1.
Cathedral Church of St Marie, Sheffield
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The Cathedral Church of St Marie is the Roman Catholic cathedral in Sheffield, England. It lies in a hidden location, just off the main shopping street in the city. It is a fine example of an English Roman Catholic Church. Re-ordering of the Sanctuary following the Second Vatican Council, has been sensitive, there are several particularly notable side altars, as well as statues and painted tiles. Before the English Reformation the Church of England was part of the Roman Catholic Church, in 1534, during the reign of Henry VIII, the Church of England split from Rome, and Catholic worship was outlawed. Until the 18th century, Catholics faced fines, loss of property and social exclusion, the main landowners in Sheffield were the Dukes of Norfolk, and the Shrewsbury Chapel in the now Anglican parish church remained Catholic until 1933. During the reordering of St Marys in 1970, at the invitation of the Anglican Cathedral, the Altar still retains its Catholic consecration crosses, and relics, making this possible. Mass was celebrated in a few houses of gentry in Sheffield, including in a house on Fargate that belonged to the Duke of Norfolk, the Catholic Emancipation of the late 18th and early 19th century allowed Catholics to worship more openly. Sheffield Catholics bought the house, which stood on the corner of Fargate. They built a chapel in its back garden on a site which is now between the Mortuary and the Blessed Sacrament Chapels. The names of the priests who served Sheffield before the Cathedral was built, the rest of the land where the Cathedral now stands became a cemetery. By 1846 the chapel was too small and the young priest, Pratt, was keen to build a church for the expanding town. A leading local architect called Matthew Ellison Hadfield designed St Marie’s, the church was expensively decorated with the aid of generous donations from the Duke of Norfolk, his mother and parishioners. Fr. Pratt died while the church was being built and was buried at St Bede’s. However, a stonemason, who had heard him say he wanted to be buried in St Marie’s, dug up the coffin. Fr Pratt’s body still lies there and a plaque marks the spot, St Marie’s was completed in 1850 and opened on 11 September. Building the church cost more than £10,500 – a huge sum in those days – and it was not until 1889 that the church was free from debt. The Parish of St Marie’s, which covered the whole of Sheffield, in 1902 a new presbytery, now known as Cathedral House, was opened
2.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
3.
Christian denomination
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A Christian denomination is a distinct religious body within Christianity, identified by traits such as a name, organisation, leadership and doctrine. Individual bodies, however, may use alternative terms to describe themselves, groups of denominations—often sharing broadly similar beliefs, practices, and historical ties—are sometimes known as branches of Christianity or denominational families. Individual Christian groups vary widely in the degree to which they recognize one another, several groups claim to be the direct and sole authentic successor of the church founded by Jesus Christ in the 1st century AD. Others, however, believe in denominationalism, where some or all Christian groups are legitimate churches of the same regardless of their distinguishing labels, beliefs. Because of this concept, some Christian bodies reject the term denomination to describe themselves, however, the Catholic Church does not view itself as a denomination, but as the original pre-denominational church. This view is rejected by other Christian denominations, Protestant denominations account for approximately 37 percent of Christians worldwide. Together, Catholicism and Protestantism comprise Western Christianity, Western Christian denominations prevail in Western, Northern, Central and Southern Europe, Sub-Saharan Africa, the Americas and Oceania. The Eastern Orthodox Church, with an estimated 225–300 million adherents, is the second-largest Christian organization in the world, unlike the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church is itself a communion of fully independent autocephalous churches that mutually recognize each other to the exclusion of others. The Eastern Orthodox Church, together with Oriental Orthodoxy and the Assyrian Church of the East, Eastern Christian denominations are represented mostly in Eastern Europe, North Asia, the Middle East and Northeast Africa. Christians have various doctrines about the Church and about how the church corresponds to Christian denominations. Both Catholics and Eastern Orthodox hold that their own organizations faithfully represent the One Holy catholic and Apostolic Church to the exclusion of the other, sixteenth-century Protestants separated from the Catholic Church because of theologies and practices that they considered to be in violation of their own interpretation. But some non-denominational Christians do not follow any particular branch, though regarded as Protestants. Each group uses different terminology to discuss their beliefs and this section will discuss the definitions of several terms used throughout the article, before discussing the beliefs themselves in detail in following sections. A denomination within Christianity can be defined as an autonomous branch of the Christian Church, major synonyms include religious group, sect, Church. Some traditional and evangelical Protestants draw a distinction between membership in the church and fellowship within the local church. Becoming a believer in Christ makes one a member of the universal church, a related concept is denominationalism, the belief that some or all Christian groups are legitimate churches of the same religion regardless of their distinguishing labels, beliefs, and practices. Protestant leaders differ greatly from the views of the leaders of the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church, each church makes mutually exclusive claims for itself to be the direct continuation of the Church founded by Jesus Christ, from whom other denominations later broke away. These churches, and a few others, reject denominationalism, Christianity can be taxonomically divided into five main groups, the Church of the East, Oriental Orthodoxy, Eastern Orthodoxy, Roman Catholicism, and Protestantism
4.
Church of England
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The Church of England is the state church of England. The Archbishop of Canterbury is the most senior cleric, although the monarch is the supreme governor, the Church of England is also the mother church of the international Anglican Communion. It dates its establishment as a church to the 6th-century Gregorian mission to Kent led by Augustine of Canterbury. The English church renounced papal authority when Henry VIII sought to secure an annulment from Catherine of Aragon in the 1530s, the English Reformation accelerated under Edward VIs regents before a brief restoration of papal authority under Queen Mary I and King Philip. This is expressed in its emphasis on the teachings of the early Church Fathers, as formalised in the Apostles, Nicene, in the earlier phase of the English Reformation there were both Catholic martyrs and radical Protestant martyrs. The later phases saw the Penal Laws punish Roman Catholic and nonconforming Protestants, in the 17th century, political and religious disputes raised the Puritan and Presbyterian faction to control of the church, but this ended with the Restoration. Papal recognition of George III in 1766 led to religious tolerance. Since the English Reformation, the Church of England has used a liturgy in English, the church contains several doctrinal strands, the main three known as Anglo-Catholic, Evangelical and Broad Church. Tensions between theological conservatives and progressives find expression in debates over the ordination of women and homosexuality, the church includes both liberal and conservative clergy and members. The governing structure of the church is based on dioceses, each presided over by a bishop, within each diocese are local parishes. The General Synod of the Church of England is the body for the church and comprises bishops, other clergy. Its measures must be approved by both Houses of Parliament, according to tradition, Christianity arrived in Britain in the 1st or 2nd century, during which time southern Britain became part of the Roman Empire. The earliest historical evidence of Christianity among the native Britons is found in the writings of such early Christian Fathers as Tertullian, three Romano-British bishops, including Restitutus, are known to have been present at the Council of Arles in 314. Others attended the Council of Sardica in 347 and that of Ariminum in 360, Britain was the home of Pelagius, who opposed Augustine of Hippos doctrine of original sin. Consequently, in 597, Pope Gregory I sent the prior of the Abbey of St Andrews from Rome to evangelise the Angles and this event is known as the Gregorian mission and is the date the Church of England generally marks as the beginning of its formal history. A later archbishop, the Greek Theodore of Tarsus, also contributed to the organisation of Christianity in England, the Church of England has been in continuous existence since the days of St Augustine, with the Archbishop of Canterbury as its episcopal head. Despite the various disruptions of the Reformation and the English Civil War, while some Celtic Christian practices were changed at the Synod of Whitby, the Christian Church in the British Isles was under papal authority from earliest times. The Synod of Whitby established the Roman date for Easter and the Roman style of monastic tonsure in Britain and this meeting of the ecclesiastics with Roman customs with local bishops was summoned in 664 at Saint Hildas double monastery of Streonshalh, later called Whitby Abbey
5.
Architect
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An architect is someone who plans, designs, and reviews the construction of buildings. Etymologically, architect derives from the Latin architectus, which derives from the Greek, practical, technical, and academic requirements for becoming an architect vary by jurisdiction. The terms architect and architecture are used in the disciplines of landscape architecture, naval architecture. In most jurisdictions, the professional and commercial uses of the terms architect, throughout ancient and medieval history, most architectural design and construction was carried out by artisans—such as stone masons and carpenters, rising to the role of master builder. Until modern times, there was no distinction between architect and engineer. In Europe, the architect and engineer were primarily geographical variations that referred to the same person. It is suggested that various developments in technology and mathematics allowed the development of the gentleman architect. Paper was not used in Europe for drawing until the 15th century, pencils were used more often for drawing by 1600. The availability of both allowed pre-construction drawings to be made by professionals, until the 18th-century, buildings continued to be designed and set out by craftsmen with the exception of high-status projects. In most developed countries, only qualified people with appropriate license, certification, or registration with a relevant body, such licensure usually requires an accredited university degree, successful completion of exams, and a training period. To practice architecture implies the ability to independently of supervision. In many places, independent, non-licensed individuals may perform design services outside the professional restrictions, such design houses, in the architectural profession, technical and environmental knowledge, design and construction management, and an understanding of business are as important as design. However, design is the force throughout the project and beyond. An architect accepts a commission from a client, the commission might involve preparing feasibility reports, building audits, the design of a building or of several buildings, structures, and the spaces among them. The architect participates in developing the requirements the client wants in the building, throughout the project, the architect co-ordinates a design team. Structural, mechanical, and electrical engineers and other specialists, are hired by the client or the architect, the architect hired by a client is responsible for creating a design concept that meets the requirements of that client and provides a facility suitable to the required use. In that, the architect must meet with and question the client to ascertain all the requirements, often the full brief is not entirely clear at the beginning, entailing a degree of risk in the design undertaking. The architect may make proposals to the client which may rework the terms of the brief
6.
Flockton (architects)
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Flocktons were a series of architectural firms in the 19th and early 20th centuries, based in Sheffield, England. The firms were responsible for a number of significant buildings, particularly in the Sheffield area, William Flockton was the son of Thomas Flockton, a carpenter and builder in Sheffield. He was brought up in his fathers trade and established himself as an architect in 1833, Thomas James Flockton, the son of William Flockton, was born in Sheffield on 21 May 1823. He started working with his father at the age of 12 before spending two years in London employed by Sir Gilbert Scott and he returned to Sheffield in 1845 and entered into partnership with is father. Two years before his fathers death he became partners with George Lewslie Abbott, as Flockton & Abbott
7.
George Pace
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George Gaze Pace, CVO was an English architect who specialised in ecclesiastical works. He was trained in London, and served in the army, most of his work was carried out on churches, although he did some secular work. His architectural style was Modernist, but he respected traditional styles, George Pace was born in Croydon, Surrey, the son of a ship owners clerk. He was educated at Addiscombe New College, and then articled to James Ransome. He studied in the evenings at Regent Street Polytechnic, then went on to work with Darcy Braddell and Humphrey Deane, and then with Pite, Son, and Fairweather. During this time he won prizes, including the Pugin scholarship, after qualifying as an architect in 1939, he taught at the polytechnic, but in 1941 he was called up for army service. In that year he married Ina Florence Catherine Jones, during his army service he was commissioned and worked as a supervising architect, based in York. When in 1949 Pace was appointed as surveyor to the diocese of Sheffield, he resigned his commission, during that year he was elected a fellow of the Royal Institute of British Architects. Also in 1949 he was appointed as consulting architect to Lichfield and Llandaff Cathedrals, much of his career was spent in restoring and repairing churches, and in designing new fittings, but he also designed new churches. Pace created a design for a cathedral in Ibadan, Nigeria and his works were almost completely ecclesiastical, but he did design a library for Durham University, and carried out repairs at Castle Howard. Pace was appointed a Commander of the Royal Victorian Order in 1971, with his wife, Pace has five children. His son, Peter, also trained as an architect, George Pace was also a writer and lecturer, and was concerned about conservation issues, being a member of the York civic Trust and the York Georgian Society. He died in York in 1975, and his practice was continued by his assistant, in respect of his influences, Paces son, Peter, in the biography of his father, states that Charles Rennie Mackintosh was an early influence. He also quoted a student who said whilst most of the students enthused about Lloyd Wright or Gropius, George was more concerned with the ideas of William Morris, Lethaby. The authors of the Buildings of England series note the influence of Le Corbusier in his design of the William Temple Memorial Church in Wythenshawe, although Paces works were mainly Modernist in style, he also respected traditional styles, and sometimes combined elements of both. New churches that are entirely Modernist include St Mark, Chadderton, Greater Manchester, the William Temple Memorial Church, also Modernist are the chapels at St. Michaels College, Llandaff, Scargill House, Wharfedale, North Yorkshire, and Keele University, Staffordshire. The Addleshaw Tower, a bell tower for Chester Cathedral, Cheshire, Paces last major work. Modernist and traditional styles are combined in St Mark, Broomhill, Sheffield, South Yorkshire, here Pace restored the spire and the porch in Gothic Revival style, but rebuilt the body of the church in Modernist style
8.
Sacred architecture
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Many cultures devoted considerable resources to their sacred architecture and places of worship. Religious and sacred spaces are amongst the most impressive and permanent monolithic buildings created by humanity, conversely, sacred architecture as a locale for meta-intimacy may also be non-monolithic, ephemeral and intensely private, personal and non-public. Sacred, religious and holy structures often evolved over centuries and were the largest buildings in the world, while the various styles employed in sacred architecture sometimes reflected trends in other structures, these styles also remained unique from the contemporary architecture used in other structures. With the rise of Abrahamic monotheisms, religious buildings increasingly became centres of worship, prayer, the Western scholarly discipline of the history of architecture itself closely follows the history of religious architecture from ancient times until the Baroque period, at least. Sacred geometry, iconography, and the use of sophisticated semiotics such as signs, symbols, Sacred and/or religious architecture is sometimes called sacred space. Architect Norman L. Koonce has suggested that the goal of sacred architecture is to make transparent the boundary between matter and mind, flesh and the spirit, meanwhile, Richard Kieckhefer suggests that entering into a religious building is a metaphor for entering into spiritual relationship. Sacred architecture spans a number of ancient architectural styles including Neolithic architecture, ancient Egyptian architecture, ancient religious buildings, particularly temples, were often viewed as the dwelling place, the temenos, of the gods and were used as the site of various kinds of sacrifice. Ancient tombs and burial structures are examples of architectural structures reflecting religious beliefs of their various societies. The Temple of Karnak at Thebes, Egypt was constructed across a period of 1300 years, ancient Egyptian religious architecture has fascinated archaeologists and captured the public imagination for millennia. Around 600 BCE the wooden columns of the Temple of Hera at Olympia were replaced by stone columns, with the spread of this process to other sanctuary structures a few stone buildings have survived through the ages. Greek architecture preceded Hellenistic and Roman periods, since temples are the only buildings which survive in numbers, most of our concept of classical architecture is based on religious structures. The Parthenon which served as a building as well as a place for veneration of deity, is widely regarded as the greatest example of classical architecture. Indian architecture is related to the history and religions of the time periods as well as to the geography, the diversity of Indian culture is represented in its architecture. Indian architecture comprises a blend of ancient and varied native traditions, with building types, forms and technologies from West, Central Asia, buddhist architecture developed in South Asia beginning in the third century BCE. Two types of structures are associated with early Buddhism, viharas and stupas, an existing example is at Nalanda. The initial function of the stupa was the veneration and safe-guarding of the relics of the Buddha, the earliest existing example of a stupa is in Sanchi. In accordance with changes in practice, stupas were gradually incorporated into chaitya-grihas. These reached their highpoint in the first century BCE, exemplified by the cave complexes of Ajanta, the pagoda is an evolution of the Indian stupa that is marked by a tiered tower with multiple eaves common in China, Japan, Korea, Nepal and other parts of Asia
9.
Diocese
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The word diocese is derived from the Greek term διοίκησις meaning administration. When now used in a sense, it refers to a territorial unit of administration. This structure of governance is known as episcopal polity. The word diocesan means relating or pertaining to a diocese and it can also be used as a noun meaning the bishop who has the principal supervision of a diocese. An archdiocese is more significant than a diocese, an archdiocese is presided over by an archbishop whose see may have or have had importance due to size or historical significance. The archbishop may have authority over any other suffragan bishops. In the Latter Day Saint movement, the bishopric is used to describe the bishop himself. Especially in the Middle Ages, some bishops held political as well as religious authority within their dioceses, in the later organization of the Roman Empire, the increasingly subdivided provinces were administratively associated in a larger unit, the diocese. With the adoption of Christianity as the Empires official religion in the 4th century, a formal church hierarchy was set up, parallel to the civil administration, whose areas of responsibility often coincided. With the collapse of the Western Empire in the 5th century, a similar, though less pronounced, development occurred in the East, where the Roman administrative apparatus was largely retained by the Byzantine Empire. In modern times, many dioceses, though later subdivided, have preserved the boundaries of a long-vanished Roman administrative division, modern usage of diocese tends to refer to the sphere of a bishops jurisdiction. As of January 2015, in the Catholic Church there are 2,851 regular dioceses,1 papal see,641 archdioceses and 2,209 dioceses in the world, in the Eastern rites in communion with the Pope, the equivalent unit is called an eparchy. Eastern Orthodoxy calls dioceses metropoleis in the Greek tradition or eparchies in the Slavic tradition, after the Reformation, the Church of England retained the existing diocesan structure which remains throughout the Anglican Communion. The one change is that the areas administered under the Archbishop of Canterbury and Archbishop of York are properly referred to as provinces and this usage is relatively common in the Anglican Communion. Certain Lutheran denominations such as the Church of Sweden do have individual dioceses similar to Roman Catholics and these dioceses and archdioceses are under the government of a bishop. Other Lutheran bodies and synods that have dioceses and bishops include the Church of Denmark, the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland, the Evangelical Church in Germany, rather, it is divided into a middle judicatory. The Lutheran Church-International, based in Springfield, Illinois, presently uses a traditional diocesan structure and its current president is Archbishop Robert W. Hotes. The Church of God in Christ has dioceses throughout the United States, in the COGIC, each state is divided up into at least three dioceses that are all led by a bishop, but some states as many as seven dioceses
10.
Dean (Christianity)
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A dean, in a church context, is a cleric holding certain positions of authority within a religious hierarchy. The title is used mainly in the Anglican Communion, the Roman Catholic Church, a deans assistant is called a subdean. In the church, the Dean of the College of Cardinals, except for presiding and delegating administrative tasks, they have no authority over the cardinals, acting as primus inter pares. In the academic community, the Dean is the leader of the Faculty who presides over the Faculty Board. He is deputized by a Vice-Dean and equally assisted by a Sub-Dean who can be delegated some of the task of the Dean. The most senior Professor or a Vice-Dean is the person who can act for a Dean in his or her absence from office. In the Church of England and elsewhere in the Anglican Communion, the dean is the chief resident cleric of a cathedral or other collegiate church, if the cathedral or collegiate church has its own parish, the dean is usually also rector of the parish. However, in the Church of Ireland the roles are often separated, in the Church in Wales, however, most cathedrals are parish churches, and their deans are now also vicars of their parishes. In some parts of the Communion, the senior resident cleric in a cathedral is a provost. Each diocese of the Scottish Episcopal Church has a dean of the diocese, in this way, a Scottish Episcopal dean is similar to an archdeacon in the other member churches of the Communion. In the Anglican Church of Canada, the roles of senior cleric of the cathedral are combined in one person who is referred to as Rector of Cathedral, thus, Peter Elliott is Rector of Christ Church Cathedral and Dean of New Westminster. The style The Very Reverend distinguishes a cleric as a dean, for example, the Very Reverend June Osborne is Dean of Salisbury Cathedral. In consideration of the status of a Dean, the Very Reverend title is normally a permanent title preferment. Some important deans include the deans of St Pauls, Canterbury Cathedral, Westminster Abbey is a royal peculiar, not the seat of any bishop or a cathedral, but is led by a dean. The deans of Washington National Cathedral and St. Patricks Cathedral, in many parts of the Anglican Communion, parishes are grouped together to form deaneries, each being a constituent administrative district of the diocese. Usually, a deanery is led by one of the incumbents of the parishes, who is called a rural dean. Such a dean chairs the meeting of the clergy. Rural Deans rank as primi inter pares of their chapters, the head of an Anglican theological college or seminary may also be called a dean
11.
Precentor
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A precentor is a person who helps facilitate worship. The details vary depending on the religion, denomination, and era in question, the Latin derivation is præcentor, from cantor, meaning the one who sings before. The chief precentor was the highest position in many ancient Mesopotamian cities, Jewish precentors are song or prayer leaders, leading Synagogue music. A Jewish precentor is typically called a hazzan or cantor, in the Middle Ages, women precentors leading prayers in the weibershul were known as firzogerin, vorsangerin, foreleiner, zugerin, or zugerke. A precentor is a member of a church who helps facilitate worship, the role of precentor was carried over from the synagogues into the early church. The term precentor described sometimes an ecclesiastical dignitary, sometimes an administrative or ceremonial officer, anciently, the precentor had various duties, he was the first or leading chanter, who on Sundays and greater feasts intoned certain antiphons, psalms, hymns, responsories etc. He was variously styled capiscol, prior scholæ, magister scholæ, victor of St. Hugo tells us that in the care of the primicerius were placed the acolytes, exorcists, lectors, and psalmists. In the Middle Ages the principal dignitaries of cathedral, collegiate chapters, the schola was always in attendance when the bishop officiated in his cathedral, and to the precentor was assigned a place near the bishop and high in dignity. His office was obviously one demanding much learning and executive ability, in the cathedrals of England, France, Spain, and Germany, he ranked sometimes next to the dean, sometimes next to the archdeacon. In some instances his sphere of activity was much broader, including the duty of installing deans, canons, and other dignitaries, and in some monasteries and this baton cantoral is a silver or white staff. In the dioceses of Aix, Carcassonne, Coutances, Dijon, Metz, Orléans, brings the antiphon to the bishop when officiating pontifically. Sacristans, chanters, choir-boys, and employés of the Cathedral are placed under his surveillance and he will also preserve order and silence in the sacristy). A precentor is a person, usually a member, who is in charge of preparing worship services. This position is held in a large church, and is typically used in the churches of the Anglican Communion. Most cathedrals have a precentor in charge of the organisation of liturgy, the precentor of a cathedral is usually a residentiary canon or prebendary, and may be assisted by a succentor. In some cathedrals, the Precentor is a minor Canon, and therefore part of the Foundation, traditionally the precentors stall in the cathedral is on the opposite side of the Quire than that of the Dean, leading to the traditional division of the singers into Decani and Cantoris. Churches that use a manner of singing called lining out are usually led by the precentor. The word precentor is also used at two English public schools, Radley College and Eton College, to refer to the Head of Music and these school precentors have no specific religious duties although, as part of their musical function, they may conduct the college chapel choir
12.
Canon (priest)
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A canon is a member of certain bodies subject to an ecclesiastical rule. This way of life grew common in the eighth century, in the eleventh century, some churches required clergy thus living together to adopt the rule first proposed by Saint Augustine that they renounce private wealth. Those who embraced this change were known as Augustinians or Canons Regular, in the Roman Catholic Church, the members of the chapter of a cathedral or of a collegiate church are canons. Depending on the title of the church, several languages use specific titles, e. g. in German Domherr or Domkapitular in a Dom, Stiftsherr in a prelature that has the status of a Stift. One of the functions of the chapter in the Roman Catholic Church was to elect a Vicar Capitular to serve during a sede vacante period of the diocese. All canons of the Church of England have been secular since the Reformation, mostly, however, they are ordained, that is, priests or members of the clergy. Today, the system of canons is retained almost exclusively in connection with cathedral churches, a canon is a member of the chapter of priests, headed by a dean, which is responsible for administering a cathedral or certain other churches that are styled collegiate churches. The dean and chapter are the body which has legal responsibility for the cathedral. The title of Canon is not a permanent title and when no longer in a position entitling preferment, however, it is still given in many dioceses to senior parish priests as a largely honorary title. It is usually awarded in recognition of long and dedicated service to the diocese, honorary canons are members of the chapter in name but are non-residential and receive no emoluments. They are entitled to call themselves canon and may have a role in the administration of the cathedral, in some Church of England dioceses, the title Prebendary is used instead of canon when the cleric is involved administratively with a cathedral. Honorary canons within the Roman Catholic Church may still be nominated after the Second Vatican Council, on the demise of the Kingdom of France this honour became transferred to the Presidents of the Republic, and hence is currently held by François Hollande. This applies even when the French President is not Catholic, as is the case with the atheist Hollande, the proto-canon of the papal basilica of Saint Mary Major is the King of Spain, currently Felipe VI. The rank of lay canon is especially conferred upon diocesan chancellors and it has traditionally been said that the King of England is a canon or prebendary of St David’s Cathedral, Wales. However, this is based on a misconception, the canonry of St Mary’s College, St David’s became the property of the Crown on the dissolution of the monasteries. The Sovereign was never a canon of St David’s, even as a layman, though he or she may occupy the first prebendal stall, a canon professor is a canon at an Anglican cathedral who also holds a university professorship. Section 2 of the Church of England Measure 1995 was passed for the purpose of enabling Christ Church Cathedral, Oxford. Historically, the chair in Greek at the university was also a canon professorship and this canonry was transferred to the Lightfoot Professor of Divinity in 1940
13.
Cathedral
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A cathedral is a Christian church which contains the seat of a bishop, thus serving as the central church of a diocese, conference, or episcopate. The counterpart term for such a church in German is Dom from Latin domus ecclesiae or domus episcopalis, also Italian Duomo, Dutch Domkerk, when the church at which an archbishop or metropolitan presides is specifically intended, the term kathedrikos naos is used. In addition, both the Catholic Church and Orthodox churches have formed new dioceses within formerly Protestant lands for converts, consequently, it is not uncommon to find Christians in a single city being served by three or more cathedrals of differing denominations. In the Catholic tradition, the term cathedral correctly applies only to a church houses the seat of the bishop of a diocese. The abbey church of a territorial abbacy serves the same function, the Catholic Church also uses the following terms. A pro-cathedral is a parish or other church used temporarily as a cathedral, usually while the cathedral of a diocese is under construction, renovation and this designation applies only as long as the temporary use continues. A co-cathedral is a cathedral in a diocese that has two sees. A proto-cathedral is the cathedral of a transferred see. The cathedral church of a bishop is called the metropolitan cathedral. The term cathedral actually carries no implication as to the size or ornateness of the building, nevertheless, most cathedrals are particularly impressive edifices. The building is now under renovation and restoration for solemn dedication under the title Christ Cathedral in 2018, in the ancient world the chair, on a raised dais, was the distinctive mark of a teacher or rhetor and thus symbolises the bishops role as teacher. A raised throne within a hall was also definitive for a Late Antique presiding magistrate. The history of cathedrals starts in the year 313, when the emperor Constantine the Great personally adopted Christianity, in the third century, the phrase ascending the platform, ad pulpitum venire, becomes the standard term for Christian ordination. During the siege of Dura Europos in 256, a complete Christian house church, or domus ecclesiae was entombed in a bank, surviving when excavated. Otherwise the large room had no decoration or distinctive features at all, in 269, soon after Dura fell to the Persian army, a body of clerics assembled a charge sheet against the bishop of Antioch, Paul of Samosata, in the form of an open letter. Characteristically a Roman magistrate presided from a throne in a large, richly decorated and aisled rectangular hall called a basilica. The earliest of these new basilican cathedrals of which remains are still visible is below the Cathedral of Aquileia on the northern tip of the Adriatic sea. The three halls create a courtyard, in which was originally located a separate baptistery
14.
Sheffield
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Sheffield is a city and metropolitan borough in South Yorkshire, England. Historically part of the West Riding of Yorkshire, its derives from the River Sheaf. With some of its southern suburbs annexed from Derbyshire, the city has grown from its industrial roots to encompass a wider economic base. The population of the City of Sheffield is 569,700, Sheffield is the third largest English district by population. The metropolitan population of Sheffield is 1,569,000, in the 19th century, Sheffield gained an international reputation for steel production. Known as the Steel City, many innovations were developed locally, including crucible and stainless steel, Sheffield received its municipal charter in 1843, becoming the City of Sheffield in 1893. International competition in iron and steel caused a decline in these industries in the 1970s and 1980s, the 21st century has seen extensive redevelopment in Sheffield along with other British cities. Sheffields gross value added has increased by 60% since 1997, standing at £9.2 billion in 2007, the economy has experienced steady growth averaging around 5% annually, greater than that of the broader region of Yorkshire and the Humber. The city is in the foothills of the Pennines, and the valleys of the River Don and its four tributaries, the Loxley, the Porter Brook, the Rivelin. 61% of Sheffields entire area is space, and a third of the city lies within the Peak District national park. The area now occupied by the City of Sheffield is believed to have inhabited since at least the late Upper Palaeolithic period. The earliest evidence of occupation in the Sheffield area was found at Creswell Crags to the east of the city. In the Iron Age the area became the southernmost territory of the Pennine tribe called the Brigantes and it is this tribe who are thought to have constructed several hill forts in and around Sheffield. Gradually, Anglian settlers pushed west from the kingdom of Deira, a Celtic presence within the Sheffield area is evidenced by two settlements called Wales and Waleswood close to Sheffield. The settlements that grew and merged to form Sheffield, however, date from the half of the first millennium. In Anglo-Saxon times, the Sheffield area straddled the border between the kingdoms of Mercia and Northumbria, after the Norman conquest, Sheffield Castle was built to protect the local settlements, and a small town developed that is the nucleus of the modern city. By 1296, a market had been established at what is now known as Castle Square, from 1570 to 1584, Mary, Queen of Scots, was imprisoned in Sheffield Castle and Sheffield Manor. During the 1740s, a form of the steel process was discovered that allowed the manufacture of a better quality of steel than had previously been possible
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Listed building
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A listed building or listed structure, in the United Kingdom, is one that has been placed on the Statutory List of Buildings of Special Architectural or Historic Interest. The statutory bodies maintaining the list are Historic England in England, Cadw in Wales, Historic Scotland in Scotland, however, the preferred term in Ireland is protected structure. In England and Wales, an amenity society must be notified of any work to a listed building which involves any element of demolition. Owners of listed buildings are, in circumstances, compelled to repair and maintain them. When alterations are permitted, or when listed buildings are repaired or maintained, slightly different systems operate in each area of the United Kingdom, though the basic principles of the listing remain the same. It was the damage to caused by German bombing during World War II that prompted the first listing of buildings that were deemed to be of particular architectural merit. The listings were used as a means of determining whether a building should be rebuilt if it was damaged by bombing. Listing was first introduced into Northern Ireland under the Planning Order 1972, the listing process has since developed slightly differently in each part of the UK. In the UK, the process of protecting the historic environment is called ‘designation’. A heritage asset is a part of the environment that is valued because of its historic. Only some of these are judged to be important enough to have legal protection through designation. However, buildings that are not formally listed but still judged as being of heritage interest are still regarded as being a consideration in the planning process. Almost anything can be listed – it does not have to be a building, Buildings and structures of special historic interest come in a wide variety of forms and types, ranging from telephone boxes and road signs, to castles. Historic England has created twenty broad categories of structures, and published selection guides for each one to aid with assessing buildings and these include historical overviews and describe the special considerations for listing each category. Both Historic Scotland and Cadw produce guidance for owners, in England, to have a building considered for listing or delisting, the process is to apply to the secretary of state, this can be done by submitting an application form online to Historic England. The applicant does not need to be the owner of the building to apply for it to be listed, full information including application form guidance notes are on the Historic England website. Historic England assesses buildings put forward for listing or delisting and provides advice to the Secretary of State on the architectural, the Secretary of State, who may seek additional advice from others, then decides whether or not to list or delist the building. In England and Wales the authority for listing is granted to the Secretary of State by the Planning Act 1990, Listed buildings in danger of decay are listed on the Historic England Heritage at Risk Register
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Sheffield Town Hall
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Sheffield Town Hall is a building in the City of Sheffield, England. The building is used by Sheffield City Council, and also contains a publicly displayed collection of silverware, the current building, Sheffields fourth town hall, is located on Pinstone Street. It was designed by the London-based architect E. W. Mountford and constructed over a period from 1890 to 1897. An extension designed by F. E. P. Edwards was completed in 1923, the design of the exterior echoed to a certain extent the architecture of the adjacent St. Pauls Church of 1720. During construction, the building was criticised for its expensive embellishments, the exterior is built of Stoke stone from the Stoke Hall Quarry in Grindleford, Derbyshire and is decorated with carvings by F. W. Pomeroy. The friezes depict the industries of Sheffield, and the 64 metre high clock-tower is surmounted by a statue of Vulcan, bells were never installed in the clock-tower, but in 2002 an electronic bell sound system was added to provide hourly strikes and Westminster-style quarter chimes. The building was opened by Queen Victoria, using a control lock from her carriage. The turning of the key in the lock triggered a light in the building which was the signal for three concealed men to open the gates, the entry contains displays relating to HMS Sheffield and leads to the Main Entrance Hall with a grand marble staircase. This also has an Electrolier an electric chandelier, part of the lighting of the building. The walls include friezes including a depiction of the slaying of the Dragon of Wharncliffe, on the first landing is a statue of the first Lord Mayor Henry Fitzalan-Howard, 15th Duke of Norfolk. The first floor has a gallery running its length which can be divided into four sections by means of powered oak panels descending from the ceiling, the south room is the Lord Mayors Parlour which is kept permanently divided. On the same floor is the oak-panelled Council Room and its antechamber, there are photographs of former mayors in the antechamber and some paintings in the parlour. Sheffields first town hall was referred to in a 1637 survey of the area and it is thought to have been at 10 Pinfold Street. From 1700–1808 there was a small community hall in the corner of the Churchyard. It was owned by the Town Trustees, as was its replacement, a new extension to the Town Hall was planned in the late 1930s and necessitated the demolition of the adjacent St Pauls Church in 1938. The extension plans were put on hold due to the Second World War. The garden was called St Pauls Garden but was popularly known as the Peace Gardens. One feature of the Peace Gardens was a ruler,100 feet long, built of metal
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Abbeydale Industrial Hamlet
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Abbeydale Industrial Hamlet is an industrial museum in the south of the City of Sheffield, England. The museum forms part of a former steel-working site on the River Sheaf, the works are atypical in that much of the production process was completed on the same site. A more typical example of water-powered works in the area can be found at Shepherd Wheel, the site is a scheduled ancient monument, the works are Grade I listed and the workers cottages, counting house, and managers house are Grade II* listed. The site was used for iron forging for 500 years, although there is evidence of metal working prior to 1200 AD. Its early history is tied with the nearby Beauchief Abbey. However, the Abbey Dale Works as such, the buildings of which now form the Abbeydale Industrial Hamlet, are first formally recorded in 1714. From the 17th century onwards, the site operated as a scythe works until, in 1933, it was closed by Tyzak Sons. In 1935 it was bought by the Alderman J. G. Graves Trust, the works was briefly reopened during the Second World War to aid in Britains war effort. The Council for the Conservation of Sheffield Antiquities explored and initiated the restoration of Abbeydale Works in 1964 and they discovered the remains of 6 buildings in addition to those still standing. Sheffield City Council closed the museum in 1997 as a cost-cutting measure and it was then leased to the Sheffield Industrial Museums Trust who reopened the museum in 1998. Abbeydale Industrial Hamlet is run as a museum, with works. The museum demonstrates the process making blister steel from iron and coke, the river provides water power via a water wheel. The blades were hand forged for finishing. The museum is open Sunday to Thursday, and entry is £4 for adults, £3 for concessions and free for accompanied children 16, kelham Island Museum Shepherd Wheel Official website
18.
Church of St Mary, Ecclesfield
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The Church of St Mary, Ecclesfield, is situated on Church Street in the village of Ecclesfield, now a northern suburb of Sheffield, South Yorkshire, England. It is situated 4.3 miles north of the city centre and it is a Grade One listed building, one of only five within the Sheffield city boundary. It was originally the church for Hallamshire, one of the largest parishes in England. The exact date for the creation of a church on the site of St Marys is unknown and it has been implied by historians that the Anglo-Saxons founded a church on the site between 625 and 650. After the conquest and the repercussions of the Harrying of the North the lands around Ecclesfield passed to William de Lovetot at the start of the 12th century. It was de Lovetot who built the first substantial church on the site, with a date of 1111 often given, however there is no written evidence to support this date. The church was given to the monks of Fontenelle Abbey, near Rouen, Normandy, becoming an “alien priory”, however, parts of the nave and the main pillars supporting the nave roof and the tower are from the earlier 12th century building. Some of the glass from the windows was pieced together and put into windows in the north aisle. The 18th and 19th centuries saw much re-ordering in the church especially to the nave and chancel under the respective vicars William Ryder, in 1878, a football club representing Ecclesfield Church joined the Sheffield Football Association. The church thrives in the 21st century with a few modern touches such as a kitchen, lavatory, the church is built of local stone and has an octagonal font. The pulpit dates from 1876 with four panels carved with scenes from St Pauls life, since the Second World War, both the chancel and the nave have been given new roofs. The tower contains a peal of ten bells, two of which date from the 17th century, music in the church is provided by a pipe organ. The church yard contains a war memorial made from light coloured limestone, a carved cross shaft lies inside the church. It is around five feet high and lies in a double base, in the churchyard is a sundial mounted on a base with what may be an ancient lower part. Dr. Tim Gill who was instituted on 28 July 2016 by the Bishop of Doncaster
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Church of St Nicholas, Bradfield
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The Church of St. Nicholas, Bradfield is situated in the small village of High Bradfield, which is located 6 miles north west of the centre of the city of Sheffield in South Yorkshire, England. It is one of only five Grade One Listed buildings in Sheffield, christian worship in the Bradfield area dates from at least the 9th century, as a Saxon cross discovered in 1870 in the nearby village of Low Bradfield was dated by specialists to that time. Local historian John Wilson believed that the original Norman church was founded in 1109 when deciphering ancient writing in the original east window. The Normans regarded the area around Bradfield as strategically important and had built a fortified keep in the area after the conquest. The original Norman church was a two cell building. These changes were reversed in the part of the 19th century when the interior was restored to its 15th-century appearance. Parts of the original Norman church survive in the arcade, the font. The previously mentioned 9th century Saxon cross was integrated into the wall of the church in 1886. The cross is roughly fashioned in local gritstone and is decorated with five bosses on the head. Records of births, marriages and burials date from 1559, music in the church was originally provided by a local band of musicians featuring a bassoon and violoncello accompanying the choir. The musicians were replaced in 1843 by an organ, the present organ was installed in 1973. It was built by Laycock and Bannister and was second hand from a church in Middlesbrough that was closing. The interior contains 17 stained glass windows of varying sizes, much of the glass is from the late 19th century although the Medieval Window includes fragments of glass from the 15th century. During the Second World War it was stored in a local clay mine to protect it from bomb damage, the windows include designs by Sir John Ninian Comper, Clayton and Bell and Hardman & Co. The east window, which is the largest, was donated by the Wilson family in 1870, a window on the west wall was donated by the Dixon family in 1930. The family had been the owners of the Spring Grove paper mill in Oughtibridge since 1871, the main west window is situated in the ringing chamber of the tower. It was a gift of James Wilson Rimington-Wilson of Broomhead Hall and depicts Saint Nicholas and it is one of ten windows in the church attributed to William Francis Dixon of the Clayton & Bell company. The pulpit features carved panels portraying Christ with the four Gospel writers, oak panels brought from Normandy in 1886 decorate the sanctuary and the altar
20.
Sheffield City Centre
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Sheffield City Centre, commonly just known as town by the citys residents, is a district of the City of Sheffield, and part of the Sheffield Central ward. It includes the area that is within a radius of roughly 0.75 miles of Sheffield Cathedral, as well as the cathedral, notable buildings in the city centre include the Grade I listed Town Hall, the City Hall, and the Winter Gardens. Several areas of the city centre have been designated as quarters and it is home to the citys major business, transport, leisure and cultural attractions. The City centre is undergoing massive re-generation with every section of the City centre set to be re-developed. Plans and projects include the development of new squares and public spaces, new residential, in late 2006, the Connect Sheffield scheme came into being. Following the implementation of the 1994 City Centre Strategy eleven quarters were defined within the city centre, following on from this, during the 2004 redevelopment of the city centre four districts were identified within the city centre, primarily for aiding traffic. The main Districts are as follows, The central district of Sheffield is home to the Town Hall and the major shopping areas of Fargate, Orchard Square and Commercial Street. The Heart of the City area, as its name suggests, lies at the centre of this zone and encompasses the Town Hall and Peace Gardens, a major focal point for people in the city. Adjacent to this is St Paul’s Place, in centre of Sheffield, Sheffield’s largest building, St Pauls Tower, is situated on the edge of St Paul’s place, close to both the Town Hall and Sheffield Station. At the opposite end of Fargate to the Town Hall is the Cathedral Quarter, here there are numerous law firms and employment agencies, as well as numerous shops and the city centre hub for the Sheffield Supertram. The city centres most popular cinema, Odeon Sheffield, is located on Arundel Gate, also within the central zone is The Moor, once Sheffields primary shopping area. The Riverside District, lying along the banks of the River Don, was traditionally an industrial zone with the Kelham Island Quarter providing testament to this, in the 21st century it has become dominated by new office developments and apartment complexes. The Riverside Exchange and West Bar developments are key to change and have seen the area transformed dramatically. Also in this area is the St Vincent Quarter which lies on the bank of the River Don to the Riverside Exchange area. The Sheaf Valley Area, surrounding the River Sheaf, is dominated by Sheaf Square/Sheffield Station, Sheaf Square, which has been completely redeveloped in recent years, now serves as gateway to the city centre. Sheffield Station, serving as the entrance to this gateway has also been redeveloped whilst maintaining its grand Victorian façade, the CIQ is home to several bars and clubs and the Showroom Cinema, well known for playing a more diverse selection of films than mainstream cinemas. Red Tape studies is also in the area, the West End District, lying to the West of the Central zone, is the city’s social and academic hub. West Street, the main thoroughfare in this area, is home to Sheffield’s greatest concentration of bars, clubs and restaurants and is popular with young people
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Church Street (Sheffield)
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Church Street is situated in the centre of Sheffield at the grid reference of SK353874. Church Street has its own Sheffield Supertram stop directly in front of the Sheffield Cathedral, Church Street was originally named Church Lane and was referred to as this by John Harrisons in his survey of the town centre streets for Thomas Howard, 21st Earl of Arundel in 1637. Ralph Goslings map of Sheffield of 1736 shows the area around Church Lane as extraordinarily narrow, in 1785 Church Lane was widened by taking a section of the nearby churchyard which resulted in the exhumation of several bodies and coffins. This produced adverse reaction from local inhabitants who directed their wrath against the vicar, Church Street does not have many retail shops on it, but it does have some of the more significant buildings in Sheffield. Sheffield Cathedral and the Cutlers Hall both stand on Church Street, the Cathedral is a grade one listed building, construction started in 1430 although a church has existed on the site since the twelfth century. The Cutlers Hall was built in 1832 and is the headquarters of the Company of Cutlers in Hallamshire, other listed buildings on Church Street are the RBS building, and number 17 which was formerly the HSBC bank. Which stand on either side of the Cutlers Hall and are built in a similar style, the premises of the Stone House Public house is also listed although the pub has been closed for a few years and stands empty. In August 2005, London & Associated Properties bought the Stone House for £2,500,000 and this will create 42,000 square feet of redeveloped space. A bronze Statue of James Montgomery “The Christian Poet” stands on the Cathedral Precinct on Church Street just east of the Cathedral. Another significant building on the side of the thoroughfare is the Blood Donor Centre. There is a Lloyds TSB bank also on the side of the street at number 14. Further to the west up the street on the side at number 20 stands Cairns Chambers built between 1894 and 1896. St. James Row joins Church Street on its northern side, although officially on St. James Row the buildings have a substantial frontage onto Church Street and are an integral part of the thoroughfare. They were built in 1885 by Hemsoll & Smith as the Gladstone Buildings and were used as the Reform Club, the buildings are grade two listed and were saved from demolition in 1976 with the interior being re-designed as offices and the exterior facade left intact. Other businesses on Church Street include an armed forces recruiting centre, several employment agencies, in February 2014 a branch of Tesco Express was opened in part of 17 Church Street, which was the old HSBC Bank buildings. The bank left the premises in 2009 when it consolidated its city centre branches
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Sheffield Supertram
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The Sheffield Supertram is an English light rail tram system in the city of Sheffield, South Yorkshire. The infrastructure is owned by the South Yorkshire Passenger Transport Executive, the service commenced in 1994 and currently consists of three lines, named after colours. It was operated by South Yorkshire Supertram Limited, an owned subsidiary company of SYPTE. In December 1997, the company was sold to Stagecoach for £1.15 million, Stagecoach gained the concession to maintain and operate the Supertram trams until 2024. Patronage has grown from 7.8 million passenger journeys in 1996/97, in 2014/15 it carried 11.5 million passengers. A tram-train extension to Rotherham is currently under construction and is scheduled to open in 2018 and this will involve trams operating on Network Rails Dearne Valley Line from Meadowhall Interchange to Rotherham station with a short extension to Rotherham Parkgate Shopping Centre. The proposed station will be a tram stop and railway station. It is also planned that Rotherham Parkgate will be the hub for longer distance inter regional services, while Central station will be the hub for local, to cater for the tram train services, Rotherham Central will have a third platform built. It is thought that constructing the station will cost around £14 million, a study has concluded that it is not worth expanding Rotherham Central railway station because it would cost £161 million to expand the station but only deliver benefits worth £76 million. This is why constructing a new station is considered more viable and it is proposed a new Supertram line will be built from Meadowhall to Dore in south-west Sheffield in order to improve connections to the new Sheffield Meadowhall high-speed rail station. Construction started in 1991 and the first section to open was along a former heavy rail alignment to Meadowhall on 21 March 1994, the system consists of a mix of on-street running, reserved right-of-way and former railway alignment. The inner part of the Halfway and Herdings Park lines consist of running, with the exception of the railway station. The Herdings line then runs on reserved track, and the Halfway line crosses the county border into Derbyshire and this line also serves Crystal Peaks Shopping Centre. The three main City Centre stops are located on one side of a dual carriageway, now a single lane. These three stops are served by all routes The Sheffield Supertram network is organised around Park Square, two small branches serving Malin Bridge, from Hillsborough Interchange, and Herdings Park branch out from two of the main lines. The Class 399s are expected to be painted into normal Supertram livery, the tram-train scheme, which was first planned to be in service by 2015 has been delayed and is not expected to start until the summer 2018. The Class 399 units were built in 2015/16 with the first delivered in December 2015, the Supertram network operates a fleet of 25 three car trams built by Siemens-Duewag of Düsseldorf, Germany in 1992. The trams are capable of carrying 88 seated and 155 standing passengers and are 40% low floor design, launched in an initial light grey livery, following the takeover by Stagecoach the trams were reliveried in Stagecoachs corporate livery from 1997
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Sheffield Cross
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The Sheffield Cross is an Anglo-Saxon cross, dating from the early ninth century. It is the shaft of a high cross that was rediscovered hollowed out. It is now in the British Museum, the head of the cross is missing. The style of the cross is Mercian, and it is the most northerly known example of this type and it resembles crosses from Bakewell and Eyam, and David Hey uses the similarity of the vine scrolls in the Eyam and Sheffield crosses to hypothesise a single craftsperson. At the time of its discovery the prevailing theory was that the Cross originally stood on the site of Sheffield Parish Church. A cross outside the church is recorded to have been demolished in 1570 during the English Reformation, another theory holds that it was originally from Derbyshire. Several crosses in Sheffield survived the Reformation, including the Market Cross, Irish Cross and Townhead Cross, but all are now lost
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British Museum
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The British Museum is dedicated to human history, art and culture, and is located in the Bloomsbury area of London. The British Museum was established in 1753, largely based on the collections of the physician, the museum first opened to the public on 15 January 1759, in Montagu House, on the site of the current building. Although today principally a museum of art objects and antiquities. Its foundations lie in the will of the Irish-born British physician, on 7 June 1753, King George II gave his formal assent to the Act of Parliament which established the British Museum. They were joined in 1757 by the Old Royal Library, now the Royal manuscripts, together these four foundation collections included many of the most treasured books now in the British Library including the Lindisfarne Gospels and the sole surviving copy of Beowulf. The British Museum was the first of a new kind of museum – national, belonging to neither church nor king, freely open to the public, sloanes collection, while including a vast miscellany of objects, tended to reflect his scientific interests. The addition of the Cotton and Harley manuscripts introduced a literary, the body of trustees decided on a converted 17th-century mansion, Montagu House, as a location for the museum, which it bought from the Montagu family for £20,000. The Trustees rejected Buckingham House, on the now occupied by Buckingham Palace, on the grounds of cost. With the acquisition of Montagu House the first exhibition galleries and reading room for scholars opened on 15 January 1759. During the few years after its foundation the British Museum received several gifts, including the Thomason Collection of Civil War Tracts. A list of donations to the Museum, dated 31 January 1784, in the early 19th century the foundations for the extensive collection of sculpture began to be laid and Greek, Roman and Egyptian artefacts dominated the antiquities displays. Gifts and purchases from Henry Salt, British consul general in Egypt, beginning with the Colossal bust of Ramesses II in 1818, many Greek sculptures followed, notably the first purpose-built exhibition space, the Charles Towneley collection, much of it Roman Sculpture, in 1805. In 1816 these masterpieces of art, were acquired by The British Museum by Act of Parliament. The collections were supplemented by the Bassae frieze from Phigaleia, Greece in 1815, the Ancient Near Eastern collection also had its beginnings in 1825 with the purchase of Assyrian and Babylonian antiquities from the widow of Claudius James Rich. The neoclassical architect, Sir Robert Smirke, was asked to draw up plans for an extension to the Museum. For the reception of the Royal Library, and a Picture Gallery over it, and put forward plans for todays quadrangular building, much of which can be seen today. The dilapidated Old Montagu House was demolished and work on the Kings Library Gallery began in 1823, the extension, the East Wing, was completed by 1831. The Museum became a site as Sir Robert Smirkes grand neo-classical building gradually arose
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Parish church
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A parish church in Christianity is the church which acts as the religious centre of a parish. The church building reflects this status, and there is variety in the size. Many villages in Europe have churches that date back to the Middle Ages, in England, it is the basic administrative unit of episcopal churches. Nearly every part of England is in a parish, and most parishes have an Anglican parish church, in cities without a cathedral of a certain Christian denomination, the parish church may have administrative functions similar to that of a cathedral. However, the diocese will still have a cathedral, while smaller villages may only have a parish church, larger towns may have a parish church and then also smaller churches in various districts which do not have the status of parish church. Often the parish church will be the one to have a full-time minister. One sign of this is that the church is the only one to have a baptismal font. The Church of Scotland, the established Presbyterian church, also uses a system of parish churches, in Massachusetts, towns elected publicly funded parish churches from 1780 until 1834. Toward the end of the 20th century, a new resurgence in interest in parish churches emerged across the United States and this has given rise to efforts like the Slow Church Movement and The Parish Collective which focus heavily on localized involvement across work, home, and church life. Theologically, many Protestants have embraced the model as having roots in a Reformed view of eschatology. It’s a way of saying ‘I believe in the Incarnation, ’” says pastor Raymond F. Cannata, “Having an earthy eschatology is part of it. ”Roman Catholic parish church Church of England parish church Smith, C. Slow Church, Cultivating Community in the Patient Way of Jesus
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Worksop Priory
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The church is Grade I listed by the Department for Culture, Media and Sport as a building of outstanding architectural or historic interest. The initial land grant and monies to establish the Augustinian priory were made by William de Lovetot in 1103, in 1187 Philip, the Canon of Lincoln Cathedral, gave the Worksop Bestiary, an illuminated manuscript that is now at the Morgan Library & Museum in New York. In the 14th century the Tickhill Psalter was produced by the prior, the priory was dissolved on the orders of Henry VIII on 15 November 1539. The property was granted to Francis Talbot, 5th Earl of Shrewsbury on condition that the Earl should provide a glove for the hand of the sovereign at the coronation. This tradition continues to this day, extensive restoration and enlargements of the church began in the mid-19th century and continued through the 20th century. 1760 A western gallery was erected across the nave,1784 A gallery was erected along the north side. 1845–49 A restoration by R. Nicholson of Lincoln, the church was re-roofed, new foundations were provided to the south tower and the pillars and south aisle were pulled back to vertical. 1879 New organ by Brindley & Foster of Sheffield,1883 Repairs to the south tower. Two bells added increasing the ring from six to eight,1922 Lady chapel restored by Thomas Pepper and re-dedicated. 1929 Opening up of the south transept,1932 Building of the north transept and turret to the central tower. 1935 Blocking walls at the end of the nave were removed,1974 Choir built by Laurence King. The case has a tonal as well as a function, mixing the sound of the pipes. The specification was drawn up by David Butterworth and is almost identical to that of St Marys Church, the pipes, of which there are 1634, are of various materials ranging in tin content from 90% in the façade pipes to 20% for some flute stops. Copper and pine are used for other registers, with the exception of 24 small pipes in the pedal case, all the front pipes are speaking. The reed pipes are by Giesecke of Germany, the flues by Stinkins of Holland and Peter Collins, the console at the foot of the central display pipes is constructed of oak, the naturals are of hard ‘blackwood and the accidentals are white resin topped. The manual compass is of 56 notes, the compass of 30 notes. The style of voicing and the approach to its construction has origins in the 17th and 18th centuries. The balance of stops is in keeping with classical registration and the ‘Werk-Prinzip of the case is designed to project the sound into the priory building
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Sheffield Castle
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A motte and bailey castle had been constructed on the site at some time in the century following the Norman Conquest of England in 1066. This was destroyed in the Second Barons War, construction of a second castle, this time in stone, began four years later in 1270. Mary, Queen of Scots, was held prisoner in this castle, the castle was held by Royalist forces for part of the English Civil War, and was surrendered to the Parliamentarians in 1644 following a short siege. Its demolition was ordered soon after, and the castle was razed, there are no known surviving drawings or plans of the castle, but excavations in the 1920s revealed stone foundations from the castle begun in 1270 as well as evidence of earlier structures. Sheffield castle was located at the confluence of the River Sheaf and the River Don, on the bank of the Sheaf. The rivers provided defence to the north and east and there was a moat on the south and this site is now largely covered by the castle market. The site of the castle is the place where the earliest settlement at Sheffield was founded sometime in the half of the 1st millennium AD. The Domesday Book of 1086 states that, prior to the Norman Conquest of England in 1066, Waltheof II, in the same entry, it is reported that the manor of Sheffield—which had been part of Hallam—was under the Lordship of Sweyn at the time of the conquest. It has been speculated that Waltheofs aula or Sweyns stronghold may have been at this site, the studies conducted by A. L. Armstrong during the archaeological investigations of the late 1920s provide evidence that the Saxon remains were not those of Waltheofs aula. The construction of the first castle at Sheffield following the Norman invasion of England is usually attributed to William de Lovetot, de Lovetot acquired the lordship of the manor of Hallamshire in the early twelfth century during the reign of Henry I. The earliest known reference to a castle at Sheffield is a made by Ralph Murdac, sheriff of Derbyshire, concerning the wardship of Maud de Lovetot. It is thought that this castle was a motte and bailey type. Maud de Lovetot married Gerard de Furnival in 1204 and the castle, Gerard de Furnivals grandson, Thomas, supported the Royalist cause during the Second Barons War of 1264–1267. In 1266 a party of barons, led by John de Eyvill, marching from north Lincolnshire to Derbyshire passed through Sheffield and destroyed the town, burning the church. In 1270 Thomas de Furnival obtained a charter from King Henry III to build a castle at Sheffield, Thomas died soon after the castle was completed and was buried in the castle. De Furnivals castle was built of stone, and extended from the river Sheaf to Waingate and from the river Don to Dixon Lane, a 2, 461-acre park was attached to the castle, it extended from the castle to Gleadless to the south and Handsworth to the east. In 1516, George Talbot, 4th Earl of Shrewsbury, built the residence of Sheffield Manor in the park. On 11 October 1642, as England moved towards civil war, in April 1643, Royalist forces led by the Earl of Newcastle entered Yorkshire and took Leeds, Wakefield, and Rotherham before approaching Sheffield
28.
Parish
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A parish is a church territorial unit constituting a division within a diocese. A parish is under the care and clerical jurisdiction of a parish priest, who might be assisted by one or more curates. Historically, a parish often covered the same area as a manor. By extension the term refers not only to the territorial unit. In England this church property was technically in ownership of the parish priest ex-officio, the eighth Archbishop of Canterbury Theodore of Tarsus appended the parish structure to the Anglo-Saxon township unit, where it existed, and where minsters catered to the surrounding district. In the wider picture of ecclesiastical polity, a parish comprises a division of a diocese or see, parishes within a diocese may be grouped into a deanery or vicariate forane, overseen by a dean or vicar forane, or in some cases by an archpriest. Some churches of the Anglican Communion have deaneries as units of an archdeaconry, in the Roman Catholic Church, each parish normally has its own parish priest, who has responsibility and canonical authority over the parish. These are called assistant priests, parochial vicars, curates, or, in the United States, associate pastors, each diocese is divided into parishes, each with their own central church called the parish church, where religious services take place. An example is that of personal parishes established in accordance with the 7 July 2007 motu proprio Summorum Pontificum for those attached to the form of the Roman Rite. Most Catholic parishes are part of Latin Rite dioceses, which cover the whole territory of a country. There can also be overlapping parishes of eparchies of Eastern Catholic Churches, the Church of England geographical structure uses the local parish church as its basic unit. The parish system survived the Reformation with the Anglican Churchs secession from Rome remaining largely untouched, Church of England parishes nowadays all lie within one of 44 dioceses divided between the provinces of Canterbury,30 and York,14. A chapelry was a subdivision of a parish in England. It had a status to a township but was so named as it had a chapel which acted as a subsidiary place of worship to the main parish church. In England civil parishes and their parish councils evolved in the 19th century as ecclesiastical parishes began to be relieved of what became considered to be civic responsibilities. Thus their boundaries began to diverge, the word parish acquired a secular usage. Since 1895, a council elected by public vote or a parish meeting administers a civil parish and is formally recognised as the level of local government below a district council. The parish is also the level of church administration in the Church of Scotland
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Second Barons' War
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The Second Barons War was a civil war in England between the forces of a number of barons led by Simon de Montfort against Royalist forces led by Prince Edward, in the name of Henry III. As a result, a feud developed between de Montfort and Henry and their relationship reached a crisis in the 1250s, when de Montfort was put on trial for actions he took as lieutenant of Gascony, the last remaining Plantagenet lands across the English Channel. Henry also became embroiled in funding a war against the Hohenstaufen Dynasty in Sicily on behalf of Pope Innocent IV in return for the Hohenstaufen title King of Sicily for his second son Edmund. This made many barons fearful that Henry was following in the footsteps of his father King John and, like him, when Henrys treasury ran dry, Innocent withdrew the title, and in regranting it to Charles of Anjou in effect negated the sale. Simon de Montfort became leader of those who wanted to reassert the Magna Carta, Henry was forced to take part in the swearing of a collective oath to uphold the Provisions of Oxford. At the Battle of Lewes in 1264, Henry was defeated, while Henry was reduced to a figurehead king, de Montfort broadened parliamentary representation to include groups beyond the nobility, members from each county of England and many important towns. Henry and Edward continued under house arrest and his son, Simon, attempted a negotiated surrender but it was rejected by de Montfort loyalists. The impasse culminated in the six-month Siege of Kenilworth at which the King prevailed, de Montforts forces were permitted to leave the castle with their weapons and horses. Following this victory, savage retribution was exacted on the rebels, the casualties of the war are estimated at 15,000. 1261 – King Henry III of England obtains a papal bull releasing him from the Provisions of Oxford 1264 – Before May – The war officially begins. By the end of the battle, de Montforts forces capture both King Henry and his son, future King Edward I, making de Montfort the uncrowned king of England. 1265 –20 January – In Westminster, the first English parliament conducts its first meeting in the Palace of Westminster,1265 –28 May – Future King Edward I of England escapes captivity at the hands of Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester. 1266 –15 May – The Battle of Chesterfield is fought in Chesterfield,1266 – October – The war winds down as supporters of the slain Simon de Montfort make an offer of peace to the king in the Dictum of Kenilworth. 1267 – The war ends, as the rebels and King Henry III of England agree to terms as laid out in the Dictum of Kenilworth. R. Simon de Montfort, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press ISBN 0-521-37493-6 Carpenter, the reign of Henry III, London, Hambledon ISBN 1-85285-070-1 Simon de Montfort 2014
30.
Henry III of England
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Henry III, also known as Henry of Winchester, was King of England, Lord of Ireland and Duke of Aquitaine from 1216 until his death. The son of King John and Isabella of Angoulême, Henry assumed the throne when he was nine in the middle of the First Barons War. Cardinal Guala declared the war against the barons to be a religious crusade and Henrys forces, led by William Marshal, defeated the rebels at the battles of Lincoln. Henry promised to abide by the Great Charter of 1225, which limited royal power and his early rule was dominated first by Hubert de Burgh and then Peter des Roches, who re-established royal authority after the war. In 1230 the King attempted to reconquer the provinces of France that had belonged to his father. A revolt led by William Marshals son, Richard, broke out in 1232, following the revolt, Henry ruled England personally, rather than governing through senior ministers. He travelled less than previous monarchs, investing heavily in a handful of his palaces and castles. He married Eleanor of Provence, with whom he had five children, in a fresh attempt to reclaim his familys lands in France, he invaded Poitou in 1242, leading to the disastrous Battle of Taillebourg. After this, Henry relied on diplomacy, cultivating an alliance with Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II. Henry supported his brother Richard in his bid to become King of the Romans in 1256 and he planned to go on crusade to the Levant, but was prevented from doing so by rebellions in Gascony. The baronial regime collapsed but Henry was unable to reform a stable government, in 1263 one of the more radical barons, Simon de Montfort, seized power, resulting in the Second Barons War. Henry persuaded Louis to support his cause and mobilised an army, the Battle of Lewes occurred in 1264, where Henry was defeated and taken prisoner. Henrys eldest son, Edward, escaped captivity to defeat de Montfort at the Battle of Evesham the following year. Henry initially enacted a harsh revenge on the rebels, but was persuaded by the Church to mollify his policies through the Dictum of Kenilworth. Reconstruction was slow and Henry had to acquiesce to various measures, including suppression of the Jews, to maintain baronial. Henry died in 1272, leaving Edward as his successor and he was buried in Westminster Abbey, which he had rebuilt in the second half of his reign, and was moved to his current tomb in 1290. Some miracles were declared after his death but he was not canonised, Henry was born in Winchester Castle on 1 October 1207. He was the eldest son of King John and Isabella of Angoulême, little is known of Henrys early life
31.
Cruciform
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Cruciform means having the shape of a cross or Christian cross. Christian churches are described as having a cruciform architecture. In the Western churches, a cruciform architecture usually, though not exclusively and this layout comprises the following, An east end, containing an altar and often with an elaborate, decorated window, through which light will shine in the early part of the day. A west end, which contains a baptismal font, being a large decorated bowl, in which water can be firstly, blessed. North and south transepts, being arms of the cross and often containing rooms for gathering, small chapels, or in many cases other necessities such as an organ. The crossing, which in later designs often was under a tower or dome, in churches that are not oriented with the altar at the geographical east end, it is usual to refer to the altar end as liturgical east and so forth. Another example of ancient cruciform architecture can be found in Herods temple, DNA can undergo transitions to form a cruciform shape, otherwise known as a Holliday junction. This structure is important for the biological processes of DNA recombination. A cruciform joint is a joint in which 4 spaces are created by the welding of 3 plates of metal at right angles. A cruciform manuscript was a form of Anglo-Saxon / Insular manuscript written with the words in a block shaped like a cross. In music, a melody of four pitches where a line drawn between the outer pair bisects a straight line drawn between the inner pair, thus forming a cross. In its simplest form, the melody is a changing tone. Often representative of the Christian cross, such melodies are cruciform in their retrogrades or inversions, johann Sebastian Bach, whose last name may be represented in tones through a musical cryptogram known as the BACH motif that is a cruciform melody, employed the device extensively. The subject of the fugue in c-sharp minor from The Well-Tempered Clavier Book I is cruciform, the plain sword used by knights, distinctive due to the flat bar used as a guard. The overall shape of the sword when held point down is that of a cross and it is believed this shape was encouraged by the church to remind Knights of their religion. It was however very popular due to the protection it offered to the hand, some airplanes use a cruciform tail design, wherein the horizontal stabilizer is positioned midway up the vertical stabilizer, forming a cruciform shape when viewed from the front or rear. Some examples are the F-9 Cougar, the F-10 Skyknight and the Sud Aviation Caravelle, cruciform web designs use a cross-shaped web page that expands to fill the width and height of the web browser window. There are a number of different approaches to implementing them, in addition to common cross-shaped products, such as key chains and magnets, certain designers have gone so far as to create cruciform devices and accessories
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Vestry
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The vestry was a meeting of the parish ratepayers chaired by the incumbent of the parish, originally held in the parish church or its vestry, from which it got its name. The vestry committees were not established by any law, but they evolved independently in each parish according to local needs from their roots in medieval parochial governance, by the late 17th century they had become, along with the county magistrates, the rulers of rural England. The original unit of settlement among the Anglo-Saxons in England was the tun or town, the inhabitants met to carry out this business in the town moot or meeting, at which they appointed the various officials and the common law would be promulgated. Later with the rise of the shire, the township would send its reeve and four best men to represent it in the courts of the hundred and shire. However, this independence of the Saxon system was lost to the township by the introduction of the feudal manorial Court Leet which replaced the town meeting. The division into ancient parishes was linked to the system, with parishes. This new meeting was supervised by the parish priest, probably the best educated of the inhabitants, as the complexity of rural society increased, the vestry meetings pragmatically acquired greater responsibilities, and were given the power to grant or deny payments from parish funds. Although the vestry committees were not established by any law, and had come into being in an unregulated ad-hoc process and this was convenient when they were the obvious body for administering the Edwardian and Elizabethan systems for support of the poor on a parochial basis. This was their first, and for centuries their principal. With this gradual formalisation of civil responsibilities, the ecclesiastical parishes acquired a dual nature, eventually, the vestry assumed a variety of tasks. It became responsible for appointing officials, such as the parish clerk, overseers of the poor, sextons and scavengers, constables. At the high point of their powers, just prior to removal of Poor Law responsibilities in 1834 and this level of activity had resulted in an increasing sophistication of administration. Consequently, in some of these a new body, the vestry, was created. This was a committee of selected parishioners whose members generally had a property qualification. This took responsibility from the community at large and improved efficiency and this committee was also known as the close vestry, whilst the term open vestry was used for the meeting of all ratepayers. The first reading of the bill was made annually, but every year the bill never got any further and this continues to this day as an archaic custom in the Lords to assert the independence from the Crown, even though the select vestries have long been abolished. These new bodies now received the poor law levy and administered the system, and removed a portion of the income of the vestry. These were able to levy their own rate, the church rate ceased to be levied in many parishes and was made voluntary in 1868
33.
Catherine of Alexandria
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According to her hagiography, she was both a princess and a noted scholar, who became a Christian around the age of fourteen, and converted hundreds of people to Christianity. She was martyred around the age of 18, over 1,100 years following her martyrdom, Saint Joan of Arc identified Catherine as one of the Saints who appeared to her and counselled her. The Eastern Orthodox Church venerates her as a Great Martyr, in the Catholic Church she is traditionally revered as one of the Fourteen Holy Helpers. In 1969 the Catholic Church removed her feast day from the General Roman Calendar, however, in 2002, her feast was restored to the General Roman Calendar as an optional memorial. According to the narrative, Catherine was the daughter of Constus. From a young age she devoted herself to study, a vision of the Madonna and Child persuaded her to become a Christian. When the persecutions began under Maxentius, she went to the emperor, the emperor summoned fifty of the best pagan philosophers and orators to dispute with her, hoping that they would refute her pro-Christian arguments, but Catherine won the debate. Several of her adversaries, conquered by her eloquence, declared themselves Christians and were at once put to death, upon the failure of Maxentius to make Catherine yield by way of torture, he tried to win the beautiful and wise princess over by proposing marriage. The saint refused, declaring that her spouse was Jesus Christ, the furious emperor condemned Catherine to death on a spiked breaking wheel, but, at her touch, it shattered. A tradition dating to about 800 states that carried her corpse to Mount Sinai. Her body was discovered around the year 800 at Mount Sinai, with hair still growing, in the 6th century, the Eastern Emperor Justinian had established what is now Saint Catherines Monastery in Egypt. Although Eusebius did not name the woman, she had identified with Dorothea of Alexandria. It is also referred to as Saint Helens Chapel, the main church was built between 548 and 565, and the monastery became a major pilgrimage site for devotees of Catherine and the other relics and sacred sites there. Saint Catherines Monastery survives, and is a repository of early Christian art, architecture and illuminated manuscripts that remains open to tourists. The site is sacred to Christianity and Islam, there is no evidence that Katherine herself was a historical figure and she may well have been a composite drawn from memories of women persecuted for their faith. Many aspects of her Passio are clearly legendary and conform to well-known hagiographical topoi, rufinus states that her first name was Dorothea, and that at her christening she acquired the name Aikaterina, a name that signifies her pure, clean and uncontaminated nature. There are several pilgrimage narratives that chronicle the journey to Mount Sinai, most notably those of John Mandeville, however, the monastery at Mount Sinai was the best-known site of Catherine pilgrimage, but was also the most difficult to reach. The most prominent Western shrine was the monastery in Rouen that claimed to house Catherines fingers and it was not alone in the west, however, accompanied by many, scattered shrines and altars dedicated to Catherine, which existed throughout France and England
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Victorian restoration
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It was not the same process as is understood today by the term building restoration. The change was embraced by the Church of England which saw it as a means of reversing the decline in church attendance. It is estimated that around 80% of all Church of England churches were affected in some way by the movement, varying from minor changes to complete demolition, in retrospect, the period of Victorian restoration has been viewed in a generally unfavourable light. A number of working together led to the spate of Victorian restoration. This situation lasted for about 250 years with the fabric of many churches, the severity of the problem was demonstrated when the spire of Chichester Cathedral suddenly telescoped in on itself in 1861. But towards the end of the 18th century the burgeoning Gothic Revival, the popularity of the Gothic Revival was seen by Church officials as a way to reverse the decline in church attendance, and thereby start to reassert the Churchs power, prosperity and influence. They therefore pushed for massive restoration programs, the rise in dissenter denominations, such as Methodism and the Religious Society of Friends, was seen as further evidence of this shortfall. To fulfil this need, between 1818 and 1824 the Government had granted £1.5 million for building new churches. Known as Commissioners churches, most of them cost only £4,000 to £5,000 each to build and it rapidly became popular, its membership increased from 8 to 180 in its first 12 months. Ecclesiology obviously struck a chord in society, it was linked with the ongoing interest in medievalism. The CCS stated that there were two ways in which a church could be restored. And if the earliest portions were too late, then it was a candidate for a rebuild in the correct style. To restore, The Ecclesiologist declared, is to revive the original appearance, lost by decay, accident or ill-judged alteration. They did later admit, though, that such restoration might create a state that the building had never been in. Another consequence was that a chancel was required for the associated ritual. Some figures give an idea of the scale, a total of 3,765 new and rebuilt churches were consecrated in the forty years up to 1875, with the most active decade being the 1860s in which there were more than 1,000 such consecrations. Over 7,000 parish churches in England and Wales — which is nearly 80% of all of them — were restored in some way between 1840 and 1875, butterfields restoration involved the removal of some original features, including the obliteration of paintings on the pillars. Butterfield also installed clear windows in the clerestory, allowing light to enter the nave
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Transept
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A transept is a transverse part of any building, which lies across the main body of the edifice. In churches, a transept is an area set crosswise to the nave in a building within the Romanesque. Each half of a transept is known as a semitransept, the transept of a church separates the nave from the sanctuary, apse, choir, chevet, presbytery or chancel. The transepts cross the nave at the crossing, which belongs equally to the main nave axis, upon its four piers, the crossing may support a spire, a central tower or a crossing dome. Since the altar is located at the east end of a church. The north and south end walls often hold decorated windows of stained glass, such as rose windows, occasionally, the basilicas and the church and cathedral planning that descended from them were built without transepts, sometimes the transepts were reduced to matched chapels. More often, the transepts extended well beyond the sides of the rest of the building, forming the shape of a cross and this design is called a Latin cross ground plan, and these extensions are known as the arms of the transept. A Greek cross ground plan, with all four extensions the same length, when churches have only one transept, as at Pershore Abbey, there is generally a historical disaster, fire, war or funding problem, to explain the anomaly. At Beauvais only the chevet and transepts stand, the nave of the cathedral was never completed after a collapse of the daring high vaulting in 1284. At St. Vitus Cathedral, Prague, only the choir, in a metro station or similar construction, a transept is a space over the platforms and tracks of a station with side platforms, containing the bridge between the platforms. Placing the bridge in a rather than an enclosed tunnel allows passengers to see the platforms. Aisle Apse Cathedral architecture Cathedral diagram Glossary of the Catholic Church Transom
36.
Saint Peter
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Saint Peter, also known as Simon Peter, Simeon, or Simōn pronunciation, according to the New Testament, was one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus Christ, leaders of the early Christian Great Church. Hippolytus of Rome, a 3rd-century theologian, gave him the title of Apostle of the Apostles, according to Catholic teaching, Peter was ordained by Jesus in the Rock of My Church dialogue in Matthew 16,18. He is traditionally counted as the first Bishop of Rome and by Eastern Christian tradition also as the first Patriarch of Antioch. The ancient Christian churches all venerate Peter as a saint and as founder of the Church of Antioch. The New Testament indicates that Peter was the son of John and was from the village of Bethsaida in the province of Galilee or Gaulanitis and his brother Andrew was also an apostle. According to New Testament accounts, Peter was one of twelve apostles chosen by Jesus from his first disciples, originally a fisherman, he played a leadership role and was with Jesus during events witnessed by only a few apostles, such as the Transfiguration. According to the gospels, Peter confessed Jesus as the Messiah, was part of Jesuss inner circle, thrice denied Jesus and wept bitterly once he realised his deed, according to Christian tradition, Peter was crucified in Rome under Emperor Nero Augustus Caesar. It is traditionally held that he was crucified upside down at his own request, Tradition holds that he was crucified at the site of the Clementine Chapel. His remains are said to be contained in the underground Confessio of St. Peters Basilica. According to Catholic doctrine, the direct successor to Saint Peter is the incumbent pope. Two general epistles in the New Testament are ascribed to Peter, the Gospel of Mark was traditionally thought to show the influence of Peters preaching and eyewitness memories. Peters original name was Shimon or Simeon and he was later given the name Peter, New Testament Greek Πέτρος derived from πέτρα, which means rock. In the Latin translation of the Bible this became Petrus, a form of the feminine petra. Another version of this name is Aramaic, , after his name in Hellenised Aramaic. The English, Dutch and German Peter, French Pierre, the Italian Pietro, the Spanish and Portuguese Pedro, the Syriac or Aramaic word for rock is kepa, which in Greek became Πέτρος, also meaning rock. He is also known as Simon Peter, Cephas and Kepha, both Cephas and Kepha also mean rock. In the New Testament, he is among the first of the disciples called during Jesus ministry, Peter became the first listed apostle ordained by Jesus in the early church. Peter was a fisherman in Bethsaida and he was named Simon, son of Jonah or John
37.
English Reformation
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The English Reformation was a series of events in 16th century England by which the Church of England broke away from the authority of the Pope and the Roman Catholic Church. Based on Henry VIIIs desire for an annulment of his marriage, the reality of political differences between Rome and England allowed growing theological disputes to come to the fore. Until the break with Rome, it was the Pope and general councils of the Church that decided doctrine, Church law was governed by the code of canon law with final jurisdiction in Rome. Church taxes were paid straight to Rome, and the Pope had the word in the appointment of bishops. Final authority in doctrinal and legal disputes now rested with the monarch, and the papacy was deprived of revenue, the theology and liturgy of the Church of England became markedly Protestant during the reign of Henrys son Edward VI largely along lines laid down by Archbishop Thomas Cranmer. Under Mary, the process was reversed and the Church of England was again placed under papal jurisdiction. Soon after, Elizabeth reintroduced the Protestant faith but in a moderate manner. The structure and theology of the church was a matter of dispute for generations. The legacy of the past Roman Catholic Establishment remained an issue for some time, a substantial minority remained Roman Catholic in England, and in an effort to disestablish it from British systems, their church organisation remained illegal until the 19th century. Henry VIII ascended the English throne in 1509 at the age of 17 and he made a dynastic marriage with Catherine of Aragon, widow of his brother Arthur, in June 1509, just before his coronation on Midsummers Day. Unlike his father, who was secretive and conservative, the young Henry appeared the epitome of chivalry and sociability. An observant Roman Catholic, he heard up to five masses a day, of powerful but unoriginal mind, he let himself be influenced by his advisors from whom he was never apart and he was thus susceptible to whoever had his ear. This contributed to a state of hostility between his young contemporaries and the Lord Chancellor, Cardinal Thomas Wolsey, wolseys enemies at court included those who had been influenced by Lutheran ideas, among whom was the attractive, charismatic Anne Boleyn. By the late 1520s, Henry wanted his marriage to Catherine annulled and she had not produced a male heir who survived longer than two months, and Henry wanted a son to secure the Tudor dynasty. Before Henrys father ascended the throne, England had been beset by civil warfare over rival claims to the English crown, Henry wanted to avoid a similar uncertainty over the succession. Catherine of Aragons only surviving child was Princess Mary, Henry claimed that this lack of a male heir was because his marriage was blighted in the eyes of God. Henry argued that this had been wrong and that his marriage had never been valid, in 1527 Henry asked Pope Clement VII to annul the marriage, but the Pope refused. According to Canon Law the Pope cannot annul a marriage on the basis of a canonical impediment previously dispensed, Clement also feared the wrath of Catherines nephew, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, whose troops earlier that year had sacked Rome and briefly taken the Pope prisoner
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Trinity
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The Christian doctrine of the Trinity holds that God is three consubstantial persons or hypostases—the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit—as one God in three Divine Persons. The three persons are distinct, yet are one substance, essence or nature, in this context, a nature is what one is, whereas a person is who one is. Reflection, proclamation, and dialogue led to the formulation of the doctrine that was felt to correspond to the data in the Bible. The simplest outline of the doctrine was formulated in the 4th century, further elaboration continued in the succeeding centuries. Scripture contains neither the word Trinity, nor an expressly formulated doctrine of the Trinity, rather, according to the Christian theology, it bears witness to the activity of a God who can only be understood in Trinitarian terms. The doctrine did not take its shape until late in the fourth century. During the intervening period, various solutions, some more. Trinitarianism contrasts with nontrinitarian positions which include Binitarianism, Unitarianism, Oneness Pentecostalism or Modalism, the word trinity is derived from Latin trinitas, meaning the number three, a triad. This abstract noun is formed from the adjective trinus, as the word unitas is the noun formed from unus. The corresponding word in Greek is tριάς, meaning a set of three or the number three, the first recorded use of this Greek word in Christian theology was by Theophilus of Antioch in about 170. He wrote, In like manner also the three days which were before the luminaries, are types of the Trinity, of God, and His Word, and His wisdom. And the fourth is the type of man, who needs light, that so there may be God, the Word, wisdom, man. The Ante-Nicene Fathers asserted Christs deity and spoke of Father, Son and Holy Spirit, Trinitarians view these as elements of the codified doctrine. Ignatius of Antioch provides early support for the Trinity around 110, exhorting obedience to Christ, and to the Father, and to the Spirit. Justin Martyr also writes, in the name of God, the Father and Lord of the universe, and of our Saviour Jesus Christ, the first of the early church fathers to be recorded using the word Trinity was Theophilus of Antioch writing in the late 2nd century. He defines the Trinity as God, His Word and His Wisdom in the context of a discussion of the first three days of creation, the first defence of the doctrine of the Trinity was in the early 3rd century by the early church father Tertullian. He explicitly defined the Trinity as Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, St. Justin and Clement of Alexandra used the Trinity in their doxologies and St. Basil likewise, in the evening lighting of lamps. The highly allegorical exegesis of the Valentinian school inclined it to interpret the relevant scriptural passages as affirming a Divinity that, the Valentinian Gospel of Phillip, which dates to approximately the time of Tertullian, upholds the Trinitarian formula
39.
Paul the Apostle
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Paul the Apostle, commonly known as Saint Paul, and also known by his native name Saul of Tarsus was an apostle who taught the gospel of the Christ to the first century world. He is generally considered one of the most important figures of the Apostolic Age, in the mid-30s to the mid-50s AD, he founded several churches in Asia Minor and Europe. Paul took advantage of his status as both a Jew and a Roman citizen to minister to both Jewish and Roman audiences, according to writings in the New Testament, Paul was dedicated to the persecution of the early disciples of Jesus in the area of Jerusalem. He was struck blind but, after three days, his sight was restored by Ananias of Damascus, and Paul began to preach that Jesus of Nazareth is the Jewish Messiah, approximately half of the book of Acts deals with Pauls life and works. Fourteen of the books in the New Testament have traditionally been attributed to Paul. Seven of the epistles are undisputed by scholars as being authentic, Pauline authorship of the Epistle to the Hebrews is not asserted in the Epistle itself and was already doubted in the 2nd and 3rd centuries. It was almost unquestioningly accepted from the 5th to the 16th centuries that Paul was the author of Hebrews, but that view is now almost universally rejected by scholars. The other six are believed by scholars to have come from followers writing in his name. Other scholars argue that the idea of an author for the disputed epistles raises many problems. Today, Pauls epistles continue to be roots of the theology, worship, and pastoral life in the Catholic and Protestant traditions of the West. Augustine of Hippo developed Pauls idea that salvation is based on faith, martin Luthers interpretation of Pauls writings influenced Luthers doctrine of sola fide. The main source for information about Pauls life is the material found in his epistles, however, the epistles contain little information about Pauls past. The book of Acts recounts more information but leaves several parts of Pauls life out of its narrative, such as his probable, some scholars believe Acts also contradicts Pauls epistles on multiple accounts, in particular concerning the frequency of Pauls visits to the church in Jerusalem. It has been assumed that Sauls name was changed when he converted from Judaism to Christianity. His Jewish name was Saul, perhaps after the biblical King Saul, a fellow Benjamite, according to the Book of Acts, he inherited Roman citizenship from his father. As a Roman citizen, he bore the Latin name of Paul—in biblical Greek, Παῦλος. It was quite usual for the Jews of that time to have two names, one Hebrew, the other Latin or Greek. Jesus called him Saul, Saul in the Hebrew tongue in the book of Acts, later, in a vision to Ananias of Damascus, the Lord referred to him as Saul, of Tarsus
40.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
41.
Royal Maundy
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Royal Maundy /ˈmɔːndi/ is a religious service in the Church of England held on Maundy Thursday, the day before Good Friday. At the service, the British monarch or a royal official ceremonially distributes small silver coins known as Maundy money as alms to elderly recipients. The coins are legal tender but do not circulate because of their silver content, a small sum of ordinary money is also given in lieu of gifts of clothing and food that the sovereign once bestowed on Maundy recipients. The name Maundy and the ceremony itself derive from an instruction, or mandatum, in the Middle Ages, English monarchs washed the feet of beggars in imitation of Jesus, and presented gifts and money to the poor. Over time, additional money was substituted for the clothing and other items that had once been distributed, beginning in 1699 the monarch did not attend the service, sending an official in his place. The custom of washing the feet did not survive the 18th century, in 1931 Princess Marie Louise was at Royal Maundy, and afterwards suggested that her cousin, King George V, make the distributions the following year, which he did, beginning a new royal custom. Traditionally, the service was held in or near London, in most years in the early 20th century at Westminster Abbey, today, Queen Elizabeth II almost always attends, and the service is held in a different church every year. Generally, recipients live in the diocese where the service is held, Maundy money is struck in denominations of one penny, two pence, three pence, and four pence. Until the 18th century the coins given were from the circulating coinage, the obverse design of the coins features the reigning monarch. The reverse, with a crowned numeral enclosed by a wreath, derives from a design first used during the reign of William and Mary, in most years there are fewer than 2,000 complete sets of Maundy money, they are highly sought after by collectors. The word Maundy derives from the command or mandatum by Christ at the Last Supper, the Gospels relate that on the eve of his Crucifixion, Jesus Christ ate a meal with his disciples. For I have given you an example, that ye should do as I have done unto you, mandatum is the derivation of the word Maundy, and the Royal Maundy service evolved from Jesus command to his disciples. By the fourth or fifth century a ceremony had been developed following Holy Communion on Maundy Thursday, the ceremony, known as the pedilavium, was performed daily in some monasteries, in 992, Bishop Oswald of Worcester died during its performance. Few details of the 13th century Maundy survive, they are known to have existed from records which show the necessary for the gifts to the poor. The monarch was not alone in performing the rituals of the Maundy service, Henry IIIs children assisted him as part of their political and religious training. Henrys son, Edward I, was the first monarch to keep the Maundy only on or about Maundy Thursday, before Edward, attendance at a Maundy service became an obligation for all major European ruling houses. By 1363 the British monarch performed the pedilavium and also gave gifts, the ceremony was not always performed on Maundy Thursday, it could be postponed a day to Good Friday by royal command, as it was in 1510. With as manny Penys in every purse to as many men as his Lordshipe is Yeres of Aige
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Elizabeth II
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Elizabeth II has been Queen of the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand since 6 February 1952. Elizabeth was born in London as the eldest child of the Duke and Duchess of York, later King George VI and Queen Elizabeth and her father acceded to the throne on the abdication of his brother Edward VIII in 1936, from which time she was the heir presumptive. She began to undertake duties during the Second World War. Elizabeths many historic visits and meetings include a visit to the Republic of Ireland. She has seen major changes, such as devolution in the United Kingdom, Canadian patriation. She has reigned through various wars and conflicts involving many of her realms and she is the worlds oldest reigning monarch as well as Britains longest-lived. In October 2016, she became the longest currently reigning monarch, in 2017 she became the first British monarch to commemorate a Sapphire Jubilee. Elizabeth has occasionally faced republican sentiments and press criticism of the family, however, support for the monarchy remains high. Elizabeth was born at 02,40 on 21 April 1926, during the reign of her paternal grandfather and her father, Prince Albert, Duke of York, was the second son of the King. Her mother, Elizabeth, Duchess of York, was the youngest daughter of Scottish aristocrat Claude Bowes-Lyon, 14th Earl of Strathmore and she was delivered by Caesarean section at her maternal grandfathers London house,17 Bruton Street, Mayfair. Elizabeths only sibling, Princess Margaret, was born in 1930, the two princesses were educated at home under the supervision of their mother and their governess, Marion Crawford, who was casually known as Crawfie. Lessons concentrated on history, language, literature and music, Crawford published a biography of Elizabeth and Margarets childhood years entitled The Little Princesses in 1950, much to the dismay of the royal family. The book describes Elizabeths love of horses and dogs, her orderliness, others echoed such observations, Winston Churchill described Elizabeth when she was two as a character. She has an air of authority and reflectiveness astonishing in an infant and her cousin Margaret Rhodes described her as a jolly little girl, but fundamentally sensible and well-behaved. During her grandfathers reign, Elizabeth was third in the line of succession to the throne, behind her uncle Edward, Prince of Wales, and her father, the Duke of York. Although her birth generated public interest, she was not expected to become queen, many people believed that he would marry and have children of his own. When her grandfather died in 1936 and her uncle succeeded as Edward VIII, she became second-in-line to the throne, later that year, Edward abdicated, after his proposed marriage to divorced socialite Wallis Simpson provoked a constitutional crisis. Consequently, Elizabeths father became king, and she became heir presumptive, if her parents had had a later son, she would have lost her position as first-in-line, as her brother would have been heir apparent and above her in the line of succession
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Hammerbeam roof
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A hammerbeam roof is a decorative, open timber roof truss typical of English Gothic architecture and has been called. the most spectacular endeavour of the English Medieval carpenter. They are traditionally timber framed, using short beams projecting from the wall on which the rafters land and these short beams are called hammer-beams and give this truss its name. A hammerbeam roof can have a single, double or false hammerbeam truss, a hammerbeam is a form of timber roof truss, allowing a hammerbeam roof to span greater than the length of any individual piece of timber. The hammerbeam truss exerts considerable thrust on the walls or posts that support it, Hammerbeam roofs can be highly decorated including ornamented pendants and corbels, with church roofs often including carved angels. A roof with one pair of beams is a single hammerbeam roof. Some roofs have a pair of hammer beams and are called double hammerbeam roofs. Possibly the earliest hammer-beamed building still standing in England, built in about 1290, is located in Winchester, in Winchester Cathedral in Pilgrims Hall, the roof of Westminster Hall is a fine example of a hammerbeam roof. The span of Westminster Hall is 20.8 metres, and the opening between the ends of the hammer beams 7.77 metres. The height from the paving of the hall to the hammerbeam is 12.19 m, other important examples of hammerbeam roofs exist over the halls of Hampton Court and Eltham palaces, and Burghley House near Stamford. There are also examples of smaller dimensions in churches throughout England. Sometimes, but rarely, the beam is similarly treated, or cut through and supported by additional curved braces, as in the hall of the Middle Temple. Recently, as part of a restoration project undertaken by Historic Scotland. Green oak from 350 Perthshire trees was used to fabricate and erect 57 hammerbeam trusses spanning approximately 15 metres, since its construction around 1502 by King James IV of Scotland, structural loads from the roof had caused the walls of the hall to deflect outwards. To ensure that the ridge of the roof would be level and straight, the restoration started in 1991 and was completed in 1999. A spectacular modern example of a roof is the new Gothic roof of St Georges Hall at Windsor Castle, designed by Giles Downe. This replaced the previous roof which was destroyed in the 1992 Windsor Castle fire. In fact, the roof at Bristol Temple Meads railway station uses modern cantilever construction and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Hammerbeam Roof. Lynn Towery Courtenay, English Royal Carpentry in the Late Middle Ages, The Hammer-beam Roof
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Earl of Shrewsbury
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Earl of Shrewsbury is a hereditary title of nobility created twice in the Peerage of England. The second earldom dates to 1442, the holder of the Earldom of Shrewsbury also holds the title of Earl of Waterford in the Peerage of Ireland. The earldoms are the oldest held by someone with no higher title, the first creation occurred in 1074 for Roger de Montgomerie, one of William the Conquerors principal counselors. Roger was succeeded in 1094 by his younger son Hugh, his elder son Robert of Bellême succeeding to his lands in Normandy, on Hugh’s death in 1098 the earldom passed to his brother Robert. The title was forfeit in 1102 after the 3rd Earl, Robert, rebelled against Henry I and these earls were sometimes styled Earl of Shropshire. The title was created for a time in 1442 when John Talbot, 7th Baron Talbot. He was also made hereditary Lord High Steward of Ireland and, in 1446, John Talbot, the first Earl, was succeeded by his son John, the second Earl, who had already succeeded as seventh Baron Furnivall on his mothers death in 1433. Lord Shrewsbury served as both Lord Chancellor of Ireland and Lord High Treasurer of England and he was killed at the Battle of Northampton in 1460 during the Wars of the Roses. His grandson, the fourth Earl, was Lord Steward of the Household between 1509 and 1538 and his son, the fifth Earl, was summoned to the House of Lords through a writ of acceleration as Lord Talbot in 1533, five years before he succeeded his father. On his death the titles passed to his son, the sixth Earl and he was summoned to the House of Lords through a writ of acceleration as Lord Talbot in 1553. Lord Shrewsbury was entrusted with the custody of Mary, Queen of Scots and he married as his second wife the famous Bess of Hardwick. Shrewsbury was succeeded by his son from his first marriage to Lady Gertrude Manners and he represented Derbyshire in the House of Commons and served as Lord Lieutenant of Derbyshire. He had no sons and on his death in 1616 the baronies of Talbot, Strange of Blackmere and he was succeeded in the earldoms by his younger brother, the eighth Earl. He was Member of Parliament for Northumberland and he did not have a male heir either and was succeeded by his distant relative, the ninth Earl. He was the great-great-grandson of Sir Gilbert Talbot, third son of the second Earl of Shrewsbury, the family bought Barlow Woodseats Hall in 1593 as part of the estate. He was succeeded by his nephew, George, the tenth Earl and he was the son of John Talbot of Grafton. On his death the titles passed to his son, the eleventh Earl and he was killed in a duel with George Villiers, 2nd Duke of Buckingham. His son, the twelfth Earl, was a prominent statesman, in 1694 he was created Marquess of Alton and Duke of Shrewsbury in the Peerage of England
