1.
President's Intelligence Advisory Board
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The Presidents Intelligence Advisory Board is an advisor to the Executive Office of the President of the United States. The PIAB, through its Intelligence Oversight Board, also advises the President on the legality of foreign intelligence activities, the agency, originally known as the Presidents Board of Consultants on Foreign Intelligence Activities, was created in January 1956 by the Dwight D. Eisenhower. Most recently, the agency was renamed yet again by president George W. Bush to its present form on February 29,2008, the board exists at the pleasure of the President, who can change its size and portfolio. President Jimmy Carter abolished the PFIAB in 1977 but President Ronald Reagan re-established it later, most of the boards work is secret, but one very public investigation involved the loss of U. S. nuclear secrets to China from the Los Alamos National Laboratory during the 1990s. President Gerald Ford created the IOB following a 1975–76 investigation by the US Congress into domestic spying, assassination operations and his executive order doing so went into effect on March 1,1976. In 1993, the IOB became a committee of the PFIAB, one of the IOBs functions is to examine violations of the laws and directives governing clandestine surveillance. The IOB received quarterly and annual reports from most US intelligence activities, thirteen cases involving FBI actions between 2002 and 2004 were referred to the IOB for its review. The membership had not been increased as of July 2014, PIAB membership is generally considered public information, for example, the Clinton Administration posted the names of the members on a PFIAB web page. Arcos, Jr. Jeremiah, a retired admiral Arnold Kanter, a security official in the George H. W. Bush administration. Bush administration and later a counselor to Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice In 2003 there were indications of spying on members of the board by an intelligence asset. The entire PIAB membership that served under the administration of George W. Bush resigned as part of a move in the presidential transition of Barack Obama. Obama appointed Chuck Hagel, former United States Senator from Nebraska, and current University of Oklahoma President David L. Boren as PIAB co-chairs
2.
Jami Miscik
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Judith A. Jami Miscik rose from the analytic ranks of the Central Intelligence Agency to become Deputy Director for Intelligence, the Agencys seniormost analytic post. In 2005 she left CIA to become Global Head of Sovereign Risk for the financial services firm Lehman Brothers. Miscik is currently President and Vice-Chairman of Kissinger Associates, Inc. in New York, on December 23,2009, Ms. Miscik was appointed to President Obamas Intelligence Advisory Board. From 1996 to 1997 she was Executive Assistant to George Tenet, in January 1998 Miscik became the Deputy Director of the Nonproliferation Center and in January 1999 Director of Transnational Issues. During the run-up to the Iraq War she was one of a number of CIA officials who pushed back against the efforts to link Saddam Hussein and Al-Qaeda. In January 2003 she threatened to resign in protest of the pressure exerted by Scooter Libby, in February 2005, she joined the exodus of senior CIA officials that followed the arrival of Porter Goss as Director of Central Intelligence. Miscik joined Lehman Brothers in June 2005, where she served as Global Head of Sovereign Risk and was the subject of a profile in Fortune magazine. Following the collapse of Lehman Brothers in September,2008, she remained briefly with Barclays, with the victory of Barack Obama in the November 2008 presidential election, Miscik returned to Washington for a short stint, working on the intelligence transition. In January,2009, she was named Vice-Chairman of Kissinger Associates, Miscik was born in Chicago and grew up in Redondo Beach, California. She serves on the boards of EMC Corporation, Morgan Stanley, Pivotal Labs, In-Q-Tel, the Council on Foreign Relations, and the American Ditchley Foundation
3.
Barack Obama
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Barack Hussein Obama II is an American politician who served as the 44th President of the United States from 2009 to 2017. He is the first African American to have served as president and he previously served in the U. S. Senate representing Illinois from 2005 to 2008, and in the Illinois State Senate from 1997 to 2004. Obama was born in Honolulu, Hawaii, two years after the territory was admitted to the Union as the 50th state and he grew up mostly in Hawaii, but also spent one year of his childhood in Washington State and four years in Indonesia. After graduating from Columbia University in 1983, he worked as a community organizer in Chicago, in 1988 Obama enrolled in Harvard Law School, where he was the first black president of the Harvard Law Review. After graduation, he became a civil rights attorney and professor, Obama represented the 13th District for three terms in the Illinois Senate from 1997 to 2004, when he ran for the U. S. Senate. In 2008, Obama was nominated for president, a year after his campaign began and he was elected over Republican John McCain, and was inaugurated on January 20,2009. Nine months later, Obama was named the 2009 Nobel Peace Prize laureate, during his first two years in office, Obama signed more landmark legislation than any Democratic president since LBJs Great Society. Main reforms were the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, the Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act, after a lengthy debate over the national debt limit, Obama signed the Budget Control and the American Taxpayer Relief Acts. In foreign policy, Obama increased U. S. troop levels in Afghanistan, reduced nuclear weapons with the U. S. -Russian New START treaty, and ended military involvement in the Iraq War. He ordered military involvement in Libya in opposition to Muammar Gaddafi, after winning re-election over Mitt Romney, Obama was sworn in for a second term in 2013. Obama also advocated gun control in response to the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting, and issued wide-ranging executive actions concerning climate change and immigration. In foreign policy, Obama ordered military intervention in Iraq in response to gains made by ISIL after the 2011 withdrawal from Iraq, Obama left office in January 2017 with a 60% approval rating. He currently resides in Washington, D. C and his presidential library will be built in Chicago. Obama was born on August 4,1961, at Kapiʻolani Maternity & Gynecological Hospital in Honolulu and he is the only President to have been born in Hawaii. He was born to a mother and a black father. His mother, Ann Dunham, was born in Wichita, Kansas, of mostly English descent, with some German, Irish, Scottish, Swiss and his father, Barack Obama Sr. was a married Luo Kenyan man from Nyangoma Kogelo. Obamas parents met in 1960 in a Russian language class at the University of Hawaii at Manoa, the couple married in Wailuku, Hawaii on February 2,1961, six months before Obama was born. In late August 1961, Obamas mother moved him to the University of Washington in Seattle for a year
4.
Donald Trump
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Donald John Trump is the 45th and current President of the United States. Prior to entering politics he was a businessman and television personality, Trump was born and raised in Queens, New York City, and earned an economics degree from the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania. He then took charge of The Trump Organization, the estate and construction firm founded by his paternal grandmother, which he ran for four. During his real career, Trump has built, renovated, and managed numerous office towers, hotels, casinos. Besides real estate, he started several ventures and has lent the use of his name for the branding of various products. He owned the Miss USA and Miss Universe pageants from 1996 to 2015, and he hosted The Apprentice, as of 2017, Forbes listed him as the 544th wealthiest person in the world with a net worth of $3.5 billion. Trump first publicly expressed interest in running for office in 1987. He won two Reform Party presidential primaries in 2000, but withdrew his candidacy early on, in June 2015, he launched his campaign for the 2016 presidential election and quickly emerged as the front-runner among 17 candidates in the Republican primaries. His final opponents suspended their campaigns in May 2016, and in July he was nominated at the Republican National Convention along with Indiana governor Mike Pence as his running mate. His campaign received unprecedented media coverage and international attention, many of the statements he made at rallies, in interviews, or on social media were controversial or false. Trump won the election on November 8,2016, in a surprise victory against Democratic opponent Hillary Clinton. His political positions have been described by scholars and commentators as populist, protectionist, Trump was born on June 14,1946 at the Jamaica Hospital Medical Center, Queens, New York City. He was the fourth of five born to Frederick Christ Fred Trump. His siblings are Maryanne, Fred Jr. Elizabeth, and Robert, Trumps ancestors originated from the village of Kallstadt, Palatinate, Germany on his fathers side, and from the Outer Hebrides isles of Scotland on his mothers side. All his grandparents, and his mother, were born in Europe and his mothers grandfather was also christened Donald. On a visit to his village, he met Elisabeth Christ. He died from the flu pandemic of 1918 and Elizabeth incorporated the family real estate business, Elizabeth Trump and Son, which would later become The Trump Organization. Trumps father Fred was born in the Bronx, and worked with his mother since he was 15 as a real estate developer, primarily in the New York boroughs of Queens and he eventually built and sold thousands of houses, barracks and apartments
5.
David L. Boren
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David Lyle Boren is an American university administrator and politician from the state of Oklahoma. A member of the Democratic Party, he served as the 21st governor of Oklahoma from 1975 to 1979 and he is currently the 13th president of the University of Oklahoma. He was the longest serving chairman of the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, Boren was born in Washington, D. C. the son of Christine and Lyle Hagler Boren. He graduated in 1963 from Yale University, where he majored in American history and he was a member of the Yale Conservative Party, elected president of the Yale Political Union and is a member of Skull and Bones. In 1966 Boren defeated fellow Democrat William C, wantland in a primary election and Clifford Conn, Jr. in the general election to win a seat in the Oklahoma House of Representatives, where he served four terms,1967 to 1975. In 1968, he received a law degree from the University of Oklahoma College of Law, during his House tenure Boren was also a professor at Oklahoma Baptist University. Boren served in the Oklahoma Army National Guard from 1963 to 1974 and he attained the rank of captain and served as commander of the 2120th Supply & Service Company in Wewoka. In 1974, Boren ran for governor, Boren and Clem McSpadden defeated incumbent David Hall in the primary election and moved into a runoff for the Democratic nomination. Boren beat McSpadden in the runoff and subsequently defeated Republican Jim Inhofe in the general election, coincidentally, Inhofe would go on to be his successor in the United States Senate in the 1994 special election after his resignation. Boren attracted national attention during the Energy Crisis when he advocated nationwide deregulation of natural gas prices, Boren opted not to run for reelection in 1978, instead running for the United States Senate seat held by the retiring Dewey Bartlett. He won a primary with 46 percent of the vote to second-place finisher Ed Edmondsons 28 percent. During the campaign, his opponent Anthony Points accused Boren of being gay, following his victory, Boren swore out on oath on a white bible, declaring I know what homosexuals and bisexuals are. I further swear that I am not a homosexual or bisexual, and I further swear that I have never been a homosexual or bisexual. Boren then defeated Edmondson in the runoff, and Republican Robert Kamm, former President of Oklahoma State University and he was a strong advocate of tax cuts across the board as the cornerstone of economic policy. He opposed the Windfall profit tax on the oil industry. At one point, the tax was generating no revenue, yet still required oil companies to comply with reporting requirements, of the tax, Boren said, As long as the tax is not being collected, the accounting requirements are needless. They result in heavy burdens for the sector and unnecessary cost to the taxpayer. Sen. Barry Goldwater, who served him, publicly stated that Boren should be elected president
6.
Chuck Hagel
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A recipient of two Purple Hearts while an infantry squad leader in the Vietnam War, Hagel returned home to start careers in business and politics. A member of the Republican Party, Hagel was first elected to the United States Senate in 1996 and he was reelected in 2002, but did not run in 2008. On January 7,2013, President Barack Obama nominated Hagel to serve as Secretary of Defense, on February 12,2013, the Senate Armed Services Committee approved Hagels nomination by a vote of 14–11. On February 14,2013, Senate Republicans denied Democrats the 60 votes needed to end the debate on Hagels nomination and proceed to a final vote, citing the need for further review. It was the first time in U. S. history that a nominee for Secretary of Defense was filibustered, on February 26,2013, the Senate voted for cloture on Hagels nomination and confirmed his nomination by a vote of 58–41. He took office on February 27,2013, as his predecessor Leon Panetta stepped down, before his appointment as Secretary of Defense, Hagel served on a number of boards of directors, including that of Chevron Corporation. Hagel was born in North Platte, Nebraska, a son of Charles Dean Hagel and his father was of German heritage, while his mother was of Irish and Polish ancestry. Growing up, Hagel lived across Nebraska, in Ainsworth, Rushville, Scottsbluff, Terrytown, York and Columbus, Hagel was the oldest of four brothers. His father, a veteran of World War II, died suddenly on Christmas morning,1962, at the age of 39, Hagel volunteered to be drafted into the United States Army during the Vietnam War, rejecting a draft board recommendation that he go to college instead. He served in the United States Army infantry in Vietnam from 1967 to 1968, as a Sergeant, he served as an infantry squad leader in the 9th Infantry Division. Hagel served in the infantry squad as his younger brother Tom. They also saved each others lives on separate occasions, Hagel received the Vietnamese Cross of Gallantry, two Purple Hearts, the Army Commendation Medal, and the Combat Infantryman Badge. After his discharge, he worked as a newscaster and talk show host in Omaha from 1969 to 1971 while finishing college on Veterans Administration assistance under the GI Bill. In 1971, Hagel was hired as a staffer for Congressman John Y, after Reagans inauguration as President, Hagel was named deputy administrator of the Veterans Administration. In 1982, however, he resigned his post over a disagreement with VA Administrator Robert P. Nimmo, Nimmo had referred to veterans groups as greedy, and to Agent Orange as not much worse than a little teenage acne. After leaving government employment, Hagel co-founded Vanguard Cellular, a phone service carrier that made him a multi-millionaire. He also served as Chairman of the Agent Orange Settlement Fund and is a member of the Council on Foreign Relations, on March 15,1995, Hagel resigned from the board of AIS as he intended to run for office. Michael McCarthy, the parent companys founder, was Hagels campaign treasurer, until at least 2003, he retained between $1 million and $5 million in stock in Election Systems & Softwares parent company, the McCarthy Group
7.
Washington, D.C.
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Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing
8.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
9.
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
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The Massachusetts Institute of Technology is a private research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts, often cited as one of the worlds most prestigious universities. Researchers worked on computers, radar, and inertial guidance during World War II, post-war defense research contributed to the rapid expansion of the faculty and campus under James Killian. The current 168-acre campus opened in 1916 and extends over 1 mile along the bank of the Charles River basin. The Institute is traditionally known for its research and education in the sciences and engineering, and more recently in biology, economics, linguistics. Air Force and 6 Fields Medalists have been affiliated with MIT, the school has a strong entrepreneurial culture, and the aggregated revenues of companies founded by MIT alumni would rank as the eleventh-largest economy in the world. In 1859, a proposal was submitted to the Massachusetts General Court to use newly filled lands in Back Bay, Boston for a Conservatory of Art and Science, but the proposal failed. A charter for the incorporation of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Rogers, a professor from the University of Virginia, wanted to establish an institution to address rapid scientific and technological advances. The Rogers Plan reflected the German research university model, emphasizing an independent faculty engaged in research, as well as instruction oriented around seminars, two days after the charter was issued, the first battle of the Civil War broke out. After a long delay through the war years, MITs first classes were held in the Mercantile Building in Boston in 1865, in 1863 under the same act, the Commonwealth of Massachusetts founded the Massachusetts Agricultural College, which developed as the University of Massachusetts Amherst. In 1866, the proceeds from sales went toward new buildings in the Back Bay. MIT was informally called Boston Tech, the institute adopted the European polytechnic university model and emphasized laboratory instruction from an early date. Despite chronic financial problems, the institute saw growth in the last two decades of the 19th century under President Francis Amasa Walker. Programs in electrical, chemical, marine, and sanitary engineering were introduced, new buildings were built, the curriculum drifted to a vocational emphasis, with less focus on theoretical science. The fledgling school still suffered from chronic financial shortages which diverted the attention of the MIT leadership, during these Boston Tech years, MIT faculty and alumni rebuffed Harvard University president Charles W. Eliots repeated attempts to merge MIT with Harvard Colleges Lawrence Scientific School. There would be at least six attempts to absorb MIT into Harvard, in its cramped Back Bay location, MIT could not afford to expand its overcrowded facilities, driving a desperate search for a new campus and funding. Eventually the MIT Corporation approved an agreement to merge with Harvard, over the vehement objections of MIT faculty, students. However, a 1917 decision by the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court effectively put an end to the merger scheme, the neoclassical New Technology campus was designed by William W. Bosworth and had been funded largely by anonymous donations from a mysterious Mr. Smith, starting in 1912. In January 1920, the donor was revealed to be the industrialist George Eastman of Rochester, New York, who had invented methods of production and processing
10.
Bachelor of Science
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A Bachelor of Science is an undergraduate academic degree awarded for completed courses that generally last three to five years. Whether a student of a subject is awarded a Bachelor of Science degree or a Bachelor of Arts degree can vary between universities. For one example, a degree may be given as a Bachelor of Arts by one university but as a B. Sc. by another. Some liberal arts colleges in the United States offer only the BA, even in the natural sciences, in both instances, there are historical and traditional reasons. Northwestern Universitys School of Communication grants B. Sc. degrees in all of its programs of study, including theater, dance, the first university to admit a student to the degree of Bachelor of Science was the University of London in 1860. Prior to this, science subjects were included in the B. A. bracket, notably in the cases of mathematics, physics, physiology, in Argentina and Chile, most university degrees are given as a license in a field or discipline. For instance, besides the courses, biochemistry and biology require 1–2 years hands-on training either in a clinical laboratory plus a final exam or in a research laboratory plus a thesis defense. The degrees are term licenses in the field of study or profession i. e. biology, nutrition, physical therapy or kinesiology, etc. However, a masters degree requires 2-3 more years of specific training, engineering and medical degrees are also different and are six-year programs of specific classes and training starting immediately after high school. No intermediate degrees count towards the admission examination or even exist, medical degrees are complemented with a 3–4 years of hospital residence plus 1–2 years of specialization training. In Australia, the B. Sc. is generally a three-four year degree, an honours year or a Master of Science is required to progress on to the Doctor of Philosophy. In New Zealand, in cases, the honours degree comprises an additional postgraduate qualification. In South Africa, the B. Sc. is taken three years, while the postgraduate B. Sc. Entails an additional year of study, admission to the honours degree is on the basis of a sufficiently high average in the B. Sc. major, an honours degree is required for M. Sc. Level study, and admission to a doctorate is via the M. Sc, commonly in British Commonwealth countries and Ireland graduands are admitted to the degree of Bachelor of Science after having completed a programme in one or more of the sciences. These programmes may take different lengths of time to complete, note that in British English, no full stops are used in the title, hence BSc, not B. Sc. A Bachelor of Science receives the designation BSc or BS for a major/pass degree, in England, Wales and Northern Ireland an honours degree is typically completed over a three-year period, though there are a few intensified two-year courses. Bachelors degrees were typically completed in two years for most of the twentieth century, in Scotland, where access to university is possible after one less year of secondary education, degree courses have a foundation year making the total course length four years
11.
Doctor of Philosophy
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A Doctor of Philosophy is a type of doctoral degree awarded by universities in many countries. Ph. D. s are awarded for a range of programs in the sciences, engineering. The Ph. D. is a degree in many fields. The completion of a Ph. D. is often a requirement for employment as a university professor, researcher, individuals with an earned doctorate can use the title of Doctor with their name and use the post-nominal letters Ph. D. The requirements to earn a Ph. D. degree vary considerably according to the country, institution, a person who attains a doctorate of philosophy is automatically awarded the academic title of doctor. A student attaining this level may be granted a Candidate of Philosophy degree at some institutions. A Ph. D. candidate must submit a project, thesis or dissertation often consisting of a body of academic research. In many countries, a candidate must defend this work before a panel of examiners appointed by the university. Universities award other types of doctorates besides the Ph. D. such as the Doctor of Musical Arts, a degree for music performers and the Doctor of Education, in 2016, ELIA launched The Florence Principles on the Doctorate in the Arts. The Florence Principles have been endorsed are supported also by AEC, CILECT, CUMULUS, the degree is abbreviated PhD, from the Latin Philosophiae Doctor, pronounced as three separate letters. In the universities of Medieval Europe, study was organized in four faculties, the faculty of arts. All of these faculties awarded intermediate degrees and final degrees, the doctorates in the higher faculties were quite different from the current Ph. D. degree in that they were awarded for advanced scholarship, not original research. No dissertation or original work was required, only lengthy residency requirements, besides these degrees, there was the licentiate. According to Keith Allan Noble, the first doctoral degree was awarded in medieval Paris around 1150, the doctorate of philosophy developed in Germany as the terminal Teachers credential in the 17th century. Typically, upon completion, the candidate undergoes an oral examination, always public, starting in 2016, in Ukraine Doctor of Philosophy is the highest education level and the first science degree. PhD is awarded in recognition of a contribution to scientific knowledge. A PhD degree is a prerequisite for heading a university department in Ukraine, upon completion of a PhD, a PhD holder can elect to continue his studies and get a post-doctoral degree called Doctor of Sciences, which is the second and the highest science degree in Ukraine. Scandinavian countries were among the early adopters of a known as a doctorate of philosophy
12.
Royal Academy of Engineering
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The Royal Academy of Engineering is the UK’s national academy of engineering. The Academy brings together the UKs leading engineers, from all engineering sectors, to advance. The Academy was founded in June 1976 as the Fellowship of Engineering with support from Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, the Fellowship was incorporated and granted a Royal Charter on 17 May 1983 and became the Royal Academy of Engineering on 16 March 1992. It is governed according to the Charter and associated Statutes and Regulations, the Fellowship currently includes over 1,500 engineers from all sectors and disciplines of engineering. The Fellows, distinguished by the title Fellow of The Royal Academy of Engineering, up to 60 engineers are elected each year by their peers. Honorary and International Fellows who have made contributions to engineering are also elected. The current President of the Academy is Professor Dame Ann Dowling OM, DBE, FREng, FRS, the Immediate Past President is Sir John Parker GBE FREng. The Royal Fellows of the Academy comprise Prince Philip, Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, as part of its programme to communicate the benefits and value of engineering to society, the Academy publishes a quarterly magazine, Ingenia. The Academy also makes Ingenia available to A-Level students in 3,000 schools in the UK, with the support of the Worshipful Company of Engineers, the Academy manages the annual Royal Academy of Engineering MacRobert Award, the premier prize for UK innovation in engineering. First presented in 1969, the honours the winning company with a gold medal. The Academy also manage the running of the Queen Elizabeth Prize. The QEPrize is an international, £1 million engineering prize that rewards, the objective of the prize is to raise the public profile of engineering and to inspire young people to become engineers. The Academys Sir George Macfarlane Medal is an award that recognises a UK engineer who has demonstrated excellence in the early stage of their career. The Fellowships first meeting, at Buckingham Palace on 11 June 1976, the Fellowship’s first President, Lord Hinton, had driven the UK’s supremacy in nuclear power. The Fellowship focused on championing excellence in all fields of engineering, activities began in earnest in the mid-1970s with the Distinction lecture series, now known as the Hinton lectures. The Fellowship was asked to advise the Department of Industry for the first time, in the 1980s, the Fellowship received its own Royal Charter along with its first government grant-in-aid. In 1990, the Academy launched its first major initiative in education, Engineering Education Continuum, the Academy’s increasing level of influence – in policy, research and education – was recognised when it was granted a royal title and became The Royal Academy of Engineering in 1992. The President of the Royal Academy of Engineering, the officer of the Academy
13.
Physicist
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A physicist is a scientist who has specialized knowledge in the field of physics, the exploration of the interactions of matter and energy across the physical universe. A physicist is a scientist who specializes or works in the field of physics, physicists generally are interested in the root or ultimate causes of phenomena, and usually frame their understanding in mathematical terms. Physicists can also apply their knowledge towards solving real-world problems or developing new technologies, some physicists specialize in sectors outside the science of physics itself, such as engineering. The study and practice of physics is based on a ladder of discoveries. Many mathematical and physical ideas used today found their earliest expression in ancient Greek culture and Asian culture, the bulk of physics education can be said to flow from the scientific revolution in Europe, starting with the work of Galileo and Kepler in the early 1600s. New knowledge in the early 21st century includes an increase in understanding physical cosmology. The term physicist was coined by William Whewell in his 1840 book The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences, many physicist positions require an undergraduate degree in applied physics or a related science or a Masters degree like MSc, MPhil, MPhys or MSci. In a research oriented level, students tend to specialize in a particular field, Physics students also need training in mathematics, and also in computer science and programming. For being employed as a physicist a doctoral background may be required for certain positions, undergraduate students like BSc Mechanical Engineering, BSc Electrical and Computer Engineering, BSc Applied Physics. etc. With physics orientation are chosen as research assistants with faculty members, the highest honor awarded to physicists is the Nobel Prize in Physics, awarded since 1901 by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. The three major employers of career physicists are academic institutions, laboratories, and private industries, with the largest employer being the last, physicists in academia or government labs tend to have titles such as Assistants, Professors, Sr. /Jr. As per the American Institute for Physics, some 20% of new physics Ph. D. s holds jobs in engineering development programs, while 14% turn to computer software, a majority of physicists employed apply their skills and training to interdisciplinary sectors. For industry or self-employment. and also in science and programming. Hence a majority of Physics bachelors degree holders are employed in the private sector, other fields are academia, government and military service, nonprofit entities, labs and teaching
14.
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
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Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, or RPI, is a private research university and space-grant institution located in Troy, New York, with two additional campuses in Hartford and Groton, Connecticut. Numerous American colleges or departments of applied sciences were modeled after Rensselaer, built on a hillside, RPIs 265-acre campus overlooks the city of Troy and the Hudson River and is a blend of traditional and modern architecture. The institute operates a business incubator and the 1, 250-acre Rensselaer Technology Park. Today, Rensselaer is organized into six main schools which contain 37 departments, with emphasis on science and it is well recognized for its degree programs in engineering, computing, business and management, information technology, the sciences, design, and liberal arts. Rensselaer is ranked 39th among all colleges and universities in the U. S. News & World Report rankings. Stephen van Rensselaer established the Rensselaer School on November 5,1824 with a letter to the Rev. Dr. Samuel Blatchford, within the letter he set down several orders of business. He appointed Amos Eaton as the schools first senior professor and appointed the first board of trustees, the school opened on Monday, January 3,1825 at the Old Bank Place, a building at the north end of Troy. Tuition was around $40 per semester, the fact that the school attracted students from as far as Ohio and Pennsylvania is attributed to the reputation of Eaton. Fourteen months of successful trial led to the incorporation of the school on March 21,1826 by the state of New York, in its early years, the Rensselaer School strongly resembled a graduate school more than it did a college, drawing graduates from many older institutions. Under Eaton, the Rensselaer School, renamed the Rensselaer Institute in 1832, was a small, the first civil engineering degrees in the United States were granted by the school in 1835, and many of the best remembered civil engineers of that time graduated from the school. Important visiting scholars included Joseph Henry, who had studied under Amos Eaton, and Thomas Davenport. In 1847 alumnus Benjamin Franklin Greene became the new senior professor, earlier he had done a thorough study of European technical schools to see how Rensselaer could be improved. In 1850 he reorganized the school into a polytechnic institute with six technical schools. In 1861 the name was changed to Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, a severe conflagration of May 10,1862, known as The Great Fire, destroyed more than 507 buildings in Troy and gutted 75 acres in the heart of the city. The Infant School building that housed the Institute at the time was destroyed in this fire, columbia University proposed that Rensselaer leave Troy altogether and merge with its New York City campus. Ultimately, the proposal was rejected and the left the crowded downtown for the hillside. Classes were temporarily held at the Vail House and in the Troy University building until 1864, one of the first Latino student organizations in the United States was founded at RPI in 1890. The Club Hispano Americano was established by the international Latin American students that attended the institute at this time, in 1904 the Institute was for the fourth time devastated by fire, when its main building was completely destroyed
15.
African Americans
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African Americans are an ethnic group of Americans with total or partial ancestry from any of the Black racial groups of Africa. The term may also be used to only those individuals who are descended from enslaved Africans. As a compound adjective the term is usually hyphenated as African-American, Black and African Americans constitute the third largest racial and ethnic group in the United States. Most African Americans are of West and Central African descent and are descendants of enslaved peoples within the boundaries of the present United States. On average, African Americans are of 73. 2–80. 9% West African, 18–24% European, according to US Census Bureau data, African immigrants generally do not self-identify as African American. The overwhelming majority of African immigrants identify instead with their own respective ethnicities, immigrants from some Caribbean, Central American and South American nations and their descendants may or may not also self-identify with the term. After the founding of the United States, black people continued to be enslaved, believed to be inferior to white people, they were treated as second-class citizens. The Naturalization Act of 1790 limited U. S. citizenship to whites only, in 2008, Barack Obama became the first African American to be elected President of the United States. The first African slaves arrived via Santo Domingo to the San Miguel de Gualdape colony, the ill-fated colony was almost immediately disrupted by a fight over leadership, during which the slaves revolted and fled the colony to seek refuge among local Native Americans. De Ayllón and many of the colonists died shortly afterwards of an epidemic, the settlers and the slaves who had not escaped returned to Haiti, whence they had come. The first recorded Africans in British North America were 20 and odd negroes who came to Jamestown, as English settlers died from harsh conditions, more and more Africans were brought to work as laborers. Typically, young men or women would sign a contract of indenture in exchange for transportation to the New World, the landowner received 50 acres of land from the state for each servant purchased from a ships captain. An indentured servant would work for years without wages. The status of indentured servants in early Virginia and Maryland was similar to slavery, servants could be bought, sold, or leased and they could be physically beaten for disobedience or running away. Africans could legally raise crops and cattle to purchase their freedom and they raised families, married other Africans and sometimes intermarried with Native Americans or English settlers. By the 1640s and 1650s, several African families owned farms around Jamestown and some became wealthy by colonial standards and purchased indentured servants of their own. In 1640, the Virginia General Court recorded the earliest documentation of slavery when they sentenced John Punch. One of Dutch African arrivals, Anthony Johnson, would own one of the first black slaves, John Casor
16.
National Medal of Science
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The twelve member presidential Committee on the National Medal of Science is responsible for selecting award recipients and is administered by the National Science Foundation. The National Medal of Science was established on August 25,1959, the medal was originally to honor scientists in the fields of the physical, biological, mathematical, or engineering sciences. The Committee on the National Medal of Science was established on August 23,1961, on January 7,1979, the American Association for the Advancement of Science passed a resolution proposing that the medal be expanded to include the social and behavioral sciences. In response, Senator Ted Kennedy introduced the Science and Technology Equal Opportunities Act into the Senate on March 7,1979, President Jimmy Carters signature enacted this change as Public Law 96-516 on December 12,1980. The first National Medal of Science was awarded on February 18,1963, the first woman to receive a National Medal of Science was Barbara McClintock, who was awarded for her work on plant genetics in 1970. Although Public Law 86-209 provides for 20 recipients of the medal per year, it is typical for approximately 8–15 accomplished scientists, there have been a number of years where no National Medals of Science were awarded. Those years include,1985,1984,1980,1978,1977,1972 and 1971, the awards ceremony is organized by the Office of Science and Technology Policy. It takes place at the White House and is presided by the sitting United States president, each year the National Science Foundation sends out a call to the scientific community for the nomination of new candidates for the National Medal of Science. Individuals are nominated by their peers with each nomination requiring three letters of support from individuals in science and technology, the nomination of a candidate is effective for three years, at the end of three years, the candidates peers are allowed to renominate the candidate. The Committee makes their recommendations to the President for the final awarding decision, the National Medal of Science depicts Man, surrounded by earth, sea, and sky, contemplating and struggling to understand Nature. The crystal in his hand represents the order and also suggests the basic unit of living things. The formula being outlined in the sand symbolizes scientific abstraction
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Roosevelt Senior High School
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Additionally, the high school is also home to Roosevelt S. T. A. Y. Program, an academic and career/technical program that leads to a high school diploma or vocational certificate. In the early portion of the 20th century, the school was known as Business High School, the high school, located at 13th and Upshur Streets NW was built in 1932 to accommodate 1,200 students. It is currently undergoing a $121 million, two-year facility modernization, the renovation was scheduled to be completed for the 2015–2016 academic year. During the renovation period, classes are being conducted at the MacFarland Middle School campus nearby at 4400 Iowa Avenue, the American Panorama, a 1934 New Deal–funded fresco by the Baltimore-born artist Nelson Rosenberg, was uncovered during renovation work in the cafeteria in fall 2013. The fresco is currently being restored and will be incorporated into the final renovation, kate Smith, American singer, attended Business High School—likely class of 1924. Retired Chief Medical Officer of Mercy Health, the largest integrated health system in the State of Ohio. Carol Thompson Cole,1969 – DC public servant Ralph A. Alpher, Ph. D. noted theoretical physicist and pioneer of big bang cosmology Ullysses Tucker, Jr
18.
Theoretical physics
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Theoretical physics is a branch of physics that employs mathematical models and abstractions of physical objects and systems to rationalize, explain and predict natural phenomena. This is in contrast to physics, which uses experimental tools to probe these phenomena. The advancement of science depends in general on the interplay between experimental studies and theory, in some cases, theoretical physics adheres to standards of mathematical rigor while giving little weight to experiments and observations. Conversely, Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize for explaining the photoelectric effect, a physical theory is a model of physical events. It is judged by the extent to which its predictions agree with empirical observations, the quality of a physical theory is also judged on its ability to make new predictions which can be verified by new observations. A physical theory similarly differs from a theory, in the sense that the word theory has a different meaning in mathematical terms. A physical theory involves one or more relationships between various measurable quantities, archimedes realized that a ship floats by displacing its mass of water, Pythagoras understood the relation between the length of a vibrating string and the musical tone it produces. Other examples include entropy as a measure of the uncertainty regarding the positions and motions of unseen particles, Theoretical physics consists of several different approaches. In this regard, theoretical particle physics forms a good example, for instance, phenomenologists might employ empirical formulas to agree with experimental results, often without deep physical understanding. Modelers often appear much like phenomenologists, but try to model speculative theories that have certain desirable features, some attempt to create approximate theories, called effective theories, because fully developed theories may be regarded as unsolvable or too complicated. Other theorists may try to unify, formalise, reinterpret or generalise extant theories, or create completely new ones altogether. Sometimes the vision provided by pure mathematical systems can provide clues to how a system might be modeled, e. g. the notion, due to Riemann and others. Theoretical problems that need computational investigation are often the concern of computational physics, Theoretical advances may consist in setting aside old, incorrect paradigms or may be an alternative model that provides answers that are more accurate or that can be more widely applied. In the latter case, a correspondence principle will be required to recover the previously known result, sometimes though, advances may proceed along different paths. However, an exception to all the above is the wave–particle duality, Physical theories become accepted if they are able to make correct predictions and no incorrect ones. They are also likely to be accepted if they connect a wide range of phenomena. Testing the consequences of a theory is part of the scientific method, Physical theories can be grouped into three categories, mainstream theories, proposed theories and fringe theories. Theoretical physics began at least 2,300 years ago, under the Pre-socratic philosophy, during the Middle Ages and Renaissance, the concept of experimental science, the counterpoint to theory, began with scholars such as Ibn al-Haytham and Francis Bacon
19.
Boston City Hospital
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The Boston City Hospital in Boston, Massachusetts, was a public hospital, located in Bostons South End. In 1996 it merged with the Boston University Medical Center Hospital to form the Boston Medical Center, in the mid-19th century the hospital was suggested. By Elisha Goodnow, who, by his will, dated July 12,1849, gave property to the city valued at $25,000, architect Gridley James Fox Bryant designed the first hospital, built 1861–1864 on Harrison Avenue in the South End. It was renovated in 1875, and again in 1891–1892, the Thorndike had 17 beds for clinical research and became one of the nation’s most distinguished research facilities. Seminal studies in hematology and related discliplies were conducted in this facility by Harvard Medical School faculty, in 1968, the Finland Laboratory for Infectious Diseases was established at Boston City Hospital in honor of Dr. Maxwell Finland, a leading clinical investigator in infectious diseases. As of 2008 the buildings at 818 Harrison Avenue are partially extant, Boston Medical Center Boston City Hospital
20.
Solid-state physics
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Solid-state physics is the study of rigid matter, or solids, through methods such as quantum mechanics, crystallography, electromagnetism, and metallurgy. It is the largest branch of condensed matter physics, solid-state physics studies how the large-scale properties of solid materials result from their atomic-scale properties. Thus, solid-state physics forms a basis of materials science. It also has applications, for example in the technology of transistors and semiconductors. Solid materials are formed from densely packed atoms, which interact intensely and these interactions produce the mechanical, thermal, electrical, magnetic and optical properties of solids. Depending on the involved and the conditions in which it was formed. The bulk of physics, as a general theory, is focused on crystals. Primarily, this is because the periodicity of atoms in a crystal — its defining characteristic — facilitates mathematical modeling, likewise, crystalline materials often have electrical, magnetic, optical, or mechanical properties that can be exploited for engineering purposes. The forces between the atoms in a crystal can take a variety of forms, for example, in a crystal of sodium chloride, the crystal is made up of ionic sodium and chlorine, and held together with ionic bonds. In others, the atoms share electrons and form covalent bonds, in metals, electrons are shared amongst the whole crystal in metallic bonding. Finally, the noble gases do not undergo any of these types of bonding, in solid form, the noble gases are held together with van der Waals forces resulting from the polarisation of the electronic charge cloud on each atom. The differences between the types of solid result from the differences between their bonding, the DSSP catered to industrial physicists, and solid-state physics became associated with the technological applications made possible by research on solids. By the early 1960s, the DSSP was the largest division of the American Physical Society, large communities of solid state physicists also emerged in Europe after World War II, in particular in England, Germany, and the Soviet Union. In the United States and Europe, solid state became a prominent field through its investigations into semiconductors, superconductivity, nuclear magnetic resonance, today, solid-state physics is broadly considered to be the subfield of condensed matter physics that focuses on the properties of solids with regular crystal lattices. Many properties of materials are affected by their crystal structure and this structure can be investigated using a range of crystallographic techniques, including X-ray crystallography, neutron diffraction and electron diffraction. The sizes of the crystals in a crystalline solid material vary depending on the material involved. Real crystals feature defects or irregularities in the arrangements. Properties of materials such as electrical conduction and heat capacity are investigated by solid state physics, an early model of electrical conduction was the Drude model, which applied kinetic theory to the electrons in a solid
21.
Particle physics
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Particle physics is the branch of physics that studies the nature of the particles that constitute matter and radiation. By our current understanding, these particles are excitations of the quantum fields that also govern their interactions. The currently dominant theory explaining these fundamental particles and fields, along with their dynamics, is called the Standard Model, in more technical terms, they are described by quantum state vectors in a Hilbert space, which is also treated in quantum field theory. All particles and their interactions observed to date can be described almost entirely by a field theory called the Standard Model. The Standard Model, as formulated, has 61 elementary particles. Those elementary particles can combine to form composite particles, accounting for the hundreds of species of particles that have been discovered since the 1960s. The Standard Model has been found to agree with almost all the tests conducted to date. However, most particle physicists believe that it is a description of nature. In recent years, measurements of mass have provided the first experimental deviations from the Standard Model. The idea that all matter is composed of elementary particles dates from at least the 6th century BC, in the 19th century, John Dalton, through his work on stoichiometry, concluded that each element of nature was composed of a single, unique type of particle. Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, a variety of particles were found in collisions of particles from increasingly high-energy beams. It was referred to informally as the particle zoo, the current state of the classification of all elementary particles is explained by the Standard Model. It describes the strong, weak, and electromagnetic fundamental interactions, the species of gauge bosons are the gluons, W−, W+ and Z bosons, and the photons. The Standard Model also contains 24 fundamental particles, which are the constituents of all matter, finally, the Standard Model also predicted the existence of a type of boson known as the Higgs boson. Early in the morning on 4 July 2012, physicists with the Large Hadron Collider at CERN announced they had found a new particle that behaves similarly to what is expected from the Higgs boson, the worlds major particle physics laboratories are, Brookhaven National Laboratory. Its main facility is the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider, which collides heavy ions such as gold ions and it is the worlds first heavy ion collider, and the worlds only polarized proton collider. Its main projects are now the electron-positron colliders VEPP-2000, operated since 2006 and its main project is now the Large Hadron Collider, which had its first beam circulation on 10 September 2008, and is now the worlds most energetic collider of protons. It also became the most energetic collider of heavy ions after it began colliding lead ions and its main facility is the Hadron Elektron Ring Anlage, which collides electrons and positrons with protons
22.
Nuclear physics
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Nuclear physics is the field of physics that studies atomic nuclei and their constituents and interactions. Other forms of matter are also studied. Nuclear physics should not be confused with atomic physics, which studies the atom as a whole, discoveries in nuclear physics have led to applications in many fields. Such applications are studied in the field of nuclear engineering, Particle physics evolved out of nuclear physics and the two fields are typically taught in close association. Nuclear astrophysics, the application of physics to astrophysics, is crucial in explaining the inner workings of stars. The discovery of the electron by J. J. Thomson a year later was an indication that the atom had internal structure, in the years that followed, radioactivity was extensively investigated, notably by Marie and Pierre Curie as well as by Ernest Rutherford and his collaborators. By the turn of the physicists had also discovered three types of radiation emanating from atoms, which they named alpha, beta, and gamma radiation. Experiments by Otto Hahn in 1911 and by James Chadwick in 1914 discovered that the beta decay spectrum was continuous rather than discrete. That is, electrons were ejected from the atom with a range of energies, rather than the discrete amounts of energy that were observed in gamma. This was a problem for physics at the time, because it seemed to indicate that energy was not conserved in these decays. The 1903 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded jointly to Becquerel for his discovery and to Marie, Rutherford was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1908 for his investigations into the disintegration of the elements and the chemistry of radioactive substances. In 1905 Albert Einstein formulated the idea of mass–energy equivalence, in 1906 Ernest Rutherford published Retardation of the α Particle from Radium in passing through matter. Hans Geiger expanded on this work in a communication to the Royal Society with experiments he and Rutherford had done, passing alpha particles through air, aluminum foil and gold leaf. More work was published in 1909 by Geiger and Ernest Marsden, in 1911–1912 Rutherford went before the Royal Society to explain the experiments and propound the new theory of the atomic nucleus as we now understand it. The plum pudding model had predicted that the particles should come out of the foil with their trajectories being at most slightly bent. But Rutherford instructed his team to look for something that shocked him to observe and he likened it to firing a bullet at tissue paper and having it bounce off. As an example, in this model consisted of a nucleus with 14 protons and 7 electrons. The Rutherford model worked well until studies of nuclear spin were carried out by Franco Rasetti at the California Institute of Technology in 1929
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Subatomic particle
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In the physical sciences, subatomic particles are particles much smaller than atoms. There are two types of particles, elementary particles, which according to current theories are not made of other particles. Particle physics and nuclear physics study these particles and how they interact, in particle physics, the concept of a particle is one of several concepts inherited from classical physics. But it also reflects the understanding that at the quantum scale matter. The idea of a particle underwent serious rethinking when experiments showed that light could behave like a stream of particles as well as exhibit wave-like properties and this led to the new concept of wave–particle duality to reflect that quantum-scale particles behave like both particles and waves. Another new concept, the uncertainty principle, states that some of their properties taken together, such as their simultaneous position and momentum, in more recent times, wave–particle duality has been shown to apply not only to photons but to increasingly massive particles as well. Interactions of particles in the framework of field theory are understood as creation and annihilation of quanta of corresponding fundamental interactions. This blends particle physics with field theory, any subatomic particle, like any particle in the 3-dimensional space that obeys laws of quantum mechanics, can be either a boson or a fermion. Various extensions of the Standard Model predict the existence of a graviton particle. Composite subatomic particles are bound states of two or more elementary particles, for example, a proton is made of two up quarks and one down quark, while the atomic nucleus of helium-4 is composed of two protons and two neutrons. The neutron is made of two quarks and one up quark. Composite particles include all hadrons, these include baryons and mesons, in special relativity, the energy of a particle at rest equals its mass times the speed of light squared, E = mc2. That is, mass can be expressed in terms of energy, if a particle has a frame of reference where it lies at rest, then it has a positive rest mass and is referred to as massive. Baryons tend to have greater mass than mesons, which in turn tend to be heavier than leptons and it is also certain that any particle with an electric charge is massive. These include the photon and gluon, although the latter cannot be isolated, through the work of Albert Einstein, Satyendra Nath Bose, Louis de Broglie, and many others, current scientific theory holds that all particles also have a wave nature. This has been verified not only for elementary particles but also for compound particles like atoms, interactions between particles have been scrutinized for many centuries, and a few simple laws underpin how particles behave in collisions and interactions. These are the basics of Newtonian mechanics, a series of statements and equations in Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica. The negatively charged electron has an equal to 1⁄1837 or 1836 of that of a hydrogen atom
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Fermilab
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Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory, located just outside Batavia, Illinois, near Chicago, is a United States Department of Energy national laboratory specializing in high-energy particle physics. Since 2007, Fermilab has been operated by the Fermi Research Alliance, a joint venture of the University of Chicago, Fermilab is a part of the Illinois Technology and Research Corridor. Fermilabs Tevatron was a particle accelerator, at 3.9 miles in circumference, it was the worlds fourth-largest particle accelerator. In 1995, the discovery of the top quark was announced by researchers who used the Tevatrons CDF, in addition to high-energy collider physics, Fermilab hosts fixed-target and neutrino experiments, such as MicroBooNE, NOνA and SeaQuest. Completed neutrino experiments include MINOS, MINOS+, MiniBooNE and SciBooNE, the MiniBooNE detector was a 40-foot diameter sphere containing 800 tons of mineral oil lined with 1,520 phototube detectors. An estimated 1 million neutrino events were recorded each year, SciBooNE sat in the same neutrino beam as MiniBooNE but had fine-grained tracking capabilities. In the public realm, Fermilab hosts many events, not only public science lectures and symposia. The site is open dawn to dusk to visitors who present valid photo identification. Asteroid 11998 Fermilab is named in honor of the laboratory, weston, Illinois, was a community next to Batavia voted out of existence by its village board in 1966 to provide a site for Fermilab. The laboratory was founded in 1967 as the National Accelerator Laboratory, the laboratorys first director was Robert Rathbun Wilson, under whom the laboratory opened ahead of time and under budget. Many of the sculptures on the site are of his creation and he is the namesake of the sites high-rise laboratory building, whose unique shape has become the symbol for Fermilab and which is the center of activity on the campus. After Wilson stepped down in 1978 to protest the lack of funding for the lab and it was under his guidance that the original accelerator was replaced with the Tevatron, an accelerator capable of colliding protons and antiprotons at a combined energy of 1.96 TeV. Lederman stepped down in 1989 and remains Director Emeritus, the science education center at the site was named in his honor. The later directors include, John Peoples,1989 to 1999 Michael S, as of 2014, the first stage in the acceleration process takes place in two ion sources which turn hydrogen gas into H− ions. A magnetron generates a plasma to form the ions near the metal surface, at the exit of RFQ, the beam is matched by medium energy beam transport into the entrance of the linear accelerator. The next stage of acceleration is linear particle accelerator and this stage consists of two segments. The first segment has 5 vacuum vessel for drift tubes, operating at 201 MHz, the second stage has 7 side-coupled cavities, operating at 805 MHz. At the end of linac, the particles are accelerated to 400 MeV, immediately before entering the next accelerator, the H− ions pass through a carbon foil, becoming H+ ions
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Batavia, Illinois
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Batavia is a city in DuPage and Kane counties in the U. S. state of Illinois. A suburb of Chicago, it was founded in 1833 and is the oldest city in Kane County, during the latter part of the 19th century, Batavia, home to six American-style windmill manufacturing companies, became known as The Windmill City. Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory, a federal government-sponsored high-energy physics laboratory, Batavia is part of a vernacular region known as the Tri-City area, along with St. Charles and Geneva, all western suburbs of similar size and relative socioeconomic condition. As of the 2010 census, the city had a population of 26,045. Batavia was first settled in 1833 by Christopher Payne and his family, originally called Big Woods for the wild growth throughout the settlement, the town was renamed by local judge and former Congressman Isaac Wilson in 1840 after his former home of Batavia, New York. Because Judge Wilson owned the majority of the town, he was given permission to rename the city, batavias settlement was delayed one year by the Black Hawk War, in which Abraham Lincoln was a citizen soldier, and Zachary Taylor and Jefferson Davis were Army officers. The city was incorporated on July 27,1872, after the death of her husband, Mary Todd Lincoln was an involuntary resident of the Batavia Institute on May 20,1875. Mrs. Lincoln was released four months later on September 11,1875, in the late 19th century, Batavia was a major manufacturer of the Conestoga wagons used in the countrys westward expansion. Into the early 20th century, most of the windmill operated waterpumps in use throughout Americas farms were made at one of the three manufacturing companies in Batavia. Many of the limestone buildings that were part of these factories are still in use today as government and commercial offices. The Aurora Elgin and Chicago Railway constructed a plant in southern Batavia. The Campana Factory was built in 1936 to manufacture cosmetics for The Campana Company, most notably Italian Balm, Batavia is located at 41°50′56″N 88°18′30″W. According to the 2010 census, Batavia has an area of 9.707 square miles. Batavia Avenue Main Street Randall Road Washington Street/River Street Wilson Street As of the 2000 U. S. census, there were 23,866 people,8,494 households, the population density was 2,638.4 people per square mile. There were 8,806 housing units at a density of 973.5 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 93. 21% White,2. 42% Black or African American,0. 11% Native American,1. 35% Asian, none Pacific Islander,1. 53% from other races, and 1. 39% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 5. 27% of the population,22. 5% of all households were made up of individuals and 9. 7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.75 and the family size was 3.27
26.
Hadron
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In particle physics, a hadron /ˈhædrɒn/ is a composite particle made of quarks held together by the strong force in a similar way as molecules are held together by the electromagnetic force. Hadrons are categorized into two families, baryons, made of three quarks, and mesons, made of one quark and one antiquark, protons and neutrons are examples of baryons, pions are an example of a meson. Hadrons containing more than three valence quarks have been discovered in recent years, a tetraquark state, named the Z−, was discovered in 2007 by the Belle Collaboration and confirmed as a resonance in 2014 by the LHCb collaboration. Two pentaquark states, named P+ c and P+ c, were discovered in 2015 by the LHCb collaboration, there are several more exotic hadron candidates, and other colour-singlet quark combinations may also exist. Of the hadrons, protons are stable, and neutrons bound within atomic nuclei are stable, other hadrons are unstable under ordinary conditions, free neutrons decay with a half-life of about 611 seconds. Experimentally, hadron physics is studied by colliding protons or nuclei of elements such as lead. The term hadron was introduced by Lev B, okun in a plenary talk at the 1962 International Conference on High Energy Physics. In this talk he said, Notwithstanding the fact that this report deals with weak interactions and these particles pose not only numerous scientific problems, but also a terminological problem. The point is that strongly interacting particles is a very clumsy term which does not yield itself to the formation of an adjective, for this reason, to take but one instance, decays into strongly interacting particles are called non-leptonic. This definition is not exact because non-leptonic may also signify photonic, in this report I shall call strongly interacting particles hadrons, and the corresponding decays hadronic. I hope that this terminology will prove to be convenient, okun,1962 According to the quark model, the properties of hadrons are primarily determined by their so-called valence quarks. For example, a proton is composed of two up quarks and one down quark, adding these together yields the proton charge of +1. Although quarks also carry color charge, hadrons must have total color charge because of a phenomenon called color confinement. That is, hadrons must be colorless or white and these are the simplest of the two ways, three quarks of different colors, or a quark of one color and an antiquark carrying the corresponding anticolor. Hadrons with the first arrangement are called baryons, and those with the arrangement are mesons. Hadrons, however, are not composed of just three or two quarks, because of the strength of the strong force, more accurately, strong force gluons have enough energy to have resonances composed of massive quarks. Thus, virtual quarks and antiquarks, in a 1,1 ratio, the two or three quarks that compose a hadron are the excess of quarks vs. antiquarks, and so too in the case of anti-hadrons. Massless virtual gluons compose the majority of particles inside hadrons
27.
CERN
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The European Organization for Nuclear Research, known as CERN, is a European research organization that operates the largest particle physics laboratory in the world. Established in 1954, the organization is based in a northwest suburb of Geneva on the Franco–Swiss border, Israel is the only non-European country granted full membership. The main site at Meyrin hosts a large computing facility, which is used to store and analyse data from experiments. Researchers need remote access to facilities, so the lab has historically been a major wide area network hub. CERN is also the birthplace of the World Wide Web, the convention establishing CERN was ratified on 29 September 1954 by 12 countries in Western Europe. The acronym was retained for the new laboratory after the council was dissolved. CERNs first president was Sir Benjamin Lockspeiser, edoardo Amaldi was the general secretary of CERN at its early stages when operations were still provisional, while the first Director-General was Felix Bloch. The laboratory was originally devoted to the study of atomic nuclei, therefore, the laboratory operated by CERN is commonly referred to as the European laboratory for particle physics, which better describes the research being performed there. Several important achievements in physics have been made through experiments at CERN. The 1984 Nobel Prize for Physics was awarded to Carlo Rubbia, the 1992 Nobel Prize for Physics was awarded to CERN staff researcher Georges Charpak for his invention and development of particle detectors, in particular the multiwire proportional chamber. The World Wide Web began as a CERN project named ENQUIRE, initiated by Tim Berners-Lee in 1989, Berners-Lee and Cailliau were jointly honoured by the Association for Computing Machinery in 1995 for their contributions to the development of the World Wide Web. Based on the concept of hypertext, the project was intended to facilitate the sharing of information between researchers, the first website was activated in 1991. On 30 April 1993, CERN announced that the World Wide Web would be free to anyone, a copy of the original first webpage, created by Berners-Lee, is still published on the World Wide Web Consortiums website as a historical document. Prior to the Webs development, CERN had pioneered the introduction of Internet technology, a short history of this period can be found at CERN. ch. More recently, CERN has become a facility for the development of computing, hosting projects including the Enabling Grids for E-sciencE. It also hosts the CERN Internet Exchange Point, one of the two main internet exchange points in Switzerland. 48×10−5, a measurement with 6. 0-sigma significance. However, on 23 February, CERN stated in a release that the results were flawed due to an incorrectly connected GPS-synchronization cable. In March 2012, the ICARUS Collaboration reported that the measurement would be reproduced by both OPERA and ICARUS, further tests, after fixing the GPS connector, showed speed measurements consistent with the speed of light from four experiments at Gran Sasso, including OPERA
28.
SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory
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The main accelerator is 3.2 kilometers long—the longest linear accelerator in the world—and has been operational since 1966. In 1984 the laboratory was named an ASME National Historic Engineering Landmark, SLAC developed and, in December 1991, began hosting the first World Wide Web server outside of Europe. In the early-to-mid 1990s, the Stanford Linear Collider investigated the properties of the Z boson using the Stanford Large Detector, in October 2008, the Department of Energy announced that the Centers name would be changed to SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory. The reasons given include a representation of the new direction of the lab. Stanford University had legally opposed the Department of Energys attempt to trademark Stanford Linear Accelerator Center, in March 2009 it was announced that the SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory was to receive $68.3 Million in Recovery Act Funding to be disbursed by Department of Energys Office of Science. The main accelerator is an RF linear accelerator that can accelerate electrons and positrons up to 50 GeV, at 3.2 km long, the accelerator is the longest linear accelerator in the world, and is claimed to be the worlds most straight object. The main accelerator is buried 9 m below ground and passes underneath Interstate Highway 280, the above-ground klystron gallery atop the beamline is the longest building in the United States. The Stanford Linear Collider was a linear accelerator that collided electrons and positrons at SLAC, the center of mass energy was about 90 GeV, equal to the mass of the Z boson, which the accelerator was designed to study. Grad student Barrett D. Milliken discovered the first Z event on 12 April 1989 while poring over the previous days computer data from the Mark II detector, the bulk of the data was collected by the SLAC Large Detector, which came online in 1991. Presently no beam enters the south and north arcs in the machine, the SLAC Large Detector was the main detector for the Stanford Linear Collider. It was designed primarily to detect Z bosons produced by the accelerators electron-positron collisions, the SLD operated from 1992 to 1998. PEP began operation in 1980, with energies up to 29 GeV. At its apex, PEP had five large particle detectors in operation, about 300 researchers made used of PEP. PEP stopped operating in 1990, and PEP-II began construction in 1994, PEP-II was host to the BaBar experiment, one of the so-called B-Factory experiments studying charge-parity symmetry. The Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Lightsource is a synchrotron light user facility located on the SLAC campus, originally built for particle physics, it was used in experiments where the J/ψ meson was discovered. In the early 1990s, an independent electron injector was built for this ring, allowing it to operate independently of the main linear accelerator. SLAC plays a role in the mission and operation of the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope. The principal scientific objectives of this mission are, To understand the mechanisms of particle acceleration in AGNs, pulsars, to resolve the gamma-ray sky, unidentified sources and diffuse emission
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Aspen Center for Physics
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The Aspen Center for Physics is a non-profit Center for research in Physics based in Aspen, Colorado, United States. The Center organizes workshops and conferences to facilitate interactions among research physicists, participants include post–doctoral fellows, professors, researchers and experimentalists. More than fifty of the Nobel Prize recipients in physics have participated in Aspen, housing expenses are partially underwritten by the National Science Foundation. The Winter Conferences in January, February and March consist of specific, each week, fifty to a hundred participants meet daily for talks at the Center, share a block of hotel rooms and eat meals together, totally immersing in the subject of study. The Center offers free public lectures during both summer and winter sessions, bringing cutting–edge research to the interested non–scientist, the Physics Cafe held before the winter lectures offers students and adults an opportunity to talk informally with physicists
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Gauge theory
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In physics, a gauge theory is a type of field theory in which the Lagrangian is invariant under a continuous group of local transformations. An invariant is a model that holds no matter the mathematical procedure applied to it. This is the concept behind gauge invariance, the idea of fields as described by Michael Faraday in his study of electromagnetism led to the postulate that fields could be described mathematically as scalars and vectors. When a field is transformed, but the result is not, applying gauge theory creates a unification which describes mathematical formulas or models that hold good for all fields of the same class. The term gauge refers to any specific mathematical formalism to regulate redundant degrees of freedom in the Lagrangian, the transformations between possible gauges, called gauge transformations, form a Lie group—referred to as the symmetry group or the gauge group of the theory. Associated with any Lie group is the Lie algebra of group generators, for each group generator there necessarily arises a corresponding field called the gauge field. Gauge fields are included in the Lagrangian to ensure its invariance under the local group transformations, when such a theory is quantized, the quanta of the gauge fields are called gauge bosons. If the symmetry group is non-commutative, the theory is referred to as non-abelian. Many powerful theories in physics are described by Lagrangians that are invariant under some symmetry transformation groups, when they are invariant under a transformation identically performed at every point in the spacetime in which the physical processes occur, they are said to have a global symmetry. Local symmetry, the cornerstone of gauge theories, is a stricter constraint, in fact, a global symmetry is just a local symmetry whose groups parameters are fixed in spacetime. Gauge theories are important as the field theories explaining the dynamics of elementary particles. Quantum electrodynamics is a gauge theory with the symmetry group U and has one gauge field. The Standard Model is a gauge theory with the symmetry group U×SU×SU and has a total of twelve gauge bosons. Gauge theories are important in explaining gravitation in the theory of general relativity. Its case is unusual in that the gauge field is a tensor. Theories of quantum gravity, beginning with gauge gravitation theory, also postulate the existence of a gauge boson known as the graviton, both gauge invariance and diffeomorphism invariance reflect a redundancy in the description of the system. An alternative theory of gravitation, gauge theory gravity, replaces the principle of covariance with a true gauge principle with new gauge fields. Historically, these ideas were first stated in the context of classical electromagnetism, however, the modern importance of gauge symmetries appeared first in the relativistic quantum mechanics of electrons – quantum electrodynamics, elaborated on below
31.
Neutrino
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A neutrino is a fermion that interacts only via the weak subatomic force and gravity. The mass of the neutrino is much smaller than that of the known elementary particles. The neutrino is so named because it is neutral and because its rest mass is so small that it was originally thought to be zero. The weak force has a short range, gravity is extremely weak on the subatomic scale. Thus, neutrinos pass through normal matter unimpeded and undetected. Weak interactions create neutrinos in one of three flavors, electron neutrinos, muon neutrinos, or tau neutrinos, in association with the corresponding charged lepton. Although neutrinos were long believed to be massless, it is now known there are three discrete neutrino masses with different tiny values, but they dont correspond uniquely to the three flavors. A neutrino created with a specific flavor is in a specific quantum superposition of all three mass states. Neutrinos oscillate between different flavors in flight, for example, an electron neutrino produced in a beta decay reaction may interact in a distant detector as a muon or tau neutrino. For each neutrino, there exists a corresponding antiparticle, called an antineutrino. They are distinguished from the neutrinos by having opposite signs of lepton number, the majority of neutrinos in the vicinity of the Earth are from nuclear reactions in the Sun. About 65 billion solar neutrinos per second pass through every square centimeter perpendicular to the direction of the Sun in the region of the Earth, neutrinos are also finding practical applications, such as tomography of the interior of the earth. The neutrino was postulated first by Wolfgang Pauli in 1930 to explain how beta decay could conserve energy, momentum and he considered that the new particle was emitted from the nucleus together with the electron or beta particle in the process of beta decay. James Chadwick discovered a more massive nuclear particle in 1932 and also named it a neutron. However, the journal Nature rejected Fermis paper, saying that the theory was too remote from reality. He submitted the paper to an Italian journal, which accepted it, however, by 1934 there was experimental evidence against Bohrs idea that energy conservation is invalid for beta decay. Such a limit is not expected if the conservation of energy is invalid, Pauli made use of the occasion to publicly emphasize that the still-undetected neutrino must be an actual particle. In 1942, Wang Ganchang first proposed the use of beta capture to experimentally detect neutrinos, in the 20 July 1956 issue of Science, Clyde Cowan, Frederick Reines, F. B
32.
Polaron
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A polaron is a quasiparticle used in condensed matter physics to understand the interactions between electrons and atoms in a solid material. This lowers the electron mobility and increases the effective mass. Major theoretical work has focused on solving Fröhlich and Holstein Hamiltonians and this is still an active field of research to find exact numerical solutions to the case of one or two electrons in a large crystal lattice, and to study the case of many interacting electrons. Experimentally, polarons are important to the understanding of a variety of materials. The electron mobility in semiconductors can be decreased by the formation of polarons. Organic semiconductors are also sensitive to polaronic effects, which is relevant in the design of organic solar cells that effectively transport charge. The electron phonon interaction that forms Cooper pairs in low-Tc superconductors can also be modeled as a polaron and this has been suggested as a mechanism for Cooper pair formation in high-Tc superconductors. Polarons are also important for interpreting the optical conductivity of these types of materials, the polaron, a fermionic quasiparticle, should not be confused with the polariton, a bosonic quasiparticle analogous to a hybridized state between a photon and an optical phonon. The energy spectrum of an electron moving in a potential of rigid crystal lattice consists of allowed. An electron with energy inside an allowed band moves as a free electron but has a mass that differs from the electron mass in vacuum. However, a lattice is deformable and displacements of atoms from their equilibrium positions are described in terms of phonons. Electrons interact with these displacements, and this interaction is known as electron-phonon coupling, one of possible scenarios was proposed in the seminal 1933 paper by Lev Landau, which includes the production of a lattice defect such as an F-center and a trapping of the electron by this defect. A different scenario was proposed by Solomon Pekar that envisions dressing the electron with lattice deformation, such an electron with the accompanying deformation moves freely across the crystal, but with increased effective mass. Pekar coined for this charge carrier the term polaron, Pekar formed the basis of polaron theory. A charge placed in a medium will be screened. Dielectric theory describes the phenomenon by the induction of a polarization around the charge carrier, the induced polarization will follow the charge carrier when it is moving through the medium. The carrier together with the polarization is considered as one entity. A conduction electron in a crystal or a polar semiconductor is the prototype of a polaron
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Quantum dot
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Quantum dots are very small semiconductor particles, only several nanometres in size, so small that their optical and electronic properties differ from those of larger particles. They are a theme in nanotechnology. In the language of science, nanoscale semiconductor materials tightly confine either electrons or electron holes. Quantum dots exhibit properties that are intermediate between those of bulk semiconductors and those of discrete molecules and their optoelectronic properties change as a function of both size and shape. Larger QDs emit longer wavelengths resulting in colors such as orange or red. Smaller QDs emit shorter wavelengths resulting in colors blue and green, although the specific colors. Because of their highly tunable properties, QDs are of wide interest, potential applications include transistors, solar cells, LEDs, diode lasers and second-harmonic generation, quantum computing, and medical imaging. Additionally, their size allows for QDs to be suspended in solution which leads to possible uses in inkjet printing and spin-coating. These processing techniques result in less-expensive and less time consuming methods of semiconductor fabrication, There are several ways to prepare quantum dots, the principal ones involving colloids. Colloidal semiconductor nanocrystals are synthesized from solutions, much like traditional chemical processes, the main difference is the product neither precipitates as a bulk solid nor remains dissolved. Heating the solution at high temperature, the precursors decompose forming monomers which then nucleate and generate nanocrystals, temperature is a critical factor in determining optimal conditions for the nanocrystal growth. It must be enough to allow for rearrangement and annealing of atoms during the synthesis process while being low enough to promote crystal growth. The concentration of monomers is another factor that has to be stringently controlled during nanocrystal growth. The growth process of nanocrystals can occur in two different regimes, focusing and defocusing, at high monomer concentrations, the critical size is relatively small, resulting in growth of nearly all particles. In this regime, smaller particles grow faster than large ones resulting in focusing of the distribution to yield nearly monodisperse particles. The size focusing is optimal when the concentration is kept such that the average nanocrystal size present is always slightly larger than the critical size. Over time, the monomer concentration diminishes, the critical size becomes larger than the average size present, There are colloidal methods to produce many different semiconductors. Typical dots are made of binary compounds such as sulfide, lead selenide, cadmium selenide, cadmium sulfide, indium arsenide
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Mesoscopic
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Disambiguation, This page refers to the sub-discipline of condensed matter physics, not the branch of meteorology concerned with the study of weather systems smaller than synoptic scale systems. Mesoscopic physics is a subdiscipline of condensed matter physics deals with materials of an intermediate length. The scale of these materials can be described as being between the size of a quantity of atoms and of materials measuring micrometres, the lower limit can also be defined as being the size of individual atoms. At the micrometre level are bulk materials, both mesoscopic and macroscopic objects contain a large number of atoms. In other words, a device, when scaled down to a meso-size. For example, at the level the conductance of a wire increases continuously with its diameter. However, at the level, the wires conductance is quantized. The applied science of physics deals with the potential of building nanodevices. Mesoscopic physics also addresses fundamental practical problems which occur when an object is miniaturized. The physical properties of materials change as their approaches the nanoscale. For bulk materials larger than one micrometre, the percentage of atoms at the surface is insignificant in relation to the number of atoms in the entire material. The subdiscipline has dealt primarily with artificial structures of metal or semiconducting material which have been fabricated by the techniques employed for producing microelectronic circuits. There is no definition for mesoscopic physics but the systems studied are normally in the range of 100 nm to 1000 nm,100 nanometers is the approximate upper limit for a nanoparticle. Thus, mesoscopic physics has a connection to the fields of nanofabrication. Devices used in nanotechnology are examples of mesoscopic systems, three categories of new phenomena in such systems are interference effects, quantum confinement effects and charging effects. Quantum confinement effects describe electrons in terms of levels, potential well, valence bands, conduction band. Electrons in bulk material can be described by energy bands or electron energy levels. Electrons exist at different energy levels or bands, in bulk materials these energy levels are described as continuous because the difference in energy is negligible
35.
Antiferromagnetic
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This is, like ferromagnetism and ferrimagnetism, a manifestation of ordered magnetism. Generally, antiferromagnetic order may exist at low temperatures, vanishing at and above a certain temperature. Above the Néel temperature, the material is typically paramagnetic, when no external field is applied, the antiferromagnetic structure corresponds to a vanishing total magnetization. Although the net magnetization should be zero at a temperature of absolute zero, the magnetic susceptibility of an antiferromagnetic material typically shows a maximum at the Néel temperature. In contrast, at the transition between the ferromagnetic to the paramagnetic phases the susceptibility will diverge, in the antiferromagnetic case, a divergence is observed in the staggered susceptibility. Various microscopic interactions between the magnetic moments or spins may lead to antiferromagnetic structures, in the simplest case, one may consider an Ising model on a bipartite lattice, e. g. the simple cubic lattice, with couplings between spins at nearest neighbor sites. Depending on the sign of that interaction, ferromagnetic or antiferromagnetic order will result, geometrical frustration or competing ferro- and antiferromagnetic interactions may lead to different and, perhaps, more complicated magnetic structures. Antiferromagnetic materials occur commonly among transition metal compounds, especially oxides, examples include hematite, metals such as chromium, alloys such as iron manganese, and oxides such as nickel oxide. There are also numerous examples among high nuclearity metal clusters, organic molecules can also exhibit antiferromagnetic coupling under rare circumstances, as seen in radicals such as 5-dehydro-m-xylylene. Unlike ferromagnetism, anti-ferromagnetic interactions can lead to multiple optimal states, in one dimension, the anti-ferromagnetic ground state is an alternating series of spins, up, down, up, down, etc. Yet in two dimensions, multiple ground states can occur, consider an equilateral triangle with three spins, one on each vertex. If each spin can take on two values, there are 23 =8 possible states of the system, six of which are ground states. The two situations which are not ground states are all three spins are up or are all down. In any of the six states, there will be two favorable interactions and one unfavorable one. This illustrates frustration, the inability of the system to find a ground state. This type of behavior has been found in minerals that have a crystal stacking structure such as a Kagome lattice or hexagonal lattice. Synthetic antiferromagnets are artificial antiferromagnets consisting of two or more thin ferromagnetic layers separated by a nonmagnetic layer, due to dipole coupling of the ferromagnetic layers results in antiparallel alignment of the magnetization of the ferromagnets. Antiferromagnetism plays a role in giant magnetoresistance, as had been discovered in 1988 by the Nobel prize winners Albert Fert
36.
Bell Labs
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Nokia Bell Labs is an American research and scientific development company, owned by Finnish company Nokia. Its headquarters are located in Murray Hill, New Jersey, in addition to laboratories around the rest of the United States. The historic laboratory originated in the late 19th century as the Volta Laboratory, Bell Labs was also at one time a division of the American Telephone & Telegraph Company, half-owned through its Western Electric manufacturing subsidiary. Eight Nobel Prizes have been awarded for work completed at Bell Laboratories, in 1880, the French government awarded Alexander Graham Bell the Volta Prize of 50,000 francs, approximately US$10,000 at that time for the invention of the telephone. Bell used the award to fund the Volta Laboratory in Washington, D. C. in collaboration with Sumner Tainter, the laboratory is also variously known as the Volta Bureau, the Bell Carriage House, the Bell Laboratory and the Volta Laboratory. The laboratory focused on the analysis, recording, and transmission of sound, Bell used his considerable profits from the laboratory for further research and education to permit the diffusion of knowledge relating to the deaf. This resulted in the founding of the Volta Bureau c,1887, located at Bells fathers house at 1527 35th Street in Washington, D. C. where its carriage house became their headquarters in 1889. In 1893, Bell constructed a new building, close by at 1537 35th St. specifically to house the lab, the building was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1972. In 1884, the American Bell Telephone Company created the Mechanical Department from the Electrical, the first president of research was Frank B. Jewett, who stayed there until 1940, ownership of Bell Laboratories was evenly split between AT&T and the Western Electric Company. Its principal work was to plan, design, and support the equipment that Western Electric built for Bell System operating companies and this included everything from telephones, telephone exchange switches, and transmission equipment. Bell Labs also carried out consulting work for the Bell Telephone Company, a few workers were assigned to basic research, and this attracted much attention, especially since they produced several Nobel Prize winners. Until the 1940s, the principal locations were in and around the Bell Labs Building in New York City. Of these, Murray Hill and Crawford Hill remain in existence, the largest grouping of people in the company was in Illinois, at Naperville-Lisle, in the Chicago area, which had the largest concentration of employees prior to 2001. Since 2001, many of the locations have been scaled down or closed. The Holmdel site, a 1.9 million square foot structure set on 473 acres, was closed in 2007, the mirrored-glass building was designed by Eero Saarinen. In August 2013, Somerset Development bought the building, intending to redevelop it into a commercial and residential project. The prospects of success are clouded by the difficulty of readapting Saarinens design and by the current glut of aging, eight Nobel Prizes have been awarded for work completed at Bell Laboratories
37.
Rutgers University
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Rutgers was chartered as Queens College on November 10,1766. It is the eighth-oldest college in the United States and one of the nine colonial colleges chartered before the American Revolution, for most of its existence, Rutgers was a private liberal arts college affiliated with the Dutch Reformed Church. The college expanded its role in research and instruction in agriculture, engineering and it gained university status in 1924 with the introduction of graduate education and further expansion. However, Rutgers evolved into a public research university after being designated The State University of New Jersey by the New Jersey Legislature in laws enacted in 1945 and 1956. It is one of two colonial colleges that later became public universities. Rutgers has three campuses located throughout New Jersey, the New Brunswick campus in New Brunswick and adjacent Piscataway, the Newark campus, the university has additional facilities elsewhere in New Jersey. Instruction is offered by 9,000 faculty members in 175 academic departments to over 45,000 undergraduate students and more than 20,000 graduate, through several years of effort by the Rev. Theodorus Jacobus Frelinghuysen and Rev. The Grammar School, today the private Rutgers Preparatory School, was a part of the community until 1959. New Brunswick was chosen as the location over Hackensack because the New Brunswick Dutch had the support of the Anglican population, despite the religious nature of the early college, the first classes were held at a tavern called the Sign of the Red Lion. When the Revolutionary War broke out and taverns were suspected by the British as being hotbeds of rebel activity, in its early years, due to a lack of funds, Queens College was closed for two extended periods. Early trustees considered merging the college with the College of New Jersey, in Princeton, in 1808, after raising $12,000, the college was temporarily reopened and broke ground on a building of its own, called Old Queens, designed by architect John McComb, Jr. The colleges third president, the Rev. Ira Condict, laid the cornerstone on April 27,1809, shortly after, the New Brunswick Theological Seminary, founded in 1784, relocated from Brooklyn, New York, to New Brunswick, and shared facilities with Queens College. During those formative years, all three institutions fit into Old Queens, in 1830, the Queens College Grammar School moved across the street, and in 1856, the Seminary relocated to a seven-acre tract less than one-half miles away. According to the Board of Trustees, Colonel Rutgers was honored because he epitomized Christian values, the Rutgers Scientific School would expand over the years to grow into the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station and divide into the College of Engineering and the College of Agriculture. Rutgers created the New Jersey College for Women in 1918, with the development of graduate education, and the continued expansion of the institution, the collection of schools became Rutgers University in 1924. Rutgers College continued as an arts college within the university. Rutgers was designated the State University of New Jersey by acts of the New Jersey Legislature in 1945 and 1956, shortly after, the University of Newark was merged with Rutgers in 1946, as were the College of South Jersey and South Jersey Law School, in 1950. These two institutions became Rutgers University–Newark and Rutgers University–Camden, respectively, on September 10,1970, after much debate, the Board of Governors voted to admit women into Rutgers College
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Piscataway, New Jersey
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Piscataway /pɪsˈkætəˌweɪ/ is a township in Middlesex County, New Jersey, United States. The area was first settled in 1666 by Quakers and Baptists who had left the Puritan colony in New Hampshire. Piscataway Township was formed on December 18,1666, and officially incorporated by an act of the New Jersey Legislature on February 21,1798, over the years, portions of Piscataway were taken to form Raritan Township, Dunellen, Middlesex and South Plainfield. Piscataway has advanced educational and research facilities due to the presence of Rutgers University, High Point Solutions Stadium, home field for the Rutgers Scarlet Knights football team, is in Piscataway. Part of the Robert Wood Johnson Medical School is located in Piscataway as well, in 2008, Money magazine ranked Piscataway 23rd out of the top 100 places to live in America. In 2014, the magazine ranked Piscataway 27th out of top 50 places to live in America, after this original purchase, additional settlers from the Piscataqua River area of New Hampshire also moved to the area, bringing the name. They were also enterprising and pioneering families who were experienced in wilderness settlement. Before the original settlers, there were pioneer scouts who surveyed theses new lands, the town name of Piscataway came from these early pioneers who originally came from the town of Piscataqua. In short, these articles were mainly designed to provide liberty and land ownership for new families and to them to establish their own government representatives. After a few line and boundary changes, Piscataway and its out plantations were reported to total 40,000 acres, the Lenni Lenape Indians were natives to the entire Piscataway area, but were quietly displaced to smaller areas as settler numbers increased. The Indians had established defined trails that the used to travel through the wilderness area. Over time, many of these primitive trails became the routes of travel from town to town. The trails along the Raritan River were named after a local Indian tribe called the Raritangs, Piscataway Township is the fifth oldest town in New Jersey and among the fifty oldest towns in the United States. According to the United States Census Bureau, the township had an area of 19.029 square miles. The township lies on the side of the Raritan Valley. Piscataway is 45 minutes southwest of New York City and 53 minutes northeast of Philadelphia, society Hill is a unincorporated community and census-designated place located within Piscataway Township. The original village settlement of Piscatawaytown is located in present-day Edison Township, significant portions of Piscataway make up part of historic Camp Kilmer and the Livingston and Busch Campuses of Rutgers University. The Arbor and New Brunswick Highland sections of Piscataway were historically African American neighborhoods, the New Market section historically comprised the Quaker village of Quibbletown
39.
New Brunswick, New Jersey
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The City of New Brunswick is a city in Middlesex County, New Jersey, United States. It is the county seat of Middlesex County, and the home of Rutgers University, the city is located on the Northeast Corridor rail line,27 miles southwest of Manhattan, on the southern bank of the Raritan River. The corporate headquarters and production facilities of several global companies are situated in the city, including Johnson & Johnson. New Brunswick is noted for its ethnic diversity, at one time, one quarter of the Hungarian population of New Jersey resided in the city and in the 1930s one out of three city residents was Hungarian. The Hungarian community continues to exist, alongside growing Asian and Hispanic communities that have developed around French Street near Robert Wood Johnson University Hospital and it was first inhabited by the Lenape Native Americans. The first European settlement at the site of New Brunswick was made in 1681, the settlement here was called Prigmores Swamp, then known as Inians Ferry. In 1714, the settlement was given the name New Brunswick, after the city of Braunschweig, in state of Lower Saxony, in Germany. Braunschweig was an influential and powerful city in the Hanseatic League, later in the Holy Roman Empire, and was an administrative seat for the Duchy of Hanover. Shortly after the first settlement of New Brunswick in colonial New Jersey, George, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg, alternatively, the city gets its name from King George II of Great Britain, the Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg. New Brunswick was incorporated as a town in 1736 and chartered as a city in 1784 and it was incorporated into a town in 1798 as part of the Township Act of 1798. It was occupied by the British in the winter of 1776–1777 during the Revolutionary War. The Declaration of Independence received one of its first public readings, by Col. John Neilson, in New Brunswick on July 9,1776, in the days following its promulgation by the Continental Congress. The Trustees of Queens College, founded in 1766, voted to locate the college in New Brunswick, selecting the city over Hackensack, in Bergen County. Classes began in 1771 with one instructor, one sophomore, Matthew Leydt, classes were held through the American Revolution in various taverns and boarding houses, and at a building known as College Hall on George Street, until Old Queens was erected in 1808. It remains the oldest building on the Rutgers University campus, the Queens College Grammar School was established also in 1766, and shared facilities with the College until 1830, when it located in a building across College Avenue from Old Queens. The New Brunswick Theological Seminary, founded in 1784 in New York, moved to New Brunswick in 1810, New Brunswick was incorporated as a city by an act of the New Jersey Legislature on September 1,1784. The existence of an African American community dates back to the late 18th century, the citys Mount Zion African Methodist Episcopal Church, located at 39 Morris Street, was originally established in 1825 at 25 Division Street, making it one of the oldest in New Jersey. New Brunswick began attracting a Hungarian immigrant population around the turn of the 20th century, hungarians were primarily attracted to the city by employment at Johnson & Johnson factories located in the city
40.
Bill Clinton
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William Jefferson Clinton is an American politician who served as the 42nd President of the United States from 1993 to 2001. Prior to the Presidency he was the 40th Governor of Arkansas from 1979 to 1981, before that, he served as Arkansas Attorney General from 1977 to 1979. A member of the Democratic Party, Clinton was ideogically a New Democrat, Clinton is married to Hillary Clinton, who served as United States Secretary of State from 2009 to 2013 and U. S. Senator from New York from 2001 to 2009, and served the Democratic nominee for President in 2016, Bill Clinton and Hillary Rodham both earned degrees from Yale Law School, where they met and began dating. As Governor of Arkansas, Clinton overhauled the states education system, Clinton was elected President of the United States in 1992, defeating incumbent George H. W. Bush. At age 46, he was the third-youngest president and the first from the Baby Boomer generation, Clinton presided over the longest period of peacetime economic expansion in American history and signed into law the North American Free Trade Agreement. After failing to pass health care reform, the Democratic House was ousted when the Republican Party won control of the Congress in 1994. Two years later, in 1996, Clinton became the first Democrat since Franklin D. Roosevelt to be elected to a second term, Clinton passed welfare reform and the State Childrens Health Insurance Program, providing health coverage for millions of children. Clinton was acquitted by the U. S. Senate in 1999, the Congressional Budget Office reported a budget surplus between the years 1998 and 2000, the last three years of Clintons presidency. In foreign policy, Clinton ordered U. S. Clinton left office with the highest end-of-office approval rating of any U. S. President since World War II, since then, Clinton has been involved in public speaking and humanitarian work. He created the William J. Clinton Foundation to address international causes, such as the prevention of AIDS, in 2004, Clinton published his autobiography, My Life. In 2009, Clinton was named the United Nations Special Envoy to Haiti, since leaving office, Clinton has been rated highly in public opinion polls of U. S. Presidents. Clinton was born on August 19,1946, at Julia Chester Hospital in Hope, Arkansas and he was the son of William Jefferson Blythe Jr. a traveling salesman who had died in an automobile accident three months before his birth, and Virginia Dell Cassidy. His parents had married on September 4,1943, but this later proved to be bigamous. Soon after their son was born, his mother traveled to New Orleans to study nursing, leaving her son in Hope with her parents Eldridge and Edith Cassidy, who owned and ran a small grocery store. At a time when the Southern United States was segregated racially, in 1950, Bills mother returned from nursing school and married Roger Clinton Sr. who owned an automobile dealership in Hot Springs, Arkansas, with his brother and Earl T. Ricks. The family moved to Hot Springs in 1950, although he immediately assumed use of his stepfathers surname, it was not until Clinton turned fifteen that he formally adopted the surname Clinton as a gesture toward his stepfather. In Hot Springs, Clinton attended St. Johns Catholic Elementary School, Ramble Elementary School, and Hot Springs High School—where he was a student leader, avid reader
41.
Nuclear Regulatory Commission
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The Nuclear Regulatory Commission is an independent agency of the United States government tasked with protecting public health and safety related to nuclear energy. Established by the Energy Reorganization Act of 1974, the NRC began operations on January 19,1975 as one of two agencies to the United States Atomic Energy Commission. Prior to 1975 the Atomic Energy Commission was in charge of matters regarding radionuclides, the AEC was dissolved, because it was perceived as unduly favoring the industry it was charged with regulating. The NRC was formed as an independent commission to oversee nuclear energy matters, oversight of nuclear medicine, the U. S. AEC became the Energy Research and Development Administration in 1975, responsible for development and oversight of nuclear weapons. In 1977, ERDA became the United States Department of Energy, in 2000, the National Nuclear Security Administration was created as a subcomponent of DOE, responsible for nuclear weapons. Has, in critical areas, abdicated its role as a regulator altogether. To cite three examples, A1986 Congressional report found that NRC staff had provided valuable assistance to the utility seeking an operating license for the controversial Seabrook plant. The origins and development of NRC regulatory processes and policies are explained in five volumes of published by the University of California Press. These are, Controlling the Atom, The Beginnings of Nuclear Regulation 1946–1962, containing the Atom, Nuclear Regulation in a Changing Environment, 1963–1971. The NRC has produced a booklet, A Short History of Nuclear Regulation 1946–2009. Thomas Wellock, an academic, is the NRC historian. Before joining the NRC, Wellock wrote Critical Masses, Opposition to Nuclear Power in California, the NRC is headed by five Commissioners appointed by the President of the United States and confirmed by the United States Senate for five-year terms. One of them is designated by the President to be the Chairman, the current chairman is Kristine Svinicki. President Donald Trump designated Ms. Svinicki as Chairman of the NRC effective Jan, the NRC consists of the Commission on the one hand and offices of the Executive Director for Operations on the other. The Commission is divided into two committees and one Board, the Atomic Safety and Licensing Board Panel, as well as 8 commission staff offices, of these operations offices, NRCs major program components are the first five offices mentioned above. NRCs proposed FY2015 budget is $1,059.5 million and this is an increase of $3.6 million, including 65.1 FTE, compared to FY2014. NRC headquarters offices are located in unincorporated North Bethesda, Maryland, region I, located in King of Prussia, Pennsylvania, oversees the northeastern states. Region II, located in Atlanta, Georgia, oversees most of the southeastern states, region III, located in Lisle, Illinois, oversees the Midwest
42.
Experimental Media and Performing Arts Center
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The Curtis R. Priem Experimental Media and Performing Arts Center is a multi-venue arts center at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in Troy, New York, which opened on October 3,2008. The director of EMPAC is Johannes Goebel and he was previously the director and founder of the Institute for Music and Acoustics at the Center for Art and Media Technology in Karlsruhe, Germany. EMPACs curatorial team includes, Argeo Ascani - Curator of Music, the building is named after Curtis Priem, co-founder of NVIDIA and graduate of the RPI Class of 1982, who donated $40 million to the Institute in 2004. The institute announced plans for the construction of a new hall in Fall of 2001 with construction costs originally slated at $50 million. After a design competition and discussions with architectural firms, the plans were revised with a new construction cost of million and completion date of sometime in 2006. While some thought that RPI needed improved music and arts facilities, the project broke ground on September 19,2003. During 2004 the Institute began a capital campaign and Rensselaer alumnus and trustee Curtis Priem,82. RPI decided to name the project in his honor. Additionally, the Institute received a $1 million gift for EMPAC programs from alumnus David Jaffe in 2006, over 100,000 cubic yards of earth were evacuated from the hill to make room for the structure. RPI has had problems in the past with the instability of the ground on the hillside, to prevent the EMPAC from sliding down the hill,215 rock anchors were drilled into the ground to stabilize the foundations. At over 210 feet long, they are some of the largest anchors in North America, in September 2005, the institute hosted EMPAC360, On Site + Sound, a multimedia and performing arts presentation to celebrate the midpoint of construction. The event was attended by over 3000 people from the region, the expected completion date was moved to sometime in 2008. In January 2008, RPI commissioned lighting designer Jennifer Tipton to create a lighting display called Light Above the Hudson. Operational for several weeks, the display drew attention to the center with a 300 by 100-foot array of multicolored lights, the grand opening celebrations were held on three weekends from October 3 to October 19,2008, with all events free to the public. Each weekend also contained numerous lectures and workshops including Johannes Goebel, Studio 1 Goodman Studio/Theater hosted a special 360-degree film by The Wooster Group entitled There is Still Time. Brother alternating with screenings by Workspace Unlimited. The design architect for the EMPAC is Grimshaw Architects, London and New York, designers of The Eden Project, the London School of Economics, the architect of record is the New York City architectural firm Davis Brody Bond. The engineers for the project are Buro Happold, the main concert hall seats 1,200, and has been lauded as one of the most acoustically perfect concert halls in the world. The acoustical firm Kirkegaard Associates was contracted to work on the system, extensive computer modeling was done of the ceiling canopy before construction to optimize the transmission of sound waves
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Bolton, New York
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Bolton is a town in Warren County, New York, United States. It is part of the Glens Falls Metropolitan Statistical Area, the population was 2,117 at the 2000 census. Bolton is on the east border of the county, the first settlements began around 1792. The town of Bolton was formed part of the town of Thurman in 1799. Bolton lost some of its territory as three new towns were created in the county, the Cadet was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2002. The Gates Homestead was added in 2010, according to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 90.1 square miles, of which,63.4 square miles of it is land and 26.7 square miles of it is water. The east town line, defined by eastern shoreline of Lake George, is the border of Washington County, the town in within the Adirondack Park. NY 9N follows the lake along the west shore, connecting the major settlements, interstate 87, the Northway, runs along the west town line. The highest point in the Town of Bolton is Five Mile Mountain in the Tongue Mountain Range, the lowest point would appear to be the surface of Lake George at 320 feet. As of the census of 2000, there were 2,117 people,941 households, the population density was 33.4 people per square mile. There were 2,164 housing units at a density of 34.1 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 98. 02% White,0. 57% African American,0. 05% Native American,0. 47% Asian,0. 14% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 85% of the population. 27. 1% of all households were made up of individuals and 11. 6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.25 and the average family size was 2.70. In the town, the population was out with 19. 4% under the age of 18,4. 4% from 18 to 24,23. 9% from 25 to 44,32. 9% from 45 to 64. The median age was 46 years, for every 100 females there were 99.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 95.5 males, the median income for a household in the town was $46,935, and the median income for a family was $52,667. Males had an income of $35,268 versus $23,000 for females. The per capita income for the town was $26,492, about 3. 3% of families and 5. 6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 6. 4% of those under age 18 and 8. 1% of those age 65 or over
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Aretha Franklin
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Aretha Louise Franklin is an American singer, songwriter and musician. Franklin began her career singing gospel at her father, minister C. L. Franklins church as a child, in 1960, at the age of 18, Franklin embarked on a secular career, recording for Columbia Records but only achieving modest success. Following her signing to Atlantic Records in 1967, Franklin achieved commercial acclaim and success with such as Respect, A Natural Woman. These hits and more helped her to gain the title The Queen of Soul by the end of the 1960s decade, in 1998, Franklin won international acclaim for singing the opera aria Nessun dorma, at the Grammys of that year replacing Luciano Pavarotti. Later that same year, she scored her final Top 40 recording with A Rose Is Still a Rose, Franklin has won a total of 18 Grammy Awards and is one of the best-selling artists of all time, having sold over 75 million records worldwide. Franklin has been honored throughout her career including a 1987 induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and she was inducted to the UK Music Hall of Fame in 2005. In August 2012, Franklin was inducted into the GMA Gospel Music Hall of Fame, Aretha Louise Franklin was born in Memphis, Tennessee, the daughter of Barbara and Clarence LaVaughn Franklin. Her father, who went by the nickname, C. L. was an itinerant preacher originally from Shelby, Mississippi, while her mother was a piano player. Alongside Franklin, her parents had three children while both C. L. and Barbara had children from outside their marriage. The family relocated to Buffalo, New York when Franklin was two, before her fifth birthday, C. L. Franklin permanently relocated the family to Detroit, Michigan where he took over the pastorship of New Bethel Baptist Church. Franklins mother died on March 7,1952, before Franklins tenth birthday, several women, including Franklins grandmother Rachel, and Mahalia Jackson took turns helping with the children at the Franklin home. During this time, Franklin learned how to play piano by ear, Franklins fathers emotionally driven sermons resulted in him being known as the man with the million-dollar voice and earning thousands of dollars for sermons in various churches across the country. Just after her mothers death, Franklin began singing solos at New Bethel, debuting with the hymn, Jesus, Be a Fence Around Me. Four years later, when Franklin was 14, her father began managing her and he helped his daughter get signed to her first recording deal with J. V. B. Records, where her first album, Songs of Faith, was issued in 1956, two singles were released to gospel radio stations including Never Grow Old and Precious Lord, Take My Hand. Franklin sometimes traveled with The Caravans and The Soul Stirrers during this time and developed a crush on Sam Cooke, after turning 18, Franklin confided to her father that she aspired to follow Sam Cooke to record pop music. Serving as her manager, C. L. agreed to the move and helped to produce a demo that soon was brought to the attention of Columbia Records. Franklin was signed as a five-percent artist, during this period, Franklin would be coached by choreographer Cholly Atkins to prepare for her pop performances
45.
Joshua Bell
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Joshua David Bell is an American violinist and conductor. Bell was born in Bloomington, Indiana, United States and his mother, Shirley, was a therapist. His father, Alan P. Bell, was a psychologist, Professor Emeritus of Indiana University, in Bloomington, and his father is of Scottish descent, and his mother is Jewish. Bell told The Jewish Journal, I identify myself as being Jewish and his parents got a scaled-to-size violin for their then five-year-old son and started giving him lessons. Bell studied as a child first under Donna Bricht, widow of Indiana University music faculty member Walter Bricht, satisfied that the boy was living a normal life, Gingold took Bell on as his student. By age 12, Bell was serious about the instrument, thanks in part to Gingolds inspiration. At the age of 14, Bell appeared as a soloist with the Philadelphia Orchestra conducted by Riccardo Muti and he studied the violin at the Indiana University Jacobs School of Music and graduated from Bloomington High School North in 1984. In 1989, Bell received an Artist Diploma in Violin Performance from Indiana University and his alma mater also honored him with a Distinguished Alumni Service Award only two years after his graduation. He has been named an Indiana Living Legend and received the Indiana Governors Arts Award, Bell made his Carnegie Hall debut in 1985, at age 17, with the St. Louis Symphony. He has since performed many of the worlds major orchestras. As well as the concerto repertoire, Bell has performed new works. Nicholas Maws violin concerto is dedicated to Bell, who premiered it in 1993 and he performed the solo part on John Coriglianos Oscar-winning soundtrack for the film The Red Violin and was also featured in Ladies in Lavender. Bell made an appearance in the movie Music of the Heart, Bells instrument is a 300-year-old Stradivarius violin called the Gibson ex Huberman, which was made in 1713 during what is known as Antonio Stradivaris Golden Era. This violin had been stolen twice from the owner, Bronisław Huberman. Bell had held and played the violin, and its owner at the time, violinist Norbert Brainin, shortly thereafter, by chance, Bell came across the violin again and discovered it was about to be sold to a German industrialist to become part of a collection. According to Bells website, Bell was practically in tears, as with his previous Stradivarius violin, Bell entrusts the upkeep of the Gibson ex Huberman to expert luthier Emmanuel Gradoux-Matt. The story of the theft, return, and subsequent acquisition by Bell is told in the 2013 documentary The Return of the Violin, Bells first recording made with the Gibson ex Huberman was Romance of the Violin in 2003. Bell is a partner for the Saint Paul Chamber Orchestra
