1.
Moccasin
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A moccasin is a shoe, made of deerskin or other soft leather, consisting of a sole and sides made of one piece of leather, stitched together at the top, and sometimes with a vamp. The sole is soft and flexible and the upper part often is adorned with embroidery or beading, though sometimes worn inside, it is chiefly intended for outdoor use, as in exploring wildernesses and running. Historically, it is the footwear of many people of North America, moreover, hunters, traders. Etymologically, the moccasin derives from the Algonquian language Powhatan word makasin, in the 1800s, moccasins usually were part of a Canadian regalia, e. g. a powwow suit of clothes. The most common style is that of the Plains Indians moccasin, Moccasins protect the foot while allowing the wearer to feel the ground. The Plains Indians wore hard-sole moccasins, given that their territorial geography featured rock, the eastern Indian tribes wore soft-sole moccasins, for walking in leaf-covered forest ground. Moccasins are usually all brown, the same color, in New Zealand and Australia, sheep shearers moccasins are constructed of a synthetic, cream-colored felt, with a back seam and gathered at the top of the rounded toe. These moccasins are laced in the front, and the lacing is covered with a flap fastened with a buckle at the outer side. The fastener arrangement prevents the shearers handpiece comb from catching in the laces, shearers moccasins protect the feet, grip wooden floors well, and absorb sweat. The word moccasin can also denote a shoe of deer leather adorned with laces, a driving moccasin is a contemporary version of the traditional Native American moccasin with the addition of rubber tabs on the sole. The addition of rubber-pad sole adds to the versatility and longevity of the shoe while maintaining the flexibility, there are many variations of the sole including, Rubber-dotted - These have a uniform covering of small, round rubber pads. Separated Pad - These have larger, flat rubber pads separated by small areas. Moc Toe Boots, commonly referred as a Moc Toe, the boots are normally combined with hard rubber compounded soles, the moccasin toe work boot is a style that reflects the Native American moccasin. Normally by weld stitching two pieces of leather or fabric, the pattern creates a U-shaped design around the toe box and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Moccasin. The Canadian Museum of Civilization - Moccasins Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa - Moccasins Creek - Seminole moccasins
2.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
3.
Idaho
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Idaho is a state in the northwestern region of the United States. It borders the state of Montana to the east and northeast, Wyoming to the east, Nevada and Utah to the south, to the north, it shares a small portion of the Canadian border with the province of British Columbia. With a population of around 1.7 million people and an area of 83,569 square miles, Idaho is the 14th largest, the states capital and largest city is Boise. Idaho prior to European settlement was inhabited solely by Native American peoples, in the early 19th century, Idaho was considered part of the Oregon Country, an area disputed between the U. S. and the United Kingdom. Idaho was eventually admitted to the Union on July 3,1890, forming part of the Pacific Northwest, Idaho is divided into several distinct geographic and climatic regions. In the states north, the relatively isolated Idaho Panhandle is closely linked with Eastern Washington, the states south includes the Snake River Plain, while the south-east incorporates part of the Great Basin. Idaho is quite mountainous, and contains several stretches of the Rocky Mountains, additionally, around 38 percent of Idahos land is held by the United States Forest Service, the most of any state. Industries significant for the economy include manufacturing, agriculture, mining, forestry. Idahos agricultural sector supplies a number of different products, but the state is best known for its potato crop, the official state nickname is the Gem State, which references Idahos reputation for gemstones and, more broadly, its many wilderness areas. The exact origin of the remains a mystery. Willing later claimed that he had invented the name. Congress ultimately decided to name the area Colorado Territory when it was created in February 1861, thinking they would get a jump on the name, locals named a community in Colorado Idaho Springs. However, the name Idaho did not fall into obscurity, the same year Congress created Colorado Territory, a county called Idaho County was created in eastern Washington Territory. The county was named after a steamship named Idaho, which was launched on the Columbia River in 1860 and it is unclear whether the steamship was named before or after Willings claim was revealed. Regardless, a portion of Washington Territory, including Idaho County, was used to create Idaho Territory in 1863. Despite this lack of evidence for the origin of the name, the name Idaho may be derived from the Plains Apache word ídaahę́, which means enemy. The Comanches used this word to refer to the Idaho Territory, a 1956 Idaho history textbook says, Idaho is a Shoshoni Indian exclamation. The word consists of three parts, the first is Ee, which in English conveys the idea of coming down
4.
California
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California is the most populous state in the United States and the third most extensive by area. Located on the western coast of the U. S, California is bordered by the other U. S. states of Oregon, Nevada, and Arizona and shares an international border with the Mexican state of Baja California. Los Angeles is Californias most populous city, and the second largest after New York City. The Los Angeles Area and the San Francisco Bay Area are the nations second- and fifth-most populous urban regions, California also has the nations most populous county, Los Angeles County, and its largest county by area, San Bernardino County. The Central Valley, an agricultural area, dominates the states center. What is now California was first settled by various Native American tribes before being explored by a number of European expeditions during the 16th and 17th centuries, the Spanish Empire then claimed it as part of Alta California in their New Spain colony. The area became a part of Mexico in 1821 following its war for independence. The western portion of Alta California then was organized as the State of California, the California Gold Rush starting in 1848 led to dramatic social and demographic changes, with large-scale emigration from the east and abroad with an accompanying economic boom. If it were a country, California would be the 6th largest economy in the world, fifty-eight percent of the states economy is centered on finance, government, real estate services, technology, and professional, scientific and technical business services. Although it accounts for only 1.5 percent of the states economy, the story of Calafia is recorded in a 1510 work The Adventures of Esplandián, written as a sequel to Amadis de Gaula by Spanish adventure writer Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo. The kingdom of Queen Calafia, according to Montalvo, was said to be a land inhabited by griffins and other strange beasts. This conventional wisdom that California was an island, with maps drawn to reflect this belief, shortened forms of the states name include CA, Cal. Calif. and US-CA. Settled by successive waves of arrivals during the last 10,000 years, various estimates of the native population range from 100,000 to 300,000. The Indigenous peoples of California included more than 70 distinct groups of Native Americans, ranging from large, settled populations living on the coast to groups in the interior. California groups also were diverse in their organization with bands, tribes, villages. Trade, intermarriage and military alliances fostered many social and economic relationships among the diverse groups, the first European effort to explore the coast as far north as the Russian River was a Spanish sailing expedition, led by Portuguese captain Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, in 1542. Some 37 years later English explorer Francis Drake also explored and claimed a portion of the California coast in 1579. Spanish traders made unintended visits with the Manila galleons on their trips from the Philippines beginning in 1565
5.
Nevada
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Nevada is a state in the Western, Mountain West, and Southwestern regions of the United States of America. Nevada is the 7th most extensive, the 34th most populous, nearly three-quarters of Nevadas people live in Clark County, which contains the Las Vegas–Paradise metropolitan area where three of the states four largest incorporated cities are located. Nevada is officially known as the Silver State because of the importance of silver to its history and economy. It is also known as the Battle Born State, because it achieved statehood during the Civil War, as the Sage-brush State, for the plant of the same name. Nevada borders Oregon to the northwest, Idaho to the northeast, California to the west, Arizona to the southeast, Nevada is largely desert and semi-arid, much of it located within the Great Basin. Areas south of the Great Basin are located within the Mojave Desert, while Lake Tahoe, about 86% of the states land is managed by various jurisdictions of the U. S. federal government, both civilian and military. Before European contact, Native Americans of the Paiute, Shoshone, the first Europeans to explore the region were Spanish. They called the region Nevada because of the snow covered the mountains in winter. The area formed part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain, the United States annexed the area in 1848 after its victory in the Mexican–American War, and it was incorporated as part of Utah Territory in 1850. The discovery of silver at the Comstock Lode in 1859 led to a boom that became an impetus to the creation of Nevada Territory out of western Utah Territory in 1861. Nevada became the 36th state on October 31,1864, as the second of two added to the Union during the Civil War. Nevada has a reputation for its libertarian laws, in 1940, with a population of just over 110,000 people, Nevada was by far the least-populated state, with less than half the population of the next least-populated state. However, legalized gambling and lenient marriage and divorce laws transformed Nevada into a major tourist destination in the 20th century, Nevada is the only U. S. state where prostitution is legal, though it is illegal in Clark County, Washoe County and Carson City. The tourism industry remains Nevadas largest employer, with mining continuing as a sector of the economy. The name Nevada comes from the Spanish nevada, meaning snow-covered, most Nevadans pronounce the second syllable of their state name using the vowel of trap. Many from outside the Western United States pronounce it with the vowel of father, although the latter pronunciation is closer to the Spanish pronunciation, it is not the pronunciation preferred by most Nevadans. State Assemblyman Harry Mortenson proposed a bill to recognize the alternate pronunciation of Nevada, though the bill was not supported by most legislators, the Nevadan pronunciation is the de facto official one, since it is the one used by the state legislature. Nevada is almost entirely within the Basin and Range Province, and is broken up by many mountain ranges
6.
Utah
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The Utah Railway is a class III railroad operating in Utah and Colorado, and owned by Genesee & Wyoming Inc. The Utah Railway Company was incorporated on January 24,1912, with the name of Utah Coal Railway, shortened to Utah Railway in May of the same year. It was founded to haul coal from the mines to Provo, Utah, in reaction to company disappointment in the service and route of the existing Denver. In addition, the Utah Railway was the first to equip its air brakes with fourteen-pound tension springs instead of the standard seven-pound springs and these gondolas were known to the railroads employees as Battleships. Parent company Mueller Industries, a manufacturer of products, sold the Utah Railway in 2002 to Genesee & Wyoming Inc. a railroad holding company. As of January,2017, the no longer hauls coal. The Utah Railway also owns a railroad, the Salt Lake City Southern Railroad. In addition, switching services are provided in Ogden and elsewhere, the earliest logo was simply the words Utah Railway Company, spelled out on the locomotives and cabooses, and Utah Coal Route on the drop-bottom gondolas. On paper, however, the logo for many years was a circle with a white background. The wording and image in these circular logos changed over the years, the 1948 logo included the words Utah Railway surrounding a gondola with the initials U. C. R. The 1999 logo was an oval with an image of an SD diesel locomotive, in later years the symbol of the Utah Railway Company was the beehive, which is also the Utah state symbol. Genesee & Wyoming corporate website Trainwebs Utah Railway UtahRails. net Utah Railway page
7.
Wyoming
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Wyoming /waɪˈoʊmɪŋ/ is a state in the mountain region of the western United States. The state is the tenth largest by area, the least populous, Wyoming is bordered on the north by Montana, on the east by South Dakota and Nebraska, on the south by Colorado, on the southwest by Utah, and on the west by Idaho. Cheyenne is the capital and the most populous city in Wyoming, the state population was estimated at 586,107 in 2015, which is less than the population of 31 of the largest U. S. cities. The Crow, Arapaho, Lakota, and Shoshone were some of the inhabitants of the region. Southwestern Wyoming was included in the Spanish Empire and then Mexican territory until it was ceded to the United States in 1848 at the end of the Mexican–American War. The region acquired the name Wyoming when a bill was introduced to Congress in 1865 to provide a government for the territory of Wyoming. The territory was named after the Wyoming Valley in Pennsylvania, with the name ultimately being derived from the Munsee word xwé, wamənk, the mineral extraction industry—especially coal, oil, natural gas, and trona—along with the travel and tourism sector are the main drivers behind Wyomings economy. Agriculture has historically been an important component of the economy with the main commodities being livestock, hay, sugar beets, grain. The climate is generally semi-arid and continental, being drier and windier in comparison to the rest of the United States, except for the 1964 election, Wyoming has been a politically conservative state since the 1950s, with the Republican party winning every presidential election. Wyoming is one of three states to have borders along only straight latitudinal and longitudinal lines, rather than being defined by natural landmarks. Wyoming is bordered on the north by Montana, on the east by South Dakota and Nebraska, on the south by Colorado, on the southwest by Utah, and on the west by Idaho. It is the tenth largest state in the United States in total area, from the north border to the south border it is 276 miles, and from the east to the west border is 365 miles at its south end and 342 miles at the north end. The Great Plains meet the Rocky Mountains in Wyoming, the state is a great plateau broken by many mountain ranges. Surface elevations range from the summit of Gannett Peak in the Wind River Mountain Range, at 13,804 feet, to the Belle Fourche River valley in the states northeast corner, at 3,125 feet. In the northwest are the Absaroka, Owl Creek, Gros Ventre, Wind River, in the north central are the Big Horn Mountains, in the northeast, the Black Hills, and in the southern region the Laramie, Snowy and Sierra Madre ranges. The Snowy Range in the central part of the state is an extension of the Colorado Rockies in both geology and appearance. The Wind River Range in the west central part of the state is remote and includes more than 40 mountain peaks in excess of 13,000 ft tall in addition to Gannett Peak, the highest peak in the state. The Big Horn Mountains in the central portion are somewhat isolated from the bulk of the Rocky Mountains
8.
English language
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English /ˈɪŋɡlɪʃ/ is a West Germanic language that was first spoken in early medieval England and is now the global lingua franca. Named after the Angles, one of the Germanic tribes that migrated to England, English is either the official language or one of the official languages in almost 60 sovereign states. It is the third most common language in the world, after Mandarin. It is the most widely learned second language and a language of the United Nations, of the European Union. It is the most widely spoken Germanic language, accounting for at least 70% of speakers of this Indo-European branch, English has developed over the course of more than 1,400 years. The earliest forms of English, a set of Anglo-Frisian dialects brought to Great Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlers in the century, are called Old English. Middle English began in the late 11th century with the Norman conquest of England, Early Modern English began in the late 15th century with the introduction of the printing press to London and the King James Bible, and the start of the Great Vowel Shift. Through the worldwide influence of the British Empire, modern English spread around the world from the 17th to mid-20th centuries, English is an Indo-European language, and belongs to the West Germanic group of the Germanic languages. Most closely related to English are the Frisian languages, and English, Old Saxon and its descendent Low German languages are also closely related, and sometimes Low German, English, and Frisian are grouped together as the Ingvaeonic or North Sea Germanic languages. Modern English descends from Middle English, which in turn descends from Old English, particular dialects of Old and Middle English also developed into a number of other English languages, including Scots and the extinct Fingallian and Forth and Bargy dialects of Ireland. English is classified as a Germanic language because it shares new language features with other Germanic languages such as Dutch, German and these shared innovations show that the languages have descended from a single common ancestor, which linguists call Proto-Germanic. Through Grimms law, the word for foot begins with /f/ in Germanic languages, English is classified as an Anglo-Frisian language because Frisian and English share other features, such as the palatalisation of consonants that were velar consonants in Proto-Germanic. The earliest form of English is called Old English or Anglo-Saxon, in the fifth century, the Anglo-Saxons settled Britain and the Romans withdrew from Britain. England and English are named after the Angles, Old English was divided into four dialects, the Anglian dialects, Mercian and Northumbrian, and the Saxon dialects, Kentish and West Saxon. Through the educational reforms of King Alfred in the century and the influence of the kingdom of Wessex. The epic poem Beowulf is written in West Saxon, and the earliest English poem, Modern English developed mainly from Mercian, but the Scots language developed from Northumbrian. A few short inscriptions from the period of Old English were written using a runic script. By the sixth century, a Latin alphabet was adopted, written with half-uncial letterforms and it included the runic letters wynn ⟨ƿ⟩ and thorn ⟨þ⟩, and the modified Latin letters eth ⟨ð⟩, and ash ⟨æ⟩
9.
Native American Church
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The religion originated in the U. S. State of Oklahoma in the late nineteenth century after peyote was introduced to the southern Great Plains from Mexico. Today it is the most widespread religion among Native Americans in the United States, Canada. Many denominations of mainstream Christianity made attempts to convert Native Americans to Christianity in Indian Country and these efforts were successful for many Native American tribes reflect Christian creed, including the Native American Church. Although conversion to Christianity was a process, the tenets of the Native American Church were readily accepted. Originally formed in the state of Oklahoma, the Native American Church is a monotheism, believing in a supreme being, the tenets of the Native American Church regard “peyote” as a sacred and holy sacrament and use it as a means to communicate with the Great Spirit. Followers of the Native American Church have differing ceremonies, celebrations, for example, among the Teton, the Cross Fire group uses the Bible for sermons, which are rejected by the Half Moon followers, though they each teach a similar Christian morality. Ceremonies commonly last all night, beginning Saturday evening and ending early Sunday morning, scripture reading, prayer, singing, dancing, and drumming are often included. In general, the Native American Church believes in one supreme God, ceremonies are generally held in a tipi and require a priest, pastor, or elder to conduct the service. The conductor is referred to as the Roadman, the Roadman is assisted by a Fireman, whose task is to care for the holy fireplace, being sure that it burns consistently all night. The Roadman may use a staff, a beaded and feathered gourd, a small drum, cedar. “The Roadmans wife or other female relative prepares seven sacramental foods and her part takes place very early, between 4,30 and 5,00 in the morning. The seven sacramental foods are water, shredded beef, corn mush, rice, strawberries, cookies, to counterbalance the bitterness of the peyote consumed during the services, the sweet foods were added later. The second breakfast is like any other breakfast and it generally includes boiled eggs, toast, hash brown potatoes, coffee, and juice. This meal is served well after sunrise and just prior to the closing of the church services, Church services are not regular Sunday occurrences but are held in accordance with special requests by a family for celebrating a birthday, or for a memorial or funeral service. Services begin at sundown on either a Friday or Saturday evening, thus, a participant sits up all night, giving up a full nights rest as part of a small sacrifice to the Great and Holy Spirit and his Son. The church services culminate in a feast for the community the following day. Because peyote is a stimulant, all of the members are wide awake, so they, too. The need for sleep is generally felt in the late afternoon, particularly after the feast
10.
Sun Dance
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The Sun Dance is a ceremony practiced by some indigenous people of United States of America and Canada, primarily those of the Plains cultures. It usually involves the community gathering together to pray for healing, individuals make personal sacrifices on behalf of the community. They banned Indigenous ceremonies and, in schools and other areas. In some cases they were not allowed to visit sacred sites when these had been excluded from the territory of reservations, the Sun Dance was one of the prohibited ceremonies, as was the potlatch of the Pacific Northwest peoples. Canada lifted its prohibition against practice of the ceremony in 1951. Several features are common to the held by sun dance cultures. Certain plants are picked and prepared for use during the ceremony, typically, the sun dance is a grueling ordeal for the dancers, a physical and spiritual test that they offer in sacrifice for their people. According to the Oklahoma Historical Society, young men dance around a pole to which they are fastened by rawhide thongs pegged through the skin of their chests. While not all sun dance ceremonies include piercing, the object of the sun dance is to offer personal sacrifice for the benefit of ones family, the dancers fast for many days, in the open air and whatever weather occurs. At most ceremonies, family members and friends stay in the surrounding camp, much time and energy by the entire community is needed to conduct the sun dance gatherings and ceremonies. Communities plan and organize for at least a year to prepare for the ceremony, usually one leader or a small group of leaders are in charge of the ceremony, but many elders help out and advise. A group of helpers do many of the required to prepare for the ceremony. As this is a ceremony, the people are reluctant to discuss it in any great detail. Given bad history with whites, they are suspicious that non-Natives may abuse or misuse the traditional ways, elders and medicine men are concerned that the ceremony should only be passed along in the right ways. The words used at a sun dance are often in the language and are not translated for outsiders. Not talking about this ceremony is part of the respect the people display for it. In addition, the way in which a respected elder speaks, teaches. In 1993, responding to what they believed was frequent desecration of the sun dance and other Lakota sacred ceremonies, US and it was an international gathering of about 500 representatives from 40 different tribes and bands of the Lakota
11.
Christianity
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Christianity is a Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ, who serves as the focal point for the religion. It is the worlds largest religion, with over 2.4 billion followers, or 33% of the global population, Christians believe that Jesus is the Son of God and the savior of humanity whose coming as the Messiah was prophesied in the Old Testament. Christian theology is summarized in creeds such as the Apostles Creed and his incarnation, earthly ministry, crucifixion, and resurrection are often referred to as the gospel, meaning good news. The term gospel also refers to accounts of Jesuss life and teaching, four of which—Matthew, Mark, Luke. Christianity is an Abrahamic religion that began as a Second Temple Judaic sect in the mid-1st century, following the Age of Discovery, Christianity spread to the Americas, Australasia, sub-Saharan Africa, and the rest of the world through missionary work and colonization. Christianity has played a prominent role in the shaping of Western civilization, throughout its history, Christianity has weathered schisms and theological disputes that have resulted in many distinct churches and denominations. Worldwide, the three largest branches of Christianity are the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, and the denominations of Protestantism. There are many important differences of interpretation and opinion of the Bible, concise doctrinal statements or confessions of religious beliefs are known as creeds. They began as baptismal formulae and were expanded during the Christological controversies of the 4th and 5th centuries to become statements of faith. Many evangelical Protestants reject creeds as definitive statements of faith, even agreeing with some or all of the substance of the creeds. The Baptists have been non-creedal in that they have not sought to establish binding authoritative confessions of faith on one another. Also rejecting creeds are groups with roots in the Restoration Movement, such as the Christian Church, the Evangelical Christian Church in Canada, the Apostles Creed is the most widely accepted statement of the articles of Christian faith. It is also used by Presbyterians, Methodists, and Congregationalists and this particular creed was developed between the 2nd and 9th centuries. Its central doctrines are those of the Trinity and God the Creator, each of the doctrines found in this creed can be traced to statements current in the apostolic period. The creed was used as a summary of Christian doctrine for baptismal candidates in the churches of Rome. Most Christians accept the use of creeds, and subscribe to at least one of the mentioned above. The central tenet of Christianity is the belief in Jesus as the Son of God, Christians believe that Jesus, as the Messiah, was anointed by God as savior of humanity, and hold that Jesus coming was the fulfillment of messianic prophecies of the Old Testament. The Christian concept of the Messiah differs significantly from the contemporary Jewish concept, Jesus, having become fully human, suffered the pains and temptations of a mortal man, but did not sin
12.
Ghost Dance
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The Ghost Dance was a new religious movement incorporated into numerous American Indian belief systems. The practice swept throughout much of the Western United States, quickly reaching areas of California, as the Ghost Dance spread from its original source, Indian tribes synthesized selective aspects of the ritual with their own beliefs. The Ghost Dance was associated with Wilsons prophecy of an end to white expansion while preaching goals of living, an honest life. Practice of the Ghost Dance movement was believed to have contributed to Lakota resistance to assimilation under the Dawes Act, in the Wounded Knee Massacre in 1890, U. S. Army forces killed at least 153 Miniconjou and Hunkpapa from the Lakota people. The Lakota variation on the Ghost Dance tended towards millenarianism, an innovation that distinguished the Lakota interpretation from Jack Wilsons original teachings, the Caddo Nation still practices the Ghost Dance today. The Northern Paiutes living in Mason Valley, in what is now the U. S. state of Nevada, were known collectively as the Tövusi-dökadö at the time of European contact. The Northern Paiute community at time was thriving upon a subsistence pattern of fishing, hunting wild game. The Tövusi-dökadö during this period lacked any permanent political organization or officials, community events centered on the observance of seasonal ceremonies such as harvests or hunting. In 1869, Hawthorne Wodziwob, a Paiute man, organized a series of community dances to announce a vision and he spoke of a journey to the land of the dead and of promises made to him by the souls of the recently deceased. They promised to return to their loved ones within a period of three to four years, Wodziwobs peers accepted this vision, likely due to his reputable status as a healer. He urged the populace to dance the common circle dance as was customary during a time of celebration and he continued preaching this message for three years with the help of a local weather doctor named Tavibo, father of Jack Wilson. Prior to Wodziwobs religious movement, a typhoid epidemic struck in 1867. This and other European diseases killed approximately one-tenth of the total population, the disruption brought disorder to the economic system and society. Many families were prevented from continuing their nomadic lifestyle, a round dance is a circular community dance held, usually around an individual who leads the ceremony. Round dances may be ceremonial or purely social, usually the dancers are accompanied by a group of singers who may also play hand drums in unison. The dancers join hands to form a large circle, the dancers move to their left with a side-shuffle step to reflect the long-short pattern of the drum beat, bending their knees to emphasize the pattern. Spier studied peoples of the Columbia plateau, Jack Wilson, the prophet formerly known as Wovoka, was believed to have had a vision during a solar eclipse on January 1,1889. It was reportedly not his first time experiencing a vision, but as an adult, he claimed that he was then better equipped, spiritually
13.
Bannock people
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The Bannock tribe were originally Northern Paiute but are more culturally affiliated with the Northern Shoshone. They are in the Great Basin classification of Indigenous People and their traditional lands include northern Nevada, southeastern Oregon, southern Idaho, and western Wyoming. Today they are enrolled in the federally recognized Shoshone-Bannock Tribes of the Fort Hall Reservation of Idaho, traditionally, the Northern Paiute traded with surrounding tribes. The bands in eastern Oregon traded with the tribes to the north, in the mid-18th century, some bands developed a horse culture and split off to become the Bannock tribe. The horse gave the tribe a greater range, from Oregon to northern Nevada, southern Idaho and they forayed from there on the Bannock Trail to Montana and Canada to hunt buffalo. The Bannock made pottery, utensils from mountain sheep horns, and their petroglyphs date back before European contact, and, after the introduction of glass beads, they transferred their geometric design to beadwork. For water transport, they made tule reed rafts, prior to the late 19th century, Bannock people fished for salmon on the Snake River in Idaho and in the fall, they hunted buffalo herds. Buffalo hides provided material for tipis, the Bannock are prominent in American history due to the Bannock War of 1878. After the war, the Bannock moved onto the Fort Hall Indian Reservation with the Northern Shoshone, today they are called the Shoshone-Bannock. The Bannock live on the Fort Hall Indian Reservation,544,000 acres in Southeastern Idaho, lemhi and Northern Shoshone live with the Bannock Indians. In the 2010 Census,89 people identified as Bannock ancestry,38 full-blooded, however,5,315 are enrolled in the Shoshone-Bannock Tribes of the Fort Hall Reservation, not stating specifically their tribe. Mark Trahant, journalist RandyL He-dow Teton, model Pritzker, Barry M, a Native American Encyclopedia, History, Culture, and Peoples
14.
Goshute
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The Goshutes are a tribe of Western Shoshone Native Americans. The Goshute lived in the most desolate part of what is now the portion of Utah. In aboriginal times they lived at a subsistence level with no economic surplus on which a more elaborate social structure could be built. Organized primarily in nuclear families, the Goshutes hunted and gathered in family groups and these gatherings often lasted no more than two to six weeks, although winter gatherings were longer, with families organizing under a dagwani, or village headman. The Goshutes hunted lizards, snakes, small fish, birds, gophers, rabbits, rats, skunks, squirrels, and, when available, pronghorn, bear, coyote, deer, elk, and Bighorn sheep. Hunting of large game was usually done by men, the hunters sharing large game with other members of the village, women and children gathered harvesting nearly 100 species of wild vegetables and seeds, the most important being the pine nut. They also gathered insects the most important being red ants, crickets, however a family was able to provide for most of its needs without assistance. Their traditional arts include beadwork and basketry, prior to contact with the Mormons, the Goshutes wintered in the Deep Creek Valley in dug out houses built of willow poles and earth known as wiki-ups. In the spring and summer they gathered wild onions, carrots and potatoes and their language is a dialect of the Shoshoni language. The Goshute are an indigenous peoples of the Great Basin, and their territory extends from the Great Salt Lake to the Steptoe Range in Nevada. Within this area, the Goshutes were concentrated in three areas, Deep Creek Valley near Ibapah on the Utah-Nevada border, Simpson’s Springs farther southeast, in the 18th and 19th centuries, Navajo and Ute slave raiders preyed upon the Goshute. Unlike their neighbors, the Goshutes only obtained horses in the late 19th century, the Goshute diet depended on the grasslands, and consisted mostly of rats, lizards, snakes, rabbits, insects, grass-seed, and roots. They could not have horses, since horses would trample the grassland, the first written description of the Goshute was made in the journal of Jedediah Smith while returning from a trip to California on his way to Bear Lake. For the next two decades white contact with the Goshutes remained sporadic and insignificant, only after the arrival of the Mormons in 1847 did the Goshutes come into continual and prolonged contact with whites. Soon 49ers and later trains of emigrant groups continually passed through their territory on the way west to California. Mormons moved into the Tooele Valley by 1855 and were wintering stock in Rush Valley, the Mormons established communities at Tooele, Grantsville, and Ibapah, all important sites to the Goshutes. Domestic livestock from these sources represented an important source of competition for the Goshutes food resources, Goshutes began to kill their livestock and threaten settlers, in a vain attempt to force the whites off of their homelands. Soon after telegraph lines were strung along that route, the treaty did not give up land or sovereignty but did agree to end all hostile actions against the whites and to allow several routes of travel to pass through their country
15.
Northern Paiute
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Paiute refers to three closely related groups of indigenous peoples of the Great Basin, Northern Paiute of California, Idaho, Nevada and Oregon. Owens Valley Paiute of California and Nevada, Southern Paiute of Arizona, southeastern California, Nevada and Utah. Their peoples have become members of federally recognized tribes, as noted in the sections below. In many locations they have colocated with peoples of the Shoshone and Washoe tribes, the Northern and Southern Paiute peoples both speak languages belonging to the Numic branch of the Uto-Aztecan family of Native American languages. The terms Paiute, Northern Paiute and Southern Paiute are most correctly applied to refer to groups of people with similar language and it does not imply a political connection or even an especially close genetic relationship. The Northern Paiute speak the Northern Paiute language, while the Southern Paiute speak the Colorado River Numic language and these languages are not as closely related to each other as they are to other Numic languages. The Bannock, Mono, Coso, Timbisha and Kawaiisu peoples, the Bannock speak a dialect of Northern Paiute. But, the Mono Tribe and other three peoples speak distinctly separate Numic languages, Mono is related closely to Northern Paiute. The Timbisha language is related closely to the Shoshoni language. The Kawaiisu language is closely related to Colorado River Numic of the Southern Paiute. The Northern Paiute traditionally have lived in the Great Basin in eastern California, western Nevada, the Northern Paiutes pre-contact lifestyle was well adapted to the harsh desert environment in which they lived. Each tribe or band occupied a territory, generally centered on a lake or wetland that supplied fish. Communal hunt drives, which often involved neighboring bands, would take rabbits, individuals and families appear to have moved freely among the bands. They gathered Pinyon nuts in the mountains in the fall as a winter food source. Women also gathered grass seeds and roots as important parts of their diet, the name of each band was derived from a characteristic food source. For example, the people at Pyramid Lake were known as the Cui Ui Ticutta, the people of the Lovelock area were known as the Koop Ticutta, meaning ground-squirrel eaters, and the people of the Carson Sink were known as the Toi Ticutta, meaning tule eaters. The Kucadikadi of Mono County, California are the brine fly eaters, relations among the Northern Paiute bands and their Shoshone neighbors were generally peaceful. There is no distinction between the Northern Paiute and Western Shoshone or Sosone
16.
Comanche
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The Comanche people are federally recognized as the Comanche Nation, headquartered in Lawton, Oklahoma. Post-contact, the Comanches were hunter-gatherers with a horse culture, there may have been as many as 45,000 Comanches in the late 18th century. They were the dominant tribe on the Southern Plains and often took captives from weaker tribes during warfare, selling them as slaves to the Spanish and they also took thousands of captives from the Spanish, Mexican, and American settlers. Today, the Comanche Nation has 15,191 members, approximately 7,763 of whom reside in tribal jurisdictional area around the Lawton, Fort Sill, the Comanche Nation Homecoming Powwow is held annually in Walters, Oklahoma in mid-July. The Comanche language is a Numic language of the Uto-Aztecan family, only about 1% of Comanches speak their language today. The name Comanche is from the Ute name for them, kɨmantsi, the Comanche Nation is headquartered in Lawton, Oklahoma. Their tribal jurisdictional area is located in Caddo, Comanche, Cotton, Grady, Jefferson, Kiowa, Stephens, membership of the tribe requires a 1/8 blood quantum. The tribe operates its own housing authority and issues tribal vehicle tags and they have their own Department of Higher Education, primarily awarding scholarships and financial aid for members college educations. Additionally, they operate the Comanche Nation College in Lawton, Oklahoma and they own ten tribal smoke shops and four casinos. The casinos are Comanche Nation Casino in Lawton, Comanche Red River Casino in Devol, Comanche Spur Casino, in Elgin, in 2002, the tribe founded the Comanche Nation College, a two-year tribal college in Lawton. Each July Comanches from across the United States gather to celebrate their heritage and culture in Walters, the Comanche Nation Fair is held every September. The Comanche Little Ponies host two annual dances—one over New Years and one in May, the Comanche emerged as a distinct group shortly before 1700, when they broke off from the Shoshone people living along the upper Platte River in Wyoming. In 1680, the Comanche acquired horses from the Pueblo Indians after the Pueblo Revolt and they separated from the Shoshone after this, as the horses allowed them greater mobility in their search for better hunting grounds. The horse was a key element in the emergence of a distinctive Comanche culture and they only just fall short of possessing all of the conveniences of the earth, and have no need to covet the trade pursued by the rest of the Indians. Their original migration took them to the southern Great Plains, into a sweep of territory extending from the Arkansas River to central Texas. They reached present-day New Mexico and the Texas Panhandle by 1700, forcing the Lipan Apache people ever southward, by 1777, the Lipan Apache had retreated to the Rio Grande and the Mescalero Apache to Coahuila. The Comanche never formed a single cohesive unit, but were divided into almost a dozen autonomous groups. These groups shared the language and culture, and rarely fought each other
17.
Indigenous peoples of the Great Basin
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The Indigenous Peoples of the Great Basin are Native Americans of the northern Great Basin, Snake River Plain, and upper Colorado River basin. There is very little precipitation in the Great Basin area which affects the lifestyles and cultures of the inhabitants, original inhabitants of the region may have arrived by 12,000 BCE. 9,000 BCE to 400 CE marks the Great Basin Desert Archaic Period, following by the time of the Fremont culture, Numic language-speakers, ancestors of todays Western Shoshone and both Northern and Southern Paiute peoples entered the region around the 14th century CE. The first Europeans to reach the area was the Spanish Dominguez-Escalante Expedition, Great Basin settlement was relatively free of non-Native settlers until the first Mormon settlers arrived in 1847. Within ten years, the first Indian reservation was established, in order to assimilate the native population, the Goshute Reservation was created in 1863. The attempted acculturation process included sending children to Indian schools and limiting the landbases and resources of the reservations, two Paiute prophets, Wodziwob and Wovoka, introduced the Ghost Dance in a ceremony to commune with departed loved ones and bring renewal of buffalo herds and precontact lifeways. The Ute Bear Dance emerged on the Great Basin, the Sun Dance and Peyote religion flourished in the Great Basin, as well. In 1930, the Ely Shoshone Reservation was established, followed by the Duckwater Indian Reservation in 1940, conditions for the Native American population of the Great Basin were erratic throughout the 20th century. Economic improvement emerged as a result of President Franklin Roosevelts Indian New Deal in the 1930s, while activism, nevertheless, the communities continue to struggle against chronic poverty and all of the resulting problems, unemployment, substance abuse, and high suicide rates. Different ethnic groups of Great Basin tribes share certain common elements that distinguish them from surrounding groups. All but the Washoe traditionally speak Numic languages, and tribal groups, prior to the 20th century, Great Basin peoples were predominantly hunters and gatherers. Desert Archaic or more simply The Desert Culture refers to the culture of the Great Basin tribes and this culture is characterized by the need for mobility to take advantage of seasonally available food supplies. Heavy items such as metates would be cached rather than carried from foraging area to foraging area, agriculture was not practiced within the Great Basin itself, although it was practiced in adjacent areas. Likewise, the Great Basin tribes had no permanent settlements, although winter villages might be revisited winter after winter by the group of families. In the summer, the largest group was usually the family due to the low density of food supplies. In the early period the Great Basin tribes were actively expanding to the north and east. These people, including the Bannock and Eastern Shoshone share traits with Plains Indians
18.
Eastern Shoshone
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They lived in the Rocky Mountains during the 1805 Lewis and Clark Expedition and adopted Plains horse culture. The Eastern Shoshone primarily settled on the Wind River Indian Reservation in Wyoming, the Eastern Shoshone adopted horses much sooner than their neighbours to the North, the Blackfoot Confederacy. Meanwhile, their cousins, the Comanche, split off. Once the Piegan, in particular, had access to horses of their own and guns obtained from the Hudsons Bay Company via the Cree and Assiniboine, Eastern Shoshone speak the Shoshone language, a Central Numic language in the Uto-Aztecan language family. It is spoken on the Wind River Indian Reservation, bands of Shoshone people were named for their geographic homelands and for their primary food sources. Shoshone Tribe of Indians Shimkin, Demitri B, handbook of North American Indians, Great Basin, Volume 11. Washington, DC, Smithsonian Institution,1986, 308–335, Eastern Shoshone Tribe Eastern Shoshone Tribe, Wind River Indian Reservation Boundaries, Native American Rights Fund
19.
Northern Shoshone
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Northern Shoshone are Shoshone of the Snake River Plain of southern Idaho and the northeast of the Great Basin where Idaho, Wyoming and Utah meet. They are culturally affiliated with the Bannock people and are in the Great Basin classification of Indigenous People, Northern Shoshone is a dialect of the Shoshone language, a Central Numic language in the Uto-Aztecan language family. It is primarily spoken on the Fort Hall and Wind River reservations in Idaho and Wyoming, bands of Shoshone people were named for their geographic homelands and for their primary foodsources. After acquiring horses in the century, they adopted a Plains style. They also traveled north toward the upper Beaverhead drainage, and the upper Yellowstone River in northern Wyoming and southern Montana. The Tukkutikka bands living in the Wind River Range and the Yellowstone River region settled with the body of Eastern Shoshone onto the Wind River Reservation in Wyoming. Later the Tukkutikka bands living in the Yellowstone River region settled with the body of Eastern Shoshone onto the Wind River Reservation. The majority joined the Northern Shoshone as part of the Lemhi Shoshone and these were also known as Doyahinee or Banaiti Doyanee. Their territory took in part of the Fort Hall Reservation when it was established in 1867, in 1873, the three major Bannock Creek bands moved to the reservation at Fort Hall. A small group went to Wind River, possibly synonymous with Hukundüka or Hukan-deka, painkwitikka or Pengwideka, ranged from McCammon to Bear Lake along the Bear River and Logan River in the border region between Idaho and Utah, and on over to the continental divide. They were practically wiped out at the Bear River Massacre, January 29,1863, after their treaty of April 12,1866, went unratified, the Fort Hall Reservation was set aside partly for them. Later in 1877, the Duck Valley Reservation was established in their lands, Lemhi Shoshone with the Bannock Indians, a Paiute band with which they have merged. This reservation was closed and the relocated to Fort Hall Reservation. Northwestern Band of Shoshoni Nation of Utah Murphy, Robert A. handbook of North American Indians, Great Basin, Volume 11. Washington, DC, Smithsonian Institution,1986, 284–307, an introduction to the Shoshoni language, dammen da̲igwape. CS1 maint, Uses authors parameter Bial Raymond
20.
Western Shoshone
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The Western Shoshone comprise several Shoshone tribes that are indigenous to the Great Basin and have lands identified in the Treaty of Ruby Valley 1863. They resided in Idaho, Nevada, California, and Utah, the tribes are very closely related culturally to the Paiute, Goshute, Bannock, Ute, and Timbisha tribes. They speak the Western dialect of the Shoshone language, other Shoshone-speaking groups include the Goshute, Northern Shoshone, and Eastern Shoshone. Bands of Western Shoshone are named for their traditional geographical homelands, during the American Civil War 1861-1864, gold was needed from the west by the Union to prosecute the war against the south. The Doty treaties were entered into by the US with the Shoshone, in 1863 the Treaty of Ruby Valley was entered into with the Western Bands of the Shoshone Nation and identified the boundaries of their 40,000 sq. mi. territory. The Western Shoshone did not consent to the inclusion of their property into the boundaries or jurisdiction of any state or territory, the Western Shoshone possess all the interests the United States sought to purchase by the treaty for $5,000 per year for 20 years. The treaty was used by the Union to demonstrate to European governments and banks backing the Union that it could do what it said. The treaty is in force and effect The United States failed to make any. The 326-k claim was $1.05 per acre for 26,000 million acres but did not in fact constitute a transfer of rights, title and interest since the Treaty of Ruby Valley is controlling. In 1979 Congress appropriated $26 million to settle the land claims, in 1985 the US Supreme Court ruled in the US v. As recently as 2004, Congress has attempted to force the purchase of Western Shoshone land, disputes over tribal land and the international recognition by the United Nations of their struggle against the United States government is documented in the 2008 film American Outrage. The Western Shoshone have issued their own passports since 1992, for further information on passport issues, see the Iroquois passport. Handbook of the Indians of California, bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin No.78. Thomas, David H. Lorann S. A. Pendleton, handbook of North American Indians, Great Basin, Volume 11. Washington, DC, Smithsonian Institution,1986, 262–283, Treaty with the Western Shoshone 1863, Ruby Valley A Guide to the Records of the Western Shoshone Defense Project, Special Collections, University Libraries, University of Nevada, Reno
21.
Gosiute
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The Goshutes are a tribe of Western Shoshone Native Americans. The Goshute lived in the most desolate part of what is now the portion of Utah. In aboriginal times they lived at a subsistence level with no economic surplus on which a more elaborate social structure could be built. Organized primarily in nuclear families, the Goshutes hunted and gathered in family groups and these gatherings often lasted no more than two to six weeks, although winter gatherings were longer, with families organizing under a dagwani, or village headman. The Goshutes hunted lizards, snakes, small fish, birds, gophers, rabbits, rats, skunks, squirrels, and, when available, pronghorn, bear, coyote, deer, elk, and Bighorn sheep. Hunting of large game was usually done by men, the hunters sharing large game with other members of the village, women and children gathered harvesting nearly 100 species of wild vegetables and seeds, the most important being the pine nut. They also gathered insects the most important being red ants, crickets, however a family was able to provide for most of its needs without assistance. Their traditional arts include beadwork and basketry, prior to contact with the Mormons, the Goshutes wintered in the Deep Creek Valley in dug out houses built of willow poles and earth known as wiki-ups. In the spring and summer they gathered wild onions, carrots and potatoes and their language is a dialect of the Shoshoni language. The Goshute are an indigenous peoples of the Great Basin, and their territory extends from the Great Salt Lake to the Steptoe Range in Nevada. Within this area, the Goshutes were concentrated in three areas, Deep Creek Valley near Ibapah on the Utah-Nevada border, Simpson’s Springs farther southeast, in the 18th and 19th centuries, Navajo and Ute slave raiders preyed upon the Goshute. Unlike their neighbors, the Goshutes only obtained horses in the late 19th century, the Goshute diet depended on the grasslands, and consisted mostly of rats, lizards, snakes, rabbits, insects, grass-seed, and roots. They could not have horses, since horses would trample the grassland, the first written description of the Goshute was made in the journal of Jedediah Smith while returning from a trip to California on his way to Bear Lake. For the next two decades white contact with the Goshutes remained sporadic and insignificant, only after the arrival of the Mormons in 1847 did the Goshutes come into continual and prolonged contact with whites. Soon 49ers and later trains of emigrant groups continually passed through their territory on the way west to California. Mormons moved into the Tooele Valley by 1855 and were wintering stock in Rush Valley, the Mormons established communities at Tooele, Grantsville, and Ibapah, all important sites to the Goshutes. Domestic livestock from these sources represented an important source of competition for the Goshutes food resources, Goshutes began to kill their livestock and threaten settlers, in a vain attempt to force the whites off of their homelands. Soon after telegraph lines were strung along that route, the treaty did not give up land or sovereignty but did agree to end all hostile actions against the whites and to allow several routes of travel to pass through their country
22.
Uto-Aztecan languages
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Uto-Aztecan or Uto-Aztekan /ˈjuːtoʊ. æzˈtɛkən/ is a Native American language family consisting of over 30 languages. Uto-Aztecan languages are found almost entirely in the Western United States, the name of the language family was created to show that it includes both the Ute language of Utah and the Aztecan languages of Mexico. The Uto-Aztecan language family is one of the largest linguistic families in the Americas in terms of number of speakers, number of languages, and geographic extension. The northernmost Uto-Aztecan language is Shoshoni, which is spoken as far north as Salmon, Idaho, Ethnologue gives the total number of languages in the family as 61, and the total number of speakers as 1,900,412. The roughly 1.5 million speakers of Nahuatl languages account for almost four-fifths of these, below this level of classification the main branches are well accepted, Numic, and the Californian languages, including Cahuilla and Luiseño, account for most of the Northern languages. Hopi and Tübatulabal are languages outside those groups, the Southern languages are divided into the Tepiman, the Tarahumaran languages including Raramuri and Guarijio language, the Cahitan languages, Corachol and Nahuan languages. The homeland of the Uto-Aztecan languages is considered to have been in the American Southwest or possibly Northwestern Mexico. Linguistic scholars have discussed the possibility that the family originated in southern Mexico. The Proto-Uto-Aztecan language is the common ancestor of the Uto-Aztecan languages. The proto-language would have been spoken by Mesolithic foragers in Aridoamerica, the homeland of the Numic languages has been placed in Southern California near Death Valley, and the homeland of the proposed Southern Uto-Aztecan group has been placed on the coast of Sonora. The geographic diffusion of speakers corresponded to the breakup of linguistic unity and this hypothesis has been criticized on several grounds, and it is not generally accepted by Uto-Aztecanists. A survey of agriculture-related vocabulary by Merrill found that the agricultural vocabulary can only be reconstructed for Southern Uto-Aztecan and this supports a conclusion that the Proto-Uto-Aztecan speech community did not practice agriculture, but only adopted it after entering Mesoamerica from the North. A recent proposal by David L. Shaul presents evidence suggesting contact between proto-Uto-Aztecan and languages of central California such as Esselen and the Yokutsan languages and this leads Shaul to suggest that proto-Uto-Aztecan was spoken in Californias Central Valley area, and formed part of an ancient Californian linguistic area. Uto-Aztecan languages are spoken in the North American mountain ranges and adjacent lowlands of the western United States, classical Nahuatl, the language of the Aztecs, and its modern relatives are part of the Uto-Aztecan family. The Pipil language, an offshoot of Nahuatl, spread to Central America by a wave of migration from Mexico, now it has gone extinct in Guatemala and Honduras, and it is nearly extinct in western El Salvador, all areas dominated by use of Spanish. Uto-Aztecan has been accepted by linguists as a family since the early 1900s, and six subgroups are accepted as valid by all experts, Numic, Takic, Pimic, Taracahitic, Corachol. This leaves two ungrouped languages—Tübatulabal and Hopi, as to higher-level groupings, disagreement has persisted since the 19th century. Presently scholars also disagree as to where to draw language boundaries within dialect continua, the similarities among the Uto-Aztecan languages were noted as early as 1859 by J. C. E
23.
Snake Indians
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Snake Indians is a collective name given to the Northern Paiute, Bannock, and Shoshone Native American tribes. The term was used as early as 1739 by French trader and explorer Pierre Gaultier de Varennes and this is probably the first written mention of the Shoshone people. The term Snakes is also used to refer the Shoshone by British explorers David Thompson and this term was widely used by American immigrants on the Oregon Trail in the Snake River and Owyhee River valleys of southern Idaho and Eastern Oregon. The term Snake Indian later included the Northern Paiute tribes found in the basins between the Cascade Mountains and these valleys in Oregon and northern Nevada and northeastern California and these people were the opponents of the California and Oregon Volunteers and U. S Army, in the Snake War. From the 1688-1720s, when the British Empire first came into prolonged trade contact with the Western Cree and Blackfoot and it is not clear if this term is meant to refer to Northern Paiute people, or if it is inaccurate, or perhaps entirely unrelated
24.
Paiute
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Paiute refers to three closely related groups of indigenous peoples of the Great Basin, Northern Paiute of California, Idaho, Nevada and Oregon. Owens Valley Paiute of California and Nevada, Southern Paiute of Arizona, southeastern California, Nevada and Utah. Their peoples have become members of federally recognized tribes, as noted in the sections below. In many locations they have colocated with peoples of the Shoshone and Washoe tribes, the Northern and Southern Paiute peoples both speak languages belonging to the Numic branch of the Uto-Aztecan family of Native American languages. The terms Paiute, Northern Paiute and Southern Paiute are most correctly applied to refer to groups of people with similar language and it does not imply a political connection or even an especially close genetic relationship. The Northern Paiute speak the Northern Paiute language, while the Southern Paiute speak the Colorado River Numic language and these languages are not as closely related to each other as they are to other Numic languages. The Bannock, Mono, Coso, Timbisha and Kawaiisu peoples, the Bannock speak a dialect of Northern Paiute. But, the Mono Tribe and other three peoples speak distinctly separate Numic languages, Mono is related closely to Northern Paiute. The Timbisha language is related closely to the Shoshoni language. The Kawaiisu language is closely related to Colorado River Numic of the Southern Paiute. The Northern Paiute traditionally have lived in the Great Basin in eastern California, western Nevada, the Northern Paiutes pre-contact lifestyle was well adapted to the harsh desert environment in which they lived. Each tribe or band occupied a territory, generally centered on a lake or wetland that supplied fish. Communal hunt drives, which often involved neighboring bands, would take rabbits, individuals and families appear to have moved freely among the bands. They gathered Pinyon nuts in the mountains in the fall as a winter food source. Women also gathered grass seeds and roots as important parts of their diet, the name of each band was derived from a characteristic food source. For example, the people at Pyramid Lake were known as the Cui Ui Ticutta, the people of the Lovelock area were known as the Koop Ticutta, meaning ground-squirrel eaters, and the people of the Carson Sink were known as the Toi Ticutta, meaning tule eaters. The Kucadikadi of Mono County, California are the brine fly eaters, relations among the Northern Paiute bands and their Shoshone neighbors were generally peaceful. There is no distinction between the Northern Paiute and Western Shoshone or Sosone
25.
Washoe people
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The Washoe are a Great Basin tribe of Native Americans, living near Lake Tahoe at the border between California and Nevada. The name Washoe is derived from the autonym waashiw meaning people from here in the Washo language, Washoe people have lived in the Great Basin and the eastern Sierra Nevada mountains for at least the last 6,000 years. The Washoe would generally spend the summer in the Sierra Nevada, especially at Lake Tahoe, the fall in the ranges to the east, and the winter and spring in the valleys between them. Washoe people are the only Great Basin tribe whose language is not Numic, the Kings Beach Complex that emerged about 500 CE around Lake Tahoe and the northern Sierra Nevadas are regarded as early Washoe culture. The Martis complex may have overlapped with the Kings Beach culture, the Washoe people and the neighboring Northern Paiute people were culturally and linguistically very different, and they sometimes came into conflict and were often enslaved by them. Washoe people may have contact with Spanish explorers in the early 19th century. The areas where they settled became known as Indian colonies, piñon pine nuts gathered in the fall provided much of the food eaten in the winter. Roots, seeds, berries and game provided much of the food eaten during the rest of the year, the Washoe people were also deeply knowledgeable about their land and where resources were plentiful. This included an understanding of the cycles of both plants and animals. Wašiw people were dependent on fishing at Lake Tahoe and the surrounding streams. The Pine Nut Dance and girls puberty rites remain very important ceremonies, the Wašiw people once relied on medicine men and their innate knowledge of medicinal plants and ceremonies. Much of this knowledge and activity has been lost due to contact with the Western world, the Washoe language has been regarded as a language isolate, However, it is sometimes tentatively regarded as part of the controversial Hokan language family. The language is written in the Latin script, the Wašiw language is now considered a moribund language as only a handful of fluent elder speakers use the language. There has been a recent revival of the language and culture within the Tribe, Wašiw Wagayay Maŋal was the first attempt by the Wašiw people to renew their language for the future generations. The tribe currently relies on the tribal Cultural Resource Department to provide classes to the community. However, there has recently been a shift within the tribe. The colony in Reno, Nevada, which also had a substantial Paiute and Shoshoni population, there is evidence that some Washoe settled in the southwest region of Montana. The Susanville Rancheria includes Washoe members, as well as Northern Paiute, Northeastern Maidu, Achomawi, Washo Tales, Three Original Washo Indian Legends
26.
Meriwether Lewis
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They also collected scientific data, and information on indigenous nations. President Thomas Jefferson appointed him Governor of Upper Louisiana in 1806 and he died of gunshot wounds in what was either a murder or suicide, in 1809. Meriwether Lewis was born in Albemarle County, Colony of Virginia and he was the son of Lt. William Lewis of Locust Hill, who was of Welsh ancestry, and Lucy Meriwether, daughter of Thomas Meriwether and Elizabeth Thornton, who were both of English ancestry. After his father died of pneumonia, he moved with his mother and stepfather Captain John Marks to Georgia in May 1780 and they settled along the Broad River in the Goosepond Community within the Broad River Valley in Wilkes County. Lewis had no formal education until he was 13 years of age and he would often venture out in the middle of the night in the dead of winter with only his dog to go hunting. Even at an age, he was interested in natural history. His mother taught him how to gather wild herbs for medicinal purposes, in the Broad River Valley, Lewis first dealt with American Indians. This was the territory of the Cherokee, who resented encroachment by the colonists. Lewis seems to have been a champion for them among his own people, while in Georgia, he met Eric Parker, who encouraged him to travel. At thirteen, Lewis was sent back to Virginia for education by private tutors and his fathers older brother Nicholas Lewis became his guardian. One of his tutors was Parson Matthew Maury, an uncle of Matthew Fontaine Maury, in 1793, Lewis graduated from Liberty Hall. That year he joined the Virginia militia, and in 1794 he was sent as part of a detachment involved in putting down the Whiskey Rebellion, in 1795 Lewis joined the U. S. Army, commissioned as an Ensign. By 1800 he rose to Captain, and ended his service there in 1801, among his commanding officers was William Clark, who would later become his companion in the Corps of Discovery. On April 1,1801, Lewis was appointed as an aide by President Thomas Jefferson, Lewis resided in the presidential mansion, and frequently conversed with various prominent figures in politics, the arts and other circles. When Jefferson began to plan for an expedition across the continent, Meriwether Lewis recruited Clark, then age 33, to share command of the expedition. After the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, Thomas Jefferson wanted to get a sense of the new land. The President also hoped to find a direct and practicable water communication across this continent, in addition, Jefferson placed special importance on declaring U. S. sovereignty over the Native Americans along the Missouri River. When they left Fort Mandan in April 1805 they were accompanied by the sixteen-year-old Shoshone Indian woman, Sacagawea, the Corps of Discovery made contact with many Native Americans in the trans-Mississippi West and found them accustomed to dealing with European traders and already connected to global markets
27.
Duck Valley Indian Reservation
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The Duck Valley Indian Reservation was established in the 19th century for the federally recognized Shoshone-Paiute Tribe. It is isolated in the desert of the western United States, and lies directly on the state line. The total land area is 450.391 square miles, a resident population of 1,265 persons was reported in the 2000 census, more than 80 percent of whom lived on the Nevada side. In October 2016 the Nevada Native Nations Land Act was passed to put Bureau of Land Management, the Shoshone-Paiute Tribe will have 82 acres of Forest Service land added to their reservation. Some other tribes are receiving thousands of acres of trust lands, gaming is prohibited on the new lands. The only significant community on the reservation is Owyhee, Nevada, Owyhee is nearly equidistant from the two nearest major cities,98 miles north of Elko, Nevada, the county seat of the county by that name, and 97 miles south of Mountain Home, Idaho. On April 16,1877, President Rutherford B. Hayes established the Duck Valley Western Shoshone Reservation by Executive Order, the bands chiefs successfully resisted these efforts to be displaced from their lands. Meanwhile, the Northern Paiute band joined with another branch of Shoshone in the Bannock War of 1878, survivors were sent to a prisoner-of-war camp at the Yakama Indian Reservation in Yakima County, Washington. Upon their release, the Northern Paiute returned to the Duck Valley, President Grover Cleveland expanded the reservation by Executive Order on May 4,1886 to accommodate the Paiute. President William Howard Taft expanded the reservation to its current size by Executive Order on July 1,1910 and it was unusual to have two federal government actions to enlarge the reservation after it was established, most federal actions have been taken to reduce the size of Indian reservations. The Shoshone-Paiute Tribe of Duck Valley is one of five federally recognized tribes in the state of Idaho, the others are the Coeur dAlene, Kootenai Tribe of Idaho, Nez Perce, and Shoshone-Bannock. It is one of several federally recognized tribes in Nevada, some of which include other Shoshone,1979, water rights activist and wife of American Indian Movement chairman, John Trudell, 1972-1979. - Idaho State Highway 51 heads north to Bruneau and on to Mountain Home, - Nevada State Route 225 heads south to Elko and Interstate 80 Duck Valley Shoshone-Paiute Tribes Duck Valley Indian Reservation, Idaho/Nevada United States Census Bureau
28.
Idaho State University
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Idaho State University is a Carnegie-classified doctoral research and teaching institution in the western United States, located in Pocatello, Idaho. It is the designated lead institution in health professions and medical education. There are 48 U. S. states and 59 countries represented at ISU and 285 programs, including Masters, the student-teacher ratio is 17,1, gender of students is 44 percent male,56 percent female, and ISU has more than 160 clubs and organizations. Enrollment for the semester in 2012 stood at 14,209. On March 11,1901, Governor Frank W. Hunt signed Senate Bill 53, to establish the Academy of Idaho, theodore F. Turner, mayor of Pocatello, settled the issue of the placement of the academy. The Academy of Idaho was officially opened in Pocatello on May 1,19012, theodore Swanson, a member of the board of trustees, secured the services of John W. Faris as the first administrator, with the title of principal. Classes officially began in September 1902, by 1910, enrollment had reached nearly 300 students, and the academy had purchased four additional city blocks in Pocatello to help meet its growing needs. In 1915, the Academy of Idaho was renamed Idaho Technical Institute, the end of World War I brought an influx of students to the school, and enrollment surged to over 1,000. The early 1920s saw the beginning of competition in intercollegiate athletics, at this time the institute adopted the Bengal as the school mascot, head football coach Ralph Hutchinson was an alumnus of Princeton, a school with orange and black theme colors and a tiger mascot. It was renamed again in 1927, this time as the University of Idaho—Southern Branch, during World War II, Idaho was one of 131 colleges and universities nationally that took part in the V-12 Navy College Training Program, which offered students a path to a Navy commission. Nichols decided to leave the college, and named Carl McIntosh and that March, the school was elevated to four-year status and became Idaho State College. Nichols was so impressed with McIntoshs public speaking skills that he persuaded the Board of Regents to appoint McIntosh the first president of the new college. At 32 years of age, he was one of the youngest college presidents in the United States, the college was accredited as a four-year degree granting institution in December 1948. McIntosh left ISC in 1959 to become president of Long Beach State College, in 1963, ISC was renamed for the fifth and final time to Idaho State University, reflecting its new status as a full four-year public university. In the ensuing years, ISU continuously expanded both its enrollment and the programs it offered, however, Bowen resigned after a vote of no confidence from the faculty, who were angered by generous pay raises for administration members in the midst of calls for fiscal austerity. Arthur Vailas, former chancellor of the University of Houston System and vice president of the University of Houston in Texas. He succeeded Michael Gallagher, who had served as president since Bowens retirement in 2005. In February 2011, the ISU faculty voted no confidence in Vailas and this was also followed by a vote of no confidence by the students
29.
Wind River Mountains
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The Wind River Range, is a mountain range of the Rocky Mountains in western Wyoming in the United States. The range runs roughly NW-SE for approximately 100 miles, the Continental Divide follows the crest of the range and includes Gannett Peak, which at 13,804 feet, is the highest peak in Wyoming. There are more than 40 other named peaks in excess of 13,000 feet, with the exception of the Grand Teton in the Teton Range, the next 19 highest peaks in Wyoming after Gannett are also in the Winds. Two large National Forests including three wilderness areas encompass most of the mountain range, Shoshone National Forest is on the eastern side of the continental divide while Bridger-Teton National Forest is on the west. Both National Forests and the mountain range are an integral part of the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. Portions of the range are also inside the Wind River Indian Reservation, indigenous peoples of the Great Basin, such as the Shoshones and Absarokas Native Americans, lived in the range beginning 7000 and 9000 years ago. Villages as high as 10,000 feet in elevation, dating from 700 to 2000 BC, have recently studied by archaeologists. These villages were established by the Sheepeater band of Shoshone during pine nut harvesting season, one, dubbed High Rise, has 60 lodges over a space of 26 acres and was recently added to the National Register of Historic Places. Climbing was pursued in the mid to late 1800s by men such as John C, fremont, typically for the purpose of surveying the region. Early climbers to come purely for recreation began arriving in the 1920s, Gannett Peak, the range and Wyomings tallest, was first climbed by Arthur Tate and Floyd Stahlnaker in 1922. Most of the climbing in the region focused around the Titcomb Basin. Today, the Titcomb Basin remains one of the areas busiest recreation attractions along with the Cirque of the Towers to the south, the Winds are composed primarily of a granitic batholith which is granite rock formed deep under the surface of the Earth, over one billion years ago. Over hundreds of millions of years, rocks that were once covering this batholith eroded away, as the land continued to rise during the Laramide orogeny, further erosion occurred until all that remained were the granitic rocks. The ice ages beginning 500,000 years ago began carving the rocks into their present shapes, several of these are the largest glaciers in the U. S. Several major rivers have headwaters on either side of the range, the Green and Big Sandy rivers drain southward from the west side of the range, while the Wind River drains eastward through the Shoshone Basin. These lakes range in size from less than 3 acres to over 200 acres, historically, the lakes and streams of the Bridger Wilderness were devoid of fish, as were most alpine lakes throughout the Rocky Mountains. The first known transplant of fish into the area took place in 1907 when Colorado River cutthroat trout were introduced into North Fork Lake. Considerable fish stocking by individuals, the U. S. Forest Service, the Winds are known to have a small grizzly bear population, primarily in the northernmost areas
30.
Great Basin
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The Great Basin is the largest area of contiguous endorheic watersheds in North America. The region spans several physiographic divisions, biomes/ecoregions, and deserts, the term Great Basin is applied to hydrographic, biological, floristic, physiographic, topographic, and ethnographic geographic areas. The name was coined by John C. Frémont, who, based on information gleaned from Joseph R. Walker as well as his own travels, the hydrographic definition is the most commonly used, and is the only one with a definitive border. The other definitions yield not only different geographical boundaries of Great Basin regions, the Great Basin physiographic section is a geographic division of the Basin and Range Province defined by Nevin Fenneman in 1931. The United States Geological Survey adapted Fennemans scheme in their Physiographic division of the United States, the section is somewhat larger than the hydrographic definition. The culture area covers approximately 400,000 sq mi, or just less than twice the area of the hydrographic Great Basin, the hydrographic Great Basin is a 209,162 square miles area that drains internally. All precipitation in the region evaporates, sinks underground or flows into lakes, as observed by Frémont, creeks, streams, or rivers find no outlet to either the Gulf of Mexico or the Pacific Ocean. The region is bounded by the Wasatch Mountains to the east, the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Ranges to the west, the south rim is less distinct. The Great Basin includes most of Nevada, half of Utah, substantial portions of Oregon and California and small areas of Idaho, Wyoming, the term Great Basin is slightly misleading, the region is actually made up of many small basins. The Great Salt Lake, Pyramid Lake, and the Humboldt Sink are a few of the drains in the Great Basin, the Salton Sink is another closed basin within the Great Basin. The Great Basin Divide separates the Great Basin from the watersheds draining to the Pacific Ocean, the southernmost portion of the Great Basin is the watershed area of the Laguna Salada. The Great Basins longest and largest river is the Bear River of 350 mi, Lake Tahoe, North Americas largest alpine lake, is part of the Great Basins central Lahontan subregion. The hydrographic Great Basin contains multiple deserts and ecoregions, each with its own set of flora. The ecological boundaries and divisions in the Great Basin are unclear, the Great Basin overlaps four different deserts, portions of the hot Mojave and Colorado Deserts to the south, and the cold Great Basin and Oregon High Deserts in the north. The deserts can be distinguished by their plants, the Joshua tree and creosote bush occur in the hot deserts, the cold deserts are generally higher than the hot, and have their precipitation spread throughout the year. The climate and flora of the Great Basin is strongly dependent on elevation, as the elevation increases, because of this, forests occur at higher elevations. Utah juniper/single-leaf pinyon and mountain mahogany form open pinyon-juniper woodland on the slopes of most ranges, stands of limber pine and Great Basin bristlecone pine can be found in some of the higher ranges
31.
Rocky Mountains
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The Rocky Mountains, commonly known as the Rockies, are a major mountain range in western North America. The Rocky Mountains stretch more than 3,000 miles from the northernmost part of British Columbia, in western Canada, to New Mexico, in the Southwestern United States. Within the North American Cordillera, the Rockies are somewhat distinct from the Pacific Coast Ranges, the Rocky Mountains were initially formed from 80 million to 55 million years ago during the Laramide orogeny, in which a number of plates began to slide underneath the North American plate. The angle of subduction was shallow, resulting in a belt of mountains running down western North America. Since then, further tectonic activity and erosion by glaciers have sculpted the Rockies into dramatic peaks, at the end of the last ice age, humans started to inhabit the mountain range. The first mention of their present name by a European was in the journal of Jacques Legardeur de Saint-Pierre in 1752, the Rocky Mountains are commonly defined as stretching from the Liard River in British Columbia south to the Rio Grande in New Mexico. The United States definition of the Rockies includes the Cabinet and Salish Mountains of Idaho and their counterparts north of the Kootenai River, the Columbia Mountains, are considered a separate system in Canada, lying to the west of the huge Rocky Mountain Trench. This runs the length of British Columbia from its beginnings in the middle Flathead River valley in western Montana to the bank of the Liard River. The Rockies vary in width from 70 to 300 miles, also west of the Rocky Mountain Trench, farther north and facing the Muskwa Range across the trench, are the Stikine Ranges and Omineca Mountains of the Interior Mountains system of British Columbia. A small area east of Prince George, British Columbia on the side of the Trench. In Canada geographers define three main groups of ranges, the Continental Ranges, Hart Ranges and Muskwa Ranges, the Muskwa and Hart Ranges together comprise what is known as the Northern Rockies. The western edge of the Rockies includes ranges such as the Wasatch near Salt Lake City, the Great Basin and Columbia River Plateau separate these sub-ranges from distinct ranges further to the west, most prominent among which are the Sierra Nevada, Cascade Range and Coast Mountains. The Rocky Mountain System within the United States is a United States physiographic region, the Rocky Mountains are notable for containing the highest peaks in central North America. The ranges highest peak is Mount Elbert located in Colorado at 14,440 feet above sea level, Mount Robson in British Columbia, at 12,972 feet, is the highest peak in the Canadian Rockies. The Continental Divide of the Americas is located in the Rocky Mountains, triple Divide Peak in Glacier National Park is so named because water that falls on the mountain reaches not only the Atlantic and Pacific, but Hudson Bay as well. Farther north in Alberta, the Athabasca and other rivers feed the basin of the Mackenzie River, see Rivers of the Rocky Mountains for a list of rivers. Human population is not very dense in the Rocky Mountains, with an average of four people per square kilometer, however, the human population grew rapidly in the Rocky Mountain states between 1950 and 1990. The 40-year statewide increases in range from 35% in Montana to about 150% in Utah
32.
Great Plains
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The region is known for supporting extensive cattle ranching and dry farming. The Canadian portion of the Plains is known as the Prairies, some geographers include some territory of northern Mexico in the Plains, but many stop at the Rio Grande. The term Great Plains is used in the United States to describe a sub-section of the even more vast Interior Plains physiographic division and it also has currency as a region of human geography, referring to the Plains Indians or the Plains States. There is no region referred to as the Great Plains in The Atlas of Canada, in terms of human geography, the term prairie is more commonly used in Canada, and the region is known as the Prairie Provinces or simply the Prairies. The region is about 500 mi east to west and 2,000 mi north to south, much of the region was home to American bison herds until they were hunted to near extinction during the mid/late 19th century. It has an area of approximately 500,000 sq mi, current thinking regarding the geographic boundaries of the Great Plains is shown by this map at the Center for Great Plains Studies, University of Nebraska–Lincoln. The term Great Plains, for the region west of about the 96th or 98th meridian, nevin Fennemans 1916 study, Physiographic Subdivision of the United States, brought the term Great Plains into more widespread usage. Before that the region was almost invariably called the High Plains, today the term High Plains is used for a subregion of the Great Plains. The Great Plains are the westernmost portion of the vast North American Interior Plains, during the Cretaceous Period, the Great Plains were covered by a shallow inland sea called the Western Interior Seaway. However, during the Late Cretaceous to the Paleocene, the seaway had begun to recede, leaving thick marine deposits. During the Cenozoic era, specifically about 25 million years ago during the Miocene and Pliocene epochs, existing forest biomes declined and grasslands became much more widespread. The grasslands provided a new niche for mammals, including many ungulates and glires, traditionally, the spread of grasslands and the development of grazers have been strongly linked. The vast majority of animals became extinct in North America at the end of the Pleistocene. In general, the Great Plains have a variety of weather through the year, with very cold and harsh winters and very hot. Wind speeds are very high, especially in winter. Grasslands are among the least protected biomes, humans have converted much of the prairies for agricultural purposes or to create pastures. The Great Plains have dust storms mostly every year or so, the 100th meridian roughly corresponds with the line that divides the Great Plains into an area that receive 20 in or more of rainfall per year and an area that receives less than 20 in. The region is subjected to extended periods of drought, high winds in the region may then generate devastating dust storms
33.
Blackfoot
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The Siksika, the Kainai or Kainah, and the Northern Piegan or Peigan or Piikani reside in Canada, the Southern Piegan/Piegan Blackfeet or Pikuni are located in the United States. They followed the herds as they migrated between what are now the United States and Canada, as far north as the Bow River. In the first half of the 18th century, they acquired horses and firearms from white traders and their Cree, the Blackfoot used these to expand their territory at the expense of neighboring tribes. Now riding horses, the Blackfoot and other Plains tribes could also extend the range of their buffalo hunts, periods of starvation and deprivation followed, and the Blackfoot tribe was forced to adopt ranching and farming, settling in permanent reservations. In the 1870s, they signed treaties with both the United States and Canada, ceding most of their lands in exchange for annuities of food and medical aid, as well as help in learning to farm. Nevertheless, the Blackfoot have worked to maintain their traditional language, originally the Blackfoot/Plains Confederacy consisted of three peoples based on kinship and dialect, but all speaking the common language of Blackfoot, one of the Algonquian languages family. The three were the Piikáni, the Káínaa, and the Siksikáwa and they later allied with the unrelated Tsuu Tina, who became merged into the Confederacy and, with the Atsina, or Aaninin. Each of these highly decentralized peoples were divided into many bands, the band was the basic unit of organization for hunting and defence. The largest ethnic group in the Confederacy is the Piegan, also spelled Peigan or Pikuni and their name derives from the Blackfoot term Piikáni. They are divided into the Piikani Nation in present-day Alberta, a once large and mighty division of the Piegan were the Inuksik of southwestern Montana. Today they survive only as a clan or band of the South Peigan, the modern Kainai Nation is named for the Blackfoot-language term Káínaa, meaning Many Chief people. These were historically called the Blood, from a Plains Cree name for the Kainai, Miko-Ew. The common English name for the tribe is Blood or the Blood tribe, the Siksika Nations name derives from Siksikáwa, meaning Those of like. The Siksika also call themselves Sao-kitapiiksi, meaning Plains People, the Sarcee call themselves the Tsu T’ina, meaning a great number of people. During early years of conflict, the Blackfoot called them Saahsi or Sarsi, the Sarcee are from an entirely different language family, they are part of the Athabascan or Dené language family, most of whose members are located in the Subarctic of Northern Canada. Specifically, the Sarcee are an offshoot of the Beaver people and they later joined the Confederacy and essentially merged with the Pikuni. The Gros Ventre people call themselves the Haaninin, also spelled Aaninin, the French called them Gros Ventres, misinterpreting a physical sign for waterfall, and the English called them the Fall Indians, related to waterfalls in the mountains. The Blackfoot referred to them as the Piik-siik-sii-naa or Atsina, because of years of enmity, early scholars thought the Aaninin were related to the Arapaho Nation, who inhabited the Missouri Plains and moved west to Colorado and Wyoming
34.
Crow Nation
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In the 21st century, the Crow people are a Federally recognized tribe known as the Crow Tribe of Montana, and have a reservation located in the south central part of the state. From there, they were pushed to the west by the Cheyenne, the Cheyenne eventually became allies of the Lakota, as they sought to expel European Americans from the area. The Crow remained bitter enemies of both the Sioux and Cheyenne, the Crow were generally friendly with the whites and managed to retain a large reservation of more than 9300 km2 despite territorial losses. Since the 19th century, Crow people have been concentrated on their reservation established south of Billings and they also live in several major, mainly western, cities. Tribal headquarters are located at Crow Agency, Montana, the name of the tribe, Apsáalooke, meaning children of the large-beaked bird, was given to them by the Hidatsa, a neighboring Siouan-speaking tribe. French interpreters translated the name as gens du corbeaux, and they became known in English as the Crow, Other tribes also refer to the Apsáalooke as crow or raven in their own languages. In 1743 the Absaroka encountered their first people of European descent, the explorers called the Apsáalooke beaux hommes. The Crow called the French explorers baashchíile, the early home of the Crow-Hidatsa ancestral tribe was in the Ohio country, near Lake Erie. Driven from there by armed, aggressive neighbors, they settled for a while south of Lake Winnipeg in Manitoba. Later the people moved to the Devils Lake region of North Dakota before the Crow split from the Hidatsa, the Crow were largely pushed westward due to intrusion and influx of the Cheyenne and subsequently the Sioux, also known as the Lakota. To acquire control of their new territory, they warred against Shoshone bands and they allied with local Kiowa and Kiowa Apache bands. The Kiowa and Kiowa Apache bands later migrated southward, and the Crow remained dominant in their area through the 18th and 19th centuries. Formerly semi-nomad hunters and farmers in the woodland, they adapted to the nomadic lifestyle of the Plains Indians as hunters and gatherers. Before 1700, they were using dog travois for carrying goods, from about 1740, the Plains tribes rapidly adopted the horse, which allowed them to move out on to the Plains and hunt buffalo more effectively. However, the winters in the North kept their herds smaller than those of Plains tribes in the South. The Crow, Hidatsa, Eastern Shoshone and Northern Shoshone soon became noted as horse breeders and dealers, at the time, other eastern and northern tribes were also moving on to the Plains, in search of game for the fur trade, bison, and more horses. The Crow were subject to raids and horse thefts by horse-poor tribes, including the powerful Blackfoot Confederacy, Gros Ventre, Assiniboine, Pawnee, later they had to face the Lakota and their allies, the Arapaho and Cheyenne, who also stole horses from their enemies. Their greatest enemies became the tribes of the Blackfoot Confederacy and the Lakota-Cheyenne-Arapaho alliance, the Crow were generally friendly with the northern Plains tribes of the Flathead, Nez Perce, Kutenai, Shoshone, Kiowa and Kiowa Apache
35.
Lakota people
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They speak the Lakota language, the westernmost of the three Siouan language groups, occupying lands in both North and South Dakota. Siouan language speakers may have originated in the lower Mississippi River region and they were agriculturalists and may have been part of the Mound Builder civilization during the 9th–12th centuries CE. In the late 16th and early 17th centuries, Dakota-Lakota speakers lived in the upper Mississippi Region in present-day Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa, conflicts with Anishnaabe and Cree peoples pushed the Lakota west onto the Great Plains in the mid- to late-17th century. Early Lakota history is recorded in their Winter counts, pictorial calendars painted on hides or later recorded on paper, the Battiste Good winter count records Lakota history back to 900 CE, when White Buffalo Calf Woman gave the Lakota people the White Buffalo Calf Pipe. Around 1730, Cheyenne people introduced the Lakota to horses, called šuŋkawakaŋ, after their adoption of horse culture, Lakota society centered on the buffalo hunt on horseback. The total population of the Sioux was estimated at 28,000 by French explorers in 1660, the Lakota population was first estimated at 8,500 in 1805, growing steadily and reaching 16,110 in 1881. The Lakota were, thus, one of the few Native American tribes to increase in population in the 19th century, the number of Lakota has now increased to more than 170,000, of whom about 2,000 still speak the Lakota language. However, by about 1750 the Saône had moved to the east bank of the Missouri River, followed 10 years later by the Oglála, the large and powerful Arikara, Mandan, and Hidatsa villages had long prevented the Lakota from crossing the Missouri. However, the smallpox epidemic of 1772–1780 destroyed three-quarters of these tribes. The Lakota crossed the river into the drier, short-grass prairies of the High Plains and these newcomers were the Saône, well-mounted and increasingly confident, who spread out quickly. In 1765, a Saône exploring and raiding party led by Chief Standing Bear discovered the Black Hills, ten years later, the Oglála and Brulé also crossed the river. In 1776, the Lakota defeated the Cheyenne, who had taken the region from the Kiowa. The Cheyenne then moved west to the Powder River country, initial United States contact with the Lakota during the Lewis and Clark Expedition of 1804–1806 was marked by a standoff. Lakota bands refused to allow the explorers to continue upstream, and the expedition prepared for battle, some bands of Lakotas became the first Indians to help the United States Army in an Indian war west of the Missiouri during the Arikara War in 1823. In 1843, the southern Lakotas attacked Pawnee Chief Blue Coats village near the Loup in Nebraska, killing many, next time the Lakotas inflicted a blow so severe on the Pawnee would be in 1873, during the Massacre Canyon battle near Republican River. The Cheyenne and Lakota had previously attacked emigrant parties in a competition for resources, the Fort Laramie Treaty acknowledged Lakota sovereignty over the Great Plains in exchange for free passage on the Oregon Trail for as long as the river flows and the eagle flies. The United States government did not enforce the treaty restriction against unauthorized settlement, Lakota and other bands attacked settlers and even emigrant trains, causing public pressure on the U. S. Army to punish the hostiles. On September 3,1855,700 soldiers under American General William S. Harney avenged the Grattan Massacre by attacking a Lakota village in Nebraska, killing about 100 men, women, and children
36.
Cheyenne
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The Cheyenne are one of the Indigenous peoples of the Great Plains and their language is of the Algonquian language family. The Cheyenne comprise two Native American tribes, the Sótaeoo or Sótaétaneoo and the Tsétsêhéstâhese and these tribes merged in the early 19th century. At the time of their first contact with the Europeans, the Cheyenne were living in the area of what is now Minnesota, at times they have been allied with the Lakota and Arapaho, and at other points enemies of the Lakota. In the early 18th century they migrated west across the Mississippi River and into North and South Dakota, having settled the Black Hills of South Dakota and the Powder River Country of present-day Montana, they introduced the horse culture to Lakota bands about 1730. Allied with the Arapaho, the Cheyenne pushed the Kiowa to the Southern Plains, in turn, they were pushed west by the more numerous Lakota. The Cheyenne Nation or Tsêhéstáno was at one time composed of ten bands that spread across the Great Plains from southern Colorado to the Black Hills in South Dakota and they fought their traditional enemies, the Crow and later the United States Army forces. In the mid-19th century, the bands began to split, with some choosing to remain near the Black Hills. Tribal enrollment figures, as of late 2014, indicate there are approximately 10,840 members. Approximately 91% of the population are Native Americans, with 72. 8% identifying themselves as Cheyenne, slightly more than one quarter of the population five years or older spoke a language other than English. The Southern Cheyenne, known in Cheyenne as Heévâhetaneoo meaning Roped People, together with the Southern Arapaho, form the Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes and their combined population is 12,130, as of 2008. In 2003, approximately 8,000 of these identified themselves as Cheyenne, the Tsétsêhéstâhese, which translates to those who are like this. Though the identity of the Šahíya is not known, many Great Plains tribes assume it means Cree or some people who spoke an Algonquian language related to Cree. The Cheyenne word for Ojibwe is Sáheaeoo, a word that sounds similar to the Dakota word Šahíya, another of the common etymologies for Cheyenne is a bit like the alien speech. The etymology of the name Tsitsistas, which the Cheyennes call themselves, is uncertain, grinnells record is typical, he states They call themselves Tsistsistas, which the books commonly give as meaning people. It most likely related to one another, similarly bred, like us, our people. The term for the Cheyenne homeland is Tsiihistano, the Cheyenne of Montana and Oklahoma speak the Cheyenne language, known as Tsêhésenêstsestôtse. Approximately 800 people speak Cheyenne in Oklahoma, there are only a handful of vocabulary differences between the two locations. The Cheyenne alphabet contains 14 letters, the Cheyenne language is one of the larger Algonquian-language group
37.
Arapaho
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The Arapaho are a tribe of Native Americans historically living on the plains of Colorado and Wyoming. They were close allies of the Cheyenne tribe and loosely aligned with the Lakota and Dakota, the Arapaho language, Heenetiit, is an Algonquian language closely related to Gros Ventre, whose people are seen as an early offshoot of the Arapaho. Blackfeet and Cheyenne are the other Algonquian-speakers on the Plains, by the 1850s, Arapaho bands formed two tribes, the Northern Arapaho and Southern Arapaho. Since 1878, the Northern Arapaho have lived with the Eastern Shoshone on the Wind River Reservation in Wyoming and are recognized as the Arapahoe Tribe of the Wind River Reservation. The Southern Arapaho live with the Southern Cheyenne in Oklahoma, together, their members are enrolled as the federally recognized Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes. It is uncertain where the word Arapaho came from and it may have come from the Pawnee word for trader, iriiraraapuhu, or it may have been a corruption of a Crow word for tattoo. The Arapaho autonym is Hinonoeino or Inun-ina, when referring to the tribe they use Hinonoeiteen and they were also known as Hitanwoiv or Hetanevoeo/Hetanevoeoo by their Cheyenne allies or Mahpíyato by Dakota, Maȟpíya thó by Lakota and Assiniboine. The Caddo called them Detsekayaa, the Wichita Niarharis-kûrikiwaahûski, and the Comanche Saria Tʉhka / Säretika, to Pawnee, Ute and other tribes they were also known as “dog-eaters”. The Northern Arapaho were also known as BSakuunena, the Cheyenne adapted the Arapaho terms and referred to the Northern Arapaho as Vanohetan or Vanohetaneo/ Vánoétaneoo and to the Southern Arapaho as Nomsennat or Nomseneo. The Arapaho recognize among themselves five main divisions, each speaking a different dialect and apparently representing as many originally distinct, through much of Arapaho history, each tribal-nation maintained a separate ethnic identity, although they occasionally came together and acted as political allies. Each also spoke mutually intelligible dialects, but there existed a degree of difference from Arapaho proper, dialectically, the Haaninin, Beesowuunenno, and Hinonoeino were closely related. Arapaho elders claimed that the Hánahawuuena dialect was the most difficult to comprehend of all the dialects, Hánahawuuena, Hananaxawuunenan or Aanûnhawa, occupying territory adjacent to, but further north of the Nanwacinahaana, spoke the now extinct Haanahawunena dialect. Hinonoeino or Hinanaeinan, they spoke the Arapaho language Beesowuunenno, Baasanwuunenan or Bäsawunena and their war parties used temporary brush shelters like the dome-shaped shade or Sweat lodge of the Great Lakes Algonquian peoples. They are said to have left their old homes more recently than the other Arapaho tribes, before their historic geo-political ethnogensis, each tribal-nation had a principal headman. The exact date of the fusion or fission of each social division is not known. Both sacred objects traditionally were kept by the Beesowuunenno, the different tribal-nations lived together and the Beesowuunenno have dispersed for at least 150 years among the former distinct Arapaho tribal groups. They keep the sacred tribal articles, and are considered the nucleus or mother tribe of the Arapaho and they absorbed the historic Hánahawuuena and Beesowuunenno. There are still about 50 people of Beesowuunenno-lineage among the Northern Arapaho, Southern Arapaho, Náwunena or Noowunenno, are called by the Northern Arapaho Nawathineha, the Kiowa know them as Ähayädal, the name for the wild plum
38.
Comanche Nation
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The Comanche people are federally recognized as the Comanche Nation, headquartered in Lawton, Oklahoma. Post-contact, the Comanches were hunter-gatherers with a horse culture, there may have been as many as 45,000 Comanches in the late 18th century. They were the dominant tribe on the Southern Plains and often took captives from weaker tribes during warfare, selling them as slaves to the Spanish and they also took thousands of captives from the Spanish, Mexican, and American settlers. Today, the Comanche Nation has 15,191 members, approximately 7,763 of whom reside in tribal jurisdictional area around the Lawton, Fort Sill, the Comanche Nation Homecoming Powwow is held annually in Walters, Oklahoma in mid-July. The Comanche language is a Numic language of the Uto-Aztecan family, only about 1% of Comanches speak their language today. The name Comanche is from the Ute name for them, kɨmantsi, the Comanche Nation is headquartered in Lawton, Oklahoma. Their tribal jurisdictional area is located in Caddo, Comanche, Cotton, Grady, Jefferson, Kiowa, Stephens, membership of the tribe requires a 1/8 blood quantum. The tribe operates its own housing authority and issues tribal vehicle tags and they have their own Department of Higher Education, primarily awarding scholarships and financial aid for members college educations. Additionally, they operate the Comanche Nation College in Lawton, Oklahoma and they own ten tribal smoke shops and four casinos. The casinos are Comanche Nation Casino in Lawton, Comanche Red River Casino in Devol, Comanche Spur Casino, in Elgin, in 2002, the tribe founded the Comanche Nation College, a two-year tribal college in Lawton. Each July Comanches from across the United States gather to celebrate their heritage and culture in Walters, the Comanche Nation Fair is held every September. The Comanche Little Ponies host two annual dances—one over New Years and one in May, the Comanche emerged as a distinct group shortly before 1700, when they broke off from the Shoshone people living along the upper Platte River in Wyoming. In 1680, the Comanche acquired horses from the Pueblo Indians after the Pueblo Revolt and they separated from the Shoshone after this, as the horses allowed them greater mobility in their search for better hunting grounds. The horse was a key element in the emergence of a distinctive Comanche culture and they only just fall short of possessing all of the conveniences of the earth, and have no need to covet the trade pursued by the rest of the Indians. Their original migration took them to the southern Great Plains, into a sweep of territory extending from the Arkansas River to central Texas. They reached present-day New Mexico and the Texas Panhandle by 1700, forcing the Lipan Apache people ever southward, by 1777, the Lipan Apache had retreated to the Rio Grande and the Mescalero Apache to Coahuila. The Comanche never formed a single cohesive unit, but were divided into almost a dozen autonomous groups. These groups shared the language and culture, and rarely fought each other
39.
Chief Pocatello
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Chief Pocatello was a leader of the Shoshone, a Native American people in western North America. He led attacks against early settlers during a time of increasing strife between settlers and Native Americans, after making peace with the United States, he moved his people to their present reservation in Idaho and led the Shoshone during their struggle to survive following their relocation. The city of Pocatello, Idaho is named in his honor and he was the leader at the time of the United States arrival into Utah in the late 1840s. In the 1850s he led a series of attacks against emigrant parties in the Utah Territory and he gained a reputation among Mormon leaders and Indian agents as a leader of a band of Native Americans. In January 1863, Pocatello received advance notice of the advance of U. S. Army troops from Fort Douglas under Colonel Patrick Edward Connor, Pocatello was able to lead his people out of harms way from the Army, thus avoiding the catastrophe of the Bear River Massacre. Pocatello sued for peace after pursuit from the Army, with the Fort Bridger Treaty of 1868, the chief agreed to relocate his people to the Fort Hall Indian Reservation along the Snake River. Although the U. S. government had promised $5,000 in annual supplies, although the missionaries willingly baptized the Shoshone, the local population of white settlers did not receive the Shoshone openly and agitated for their expulsion. In response, the U. S. Army forced the Shoshone to return to the Fort Hall Reservation, in the late 1870s Pocatello granted a right-of-way to Jay Gould to extend the Utah and Northern Railway across the Fort Hall Indian Reservation. The extension of the railroad was motivated by the flood of settlers into the Idaho Territory following the discovery of gold. The city of Pocatello, Idaho, founded along the railroad during this time, is named after him, after his death in 1884, Pocatellos body was interred in a deep spring in Idaho along with his clothing, guns, knives, and hunting equipment. Eighteen horses were slaughtered and put into the spring on top of his body. In 1918 John Rees published a list of Idaho place names called the Idaho Nomenclature. His derivation of Pokatello included po road, ka not, and tello to follow, and Rees offered the meaning, He does not follow the road, referring to the chiefs stealthy habits and thieving raids. An earlier reference to Pocataro occurred in 1859, when F. W. Lander, Superintendent of the U. S. Overland Wagon Road, met Chief Pocatello, linguist Sven Liljeblad believed that Landers encounter with Chief Pocatello was the first reference to the name. Liljeblad refuted John Rees syllabic derivation of the name, reasoning that Rees had simply connected unrelated Shoshoni roots, Liljeblad concluded that Pocatello was not even a Shoshoni word. Chief Pocatellos daughter, Jeanette Lewis, confirmed that the name had no meaning in the Shoshoni language, Pocatello appears in Sid Meiers Civilization V as the playable leader of the Shoshone Civilization. UtahHistoryToGo, Chief Pocatello http, //www. chiefpocatello. com - Website of the descendants and family of Chief Pocatello
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Pocatello
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It is the principal city of the Pocatello metropolitan area, which encompasses all of Bannock county. As of the 2010 census the population of Pocatello was 54,255, Pocatello is the fifth largest city in the state, just behind Idaho Falls. In 2007, Pocatello was ranked twentieth on Forbes list of Best Small Places for Business, Pocatello is the home of Idaho State University and the manufacturing facility of ON Semiconductor. The city is at an elevation of 4,462 feet above sea level and is served by the Pocatello Regional Airport. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 32.38 square miles. Pocatello experiences a climate, with winters that are moderately long and cold. As of the census of 2010, there were 54,255 people,20,832 households, the population density was 1,683.9 inhabitants per square mile. There were 22,404 housing units at a density of 695.3 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 90. 5% White,1. 0% African American,1. 7% Native American,1. 6% Asian,0. 2% Pacific Islander,2. 3% from other races, and 2. 8% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 7. 2% of the population,27. 5% of all households were made up of individuals and 8. 2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.53 and the family size was 3.10. The median age in the city was 30.2 years. 25. 8% of residents were under the age of 18,14. 5% were between the ages of 18 and 24,27. 4% were from 25 to 44,21. 8% were from 45 to 64, and 10. 7% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 49. 9% male and 50. 1% female, as of the census of 2000, there were 51,466 people,19,334 households, and 12,973 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,822.5 people per square mile, there were 20,627 housing units at an average density of 730.4 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 92. 32% White,0. 72% African American,1. 35% Native American,1. 15% Asian,0. 20% Pacific Islander,2. 18% from other races, and 2. 09% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 4. 94% of the population, the top 5 ethnic groups in Pocatello are, English – 21%, German – 16%, Irish – 9%, Danish – 4% and Swedish – 4%. 25. 0% of all households were made up of individuals and 7. 8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.58 and the average family size was 3.10
41.
Bear River Massacre
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The Bear River Massacre, or the Battle of Bear River or Massacre at Boa Ogoi, took place in present-day Idaho on January 29,1863. The site is located near the city of Preston in Franklin County. Colonel Patrick Edward Connor led a detachment of California Volunteers as part of the Bear River Expedition against Shoshone Chief Bear Hunter, hundreds of Shoshone men, women and children were killed near their lodges, while only two dozen soldiers died. The number of Shoshone victims reported by local settlers was higher than reported by soldiers. Cache Valley, originally called Seuhubeogoi, was the hunting ground for the Northwestern Shoshone. They gathered grain and grass seeds there, as well as fished for trout and hunted game such as ground squirrel and woodchuck, and large game including buffalo, deer. This mountain valley had attracted fur trappers such as Jim Bridger and Jedediah Smith, Cache Valley was named for the trappers practice of leaving stores of furs and goods in the valley as a base for hunting in the surrounding mountain ranges. So impressed were the trappers by the region that they recommended to Brigham Young that he consider the valley as a location for his settlement of Mormon pioneers, instead, Young chose Salt Lake Valley. In the long term, Mormon settlers eventually moved to Cache Valley as well, as early as July 31,1847, a 20-man delegation of Shoshone met with the Mormons to discuss their land claims in northern Utah. The establishment of the California and Oregon trails, as well as the establishment of Salt Lake City in 1847 brought the Shoshone people into contact with white colonists moving westward. By 1856, European Americans had established their first permanent settlements and farms in Cache Valley, starting at Wellsville, Utah, Brigham Young made the policy that Mormon settlers should establish friendly relations with the surrounding American Indian tribes. He encouraged their helping to feed them rather than fight them, despite the policy, the settlers were consuming significant food resources and taking over areas that pushed the Shoshone increasingly into areas of marginal food production. The foraging and hunting by settlers traveling on the western migration trails also took additional resources away from the Shoshone and he recommended that an Indian Reservation be established in Cache Valley to protect essential resources for the Shoshone. His superiors at the United States Department of the Interior did not act on his proposal, desperate and starving, the Shoshone attacked farms and cattle ranches for food, as a matter not just of revenge but survival. No provisions having been made for them, either as to clothing or provisions by my predecessors. The Indians condition was such-with the prospect that they would rob mail stations to sustain life, doty purchased supplies of food and slowly doled it out. He suggested furnishing the Shoshone with livestock to enable them to become herdsmen instead of beggars, on July 28,1862, John White discovered gold on Grasshopper Creek in the mountains of southwestern Montana. Soon miners created a migration and supply trail right through the middle of Cache Valley, the latter was the nearest significant trading source of goods and food in the area. When the American Civil War began in 1861, President Abraham Lincoln was concerned that California and he ordered several regiments to be raised from the population of California to help protect mail routes and the communications lines of the West
United States
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Nevada, 
Oregon,
Utah, 
Wyoming)
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