1.
Short Brothers
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Short Brothers plc, usually referred to as Shorts or Short, is an aerospace company based in Belfast, Northern Ireland. Shorts was founded in 1908 in London, and was the first company in the world to make production aircraft and it was particularly notable for its flying boat designs manufactured into the 1950s. In 1943 Shorts was nationalised and later denationalised, and in 1948 moved from its base at Rochester. In the 1960s, Shorts mainly produced turboprop airliners, major components for aerospace primary manufacturers, in 1989 Shorts was bought by Bombardier, and is today the largest manufacturing concern in Northern Ireland. Prior to that merger, the capital share by the owner was, HM Government,69. 5% Rolls-Royce Ltd,15. 25%. The Short Brothers business started in 1897 when Eustace Short bought a coal gas filled balloon. In 1900 the two visited the 1900 Paris Exposition, where they saw the balloons of Édouard Surcouf. In 1902 Eustace and Oswald started offering balloons for sale and they manufactured the balloons at Hove, Sussex, in premises above the acoustic laboratory run by a third brother, Horace Short. Horace had invented an acoustic amplifier, and was working to perfect it with Thomas Edisons European agent, in 1905 they won a contract for three balloons for the British Indian Army. The quality of their work impressed Colonel Templer, superintendent of the Royal Balloon Factory, Rolls commissioned them to build him a large balloon to compete in the 1906 Gordon Bennett balloon race. More orders soon followed from members of the Aero Club of Great Britain. Oswald succeeded in persuading Horace to leave his job with Parsons, at the end of 1908 Horace started work on the two designs, and in early 1909 construction was started of McCleans aircraft, the Short No.1 biplane. In March 1909 it was exhibited, without its fabric covering, meanwhile, the brothers had obtained the British rights to build copies of the Wright design. In February 1909 Shorts started construction of a new workshop on unobstructed marshland at Leysdown and this had been acquired by the Aero Club for use as a flying ground, together with Mussell Manor, which became its clubhouse. Construction of a batch of six aircraft was started immediately. Short Brothers thus became the first aircraft manufacturing company in the world to undertake production of an aircraft design. In 1910 the business, together with the Royal Aero Club, moved to premises at Eastchurch. Here the Short-Dunne 5, designed by John W. Dunne, was built, in 1911 Shorts built one of the worlds first successful twin-engine aircraft, the Triple Twin
2.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
3.
Rochester, Kent
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Rochester is a town and historic city in the unitary authority of Medway in Kent, England. It is situated at the lowest bridging point of the River Medway about 30 miles from London, Rochester was for many years a favourite of Charles Dickens, who owned nearby Gads Hill Place, Higham, basing many of his novels on the area. Rochester and its neighbours, Chatham and Gillingham, Strood and a number of outlying villages form a large urban area known as the Medway Towns with a population of about 250,000. These places nowadays make up the Medway Unitary Authority area and it was, until 1998, under the control of Kent County Council and is still part of the ceremonial county of Kent, under the latest Lieutenancies Act. The Romano-British name for Rochester was Durobrivae, later Durobrivis c.730, the two commonly cited origins of this name are that it either came from stronghold by the bridge, or is the latinisation of the British word Dourbruf meaning swiftstream. In later times, the word cæster was added to the name, bede mentions the city in ca.730 and calls it Hrofes cæster, mistaking its meaning as Hrofis fortified camp. From this we get c.730 Hrofæscæstre,811 Hrofescester,1086 Rovescester,1610 Rochester, the Latinised adjective Roffensis refers to Rochester. Neolithic remains have been found in the vicinity of Rochester, over time it has been occupied by Celts, Romans. During the Celtic period it was one of the two centres of the Cantiaci tribe. During the Roman conquest of Britain a decisive battle was fought at the Medway somewhere near Rochester, the first bridge was subsequently constructed early in the Roman period. During the later Roman period the settlement was walled in stone, King Ethelbert of Kent established a legal system which has been preserved in the 12th century Textus Roffensis. In AD604 the bishopric and cathedral were founded, during this period, from the recall of the legions until the Norman conquest, Rochester was sacked at least twice and besieged on another occasion. The medieval period saw the building of the current cathedral, the building of two castles and the establishment of a significant town, Rochester Castle saw action in the sieges of 1215 and 1264. Its basic street plan was set out, constrained by the river, Watling Street, Rochester Priory, the city was raided by the Dutch as part of the Second Anglo-Dutch War. The Dutch, commanded by Admiral de Ruijter, broke through the chain at Upnor and sailed to Rochester Bridge capturing part of the English fleet, Rochester has for centuries been of great strategic importance through its position near the confluence of the Thames and the Medway. Rochester Castle was built to guard the crossing, and the Royal Dockyards establishment at Chatham witnessed the beginning of the Royal Navys long period of supremacy. The town, as part of Medway, is surrounded by two circles of fortresses, the line built during the Napoleonic wars consists of Fort Clarence, Fort Pitt, Fort Amherst. During the Second World War, Shorts also designed and manufactured the first four-engined bomber, Rochester and its neighbouring communities were hit hard by this and have experienced a painful adjustment to a post-industrial economy, with much social deprivation and unemployment resulting
4.
Royal Aircraft Establishment
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The first site was at Farnborough Airfield in Hampshire to which was added a second site RAE Bedford in 1946. In 1988 it was renamed the Royal Aerospace Establishment before merging with other entities to become part of the new Defence Research Agency in 1991. Templers place was taken by Colonel John Capper and Templer himself retired in 1908, besides balloons and airships, the factory also experimented with Samuel Franklin Codys war kites and aeroplanes designed both by Cody and J. W. Dunne. In October 1908 Cody made the first aeroplane flight in Britain at Farnborough, in 1909 Army work on aeroplanes ceased and the Factory was brought under civilian control. Capper was replaced as Superintendent by Mervyn OGorman, in 1912 the Balloon Factory was renamed the Royal Aircraft Factory. Its first new designer was Geoffrey de Havilland who later founded his own company, one of the designers in the engine department was Samuel Heron, who later went on to invent the sodium-filled poppet valve, instrumental in achieving greater powers from piston engines. Heron later moved to the United States where he worked on the design of the Wright Whirlwind, green, G. S. Wilkinson, James E. Jimmy Ellor, Prof. A. H. Gibson, and A. A. Griffith. Both Ellor and Griffith would later go on to work for Rolls-Royce Limited, during WWII the Marine Aircraft Experimental Establishment, then based at Helensburgh in Scotland, was under the control of the RAE. In 1946 work began to convert RAF Thurleigh into RAE Bedford, engineers at the Royal Aircraft Establishment invented high strength carbon fibre in 1963. In 1961, the worlds first grooved runway for reduced aquaplaning was constructed, in 1965, a US delegation visited to view the new surfacing practice and initiated a study by the FAA and NASA. On 1 May 1988 the RAE was renamed the Royal Aerospace Establishment, on 1 April 1991 the RAE was merged into the Defence Research Agency, the MODs new research organisation. Then, on 1 April 1995 the DRA and other MOD organisations merged to form the Defence Evaluation, the Bedford site was largely shut down in 1994. In 2001 DERA was part-privatised by the MOD, resulting in two separate organisations, the state-owned Defence Science and Technology Laboratory, and the privatised company QinetiQ, ฿ Between 1911 and 1918 the Royal Aircraft Factory produced a number of aircraft designs. Most of these were essentially research aircraft, but a few went into mass production. Some orders were met by the factory itself, but the bulk of production was by private British companies, up to about 1913 the designation letters referred to the general layout of the aircraft, derived from a French manufacturer or designer famous for that type, S. E. = Blériot Experimental F. E. = Farman Experimental From 1913/4 onwards this was changed to a designation based on the role for which the aircraft was designed, = Armed or Armoured Experimental C. E. = Scout experimental fast single-seat aircraft, the B. S.1 of 1913 was a one-off anomaly, combining both systems, Blériot Scout. & T. E. were also used for one off prototypes
5.
Blackpool Airport
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Blackpool Airport is an airport on the Fylde coast of Lancashire, England, in the Borough of Fylde, just outside the Borough of Blackpool. It was formerly known as Squires Gate Airport and Blackpool International Airport, ownership of the airport has changed a number of times over the years until May 2008, when Balfour Beatty purchased MAR Propertys 95% stake. The remaining 5% is held by Blackpool Borough Council, during 2014 Balfour Beatty claimed to be looking for a buyer for the airport and then after just one month announced that it was to close the Airport. On 15 October 2014, the terminal and Air Traffic Control provision was closed with the last scheduled flights to Dublin & Isle of Man leaving in the late afternoon. In November 2014, the company formed a new company called Squires Gate Airport Operations Ltd. Executive flights are operated by Hangar 3 and J-Max which both offer access to an aircraft hangar and private aircraft management. Bond Offshore Helicopters operate services to the oil and gas facilities in the Irish Sea using two Eurocopter AS365N3 Dauphin helicopters from a purpose built helicopter terminal facility. Blackpool Airport is also home to the North West Air Ambulance service operated by a twin-engined Eurocopter EC135, there are many other companies situated on the airfield which offer flying lessons and training flights. Blackpool Airport Limited has a Civil Aviation Authority Public Use Aerodrome Licence that allows flights for the transport of passengers or for flying instruction. Passenger numbers peaked in 2007 with over 550,000 passing through the airport, the airport sites first aviation use was in October 1909, when the UKs first official public Flying Meeting was held on a specially laid out site at Squires Gate, followed by another in 1910. By 1911 the site had become a racecourse and it was used as a hospital during the First World War. Flights from the site resumed in the early 1930s, small UK airlines used the airfield during the mid-1930s. Railway Air Services commenced schedules to Blackpool from 15 April 1935, linking the airport with the Isle of Man, Manchester, connections could be made at the two cities to London and the south and west of England. In June 1937, airline operations were transferred to Stanley Park Aerodrome, the sister of aviation pioneer Amy Johnson lived in Stanley Park, resulting in her often paying a visit, Johnsons last complete flight was a ferry flight for the ATA from Squires Gate to Oxford. Work on enlarging and improving the airfield and facilities began in late 1937, the RAF also selected Blackpool as one of its training wings due to the availability of accommodation. The RAF also established two specialist training schools, No.3 School of General Reconnaissance No and this produced 2,584 Wellington medium bombers, several hundred of which were assembled and flown from Stanley Park Aerodrome before landing at Squires Gate for testing and delivery. The first was completed in September 1940 and the last in October 1945, the factory was reopened by Hawker Aircraft in the mid-1950s to augment the production of Hawker Hunter jet fighters, under contract SP/6ACFT/9817/CB 7a. Many Hunters were also built for the Swedish Air Force, scheduled flights were resumed by Isle of Man Air Services in summer 1946
6.
Ulster Folk and Transport Museum
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The Ulster Folk and Transport Museum is situated in Cultra, Northern Ireland, about 11 kilometres east of the city of Belfast. It comprises two separate museums, the Folk Museum and the Transport Museum, the museum ranks among Irelands foremost visitor attractions and is a former Irish Museum of the Year. It is one of four included in National Museums Northern Ireland. The site the museum occupies was formally the Estate of Sir Robert Kennedy, in 1967, the Folk Museum merged with the Belfast Transport Museum, to form the Ulster Folk and Transport Museum. The museums Rail and Road Galleries were opened in 1993 and subsequently expanded in 1996, the Folk Museum houses a variety of old buildings and dwellings which have been collected from various parts of Ireland and rebuilt in the grounds of the museum, brick by brick. Regular activities include open hearth cooking, printing, needlework, the allocation of a considerable sum of lottery money has enabled the museum to build a large outhouse in the centre of Ballycultra town. A little more offbeat is the Worlds Largest Sausage, a 17-foot-long banger, all these new developments have aided UFTM in developing a new visitor base and have gained the site international recognition. Indoors, the Folk Galleries feature a number of temporary exhibitions, the Museum is the holder of Northern Irelands main film, photographic, television and sound archives. The museum also maintains an archive of Ulster dialects, and a library containing over 15,000 books. The archives and library are open to the public during office hours, the Transport Museum houses an extensive transport collection, and endeavours to tell the story of transport in Ireland, from its early history to the modern era. It is the largest railway collection in Ireland, the Irish Railway Collection tells the story of over 150 years of railway history. Steam locomotives, passenger carriages and goods wagons are combined with extensive railway memorabilia, interactive displays and visitor facilities. One of the main attractions is Great Southern Railways Class 800 locomotive No.800 Maeḋḃ. The new Road Transport Galleries boast a collection of vehicles ranging from cycles and motorcycles to trams, buses. One of its most famous attractions is a DeLorean DMC-12 car, the model made famous by the Back to the Future trilogy, the infamous Paper Car resides in the main auto transport gallery. This ingenious creation is a replica of a Fiat Panda made entirely from old issues of The Belfast Telegraph, a cross community effort, this car was a curiosity that made headlines in the 1990s. The car was black and white and red all over, apart from the windows and it was cited as an inspiration for Skoda and their recent Cake advertising campaign. The museum boasts a permanent Titanic exhibition, documenting the construction, voyage, the ship has long been associated with Northern Ireland, as it was constructed in the Harland and Wolff shipyards, just a few miles from the museum
7.
Australia
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Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands. It is the worlds sixth-largest country by total area, the neighbouring countries are Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and East Timor to the north, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east, and New Zealand to the south-east. Australias capital is Canberra, and its largest urban area is Sydney, for about 50,000 years before the first British settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who spoke languages classifiable into roughly 250 groups. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades, and by the 1850s most of the continent had been explored, on 1 January 1901, the six colonies federated, forming the Commonwealth of Australia. Australia has since maintained a liberal democratic political system that functions as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy comprising six states. The population of 24 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard, Australia has the worlds 13th-largest economy and ninth-highest per capita income. With the second-highest human development index globally, the country highly in quality of life, health, education, economic freedom. The name Australia is derived from the Latin Terra Australis a name used for putative lands in the southern hemisphere since ancient times, the Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia in 1638, to refer to the newly discovered lands to the south. On 12 December 1817, Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted, in 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia. The first official published use of the term Australia came with the 1830 publication of The Australia Directory and these first inhabitants may have been ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians. The Torres Strait Islanders, ethnically Melanesian, were originally horticulturists, the northern coasts and waters of Australia were visited sporadically by fishermen from Maritime Southeast Asia. The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland, and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent, are attributed to the Dutch. The first ship and crew to chart the Australian coast and meet with Aboriginal people was the Duyfken captained by Dutch navigator, Willem Janszoon. He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula in early 1606, the Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent New Holland during the 17th century, but made no attempt at settlement. William Dampier, an English explorer and privateer, landed on the north-west coast of New Holland in 1688, in 1770, James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain. The first settlement led to the foundation of Sydney, and the exploration, a British settlement was established in Van Diemens Land, now known as Tasmania, in 1803, and it became a separate colony in 1825. The United Kingdom formally claimed the part of Western Australia in 1828. Separate colonies were carved from parts of New South Wales, South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, the Northern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised from South Australia
8.
Sierra Leone
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Sierra Leone, officially the Republic of Sierra Leone, is a country in West Africa. It is bordered by Guinea to the north-east, Liberia to the south-east, Sierra Leone has a tropical climate, with a diverse environment ranging from savannah to rainforests. Sierra Leone has an area of 71,740 km2. Sierra Leone is divided into four regions, the Northern Province, Eastern Province, Southern Province and the Western Area. Freetown is the capital, largest city and its economic and political centre, Bo is the second largest city. The other major cities are Kenema, Makeni and Koidu Town, Sierra Leone is a constitutional republic with a directly elected president and a unicameral legislature. Sir Milton Margai built his government based on democratic principles. Throughout his time in power, Sir Milton Margai was very popular across Sierra Leone, the main opposition APC, led by its leader Siaka Stevens, narowly defeated the ruling SLPP under the leadership of Albert Margai in the 1964 general elections. Stevens ruled for eighteen years in a government, in which his critics. Soldiers and politicians convicted of plotting a coup to topple Stevens were executed, under president Stevens, the APC was made the only legal political party in Sierra Leone, and all other political parties were banned, including the main opposition. Stevens handpicked successor, retired major general Joseph Saidu Momoh, lacked the political dominance of Stevens, Momoh reestablished the country as a multi party democracy in 1991. The current constitution of Sierra Leone was adopted in 1991 during the presidency of Joseph Saidu Momoh, the rebels started the civil war in 1991 in the eastern part of the country during Momohs presidency. Momoh was very unpopular, and Public anger against the Momoh government increasingly grew due to corruption, poor economy. In 1992 a group of officers in the army led by a 25-year-old captain, Valentine Strasser. In 1996 during the war, another military coup of soldiers within Strassers inner circle, led by a 32 year old Brigadier General Julius Maada Bio, toppled Strasser. Since independent to present, Sierra Leones politics has been dominated by two political parties, the Sierra Leone Peoples Party and the All Peoples congress. From 1991 to 2002, the Sierra Leone civil war was fought and this proxy war left more than 50,000 people dead, much of the countrys infrastructure destroyed, and over two million people displaced as refugees in neighbouring countries. In January 2002, then Sierra Leones president Ahmad Tejan Kabbah, fulfilled his promise by ending the civil war, with help by the British Government, ECOWAS
9.
Colony of Aden
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The Colony of Aden or Aden Colony was a British Crown colony from 1937 to 1963 located in the south of contemporary Yemen. It consisted of the port of Aden and its immediate surroundings, prior to 1937, Aden had been governed as part of British India. Under the Government of India Act 1935 the territory was detached from British India, and was established as a colony of the United Kingdom. On 18 January 1963, the colony was reconstituted as the State of Aden within the new Federation of South Arabia, the federation in turn became the Peoples Republic of South Yemen on 30 November 1967, marking the end of British rule. The hinterland of the Colony of Aden was separately governed as the Aden Protectorate, on 19 January 1839, the British East India Company landed Royal Marines at Aden to occupy the territory and stop attacks by pirates against British shipping to India. The British Army considered Aden an important place due to its location, later, British influence extended progressively into the hinterland, both west and east, with the establishment of the Aden Protectorate. Aden soon became an important transit port and coaling station for trade between British India and the Far East, and Europe, the commercial and strategic importance of Aden increased considerably when the Suez Canal opened in 1869. From then and until the 1960s, the Port of Aden was to be one of the busiest ship-bunkering, duty-free shopping, in 1937, Aden was separated from British India to become a Crown Colony, a status that it retained until 1963. It consisted of the city of Aden and its immediate surroundings. The Aden Settlement, and later Aden Colony, also included the islands of Kamaran, Perim. Prior to 1937, Aden had been governed as part of British India, through the latter years of its existence, the Colony of Aden was plagued by civil unrest. Population of Aden Colony 1955 “The town of Aden was tied more closely into the fabric of the British Empire. The fundamental law for the Crown Colony of Aden is the Order of Council 28 September 1936, Aden was notable in that Sharia law was not used in the Colony. All suits, including dealing with personal status and inheritance of Muslims, are entertained in the ordinary secular courts of the colony. Within the Aden Colony there were three local government bodies, all of these bodies were under the overall control of the Executive Council, which in turn was kept in check by the Governor. Until 1 December 1955, the Executive Council was entirely unelected, the situation improved only slightly after this date, as four members were elected. Judicial administration was entirely in British hands. Compared with other British possessions, the development towards self-government and greater local participation has been rather slow, education was provided for all children, both boys and girls, until at least intermediate level
10.
Mandatory Palestine
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Mandatory Palestine was a geopolitical entity under British administration, carved out of Ottoman Southern Syria after World War I. British civil administration in Palestine operated from 1920 until 1948, further confusing the issue was the Balfour Declaration of 1917, promising British support for a Jewish national home in Palestine. At the wars end the British and French set up a joint Occupied Enemy Territory Administration in what had been Ottoman Syria, the British achieved legitimacy for their continued control by obtaining a mandate from the League of Nations in June 1922. The civil Mandate administration was formalized with the League of Nations consent in 1923 under the British Mandate for Palestine, the land west of the Jordan River, known as Palestine, was under direct British administration until 1948. The land east of the Jordan, a region known as Transjordan, under the rule of the Hashemite family from the Hijaz. The divergent tendencies regarding the nature and purpose of the mandate are visible already in the discussions concerning the name for this new entity. As a set-off to this, certain of the Arab politicians suggested that the country should be called Southern Syria in order to emphasise its close relation with another Arab State. During the British Mandate period the area experienced the ascent of two major nationalist movements, one among the Jews and the other among the Arabs, following its occupation by British troops in 1917–1918, Palestine was governed by the Occupied Enemy Territory Administration. In July 1920, the administration was replaced by a civilian administration headed by a High Commissioner. The first High Commissioner, Herbert Samuel, a Zionist recent cabinet minister, arrived in Palestine on 20 June 1920, following the arrival of the British, Muslim-Christian Associations were established in all the major towns. In 1919 they joined to hold the first Palestine Arab Congress in Jerusalem and its main platforms were a call for representative government and opposition to the Balfour Declaration. The Zionist Commission was formed in March 1918 and was active in promoting Zionist objectives in Palestine, on 19 April 1920, elections were held for the Assembly of Representatives of the Palestinian Jewish community. The Zionist Commission received official recognition in 1922 as representative of the Palestinian Jewish community, Rutenberg soon established an electric company whose shareholders were Zionist organizations, investors, and philanthropists. Palestinian-Arabs saw it as proof that the British intended to favor Zionism, when Grand Mufti of Jerusalem Kamil al-Husayni died in March 1921, High Commissioner Samuel appointed his half-brother Mohammad Amin al-Husseini to the position. Amin al-Husseini, a member of the clan of Jerusalem, was an Arab nationalist. As Grand Mufti, as well as the influential positions that he held during this period. In 1922, al-Husseini was elected President of the Supreme Muslim Council which had created by Samuel in December 1921. The Council controlled the Waqf funds, worth annually tens of thousands of pounds, in addition, he controlled the Islamic courts in Palestine
11.
Royal Air Force
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The Royal Air Force is the United Kingdoms aerial warfare force. Formed towards the end of the First World War on 1 April 1918, following victory over the Central Powers in 1918 the RAF emerged as, at the time, the largest air force in the world. The RAF describe its mission statement as, an agile, adaptable and capable Air Force that, person for person, is second to none, and that makes a decisive air power contribution in support of the UK Defence Mission. The mission statement is supported by the RAFs definition of air power, Air power is defined as the ability to project power from the air and space to influence the behaviour of people or the course of events. Today the Royal Air Force maintains a fleet of various types of aircraft. The majority of the RAFs rotary-wing aircraft form part of the tri-service Joint Helicopter Command in support of ground forces, most of the RAFs aircraft and personnel are based in the UK, with many others serving on operations or at long-established overseas bases. It was founded on 1 April 1918, with headquarters located in the former Hotel Cecil, during the First World War, by the amalgamation of the Royal Flying Corps, at that time it was the largest air force in the world. The RAFs naval aviation branch, the Fleet Air Arm, was founded in 1924, the RAF developed the doctrine of strategic bombing which led to the construction of long-range bombers and became its main bombing strategy in the Second World War. The RAF underwent rapid expansion prior to and during the Second World War, under the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan of December 1939, the air forces of British Commonwealth countries trained and formed Article XV squadrons for service with RAF formations. Many individual personnel from countries, and exiles from occupied Europe. By the end of the war the Royal Canadian Air Force had contributed more than 30 squadrons to serve in RAF formations, additionally, the Royal Australian Air Force represented around nine percent of all RAF personnel who served in the European and Mediterranean theatres. In the Battle of Britain in 1940, the RAF defended the skies over Britain against the numerically superior German Luftwaffe, the largest RAF effort during the war was the strategic bombing campaign against Germany by Bomber Command. Following victory in the Second World War, the RAF underwent significant re-organisation, during the early stages of the Cold War, one of the first major operations undertaken by the Royal Air Force was in 1948 and the Berlin Airlift, codenamed Operation Plainfire. Before Britain developed its own nuclear weapons the RAF was provided with American nuclear weapons under Project E and these were initially armed with nuclear gravity bombs, later being equipped with the Blue Steel missile. Following the development of the Royal Navys Polaris submarines, the nuclear deterrent passed to the navys submarines on 30 June 1969. With the introduction of Polaris, the RAFs strategic nuclear role was reduced to a tactical one and this tactical role was continued by the V bombers into the 1980s and until 1998 by Tornado GR1s. For much of the Cold War the primary role of the RAF was the defence of Western Europe against potential attack by the Soviet Union, with many squadrons based in West Germany. With the decline of the British Empire, global operations were scaled back, despite this, the RAF fought in many battles in the Cold War period
12.
Aircraft engine
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An aircraft engine is the component of the propulsion system for an aircraft that generates mechanical power. Aircraft engines are almost always either lightweight piston engines or gas turbines, in commercial aviation, the major players in the manufacturing of turbofan engines are Pratt & Whitney, General Electric, Rolls-Royce, and CFM International. In general aviation, the dominant manufacturer of engines has been Pratt & Whitney. General Electric announced in 2015 entrance into the market,1848, John Stringfellow made a steam engine for a 10-foot wingspan model aircraft which achieved the first powered flight, albeit with negligible payload. 1903, Charlie Taylor built an inline aeroengine for the Wright Flyer,1903, Manly-Balzer engine sets standards for later radial engines. 1906, Léon Levavasseur produces a successful water-cooled V8 engine for aircraft use,1908, René Lorin patents a design for the ramjet engine. 1908, Louis Seguin designed the Gnome Omega, the worlds first rotary engine to be produced in quantity. In 1909 a Gnome powered Farman III aircraft won the prize for the greatest non-stop distance flown at the Reims Grande Semaine dAviation setting a record for endurance of 180 kilometres. 1910, Coandă-1910, a ducted fan aircraft exhibited at Paris Aero Salon. The aircraft never flew, but a patent was filed for routing exhaust gases into the duct to augment thrust,1930, Frank Whittle submitted his first patent for turbojet engine. June 1939, Heinkel He 176 is the first successful aircraft to fly powered solely by a rocket engine. August 1939, Heinkel HeS3 turbojet propels the pioneering German Heinkel He 178 aircraft,1940, Jendrassik Cs-1, the worlds first run of a turboprop engine. It is not put into service,1943 Daimler-Benz DB670, first turbofan runs 1944, Messerschmitt Me 163B Komet, the worlds first rocket-propelled combat aircraft deployed. 1945, First turboprop powered aircraft flies, a Gloster Meteor with two Rolls-Royce Trent engines,1947, Bell X-1 rocket propelled aircraft exceeds the speed of sound. 1948,100 shp 782, the first turboshaft engine to be applied to aircraft use,1949, Leduc 010, the worlds first ramjet-powered aircraft flight. 1950, Rolls-Royce Conway, the worlds first production turbofan, enters service,1968, General Electric TF39 high bypass turbofan enters service delivering greater thrust and much better efficiency. 2002, HyShot scramjet flew in dive,2004, NASA X-43, the first scramjet to maintain altitude. This is typically to differentiate them from radial engines, a straight engine typically has an even number of cylinders, but there are instances of three- and five-cylinder engines
