimensional geometric shape that tapers smoothly from a flat base to a point called the apex or vertex. A cone is formed by a set of segments, half-lines, or lines connecting a common point. If the enclosed points are included in the base, the cone is a solid object, otherwise it is a two-dimensional object in three-dimensional space. In the case of an object, the boundary formed by these lines or partial lines is called the lateral surface, if the lateral surface is unbounded. In the case of line segments, the cone does not extend beyond the base, while in the case of half-lines, in the case of lines, the cone extends infinitely far in both directions from the apex, in which case it is sometimes called a double cone. Either half of a cone on one side of the apex is called a nappe. The axis of a cone is the line, passing through the apex. If the base is right circular the intersection of a plane with this surface is a conic section, in general, however, the base may be any shape and the apex may lie anywhere. Contrasted with right cones are oblique cones, in which the axis passes through the centre of the base non-perpendicularly, a cone with a polygonal base is called a pyramid. Depending on the context, cone may also mean specifically a convex cone or a projective cone, cones can also be generalized to higher dimensions. The perimeter of the base of a cone is called the directrix, the base radius of a circular cone is the radius of its base, often this is simply called the radius of the cone. The aperture of a circular cone is the maximum angle between two generatrix lines, if the generatrix makes an angle θ to the axis, the aperture is 2θ. A cone with a region including its apex cut off by a plane is called a cone, if the truncation plane is parallel to the cones base. An elliptical cone is a cone with an elliptical base, a generalized cone is the surface created by the set of lines passing through a vertex and every point on a boundary. The slant height of a circular cone is the distance from any point on the circle to the apex of the cone. It is given by r 2 + h 2, where r is the radius of the cirf the cone and this application is primarily useful in determining the slant height of a cone when given other information regarding the radius or height. The volume V of any conic solid is one third of the product of the area of the base A B and the height h V =13 A B h. In modern mathematics, this formula can easily be computed using calculus – it is, up to scaling, the integral ∫ x 2 d x =13 x 3
26.
Manhole cover
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A manhole cover is a removable plate forming the lid over the opening of a manhole, to prevent anyone or anything from falling in, and to keep out unauthorized persons and material. Manhole covers date back at least to the era of ancient Rome, Manhole covers are often made out of cast iron, concrete or a combination of the two. This makes them inexpensive, strong, and heavy, usually weighing more than 50 kilograms, the weight helps to keep them in place when traffic passes over them, and makes it difficult for unauthorised people not having suitable tools to remove them. Manhole covers may also be constructed from glass-reinforced plastic or other composite material, a manhole cover sits on metal base, with a smaller inset rim which fits the cover. The base and cover are sometimes called castings, because they are made by a casting process. The covers usually feature pick holes, into which a hook handle tool is inserted to lift them, pick holes can be concealed for a more watertight lid, or can allow light to shine through. A manhole pick or hook is used to lift them, though other tools can be used as well. According to Remo Camerota, the author of a book on the subject titled Drainspotting, 95% of Japanese municipalities have their own cover design, despite their weight and cumbersome nature, manhole covers are sometimes stolen, usually for resale as scrap, particularly when metal prices rise. The question of why manhole covers are typically round was made famous by Microsoft when they began asking it as a job-interview question. Reasons for the shape include, A round manhole cover cannot fall through its circular opening, the existence of a lip holding up the lid means that the underlying hole is smaller than the cover, so that other shapes might suffice. Round tubes are the strongest and most material-efficient shape against the compression of the earth around them, a round manhole cover has a smaller surface than a square one, thus less material is needed to cast the manhole cover, meaning lower cost. The bearing surfaces of manhole frames and covers are machined to assure flatness, round castings are much easier to machine using a lathe. Circular covers do not need to be rotated to align with the manhole, a round manhole cover can be more easily moved by being rolled. A round manhole cover can be locked in place with a quarter turn. Lockable covers do not have to be made as heavy, because traffic passing over them cannot lift them up by suction, other manhole shapes can be found, usually squares or rectangles. Nashua, New Hampshire, may be unique in the United States for having triangular manhole covers that point in the direction of the underlying flow. The city is phasing out the triangles, which were made by a foundry, because they are not large enough to meet modern safety standards. Some manhole covers in Hamilton, Bermuda, are triangular, some triangular water-main covers also exist in San Francisco
27.
Disk (mathematics)
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In geometry, a disk is the region in a plane bounded by a circle. A disk is said to be closed if it contains the circle that constitutes its boundary, and open if it does not. In Cartesian coordinates, the disk of center and radius R is given by the formula D = while the closed disk of the same center. The area of a closed or open disk of radius R is πR2, the open disk and the closed disk are not topologically equivalent, as they have different topological properties from each other. For instance, every closed disk is compact whereas every open disk is not compact, however from the viewpoint of algebraic topology they share many properties, both of them are contractible and so are homotopy equivalent to a single point. This implies that their groups are trivial, and all homology groups are trivial except the 0th one. The Euler characteristic of a point is 1, every continuous map from the closed disk to itself has at least one fixed point, this is the case n=2 of the Brouwer fixed point theorem. The statement is false for the disk, Consider for example the function f = which maps every point of the open unit disk to another point on the open unit disk to the right of the given one. But for the unit disk fixes every point on the half circle x 2 + y 2 =1, x >0
28.
Congruence (geometry)
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In geometry, two figures or objects are congruent if they have the same shape and size, or if one has the same shape and size as the mirror image of the other. This means that either object can be repositioned and reflected so as to coincide precisely with the other object, so two distinct plane figures on a piece of paper are congruent if we can cut them out and then match them up completely. Turning the paper over is permitted, in elementary geometry the word congruent is often used as follows. The word equal is often used in place of congruent for these objects, two line segments are congruent if they have the same length. Two angles are congruent if they have the same measure, two circles are congruent if they have the same diameter. The related concept of similarity applies if the objects differ in size, for two polygons to be congruent, they must have an equal number of sides. Two polygons with n sides are congruent if and only if they each have identical sequences side-angle-side-angle-. for n sides. Congruence of polygons can be established graphically as follows, First, match, second, draw a vector from one of the vertices of the one of the figures to the corresponding vertex of the other figure. Translate the first figure by this vector so that two vertices match. Third, rotate the translated figure about the matched vertex until one pair of corresponding sides matches, fourth, reflect the rotated figure about this matched side until the figures match. If at any time the step cannot be completed, the polygons are not congruent, two triangles are congruent if their corresponding sides are equal in length, in which case their corresponding angles are equal in measure. SSS, If three pairs of sides of two triangles are equal in length, then the triangles are congruent, ASA, If two pairs of angles of two triangles are equal in measurement, and the included sides are equal in length, then the triangles are congruent. The ASA Postulate was contributed by Thales of Miletus, in most systems of axioms, the three criteria—SAS, SSS and ASA—are established as theorems. In the School Mathematics Study Group system SAS is taken as one of 22 postulates, AAS, If two pairs of angles of two triangles are equal in measurement, and a pair of corresponding non-included sides are equal in length, then the triangles are congruent. For American usage, AAS is equivalent to an ASA condition, RHS, also known as HL, If two right-angled triangles have their hypotenuses equal in length, and a pair of shorter sides are equal in length, then the triangles are congruent. The SSA condition which specifies two sides and a non-included angle does not by itself prove congruence, in order to show congruence, additional information is required such as the measure of the corresponding angles and in some cases the lengths of the two pairs of corresponding sides. The opposite side is longer when the corresponding angles are acute. This is the case and two different triangles can be formed from the given information, but further information distinguishing them can lead to a proof of congruence
29.
Homotopy
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A notable use of homotopy is the definition of homotopy groups and cohomotopy groups, important invariants in algebraic topology. In practice, there are difficulties in using homotopies with certain spaces. Algebraic topologists work with compactly generated spaces, CW complexes, or spectra. If we think of the parameter of H as time then H describes a continuous deformation of f into g, at time 0 we have the function f. We can also think of the second parameter as a control that allows us to smoothly transition from f to g as the slider moves from 0 to 1. The two versions coincide by setting ht = H and it is not sufficient to require each map ht to be continuous. The animation that is looped above right provides an example of a homotopy between two embeddings, f and g, of the torus into R3. The animation shows the image of ht as a function of the parameter t and it pauses, then shows the image as t varies back from 1 to 0, pauses, and repeats this cycle. Continuous functions f and g are said to be homotopic if, being homotopic is an equivalence relation on the set of all continuous functions from X to Y. The maps f and g are called homotopy equivalences in this case, every homeomorphism is a homotopy equivalence, but the converse is not true, for example, a solid disk is not homeomorphic to a single point, although the disk and the point are homotopy equivalent. As another example, the Möbius strip and an untwisted strip are homotopy equivalent, spaces that are homotopy equivalent to a point are called contractible. Intuitively, two spaces X and Y are homotopy equivalent if they can be transformed into one another by bending, shrinking and expanding operations, the first example of a homotopy equivalence is R n with a point, denoted R n ≃. There is an equivalence between S1 and R2 −. More generally, R n − ≃ S n −1, any fiber bundle π, E → B with fibers F b homotopy equivalent to a point has homotopy equivalent total and base spaces. This generalizes the previous two examples since π, R n − → S n −1 is a bundle with fiber R >0. Every vector bundle is a bundle with a fiber homotopy equivalent to a point. For any 0 ≤ k < n, R n − R k ≃ S n − k −1 by writing R n as R k × R n − k, a function f is said to be null-homotopic if it is homotopic to a constant function. For example, a map f from the unit circle S1 to any space X is null-homotopic precisely when it can be extended to a map from the unit disk D2 to X that agrees with f on the boundary
30.
Quasi-isometry
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In mathematics, quasi-isometry is an equivalence relation on metric spaces that ignores their small-scale details in favor of their coarse structure. The concept is important in geometric group theory following the work of Gromov. Suppose that f is a function from one space to a second metric space. More formally, ∀ x, y ∈ M1,1 A d 1 − B ≤ d 2 ≤ A d 1 + B, every point of M2 is within the constant distance C of an image point. More formally, ∀ z ∈ M2, ∃ x ∈ M1, d 2 ≤ C, the two metric spaces and are called quasi-isometric if there exists a quasi-isometry f from to. A map is called an embedding if it satisfies the first condition. The map between the Euclidean plane and the plane with the Manhattan distance that sends every point to itself is a quasi-isometry, in it, distances are multiplied by a factor of at most 2. The map f, Z n ↦ R n that sends every n -tuple of integers to itself is a quasi-isometry, distances are preserved exactly, every pair of finite or bounded metric spaces is quasi-isometric. In this case, every function from one space to the other is a quasi-isometry, if f, M1 ↦ M2 is a quasi-isometry, then there exists a quasi-isometry g, M2 ↦ M1. Indeed, g may be defined by letting y be any point in the image of f that is within distance C of x, given a finite generating set S of a finitely generated group G, we can form the corresponding Cayley graph of S and G. This graph becomes a space if we declare the length of each edge to be 1. Taking a different finite generating set T results in a different graph and this quasi-isometry class is thus an invariant of the group G. Any property of spaces that only depends on a spaces quasi-isometry class immediately yields another invariant of groups. More generally, the Švarc–Milnor lemma states that if a group G acts properly discontinuously with compact quotient on a geodesic space X then G is quasi-isometric to X. A quasi-geodesic in a space is a quasi-isometric embedding of R into X. The fact that in some spaces the converse is coarsely true, formally the statement is, Let δ, C, K >0 and X a proper δ-hyperbolic space. There exists M such that for any -quasi-geodesic there exists a geodesic L in X such that d ≤ M for all t ∈ R and it is an important tool in geometric group theory. An immediate application is that any quasi-isometry between proper hyperbolic spaces induces an homeomorphism between their boundaries and this result is the first step in the proof of the Mostow rigidity theorem
31.
Geometry
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Geometry is a branch of mathematics concerned with questions of shape, size, relative position of figures, and the properties of space. A mathematician who works in the field of geometry is called a geometer, Geometry arose independently in a number of early cultures as a practical way for dealing with lengths, areas, and volumes. Geometry began to see elements of mathematical science emerging in the West as early as the 6th century BC. By the 3rd century BC, geometry was put into a form by Euclid, whose treatment, Euclids Elements. Geometry arose independently in India, with texts providing rules for geometric constructions appearing as early as the 3rd century BC, islamic scientists preserved Greek ideas and expanded on them during the Middle Ages. By the early 17th century, geometry had been put on a solid footing by mathematicians such as René Descartes. Since then, and into modern times, geometry has expanded into non-Euclidean geometry and manifolds, while geometry has evolved significantly throughout the years, there are some general concepts that are more or less fundamental to geometry. These include the concepts of points, lines, planes, surfaces, angles, contemporary geometry has many subfields, Euclidean geometry is geometry in its classical sense. The mandatory educational curriculum of the majority of nations includes the study of points, lines, planes, angles, triangles, congruence, similarity, solid figures, circles, Euclidean geometry also has applications in computer science, crystallography, and various branches of modern mathematics. Differential geometry uses techniques of calculus and linear algebra to problems in geometry. It has applications in physics, including in general relativity, topology is the field concerned with the properties of geometric objects that are unchanged by continuous mappings. In practice, this often means dealing with large-scale properties of spaces, convex geometry investigates convex shapes in the Euclidean space and its more abstract analogues, often using techniques of real analysis. It has close connections to convex analysis, optimization and functional analysis, algebraic geometry studies geometry through the use of multivariate polynomials and other algebraic techniques. It has applications in areas, including cryptography and string theory. Discrete geometry is concerned mainly with questions of relative position of simple objects, such as points. It shares many methods and principles with combinatorics, Geometry has applications to many fields, including art, architecture, physics, as well as to other branches of mathematics. The earliest recorded beginnings of geometry can be traced to ancient Mesopotamia, the earliest known texts on geometry are the Egyptian Rhind Papyrus and Moscow Papyrus, the Babylonian clay tablets such as Plimpton 322. For example, the Moscow Papyrus gives a formula for calculating the volume of a truncated pyramid, later clay tablets demonstrate that Babylonian astronomers implemented trapezoid procedures for computing Jupiters position and motion within time-velocity space
32.
Curve
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In mathematics, a curve is, generally speaking, an object similar to a line but that need not be straight. Thus, a curve is a generalization of a line, in that curvature is not necessarily zero, various disciplines within mathematics have given the term different meanings depending on the area of study, so the precise meaning depends on context. However, many of these meanings are special instances of the definition which follows, a curve is a topological space which is locally homeomorphic to a line. In everyday language, this means that a curve is a set of points which, near each of its points, looks like a line, a simple example of a curve is the parabola, shown to the right. A large number of curves have been studied in multiple mathematical fields. A closed curve is a curve that forms a path whose starting point is also its ending point—that is, closely related meanings include the graph of a function and a two-dimensional graph. Interest in curves began long before they were the subject of mathematical study and this can be seen in numerous examples of their decorative use in art and on everyday objects dating back to prehistoric times. Curves, or at least their graphical representations, are simple to create, historically, the term line was used in place of the more modern term curve. Hence the phrases straight line and right line were used to distinguish what are called lines from curved lines. For example, in Book I of Euclids Elements, a line is defined as a breadthless length, Euclids idea of a line is perhaps clarified by the statement The extremities of a line are points. Later commentators further classified according to various schemes. For example, Composite lines Incomposite lines Determinate Indeterminate The Greek geometers had studied many kinds of curves. One reason was their interest in solving problems that could not be solved using standard compass. These curves include, The conic sections, deeply studied by Apollonius of Perga The cissoid of Diocles, studied by Diocles, the conchoid of Nicomedes, studied by Nicomedes as a method to both double the cube and to trisect an angle. The Archimedean spiral, studied by Archimedes as a method to trisect an angle, the spiric sections, sections of tori studied by Perseus as sections of cones had been studied by Apollonius. A fundamental advance in the theory of curves was the advent of analytic geometry in the seventeenth century and this enabled a curve to be described using an equation rather than an elaborate geometrical construction. Previously, curves had been described as geometrical or mechanical according to how they were, or supposedly could be, conic sections were applied in astronomy by Kepler. Newton also worked on an example in the calculus of variations
33.
Geometric shape
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A geometric shape is the geometric information which remains when location, scale, orientation and reflection are removed from the description of a geometric object. That is, the result of moving a shape around, enlarging it, rotating it, or reflecting it in a mirror is the shape as the original. Objects that have the shape as each other are said to be similar. If they also have the scale as each other, they are said to be congruent. Many two-dimensional geometric shapes can be defined by a set of points or vertices and lines connecting the points in a closed chain, such shapes are called polygons and include triangles, squares, and pentagons. Other shapes may be bounded by such as the circle or the ellipse. Such shapes are called polyhedrons and include cubes as well as such as tetrahedrons. Other three-dimensional shapes may be bounded by curved surfaces, such as the ellipsoid, a shape is said to be convex if all of the points on a line segment between any two of its points are also part of the shape
34.
Cube
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In geometry, a cube is a three-dimensional solid object bounded by six square faces, facets or sides, with three meeting at each vertex. The cube is the only regular hexahedron and is one of the five Platonic solids and it has 6 faces,12 edges, and 8 vertices. The cube is also a square parallelepiped, an equilateral cuboid and it is a regular square prism in three orientations, and a trigonal trapezohedron in four orientations. The cube is dual to the octahedron and it has cubical or octahedral symmetry. The cube has four special orthogonal projections, centered, on a vertex, edges, face, the first and third correspond to the A2 and B2 Coxeter planes. The cube can also be represented as a tiling. This projection is conformal, preserving angles but not areas or lengths, straight lines on the sphere are projected as circular arcs on the plane. In analytic geometry, a surface with center and edge length of 2a is the locus of all points such that max = a. For a cube of length a, As the volume of a cube is the third power of its sides a × a × a, third powers are called cubes, by analogy with squares. A cube has the largest volume among cuboids with a surface area. Also, a cube has the largest volume among cuboids with the same linear size. They were unable to solve this problem, and in 1837 Pierre Wantzel proved it to be impossible because the root of 2 is not a constructible number. The cube has three uniform colorings, named by the colors of the faces around each vertex,111,112,123. The cube has three classes of symmetry, which can be represented by coloring the faces. The highest octahedral symmetry Oh has all the faces the same color, the dihedral symmetry D4h comes from the cube being a prism, with all four sides being the same color. The lowest symmetry D2h is also a symmetry, with sides alternating colors. Each symmetry form has a different Wythoff symbol, a cube has eleven nets, that is, there are eleven ways to flatten a hollow cube by cutting seven edges. To color the cube so that no two adjacent faces have the color, one would need at least three colors
35.
Sphere
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A sphere is a perfectly round geometrical object in three-dimensional space that is the surface of a completely round ball. This distance r is the radius of the ball, and the point is the center of the mathematical ball. The longest straight line through the ball, connecting two points of the sphere, passes through the center and its length is twice the radius. While outside mathematics the terms sphere and ball are used interchangeably. The ball and the share the same radius, diameter. The surface area of a sphere is, A =4 π r 2, at any given radius r, the incremental volume equals the product of the surface area at radius r and the thickness of a shell, δ V ≈ A ⋅ δ r. The total volume is the summation of all volumes, V ≈ ∑ A ⋅ δ r. In the limit as δr approaches zero this equation becomes, V = ∫0 r A d r ′, substitute V,43 π r 3 = ∫0 r A d r ′. Differentiating both sides of equation with respect to r yields A as a function of r,4 π r 2 = A. Which is generally abbreviated as, A =4 π r 2, alternatively, the area element on the sphere is given in spherical coordinates by dA = r2 sin θ dθ dφ. In Cartesian coordinates, the element is d S = r r 2 − ∑ i ≠ k x i 2 ∏ i ≠ k d x i, ∀ k. For more generality, see area element, the total area can thus be obtained by integration, A = ∫02 π ∫0 π r 2 sin θ d θ d φ =4 π r 2. In three dimensions, the volume inside a sphere is derived to be V =43 π r 3 where r is the radius of the sphere, archimedes first derived this formula, which shows that the volume inside a sphere is 2/3 that of a circumscribed cylinder. In modern mathematics, this formula can be derived using integral calculus, at any given x, the incremental volume equals the product of the cross-sectional area of the disk at x and its thickness, δ V ≈ π y 2 ⋅ δ x. The total volume is the summation of all volumes, V ≈ ∑ π y 2 ⋅ δ x. In the limit as δx approaches zero this equation becomes, V = ∫ − r r π y 2 d x. At any given x, a right-angled triangle connects x, y and r to the origin, hence, applying the Pythagorean theorem yields, thus, substituting y with a function of x gives, V = ∫ − r r π d x. Which can now be evaluated as follows, V = π − r r = π − π =43 π r 3
36.
Differential geometry
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Differential geometry is a mathematical discipline that uses the techniques of differential calculus, integral calculus, linear algebra and multilinear algebra to study problems in geometry. The theory of plane and space curves and surfaces in the three-dimensional Euclidean space formed the basis for development of differential geometry during the 18th century, since the late 19th century, differential geometry has grown into a field concerned more generally with the geometric structures on differentiable manifolds. Differential geometry is related to differential topology and the geometric aspects of the theory of differential equations. The differential geometry of surfaces captures many of the key ideas, Differential geometry arose and developed as a result of and in connection to the mathematical analysis of curves and surfaces. These unanswered questions indicated greater, hidden relationships, initially applied to the Euclidean space, further explorations led to non-Euclidean space, and metric and topological spaces. Riemannian geometry studies Riemannian manifolds, smooth manifolds with a Riemannian metric and this is a concept of distance expressed by means of a smooth positive definite symmetric bilinear form defined on the tangent space at each point. Various concepts based on length, such as the arc length of curves, area of plane regions, the notion of a directional derivative of a function from multivariable calculus is extended in Riemannian geometry to the notion of a covariant derivative of a tensor. Many concepts and techniques of analysis and differential equations have been generalized to the setting of Riemannian manifolds, a distance-preserving diffeomorphism between Riemannian manifolds is called an isometry. This notion can also be defined locally, i. e. for small neighborhoods of points, any two regular curves are locally isometric. In higher dimensions, the Riemann curvature tensor is an important pointwise invariant associated with a Riemannian manifold that measures how close it is to being flat, an important class of Riemannian manifolds is the Riemannian symmetric spaces, whose curvature is not necessarily constant. These are the closest analogues to the plane and space considered in Euclidean and non-Euclidean geometry. Pseudo-Riemannian geometry generalizes Riemannian geometry to the case in which the metric tensor need not be positive-definite, a special case of this is a Lorentzian manifold, which is the mathematical basis of Einsteins general relativity theory of gravity. Finsler geometry has the Finsler manifold as the object of study. This is a manifold with a Finsler metric, i. e. a Banach norm defined on each tangent space. Riemannian manifolds are special cases of the more general Finsler manifolds. A Finsler structure on a manifold M is a function F, TM → [0, ∞) such that, F = |m|F for all x, y in TM, F is infinitely differentiable in TM −, symplectic geometry is the study of symplectic manifolds. A symplectic manifold is an almost symplectic manifold for which the symplectic form ω is closed, a diffeomorphism between two symplectic manifolds which preserves the symplectic form is called a symplectomorphism. Non-degenerate skew-symmetric bilinear forms can only exist on even-dimensional vector spaces, in dimension 2, a symplectic manifold is just a surface endowed with an area form and a symplectomorphism is an area-preserving diffeomorphism
37.
Fractal
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A fractal is a mathematical set that exhibits a repeating pattern displayed at every scale. It is also known as expanding symmetry or evolving symmetry, if the replication is exactly the same at every scale, it is called a self-similar pattern. An example of this is the Menger Sponge, Fractals can also be nearly the same at different levels. This latter pattern is illustrated in small magnifications of the Mandelbrot set, Fractals also include the idea of a detailed pattern that repeats itself. Fractals are different from other geometric figures because of the way in which they scale, doubling the edge lengths of a polygon multiplies its area by four, which is two raised to the power of two. Likewise, if the radius of a sphere is doubled, its volume scales by eight, but if a fractals one-dimensional lengths are all doubled, the spatial content of the fractal scales by a power that is not necessarily an integer. This power is called the dimension of the fractal. As mathematical equations, fractals are usually nowhere differentiable, the term fractal was first used by mathematician Benoît Mandelbrot in 1975. Mandelbrot based it on the Latin frāctus meaning broken or fractured, there is some disagreement amongst authorities about how the concept of a fractal should be formally defined. Mandelbrot himself summarized it as beautiful, damn hard, increasingly useful, Fractals are not limited to geometric patterns, but can also describe processes in time. Fractal patterns with various degrees of self-similarity have been rendered or studied in images, structures and sounds and found in nature, technology, art, Fractals are of particular relevance in the field of chaos theory, since the graphs of most chaotic processes are fractal. The word fractal often has different connotations for laypeople than for mathematicians, the mathematical concept is difficult to define formally even for mathematicians, but key features can be understood with little mathematical background. If this is done on fractals, however, no new detail appears, nothing changes, self-similarity itself is not necessarily counter-intuitive. The difference for fractals is that the pattern reproduced must be detailed, a regular line, for instance, is conventionally understood to be 1-dimensional, if such a curve is divided into pieces each 1/3 the length of the original, there are always 3 equal pieces. In contrast, consider the Koch snowflake and it is also 1-dimensional for the same reason as the ordinary line, but it has, in addition, a fractal dimension greater than 1 because of how its detail can be measured. This also leads to understanding a third feature, that fractals as mathematical equations are nowhere differentiable, in a concrete sense, this means fractals cannot be measured in traditional ways. The history of fractals traces a path from chiefly theoretical studies to modern applications in computer graphics, according to Pickover, the mathematics behind fractals began to take shape in the 17th century when the mathematician and philosopher Gottfried Leibniz pondered recursive self-similarity. In his writings, Leibniz used the term fractional exponents, also in the last part of that century, Felix Klein and Henri Poincaré introduced a category of fractal that has come to be called self-inverse fractals
38.
Euclidean space
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In geometry, Euclidean space encompasses the two-dimensional Euclidean plane, the three-dimensional space of Euclidean geometry, and certain other spaces. It is named after the Ancient Greek mathematician Euclid of Alexandria, the term Euclidean distinguishes these spaces from other types of spaces considered in modern geometry. Euclidean spaces also generalize to higher dimensions, classical Greek geometry defined the Euclidean plane and Euclidean three-dimensional space using certain postulates, while the other properties of these spaces were deduced as theorems. Geometric constructions are used to define rational numbers. It means that points of the space are specified with collections of real numbers and this approach brings the tools of algebra and calculus to bear on questions of geometry and has the advantage that it generalizes easily to Euclidean spaces of more than three dimensions. From the modern viewpoint, there is only one Euclidean space of each dimension. With Cartesian coordinates it is modelled by the coordinate space of the same dimension. In one dimension, this is the line, in two dimensions, it is the Cartesian plane, and in higher dimensions it is a coordinate space with three or more real number coordinates. One way to think of the Euclidean plane is as a set of points satisfying certain relationships, expressible in terms of distance, for example, there are two fundamental operations on the plane. One is translation, which means a shifting of the plane so that point is shifted in the same direction. The other is rotation about a point in the plane. In order to all of this mathematically precise, the theory must clearly define the notions of distance, angle, translation. Even when used in theories, Euclidean space is an abstraction detached from actual physical locations, specific reference frames, measurement instruments. The standard way to such space, as carried out in the remainder of this article, is to define the Euclidean plane as a two-dimensional real vector space equipped with an inner product. The reason for working with vector spaces instead of Rn is that it is often preferable to work in a coordinate-free manner. Once the Euclidean plane has been described in language, it is actually a simple matter to extend its concept to arbitrary dimensions. For the most part, the vocabulary, formulae, and calculations are not made any more difficult by the presence of more dimensions. Intuitively, the distinction says merely that there is no choice of where the origin should go in the space
39.
Translation (geometry)
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In Euclidean geometry, a translation is a geometric transformation that moves every point of a figure or a space by the same amount in a given direction. In Euclidean geometry a transformation is a correspondence between two sets of points or a mapping from one plane to another. )A translation can be described as a rigid motion. A translation can also be interpreted as the addition of a constant vector to every point, a translation operator is an operator T δ such that T δ f = f. If v is a vector, then the translation Tv will work as Tv. If T is a translation, then the image of a subset A under the function T is the translate of A by T, the translate of A by Tv is often written A + v. In a Euclidean space, any translation is an isometry, the set of all translations forms the translation group T, which is isomorphic to the space itself, and a normal subgroup of Euclidean group E. The quotient group of E by T is isomorphic to the orthogonal group O, E / T ≅ O, a translation is an affine transformation with no fixed points. Matrix multiplications always have the origin as a fixed point, similarly, the product of translation matrices is given by adding the vectors, T u T v = T u + v. Because addition of vectors is commutative, multiplication of matrices is therefore also commutative. In physics, translation is movement that changes the position of an object, for example, according to Whittaker, A translation is the operation changing the positions of all points of an object according to the formula → where is the same vector for each point of the object. When considering spacetime, a change of time coordinate is considered to be a translation, for example, the Galilean group and the Poincaré group include translations with respect to time
40.
Rotation
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A rotation is a circular movement of an object around a center of rotation. A three-dimensional object always rotates around a line called a rotation axis. If the axis passes through the center of mass, the body is said to rotate upon itself. A rotation about a point, e. g. the Earth about the Sun, is called a revolution or orbital revolution. The axis is called a pole, mathematically, a rotation is a rigid body movement which, unlike a translation, keeps a point fixed. This definition applies to rotations within both two and three dimensions All rigid body movements are rotations, translations, or combinations of the two, a rotation is simply a progressive radial orientation to a common point. That common point lies within the axis of that motion, the axis is 90 degrees perpendicular to the plane of the motion. If the axis of the rotation lies external of the body in question then the body is said to orbit, there is no fundamental difference between a “rotation” and an “orbit” and or spin. The key distinction is simply where the axis of the rotation lies and this distinction can be demonstrated for both “rigid” and “non rigid” bodies. If a rotation around a point or axis is followed by a rotation around the same point/axis. The reverse of a rotation is also a rotation, thus, the rotations around a point/axis form a group. However, a rotation around a point or axis and a rotation around a different point/axis may result in something other than a rotation, Rotations around the x, y and z axes are called principal rotations. Rotation around any axis can be performed by taking a rotation around the x axis, followed by a rotation around the y axis and that is to say, any spatial rotation can be decomposed into a combination of principal rotations. In flight dynamics, the rotations are known as yaw, pitch. This terminology is used in computer graphics. In astronomy, rotation is an observed phenomenon. Stars, planets and similar bodies all spin around on their axes, the rotation rate of planets in the solar system was first measured by tracking visual features. Stellar rotation is measured through Doppler shift or by tracking active surface features and this rotation induces a centrifugal acceleration in the reference frame of the Earth which slightly counteracts the effect of gravity the closer one is to the equator
41.
Equivalence relation
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In mathematics, an equivalence relation is a binary relation that is at the same time a reflexive relation, a symmetric relation and a transitive relation. As a consequence of these properties an equivalence relation provides a partition of a set into equivalence classes, a given binary relation ~ on a set X is said to be an equivalence relation if and only if it is reflexive, symmetric and transitive. That is, for all a, b and c in X, a ~ b if and only if b ~ a. if a ~ b and b ~ c then a ~ c. X together with the relation ~ is called a setoid, the equivalence class of a under ~, denoted, is defined as =. Let the set have the equivalence relation, the following sets are equivalence classes of this relation, =, = =. The set of all classes for this relation is. The following are all equivalence relations, Has the same birthday as on the set of all people, is similar to on the set of all triangles. Is congruent to on the set of all triangles, is congruent to, modulo n on the integers. Has the same image under a function on the elements of the domain of the function, has the same absolute value on the set of real numbers Has the same cosine on the set of all angles. The relation ≥ between real numbers is reflexive and transitive, but not symmetric, for example,7 ≥5 does not imply that 5 ≥7. It is, however, a total order, the relation has a common factor greater than 1 with between natural numbers greater than 1, is reflexive and symmetric, but not transitive. The empty relation R on a non-empty set X is vacuously symmetric and transitive, a partial order is a relation that is reflexive, antisymmetric, and transitive. Equality is both a relation and a partial order. Equality is also the relation on a set that is reflexive. In algebraic expressions, equal variables may be substituted for one another, the equivalence classes of an equivalence relation can substitute for one another, but not individuals within a class. A strict partial order is irreflexive, transitive, and asymmetric, a partial equivalence relation is transitive and symmetric. Transitive and symmetric imply reflexive if and only if for all a ∈ X, a reflexive and symmetric relation is a dependency relation, if finite, and a tolerance relation if infinite. A preorder is reflexive and transitive, a congruence relation is an equivalence relation whose domain X is also the underlying set for an algebraic structure, and which respects the additional structure
42.
Equivalence class
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In mathematics, when the elements of some set S have a notion of equivalence defined on them, then one may naturally split the set S into equivalence classes. These equivalence classes are constructed so that elements a and b belong to the equivalence class if. Formally, given a set S and an equivalence relation ~ on S and it may be proven from the defining properties of equivalence relations that the equivalence classes form a partition of S. This partition – the set of equivalence classes – is sometimes called the quotient set or the quotient space of S by ~ and is denoted by S / ~. Examples include quotient spaces in linear algebra, quotient spaces in topology, quotient groups, homogeneous spaces, quotient rings, quotient monoids, and quotient categories. If X is the set of all cars, and ~ is the relation has the same color as. X/~ could be identified with the set of all car colors. Let X be the set of all rectangles in a plane, for each positive real number A there will be an equivalence class of all the rectangles that have area A. Consider the modulo 2 equivalence relation on the set Z of integers, x ~ y if and this relation gives rise to exactly two equivalence classes, one class consisting of all even numbers, and the other consisting of all odd numbers. Under this relation, and all represent the element of Z/~. Let X be the set of ordered pairs of integers with b not zero, the same construction can be generalized to the field of fractions of any integral domain. In this situation, each equivalence class determines a point at infinity, the equivalence class of an element a is denoted and is defined as the set = of elements that are related to a by ~. An alternative notation R can be used to denote the class of the element a. This is said to be the R-equivalence class of a, the set of all equivalence classes in X with respect to an equivalence relation R is denoted as X/R and called X modulo R. The surjective map x ↦ from X onto X/R, which each element to its equivalence class, is called the canonical surjection or the canonical projection map. When an element is chosen in each class, this defines an injective map called a section. If this section is denoted by s, one has = c for every equivalence class c, the element s is called a representative of c. Any element of a class may be chosen as a representative of the class, sometimes, there is a section that is more natural than the other ones
43.
David George Kendall
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David George Kendall FRS was an English statistician and mathematician, known for his work on probability, statistical shape analysis, ley lines and queueing theory. He spent most of his life in the University of Oxford. He worked with M. S. Bartlett during World War II, David George Kendall was born on 15 January 1918 in Ripon, West Riding of Yorkshire, and attended Ripon Grammar School before attending Queens College, Oxford, graduating in 1939. He worked on rocketry during the World War II, before moving to Magdalen College, Oxford, in 1962 he was appointed the first Professor of Mathematical Statistics in the Statistical Laboratory, University of Cambridge, in which post he remained until his retirement in 1985. He was elected to a fellowship at Churchill College. In 1986, he was awarded an Honorary Degree by the University of Bath, Kendall was an expert in probability and data analysis, and pioneered statistical shape analysis including the study of ley lines. He defined Kendalls notation for queueing theory, the Royal Statistical Society awarded him the Guy Medal in Silver in 1955, followed in 1981 by the Guy Medal in Gold. In 1980 the London Mathematical Society awarded Kendall their Senior Whitehead Prize and he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1964. He was married to Diana Fletcher from 1952 until his death and they had two sons and four daughters, including Wilfrid Kendall, professor in the Department of Statistics at the University of Warwick and journalist Bridget Kendall MBE. Geometric ergodicity and the theory of queues, in Arrow, Kenneth J. 176–195, janus, The Papers of Professor David Kendall Royal Society citation
44.
Mirror image
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A mirror image is a reflected duplication of an object that appears almost identical, but is reversed in the direction perpendicular to the mirror surface. As an optical effect it results from reflection off of such as a mirror or water. It is also a concept in geometry and can be used as a process for 3-D structures. Two-dimensional mirror images can be seen in the reflections of mirrors or other reflecting surfaces, or on a printed surface seen inside out. If we look at an object that is effectively two-dimensional and then turn it towards a mirror, in this example, it is the change in orientation rather than the mirror itself that causes the observed reversal. Another example is when we stand with our backs to the mirror, then we compare the object with its reflection by turning ourselves 180 degrees, towards the mirror. Again we perceive a left-right reversal due to a change in orientation, so, in these examples the mirror does not actually cause the observed reversals. The concept of reflection can be extended to three-dimensional objects, including the inside parts, the term then relates to structural as well as visual aspects. A three-dimensional object is reversed in the perpendicular to the mirror surface. In physics, mirror images are investigated in the subject called geometrical optics, in chemistry, two versions of a molecule, one a mirror image of the other, are called enantiomers if they are not superposable on each other. That is an example of chirality, in general, an object and its mirror image are called enantiomorphs. If a point of an object has coordinates then the image of this point has coordinates, thus reflection is a reversal of the coordinate axis perpendicular to the mirrors surface. In everyday use, a mirror does not reverse right and left, however, there is often a perception of left-right reversal, probably because the left and right of an object are defined by its top and front. Reflection in a mirror does result in a change in chirality, as a consequence, if one looks in a mirror and lets two axes coincide with those in the mirror, then this gives a reversal of the third axis. Similarly, if you stand side-on to a mirror your left and its important to realise there are only two enantiomorphs, the object and its image. So, no matter how the object is oriented towards the mirror, all the images are fundamentally identical. In the photograph of the urn and mirror, the urn is fairly symmetrical front-back, so, its not surprising that no obvious reversal of the urn can be seen in the mirror image. A mirror image appears more obviously three-dimensional if the observer moves and this is because the relative position of objects changes as the observers perspective changes, or is different viewed with each eye
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Symmetry
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Symmetry in everyday language refers to a sense of harmonious and beautiful proportion and balance. In mathematics, symmetry has a precise definition, that an object is invariant to any of various transformations. Although these two meanings of symmetry can sometimes be told apart, they are related, so they are discussed together. The opposite of symmetry is asymmetry, a geometric shape or object is symmetric if it can be divided into two or more identical pieces that are arranged in an organized fashion. This means that an object is symmetric if there is a transformation that moves individual pieces of the object, an object has rotational symmetry if the object can be rotated about a fixed point without changing the overall shape. An object has symmetry if it can be translated without changing its overall shape. An object has symmetry if it can be simultaneously translated and rotated in three-dimensional space along a line known as a screw axis. An object has symmetry if it does not change shape when it is expanded or contracted. Fractals also exhibit a form of symmetry, where small portions of the fractal are similar in shape to large portions. Other symmetries include glide reflection symmetry and rotoreflection symmetry, a dyadic relation R is symmetric if and only if, whenever its true that Rab, its true that Rba. Thus, is the age as is symmetrical, for if Paul is the same age as Mary. Symmetric binary logical connectives are and, or, biconditional, nand, xor, the set of operations that preserve a given property of the object form a group. In general, every kind of structure in mathematics will have its own kind of symmetry, examples include even and odd functions in calculus, the symmetric group in abstract algebra, symmetric matrices in linear algebra, and the Galois group in Galois theory. In statistics, it appears as symmetric probability distributions, and as skewness, symmetry in physics has been generalized to mean invariance—that is, lack of change—under any kind of transformation, for example arbitrary coordinate transformations. This concept has one of the most powerful tools of theoretical physics. See Noethers theorem, and also, Wigners classification, which says that the symmetries of the laws of physics determine the properties of the found in nature. Important symmetries in physics include continuous symmetries and discrete symmetries of spacetime, internal symmetries of particles, in biology, the notion of symmetry is mostly used explicitly to describe body shapes. Bilateral animals, including humans, are more or less symmetric with respect to the plane which divides the body into left
