1.
Filmmaking
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Filmmaking is the process of making a film. Filmmaking takes place in places around the world in a range of economic, social, and political contexts. Typically, it involves a number of people, and can take from a few months to several years to complete. Film production consists of five stages, Development, The first stage in which the ideas for the film are created, rights to books/plays are bought etc. Financing for the project has to be sought and greenlit, pre-production, Preparations are made for the shoot, in which cast and film crew are hired, locations are selected and sets are built. Production, The raw elements for the film are recorded during the film shoot, post-production, The images, sound, and visual effects of the recorded film are edited. Distribution, The finished film is distributed and screened in cinemas and released to home video. In this stage, the project producer selects a story, which may come from a book, play, another film, true story, video game, comic book, graphic novel, or an original idea, etc. After identifying a theme or underlying message, the works with writers to prepare a synopsis. Next they produce an outline, which breaks the story down into one-paragraph scenes that concentrate on dramatic structure. Then, they prepare a treatment, a 25-to-30-page description of the story, its mood and this usually has little dialogue and stage direction, but often contains drawings that help visualize key points. Another way is to produce a scriptment once a synopsis is produced, next, a screenwriter writes a screenplay over a period of several months. The screenwriter may rewrite it several times to improve dramatization, clarity, structure, characters, dialogue, however, producers often skip the previous steps and develop submitted screenplays which investors, studios, and other interested parties assess through a process called script coverage. A film distributor may be contacted at a stage to assess the likely market. All these factors imply a certain appeal of the film to a possible audience, not all films make a profit from the theatrical release alone, so film companies take DVD sales and worldwide distribution rights into account. The producer and screenwriter prepare a film pitch, or treatment and they will also pitch the film to actors and directors in order to attach them to the project. Many projects fail to move beyond this stage and enter so-called development hell, if a pitch succeeds, a film receives a green light, meaning someone offers financial backing, typically a major film studio, film council, or independent investor. The parties involved negotiate a deal and sign contracts, once all parties have met and the deal has been set, the film may proceed into the pre-production period
2.
Video production
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Video production is the process of creating video by capturing moving images, and creating combinations and reductions of parts of this video in live production and post-production. In most cases the captured video will be recorded on the most current electronic media such as SD cards, in the past footage was captured on video tape, hard disk, or solid state storage. Video tape capture is now obsolete and solid state storage is reserved for just that and it is now distributed digitally in formats such as the Moving Picture Experts Group format, QuickTime, Audio Video Interleave, Windows Media Video, and DivX. It is the equivalent of filmmaking, but with images recorded digitally instead of on film stock, practically, video production is the art and service of creating content and delivering a finished video product. This can include production of programs, television commercials, corporate videos, event videos, wedding videos. A video production can range in size, corporate video production covers a wide range of purposes from corporate Communication, Training and Education, videotaping conferences and conventions, products and services, and sales. An on-site editor then creates a video presentation that is shown before the close of the convention. Many associations take advantage of the venue to gather interviews of their principals. Video productions video tape or memory-based recording device or a version from a website video, optical disc, magnetic tape. Two styles of producing video are ENG - Electronic news-gathering and EFP - Electronic field production, Television broadcast productions include television commercials, infomercials, newscasts, entertainment shows, documentaries, news magazines, sitcom and reality shows. They may be distributed by broadcast syndication, Video production can be used at sporting, school, stage, wedding, church, and similar events to provide recordings of the events. Event video production can also be used to broadcast events live to viewers at home such as a conference or concert. Video of live events can be sent by microwave or a truck from the event location to a television studio in order to be broadcast. It differs from types of video production in three ways,1. It augments traditional teaching tools used in educational programs. It may incorporate motion video with sound, computer animations, stills, capture of content may include use of cell phone integrated cameras and extend to commercial high-definition Broadcast quality cameras. The primary purpose of using video in distance education is to improve understanding, webcasting is also being used in education for distance learning projects, one innovative use was the DiveLive programs. For the first time ever, live video and audio was broadcast from an archaeological site to the World Wide Web
3.
Movie
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A film, also called a movie, motion picture, theatrical film or photoplay, is a series of still images which, when shown on a screen, creates the illusion of moving images due to the phi phenomenon. This optical illusion causes the audience to perceive continuous motion between separate objects viewed rapidly in succession, the process of filmmaking is both an art and an industry. The word cinema, short for cinematography, is used to refer to the industry of films. Films were originally recorded onto plastic film through a photochemical process, the adoption of CGI-based special effects led to the use of digital intermediates. Most contemporary films are now fully digital through the process of production, distribution. Films recorded in a form traditionally included an analogous optical soundtrack. It runs along a portion of the film exclusively reserved for it and is not projected, Films are cultural artifacts created by specific cultures. They reflect those cultures, and, in turn, affect them, Film is considered to be an important art form, a source of popular entertainment, and a powerful medium for educating—or indoctrinating—citizens. The visual basis of film gives it a power of communication. Some films have become popular worldwide attractions by using dubbing or subtitles to translate the dialog into the language of the viewer, some have criticized the film industrys glorification of violence and its potentially negative treatment of women. The individual images that make up a film are called frames, the perception of motion is due to a psychological effect called phi phenomenon. The name film originates from the fact that film has historically been the medium for recording and displaying motion pictures. Many other terms exist for a motion picture, including picture, picture show, moving picture, photoplay. The most common term in the United States is movie, while in Europe film is preferred. Terms for the field, in general, include the big screen, the screen, the movies, and cinema. In early years, the sheet was sometimes used instead of screen. Preceding film in origin by thousands of years, early plays and dances had elements common to film, scripts, sets, costumes, production, direction, actors, audiences, storyboards, much terminology later used in film theory and criticism apply, such as mise en scène. Owing to the lack of any technology for doing so, the moving images, the magic lantern, probably created by Christiaan Huygens in the 1650s, could be used to project animation, which was achieved by various types of mechanical slides
4.
Camera angle
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The camera angle marks the specific location at which the movie camera or video camera is placed to take a shot. A scene may be shot from camera angles simultaneously. This will give a different experience and sometimes emotion, the different camera angles will have different effects on the viewer and how they perceive the scene that is shot. There are a few different routes that an operator could take to achieve this effect. The typical shot measurements unit is the milliframe, milliframes are used to calculate how much the shot should be moved to perfect the camera angles. However, the size of a milliframe is almost impossible to calculate since it is not a physical measurement. Where the camera is placed in relation to the subject can affect the way the viewer perceives the subject, there are a number of camera angles, such as a high-angle shot, a low-angle shot, a birds-eye view and a worms-eye view. A Viewpoint is the apparent distance and angle from which the camera views and they also include the eye-level camera angle and the point of view shot. A high-angle shot is a shot in which the camera is physically higher than the subject and is looking down upon the subject. The high angle shot can make the subject look small or weak or vulnerable while a shot is taken from below the subject and has the power to make the subject look powerful or threatening. A neutral shot or eye-level shot has little to no effect on the viewer. This shot is when the camera is level or looking straight on with the subject, a point of view shot shows the viewer the image through the subjects eye. Some POV shots use hand-held cameras to create the illusion that the viewer is seeing through the subjects eyes, birds eye shot or birds-eye view shots are taken directly above the scene to establish the landscape and the actors relationship to it. When considering the camera one must remember that each shot is its own individual shot. There are many different types of shots that can be used from these angles, there are extreme long shots which are extremely far away from the subject and might not even show a person at all. Extreme long shots are usually done in an angle so the viewer can look down upon a setting or scene. Extreme longs shots are used mainly to open the scene or narrative, the rest of the shots are most typically done in an eye level or point of view shot although it is possible to do any shot with any angle. There is the shot which shows the subject even though the setting still dominates the picture frame
5.
Film editing
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Film editing is a creative and technical part of the post-production process of filmmaking. The term is derived from the process of working with film. The film editor works with the raw footage, selecting shots, Film editing is often referred to as the invisible art because when it is well-practiced, the viewer can become so engaged that he or she is not aware of the editors work. On its most fundamental level, film editing is the art, technique, the job of an editor is not simply to mechanically put pieces of a film together, cut off film slates, or edit dialogue scenes. Editors usually play a role in the making of a film. Sometimes, auteurist film directors edit their own films, for example, Akira Kurosawa, Bahram Beyzai, with the advent of digital editing, film editors and their assistants have become responsible for many areas of filmmaking that used to be the responsibility of others. For instance, in past years, picture editors dealt only with just that—picture, sound, music, and visual effects editors dealt with the practicalities of other aspects of the editing process, usually under the direction of the picture editor and director. However, digital systems have increasingly put these responsibilities on the picture editor and it is common, especially on lower budget films, for the editor to cut in music, mock up visual effects, and add sound effects or other sound replacements. These temporary elements are replaced with more refined final elements by the sound, music. Early films were films that were one long, static. Motion in the shot was all that was necessary to amuse an audience, there was no story and no editing. Each film ran as long as there was film in the camera, in the first shot, an elderly couple is outside an art exhibition having lunch and then follow other people inside through the door. The second shot shows what they do inside, one of the first films to use this technique, Georges Mélièss The Four Troublesome Heads from 1898, was produced with Pauls camera. There is then a cut to close shot of the hands on the girls foot shown inside a circular mask. Even more remarkable was James Williamsons Attack on a China Mission Station, an armed party of British sailors arrived and defeat the Boxers and rescue the missionarys family. The film used the first reverse angle cut in film history, James Williamson concentrated on making films taking action from one place shown in one shot to the next shown in another shot in films like Stop Thief. and Fire. Made in 1901, and many others and he also experimented with the close-up, and made perhaps the most extreme one of all in The Big Swallow, when his character approaches the camera and appears to swallow it. These two filmmakers of the Brighton School also pioneered the editing of the film, they tinted their work with color, by 1900, their films were extended scenes of up to 5 minutes long
6.
Machine gun
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A machine gun is a fully automatic mounted or portable firearm designed to fire bullets in quick succession from an ammunition belt or magazine, typically at a rate of 300 to 1800 rounds per minute. Note that not all fully automatic firearms are machine guns, submachine guns, rifles, assault rifles, shotguns, pistols or cannons may be capable of fully automatic fire, but are not designed for sustained fire. Many machine guns also use belt feeding and open bolt operation, unlike semi-automatic firearms, which require one trigger pull per round fired, a machine gun is designed to fire for as long as the trigger is held down. Nowadays the term is restricted to heavy weapons, able to provide continuous or frequent bursts of automatic fire for as long as ammunition lasts. Machine guns are used against personnel, aircraft and light vehicles, or to provide suppressive fire. Some machine guns have in practice sustained fire almost continuously for hours, because they become very hot, practically all machine guns fire from an open bolt, to permit air cooling from the breech between bursts. They also usually have either a barrel cooling system, slow-heating heavyweight barrel, although subdivided into light, medium, heavy or general-purpose, even the lightest machine guns tend to be substantially larger and heavier than standard infantry arms. Medium and heavy guns are either mounted on a tripod or on a vehicle, when carried on foot. Medium machine guns use full-sized rifle rounds and are designed to be used from fixed positions mounted on a tripod. 50in, the M249 automatic rifle is operated by an automatic rifleman, but its ammunition may be carried by other Soldiers within the squad or unit. The M249 machine gun is a crew-served weapon, Machine guns usually have simple iron sights, though the use of optics is becoming more common. Many heavy machine guns, such as the Browning M2.50 caliber machine gun, are enough to engage targets at great distances. During the Vietnam War, Carlos Hathcock set the record for a shot at 7382 ft with a.50 caliber heavy machine gun he had equipped with a telescopic sight. This led to the introduction of.50 caliber anti-materiel sniper rifles, selective fire rifles firing a full-power rifle cartridge from a closed bolt are called automatic rifles or battle rifles, while rifles that fire an intermediate cartridge are called assault rifles. Unlocking and removing the spent case from the chamber and ejecting it out of the weapon as bolt is moving rearward Loading the next round into the firing chamber. Usually the recoil spring tension pushes bolt back into battery and a cam strips the new round from a feeding device, cycle is repeated as long as the trigger is activated by operator. Releasing the trigger resets the trigger mechanism by engaging a sear so the weapon stops firing with bolt carrier fully at the rear, the operation is basically the same for all autoloading firearms, regardless of the means of activating these mechanisms. Most modern machine guns use gas-operated reloading, a recoil actuated machine gun uses the recoil to first unlock and then operate the action. Machine guns such as the M2 Browning and MG42, are of this type, a cam, lever or actuator demultiplicates the energy of the recoil to operate the bolt
7.
Focal length
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The focal length of an optical system is a measure of how strongly the system converges or diverges light. For an optical system in air, it is the distance over which initially collimated rays are brought to a focus. A system with a focal length has greater optical power than one with a long focal length. For a thin lens in air, the length is the distance from the center of the lens to the principal foci of the lens. For a converging lens, the length is positive, and is the distance at which a beam of collimated light will be focused to a single spot. For a diverging lens, the length is negative, and is the distance to the point from which a collimated beam appears to be diverging after passing through the lens. The focal length of a lens can be easily measured by using it to form an image of a distant light source on a screen. The lens is moved until an image is formed on the screen. In this case 1/u is negligible, and the length is then given by f ≈ v. Back focal length or back focal distance is the distance from the vertex of the last optical surface of the system to the focal point. For an optical system in air, the focal length gives the distance from the front. If the surrounding medium is not air, then the distance is multiplied by the index of the medium. Some authors call these distances the front/rear focal lengths, distinguishing them from the front/rear focal distances, defined above. In general, the length or EFL is the value that describes the ability of the optical system to focus light. The other parameters are used in determining where an image will be formed for an object position. The quantity 1/f is also known as the power of the lens. The corresponding front focal distance is, FFD = f, in the sign convention used here, the value of R1 will be positive if the first lens surface is convex, and negative if it is concave. The value of R2 is negative if the surface is convex
8.
Ultra wide angle lens
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An ultra wide-angle lens is a lens whose focal length is shorter than the short side of film or sensor. Thus the term denotes a different range of lenses, relative to the size of the sensor in the camera in question, for APS-C any lens shorter than 15 mm is considered ultra wide angle. For 35 mm film or full-frame sensor any lens shorter than 24 mm For 6x4, neither denotes a particular range of focal lengths, the difference is only whether distortion is present or not. However, the shorter the focal length, the more difficult it is to implement rectilinear correction, in fisheye lenses, the visual angle is close to or more than 180 degrees in at least one direction. For example, a fish eye would have a viewing angle of at least 180 degrees within the diagonals of the frame. A circular fisheye would represent the image in the form of a circle, rectilinear ultra-wide angle lenses are used in photography and cinematography sometimes to achieve three-dimensional perspective distortion instead of simply two-dimensional barrel distortion. A notable, signature employment for this purpose is seen in the films of Terry Gilliam. The DOF afforded by an ultra wide-angle lens is very great, therefore the photographer has the ability to keep much or almost all of the scene in focus, with respect to the hyperfocal distance of the lens. Thanks to the focal length, these lenses can shoot longer exposures without fear of camera shake in the image. This means that the photographer can afford to use a smaller aperture if they choose. With such a visual angle, it can be very difficult at times to keep undesired objects such as light sources out of the image. However this does not always pose a problem, as even the sun in a photograph takes up such an amount of space that its presence can often have little negative impact on the overall composition. When using an ultra wide-angle lens, the sky often constitutes a large portion of the frame. This is often achieved through the use of gradient filter, note that a polarizing filter, which also darkens the sky, will often give uneven results when used on an ultra-wide angle lens. The oldest lenses, pinholes, keep perspective accurately, in images made using this technique, there is little or no distortion due to the rectilinear propagation of light. For a long time it was thought that only symmetrical optical diagrams could ensure the geometrically precise transfer of light without distortion becoming apparent near the edge of images, however, with modern technology and understanding of optics, ultra wide-angle lenses can these days eliminate distortion almost completely. Longer lenses magnify the subject more, apparently compressing distance and blurring the background because of their depth of field. Wider lenses tend to distance between objects while allowing greater depth of field
9.
Wide-angle lens
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In photography and cinematography, a wide-angle lens refers to a lens whose focal length is substantially smaller than the focal length of a normal lens for a given film plane. This exaggeration of size can be used to make foreground objects more prominent and striking. A wide angle lens is one that projects a substantially larger image circle than would be typical for a standard design lens of the same focal length. This large image circle enables either large tilt & shift movements with a view camera, by convention, in still photography, the normal lens for a particular format has a focal length approximately equal to the length of the diagonal of the image frame or digital photosensor. In cinematography, a lens of twice the diagonal is considered normal. A lens is considered wide-angle when it covers the angle of view between 64° and 84° which in return translates to 35–24mm lens in 35mm film format, longer lenses magnify the subject more, apparently compressing distance and blurring the background because of their shallower depth of field. Wider lenses tend to distance between objects while allowing greater depth of field. For a full-frame 35 mm camera with a 36 mm by 24 mm format, the diagonal measures 43.3 mm and by custom, also by custom, a lens of focal length 35 mm or less is considered wide-angle. Ultra wide angle lenses have a length shorter than the short side of the film or sensor. In 35 mm, an ultra wide-angle lens has a length shorter than 24 mm. Common wide-angle for a full-frame 35 mm camera are 35,28,24,21,20,18 and 14 mm, the latter four being ultra-wide. Many of the lenses in this range will produce a more or less rectilinear image at the film plane, Ultra wide-angle lenses that do not produce a rectilinear image are called fisheye lenses. Common focal lengths for these in a 35 mm camera are 6 to 8 mm. Lenses with focal lengths of 8 to 16 mm may be either rectilinear or fisheye designs, Wide-angle lenses come in both fixed-focal-length and zoom varieties. For 35 mm cameras, lenses producing rectilinear images can be found at lengths as short as 8 mm. As of 2015, many digital cameras have image sensors that are smaller than the film format of full-frame 35 mm cameras. The camera manufacturers provide a crop factor to show how much smaller the sensor is than a full 35 mm film frame, for example, one common factor is 1.5, although many cameras have crop factors of 1.6,1.7 and 2. As example, a 28 mm lens on the DSLR would produce the angle of view of a 42 mm lens on a full-frame camera. For example, to get the equivalent angle of view of a 30 mm lens on a full-frame 35 mm camera, from a camera with a 1.5 crop factor
10.
Normal lens
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In photography and cinematography, a normal lens is a lens that reproduces a field of view that appears natural to a human observer. Lenses with longer or shorter focal lengths produce an expanded or contracted field of view appears to distort the perspective when viewed from a normal viewing distance. Lenses of shorter focal length are called wide-angle lenses, while longer-focal-length lenses are referred to as long-focus lenses, such is the extent of distortions of perspective with these lenses that they may not be permitted as legal evidence. That is, the relationships of objects in the photograph should be equivalent to what they actually are. For cinematography, where the image is larger relative to viewing distance, the term normal lens can also be used as a synonym for rectilinear lens. This is a different use of the term. The 50 mm focal length was chosen by Oskar Barnack, the creator of the Leica camera. Note that the angle of view depends on the ratio as well. In digital photography, the type is not the sensor diameter. The normal lens focal length is roughly 2/3 of the TV tube diameter and this is a mathematical calculation because most of the cameras are equipped with zoom lenses
11.
Angle of view
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In photography, angle of view describes the angular extent of a given scene that is imaged by a camera. It is used interchangeably with the general term field of view. It is important to distinguish the angle of view from the angle of coverage, typically the image circle produced by a lens is large enough to cover the film or sensor completely, possibly including some vignetting toward the edge. A cameras angle of view not only on the lens. Digital sensors are usually smaller than 35mm film, and this causes the lens to have an angle of view than with 35mm film. In everyday digital cameras, the factor can range from around 1, to 1.6. For lenses projecting rectilinear images of distant objects, the focal length. Calculations for lenses producing non-rectilinear images are more complex and in the end not very useful in most practical applications. Angle of view may be measured horizontally, vertically, or diagonally, for example, for 35mm film which is 36 mm wide and 24mm high, d =36 mm would be used to obtain the horizontal angle of view and d =24 mm for the vertical angle. Because this is a function, the angle of view does not vary quite linearly with the reciprocal of the focal length. However, except for wide-angle lenses, it is reasonable to approximate α ≈ d f radians or 180 d π f degrees. The effective focal length is equal to the stated focal length of the lens. Angle of view can also be determined using FOV tables or paper or software lens calculators, consider a 35 mm camera with a lens having a focal length of F =50 mm. The dimensions of the 35 mm image format are 24 mm ×36 mm, here α is defined to be the angle-of-view, since it is the angle enclosing the largest object whose image can fit on the film. We want to find the relationship between, the angle α the opposite side of the triangle, d /2 the adjacent side, S2 Using basic trigonometry, we find. For macro photography, we neglect the difference between S2 and F. From the thin lens formula,1 F =1 S1 +1 S2, a second effect which comes into play in macro photography is lens asymmetry. The lens asymmetry causes an offset between the plane and pupil positions
12.
Perspective distortion (photography)
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Related to this concept is axial magnification -- the perceived depth of objects at a given magnification. Extension or wide-angle distortion can be seen in shot from close using a wide-angle lens. Objects close to the lens appear abnormally large relative to distant objects. Compression, long-lens, or telephoto distortion can be seen in shot from a distance using a long focus lens or the more common telephoto sub-type. However, since wide-angle lenses have a field of view, they are generally used from closer. However, crops of these three images with the coverage will yield the same perspective distortion – the nose will look the same in all three. Outside of photography, extension distortion is familiar to many through side-view mirrors and peepholes, though these often use a fisheye lens, consider an idealised Gaussian optical system. For most purposes, we can assume the image space and the space are in the same medium. The opposite-- increased axial magnification -- happens with shorter focal lengths while moving the camera/lens towards the object, when photographs are viewed at the ordinary viewing distance, the angle of view at which the image is captured accounts completely for the appearance of perspective distortion. The general assumption that undoctored photos cannot distort a scene is incorrect, Perspective distortion is particularly noticeable in portraits taken with wide-angle lenses at short camera-to-subject distances. They generally give an unpleasant impression, making the nose appear too large with respect to the rest of the face, framing the same subject identically while using a moderate telephoto or long focus lens flattens the image to a more flattering perspective. It is for this reason that, for a 35 mm camera and it does however make difference, whether the photograph is taken landscape or portrait. A50 mm lens is suitable for photographing people when the orientation is landscape, conversely, using lenses with much longer focal lengths for portraits results in more extreme flattening of facial features, which also may be objectionable to the viewer. Photographs are ordinarily viewed at an approximately equal to their diagonal. When viewed at this distance, the effects created by the angle of view of the capture are apparent. However, theoretically, if one views pictures exhibiting extension distortion at a distance, thus widening the angle of view of the presentation. Similarly, viewing pictures exhibiting compression distortion from a distance, thus narrowing the angle of view of the presentation. In both cases, at some distance, the apparent distortion disappears completely
13.
Charge-coupled device
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A charge-coupled device is a device for the movement of electrical charge, usually from within the device to an area where the charge can be manipulated, for example conversion into a digital value. This is achieved by shifting the signals between stages within the one at a time. CCDs move charge between capacitive bins in the device, with the shift allowing for the transfer of charge between bins, in recent years CCD has become a major technology for digital imaging. In a CCD image sensor, pixels are represented by p-doped metal-oxide-semiconductors capacitors, the charge-coupled device was invented in 1969 at AT&T Bell Labs by Willard Boyle and George E. Smith. The lab was working on bubble memory when Boyle and Smith conceived of the design of what they termed, in their notebook. The device could be used as a shift register, the essence of the design was the ability to transfer charge along the surface of a semiconductor from one storage capacitor to the next. The concept was similar in principle to the device, which was developed at Philips Research Labs during the late 1960s. The first patent on the application of CCDs to imaging was assigned to Michael Tompsett, the initial paper describing the concept listed possible uses as a memory, a delay line, and an imaging device. The first experimental device demonstrating the principle was a row of closely spaced metal squares on a silicon surface electrically accessed by wire bonds. The first working CCD made with integrated circuit technology was a simple 8-bit shift register and this device had input and output circuits and was used to demonstrate its use as a shift register and as a crude eight pixel linear imaging device. Development of the device progressed at a rapid rate, by 1971, Bell researchers led by Michael Tompsett were able to capture images with simple linear devices. Several companies, including Fairchild Semiconductor, RCA and Texas Instruments, picked up on the invention, fairchilds effort, led by ex-Bell researcher Gil Amelio, was the first with commercial devices, and by 1974 had a linear 500-element device and a 2-D100 x 100 pixel device. Steven Sasson, an engineer working for Kodak, invented the first digital still camera using a Fairchild 100 x 100 CCD in 1975. The first KH-11 KENNAN reconnaissance satellite equipped with charge-coupled device array technology for imaging was launched in December 1976, under the leadership of Kazuo Iwama, Sony also started a large development effort on CCDs involving a significant investment. Eventually, Sony managed to mass-produce CCDs for their camcorders, before this happened, Iwama died in August 1982, subsequently, a CCD chip was placed on his tombstone to acknowledge his contribution. He was also awarded the 2012 IEEE Edison Medal For pioneering contributions to imaging devices including CCD Imagers, cameras, in a CCD for capturing images, there is a photoactive region, and a transmission region made out of a shift register. An image is projected through a lens onto the capacitor array, once the array has been exposed to the image, a control circuit causes each capacitor to transfer its contents to its neighbor. The last capacitor in the array dumps its charge into a charge amplifier, by repeating this process, the controlling circuit converts the entire contents of the array in the semiconductor to a sequence of voltages
14.
35 mm equivalent focal length
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In photography, the 35 mm equivalent focal length is a measure that indicates the angle of view of a particular combination of a camera lens and film or sensor size. The term is useful because most photographers experienced with interchangeable lenses are most familiar with the 35 mm film format, on any 35 mm film camera, a 28 mm lens is a wide-angle lens, and a 200 mm lens is a long-focus lens. The 35 mm equivalent focal length of a particular combination is the focal length that one would need for a 35 mm film camera to obtain the same angle of view. Most commonly, the 35 mm equivalent focal length is based on equal diagonal angle of view and this definition also in the CIPA guideline DCG-001. Alternatively, it may sometimes be based on angle of view. 35 mm equivalent focal lengths are calculated by multiplying the focal length of the lens by the crop factor of the sensor. Quoted 35 mm equivalent focal lengths typically ignore depth of field, the perceived DOF of smaller sensors is deeper due to the shorter focal length lenses. Equivalent depth of field can be calculated the same way using the crop factor, a standard 35 mm film image is 36 mm wide by 24 mm tall, and the diagonal is 43.3 mm. This is because these sensor size specifications refer to the size of a camera tube, tubes are not used on digital cameras, but the same specifications are used. Apart from the width- and diagonal-based 35 mm equivalent focal length definitions, there is a definition, EFL =50 f /d mm. However. Focal Length Conversion for medium format and large format, at photo. net Focal Length at dpreview
15.
Crop factor
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In the case of digital cameras, the imaging device would be a digital sensor. The most commonly used definition of crop factor is the ratio of a 35 mm frames diagonal to the diagonal of the sensor in question. Given the same 3,2 aspect ratio as 35mms 36 mm ×24 mm area, this is equivalent to the ratio of heights or ratio of widths, the ratio of sensor areas is the square of the crop factor. If it is desired to capture an image with the field of view and image quality but different cameras. The term format factor is also used, and is a more neutral term that corresponds to the German word for this concept. Of course, the focal length of a photographic lens is fixed by its optical construction. Most DSLRs on the market have nominally APS-C-sized image sensors, smaller than the standard 36 ×24 mm film frame, for example, many Canon DSLRs use an APS-C sensor that measures 22.2 mm ×14.8 mm. Because of this crop, the field of view is reduced by a factor proportional to the ratio between the smaller sensor size and the 35 mm film format size. For most DSLR cameras, this factor is 1. 3–2. 0× and this narrowing of the FOV is a disadvantage to photographers when a wide FOV is desired. Ultra-wide lens designs become merely wide, wide-angle lenses become normal, however, the crop factor can be an advantage to photographers when a narrow FOV is desired. It allows photographers with long-focal-length lenses to fill the frame more easily when the subject is far away. A300 mm lens on a camera with a 1.6 crop factor delivers images with the same FOV that a 35 mm film camera would require a 480 mm long focus lens to capture. Due to the statistics of photon shot noise, the properties of signal-to-noise ratio. Since crop factor is proportional to the square root of sensor area. The larger sensor has the smaller crop factor and the higher signal-to-noise ratio, most SLR camera and lens manufacturers have addressed the concerns of wide-angle lens users by designing lenses with shorter focal lengths, optimized for the DSLR formats. In most cases, these lenses are designed to cast an image circle that would not cover a 24×36 mm frame. Because they cast an image circle, the lenses can be optimized to use less glass and are sometimes physically smaller and lighter than those designed for full-frame cameras. Such lenses usually project an image circle than lenses that were designed for the full-frame 35 mm format
16.
Image sensor format
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In digital photography, the image sensor format is the shape and size of the image sensor. The image sensor format of a camera determines the angle of view of a particular lens when used with a particular sensor. Because the image sensors in digital cameras is smaller than the 24 mm ×36 mm image area of full-frame 35 mm cameras. The size of a sensor is often expressed as optical format in inches, other measures are also used, see table of sensor formats and sizes below. This latter effect is known as field of view crop, the format size ratio is known as the field of view crop factor, crop factor, lens factor, focal length conversion factor, focal length multiplier or lens multiplier. Three possible depth of field comparisons between formats are discussed, applying the formulae derived in the article on depth of field, the depths of field of the three cameras may be the same, or different in either order, depending on what is held constant in the comparison. Using the same absolute aperture diameter for both formats with the “same picture” criterion yields the same depth of field and it is equivalent to adjusting the f-number inversely in proportion to crop factor – a smaller f-number for smaller sensors. It is this result that gives rise to the opinion that small sensors yield greater depth of field than large ones. An alternative is to consider the depth of field given by the lens in conjunction with different sized sensors. The change in depth of field is brought about by the requirement for a different degree of enlargement to achieve the final image size. In this case the ratio of depths of field becomes D O F2 D O F1 ≈ l 2 l 1. Discounting pixel response non-uniformity, which is not intrinsically sensor-size dependent, the noises in an image sensor are shot noise, read noise, each of these noises has a different dependency on sensor size. Or it can be compared for a fixed focal-plane illuminance, corresponding to a fixed f-number, in which case P is proportional to pixel area, the formulas above and below can be evaluated for either case. In the above equation, the shot noise SNR is given by P Q e t P Q e t = P Q e t. Thus for equal exposures, the signal to noise ratios of two different size sensors of equal quantum efficiency and pixel count will be in proportion to the root of the sensor area. The read noise is the total of all the noises in the conversion chain for the pixels in the sensor array. To compare it with photon noise, it must be referred back to its equivalent in photoelectrons, which requires the division of the noise measured in volts by the conversion gain of the pixel. This is given, for an active sensor, by the voltage at the input of the read transistor divided by the charge which generates that voltage
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Digital photography
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Digital photography is a form of photography that uses cameras containing arrays of electronic photodetectors to capture images focused by a lens, as opposed to an exposure on photographic film. The captured images are digitized and stored as a computer file ready for digital processing, viewing. Digital photographs are created solely by computer-based photoelectric and mechanical techniques. Digital photography is one of forms of digital imaging. Digital images are created by non-photographic equipment such as computer tomography scanners. Digital images can also be made by scanning other printed photographic images or negatives, the first consumer digital cameras were marketed in the late 1990s. Many mirrorless cameras accept interchangeable lenses and have advanced features through an electronic viewfinder, the first flyby spacecraft image of Mars was taken from Mariner 4 on July 15,1965 with a camera system designed by NASA/JPL. The first recorded attempt at building a digital camera was in 1975 by Steven Sasson and it used the then-new solid-state CCD image sensor chips developed by Fairchild Semiconductor in 1973. The camera weighed 8 pounds, recorded black and white images to a tape, had a resolution of 0.01 megapixels. The prototype camera was an exercise, not intended for production. This camera was never marketed internationally, and has not been confirmed to have shipped even in Japan, the first commercially available digital camera was the 1990 Dycam Model 1, it also sold as the Logitech Fotoman. It used a CCD image sensor, stored pictures digitally, image sensors read the intensity of light, and digital memory devices store the digital image information as RGB color space or as raw data. The two main types of sensors are charge-coupled devices, in which the photocharge is shifted to a central charge-to-voltage converter, Digital cameras can take pictures, and may also record sound and video. Some can be used as webcams, some can use the PictBridge standard to connect to a printer without using a computer, similarly, many camcorders can take still photographs, and store them on videotape or on flash memorycards with the same functionality as digital cameras. Digital photography is one of the most exceptional instances of the shift from converting conventional analog information to digital information and this shift is so tremendous because it was a chemical and mechanical process and became an all digital process with a built in computer in all digital cameras. The quality of an image is a composite of various factors. Pixel count is one of the major factors, though it is the most heavily marketed figure of merit. Digital camera manufacturers advertise this figure because consumers can use it to easily compare camera capabilities and it is not, however, the major factor in evaluating a digital camera for most applications
18.
Prime lens
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In film and photography, a prime lens is either a photographic lens whose focal length is fixed, as opposed to a zoom lens, or it is the primary lens in a combination lens system. Confusion can sometimes result due to the two meanings of the if the context does not make the interpretation clear. Alternative terms primary focal length, fixed length, and FFL are sometimes used to avoid ambiguity. The term prime has come to be used as the opposite of zoom, that is, while a prime lens of a given focal length is less versatile than a zoom, it is often of superior optical quality, wider maximum aperture, lighter weight, smaller size. The larger maximum aperture allows photography in lower light, and a depth of field. An alternative and apparently somewhat older meaning of the prime lens is the main lens in a combination lens system. When the camera lens is used some other optical device, such as a close-up lens, teleconverter, or teleside converter. Prime is here used in the sense of primary, chief, original, first in order, a variable prime is sometimes distinguished from a true zoom in that the latter maintains focus as the focal length is varied. This use of the prime lens is an example of a retronym. Early in photography only primary camera lenses were available, and were merely called lenses or objectives, later, auxiliary lenses were available, which usually fit in front of the front element of the primary, or prime lens. For these lengths many manufacturers produce two or more lenses with the focal length but with different maximum apertures to suit the different needs of photographers. Additional focal lengths can be created by using a teleconverter,24 to 35mm, Wide — these lenses capture a wider field of view than a standard lens. Because they tend to be used at shorter distances the resulting perspective can show some distortion,50 mm, Standard — with a focal length near the 44mm image diagonal. 85 mm, Portrait — A short telephoto lens that allows a subject to camera distance, to produce pleasing perspective effects. 135 mm, Telephoto — these lenses are used by action,200 to 500 mm, Super Telephoto — these are specialized, bulky lenses for sports, action, and wildlife photography. Some specialist lenses are available as prime lenses due to design or cost constraints. Examples of such specialist lenses are, extreme telephoto or wide angle, lenses with tilt and / or shift function, lenses with large apertures and macro lenses
19.
Long-focus lens
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In photography, a long-focus lens is a camera lens which has a focal length that is longer than the diagonal measure of the film or sensor that receives its image. It is used to make distant objects appear magnified with magnification increasing as longer focal length lenses are used, a long-focus lens is one of three basic photographic lens types classified by relative focal length, the other two being a normal lens and a wide-angle lens. As with other types of lenses, the focal length is usually expressed in a millimeter value written on the lens, for example. The most common type of lens is the telephoto lens. Long-focus lenses are best known for making distant objects appear magnified and this effect is similar to moving closer to the object, but is not the same, since perspective is a function solely of viewing location. This background blurring is often referred to as bokeh by photographers, effect of different focal lengths on photographs taken from the same place, The above photos were taken using a 35 mm camera, using lenses of the given focal lengths. The photographer often moves to keep the image size on the film for a particular object. The longer focus lenses compress the perception of depth, and the shorter focus exaggerate it and this effect is also used for dolly zooms. From the invention of photography in the 19th century, images have been captured using standard optical telescopes including telescope objectives adapted as early portrait lenses. Besides being used in a role in astrophotography, telescopes are adapted as long-focus lenses in nature photography, surveillance, machine vision. Controlling exposure is done by exposure time, gain, or filters since telescopes almost always lack diaphragms for aperture adjustment, the 1.25 inch mount is smaller than many film and sensor formats so they tend to show vignetting around the field edges. Telescopes are normally intended for use, so they are not corrected to produce a large flat field like dedicated camera lenses. Film format Secret photography Photographic lens design
20.
Dolly zoom
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The dolly zoom is an in-camera effect that appears to undermine normal visual perception. In its classic form, the angle is pulled away from a subject while the lens zooms in. Thus, during the zoom, there is a continuous perspective distortion, the effect was first conceived by Romanian cinematographer Sergiu Huzum, but was first used by Irmin Roberts, a Paramount second-unit cameraman, in Alfred Hitchcocks film Vertigo. In addition to Vertigo the shot has been used in films, including Goodfellas, Road to Perdition, Jaws, Body Double, The Island of Dr. Moreau, and Josie. After Hitchcock popularized the effect, he used it again for a revelation in Marnie. For most purposes, it can be assumed that the image space, then the transverse magnification is M = s i s o = f. The axial magnification M ax of an object at s o is the rate of change of the distance s i as the lens–object distance s o changes. One can see that if magnification remains constant, a focal length results in a smaller axial magnification. The opposite—increased axial magnification—happens with shorter focal lengths while moving the camera/lens towards the object, to achieve the effect, the camera needs to be positioned at a certain distance from the object that is supposed to remain still during the dolly zoom. The distance depends on how wide the scene is to be filmed, before calculating the distances needed at the different fields of view, the constant width of the scene has to be calculated, distance = width 2 tan . For example, a FOV of 90° and a distance of 2 meters yield a constant width of 4 meters, Vertigo Effect article on TV Tropes
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Long shot
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In photography, filmmaking and video production, a long shot typically shows the entire object or human figure and is usually intended to place it in some relation to its surroundings. These are typically shot now using wide angle cameras However due to the sheer distance establishing shots and this type of filmmaking was a result of filmmakers trying to retain the sense of the viewer watching a play in front of them, as opposed to just a series of pictures. The wide shot has been used since films have made as it is a very basic type of cinematography. In the 1878, the one of the first true motion pictures, even though this wouldn’t be considered a film in our current motion picture industry, it was a huge step towards complete motion pictures. It is arguable that it is basic but it still remains that it was displayed as a wide angle as both the rider and horse are fully visible in the frame. After this innovation, in the 1880s celluloid photographic film and motion picture cameras became available so more motion pictures could be created in the form of Kinetoscope or through projectors. These early films also maintained a wide angle layout as it was the best way to keep everything visible for the viewer, once motion pictures became more available in the 1890s there were public screenings of many different films only being around a minute long, or even less. These films again adhered to the wide shot style, one of the first competitive filming techniques came in the form of the close-up as George Albert Smith incorporated them into his film Hove. Though unconfirmed as the first usage of this method it is one of the earliest recorded examples, once the introduction of new framing techniques were introduced then more and more were made and used for their benefits that they could provide that wide shots couldn’t. This was the point at which motion pictures evolved from short, more and more cinematic techniques appeared, resulting in the wide shot being less commonly used. However, it remained as it is almost irreplaceable in what it can achieve. When television entered the home, it was seen as a hit to the cinema industry. This in turn resulted in films having to stay ahead of television by incorporating superior quality than that of a television and this was done by adding color but importantly it implemented the use of widescreen. Most modern films will use the different types of wide shots as they are a staple in filmmaking and are almost impossible to avoid unless deliberately chosen to. In the current climate of films, the quality of any given shot will appear with much better clarity which has given life to some incredible shots from modern cinema. There are a variety of ways of framing that are considered as being under the banner of Wide Shots, in the case of a person, head to toe. This usually achieves a clear representation of a character and can describe the surroundings as it is usually visible within the frame. This results in the audience having a desired view/opinion of the character or location, very wide shot – The subject is only just visible in the location
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Medium shot
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In film, a medium shot, mid shot, or waist shot is a camera angle shot from a medium distance. Medium shots are used when the subject in the shot is delivering information. It is also used in interviews and it is the most common shot in movies, and it usually follows the first establishing shots of a new scene or location. A normal lens that sees what the human eye see, is used for medium shots. The dividing line between what constitutes a long shot and medium shot is not definite, nor is the line between medium shot and close-up, in other texts, these partial views are called medium shots. In principal, the shot is what can be seen with the human eye in a single quick glance. Medium shots are divided into singles, group shots, over-the shoulders or two-shots, Filmmaking A to Z, The Guide to 35 Millimeter Filmmaking
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Close-up
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A close-up or closeup in filmmaking, television production, still photography and the comic strip medium is a type of shot, which tightly frames a person or an object. Close-ups are one of the shots used regularly with medium shots. Close-ups display the most detail, but they do not include the broader scene, moving in to a close-up or away from a close-up is a common type of zooming. Most early filmmakers—such as Thomas Edison, Auguste and Louis Lumière and Georges Méliès—tended not to use close-ups and preferred to frame their subjects in long shots, film historians disagree as to which filmmaker first used a close-up. In 1901, James Williamson, also working in Hove, made perhaps the most extreme close-up of all in The Big Swallow, when his character approaches the camera and appears to swallow it. D. W. Griffith, who pioneered screen cinematographic techniques, for example, one of Griffiths short films, The Lonedale Operator, makes significant use of a close-up of a wrench that a character pretends is a gun. Lillian Gish remarked on Griffiths pioneering use of the close-up, The people in the front office got very upset and they came down and said, The public doesn’t pay for the head or the arms or the shoulders of the actor. Let’s give them their money’s worth. ’ Griffith stood very close to them and said, ‘Can you see my feet. ’ When they said no, he replied, I am using what the eyes can see. Close-ups are used in ways and for many reasons. They are often employed as cutaways from a distant shot to show detail, such as characters emotions. Close cuts to characters faces are used far more often in television than in movies, for a director to deliberately avoid close-ups may create in the audience an emotional distance from the subject matter. Close-ups are used for distinguishing main characters, major characters are often given a close-up when they are introduced as a way of indicating their importance. Leading characters will have multiple close-ups, there is a long-standing stereotype of insecure actors desiring a close-up at every opportunity and counting the number of close-ups they received. Close-up shots do not show the subject in the context of its surroundings. If overused, they may leave viewers uncertain as to what they are seeing, Close-ups are rarely done with wide-angle lenses, because perspective causes objects in the center of the picture to be unnaturally enlarged. Certain times, different directors will use wide-angle lenses, because they can convey the message of confusion, there are various degrees of close-up depending on how tight the shot is. The terminology varies between countries and even different companies, but in general these are, Medium Close Up, usually covers the subjects head and shoulders. Close Up, A certain feature, such as someones head, extreme Close Up, The shot is so tight that only a detail of the subject, such as someones eyes, can be seen
24.
Handgun holster
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Holsters are generally designed to offer protection to the handgun, secure its retention, and provide ready access to it. The need for access is often at odds with the need for security and protection. Holsters are generally designed to be used one hand, allowing the handgun to be removed and/or replaced with the same hand. Holsters are generally attached to a belt or waistband or clipped to another article of clothing. Some holsters, such as holsters, have integrated support. Other holsters may fit inside a pocket, to add stability and protection to the handgun, keeping it more reliably secure, Holsters are generally worn in a location where they can be readily accessible. Common locations are, at the waist, behind the back, at the ankle, at the chest, Holsters are sometimes contained in an external bag, such as a purse or fanny pack. Since holsters are made from fairly stiff yet tough materials. The traditional material, particularly for handgun holsters, is leather and it has an attractive appearance and can be dyed in many colors and/or embossed with elaborate designs for cosmetic reasons. Ballistic nylon is another common fabric for holsters, as it is stiff, wear resistant, molded plastics, such as Kydex, are also popular, due to their low cost and robustness. The wide range of types indicates the highly varied circumstances in which holsters are used, duty holsters are designed to be carried openly, so concealment is not an issue, but retention and appearance are. Duty holsters can be made of leather, nylon, or plastic, they are designed to be attached to a duty belt, and worn on the dominant side. Duty holsters are generally found for service and compact size handguns as opposed to small subcompact handguns as these are generally only used for concealed carry backup guns. The primary characteristic that often distinguishes duty holsters from all other designs is retention. Therefore, when selecting a duty holster, an officer may be forced to find a compromise of speed, tactical/military holsters are usually made of nylon or plastic. They may be made in a pattern to match the wearers uniform. They are often of a design and offer a retention device. Some military holsters still use the old flap design, there is some overlap between duty holsters, tactical holsters, and military holsters
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Western (genre)
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Cowboys and gunslingers typically wear Stetson hats, bandannas, spurs, cowboy boots and buckskins. Other characters include Native Americans, bandits, lawmen, bounty hunters, outlaws, mounted cavalry, settlers, Westerns often stress the harshness of the wilderness and frequently set the action in an arid, desolate landscape of deserts and mountains. Often, the vast landscape plays an important role, presenting a. mythic vision of the plains, specific settings include ranches, small frontier towns, saloons, railways and isolated military forts of the Wild West. Many Westerns use a plot of depicting a crime, then showing the pursuit of the wrongdoer, ending in revenge and retribution. The Western was the most popular Hollywood genre, from the early 20th century to the 1960s, Western films first became well-attended in the 1930s. John Fords landmark Western adventure Stagecoach became one of the biggest hits in 1939, Westerns were very popular throughout the 1950s and 1960s. Many of the most acclaimed Westerns were released during this time – including High Noon, Shane, The Searchers, the Western depicts a society organized around codes of honor and personal, direct or private justice–frontier justice–dispensed by gunfights. These honor codes are played out through depictions of feuds or individuals seeking personal revenge or retribution against someone who has wronged them. The popular perception of the Western is a story that centers on the life of a semi-nomadic wanderer, a showdown or duel at high noon featuring two or more gunfighters is a stereotypical scene in the popular conception of Westerns. In some ways, such protagonists may be considered the descendants of the knight errant which stood at the center of earlier extensive genres such as the Arthurian Romances. And like knights errant, the heroes of Westerns frequently rescue damsels in distress, similarly, the wandering protagonists of Westerns share many characteristics with the ronin in modern Japanese culture. The Western typically takes these elements and uses them to tell simple morality tales, Westerns often stress the harshness and isolation of the wilderness and frequently set the action in an arid, desolate landscape. Apart from the wilderness, it is usually the saloon that emphasizes that this is the Wild West, it is the place to go for music, women, gambling, drinking, brawling and shooting. The American Film Institute defines western films as those set in the American West that embodies the spirit, the struggle, the term Western, used to describe a narrative film genre, appears to have originated with a July 1912 article in Motion Picture World Magazine. Most of the characteristics of Western films were part of 19th century popular Western fiction and were firmly in place before film became an art form. Protagonists ride between dusty towns and cattle ranches on their trusty steeds, Western films were enormously popular in the silent film era. With the advent of sound in 1927-28, the major Hollywood studios rapidly abandoned Westerns, leaving the genre to smaller studios and these smaller organizations churned out countless low-budget features and serials in the 1930s. Released through United Artists, Stagecoach made John Wayne a mainstream star in the wake of a decade of headlining B westerns
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Spaghetti Western
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The term was used by American critics and other countries because most of these Westerns were produced and directed by Italians. According to veteran Spaghetti Western actor Aldo Sambrell, the phrase Spaghetti Western was coined by Spanish journalist Alfonso Sánchez, the denomination for these films in Italy is western allitaliana. Italo-Western is also used, especially in Germany, the term Eurowesterns may be used to also include Western movies that were produced in Europe but not called Spaghetti Westerns, like the West German Winnetou films or Ostern Westerns. The majority of the films were international co-productions between Italy and Spain, and sometimes France, Germany, Israel, Yugoslavia, or the United States. These movies were released in Italian, but as most of the films featured multilingual casts and sound was post-synched. Over six hundred European Westerns were made between 1960 and 1978 and these are consistently listed among the best Westerns of any variety. Sergio Leones A Fistful of Dollars established the Spaghetti Western as a kind of Western. In this seminal film the hero enters a town that is ruled by two outlaw gangs and ordinary social relations are non-existent and he betrays and plays the gangs against one another in order to make money. Then he uses his cunning and exceptional skill to assist a family threatened by both gangs. His treachery is exposed and he is beaten, but in the end he defeats the remaining gang. Leone moved on from borrowing and established his own oft imitated style, Leones films and other core Spaghetti Westerns are often described as having eschewed, criticised or even demythologized many of the conventions of traditional U. S. Westerns. This was partly intentional and partly the context of a different cultural background, use of pathos received a big boost with Sergio Corbuccis influential Django. However, in the years use of cunning and irony became more prominent. This was seen in Leones next two Westerns, with their emphasis on unstable partnerships, Ennio Morricones music for A Fistful of Dollars and later Spaghetti Westerns was just as seminal and imitated. It expresses a similar duality between quirky and unusual sounds and instruments on the one hand, and sacral dramatizing for the big scenes on the other. Most Spaghetti Westerns were made on low budgets, using inexpensive locales, gods Gun was filmed in Israel. In the 1960s, critics recognized that the American genres were rapidly changing, the genre most identifiably American, the Western, seemed to be evolving into a new rougher form. For many critics, Sergio Leones films were part of the problem, Leones Dollars Trilogy was not the beginning of the Spaghetti Western cycle in Italy, but for Americans Leones films represented the true beginning of the Italian invasion of an American genre
27.
Dollars Trilogy
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The Dollars Trilogy, also known as the Man with No Name Trilogy, is a film series consisting of three Spaghetti Western films directed by Sergio Leone. The films are titled A Fistful of Dollars, For a Few Dollars More and The Good, the Bad and they were distributed by United Artists. The series has become known for establishing the Spaghetti Western genre, the three films are consistently listed among the best rated Western films of all time. Although it was not Leones intention, the three came to be considered a trilogy following the exploits of the same so-called Man with No Name. The Man with No Name concept was invented by the American distributor United Artists, eastwoods character does indeed have a name and a different one in each film, Joe, Monco and Blondie, respectively. A Fistful of Dollars is an remake of Akira Kurosawas 1961 film Yojimbo starring Toshiro Mifune. The only actors to appear in all three movies besides Eastwood are Mario Brega, Aldo Sambrell, Benito Stefanelli and Lorenzo Robledo. Four other actors each appear twice in the trilogy, playing different characters, Lee Van Cleef, Gian Maria Volontè, Luigi Pistilli, I think changed the style, the approach to Westerns. They made the violence and the aspect a little more larger than life. They were stories that hadnt been used in other Westerns, composer Ennio Morricone provided original music score for all three films, although in A Fistful of Dollars he was credited as Dan Savio. The 1999 DVD, plus the 2010 and 2014 Blu-ray box set releases by MGM, American Rebel, The Life of Clint Eastwood
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Sergio Leone
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Sergio Leone was an Italian film director, producer and screenwriter, credited as the inventor of the Spaghetti Western genre. Leones film-making style includes juxtaposing extreme close-up shots with lengthy long shots. born in Rome, Leone was the son of the cinema pioneer Vincenzo Leone and the silent film actress Edvige Valcarenghi. During his schooldays, Leone was a classmate of his musical collaborator Ennio Morricone for a time. After watching his work on film sets, Leone began his own career in the film industry at the age of 18 after dropping out of law studies at the university. Working in Italian cinematography, he began as an assistant to Vittorio de Sica during the movie The Bicycle Thief in 1948, Leone began writing screenplays during the 1950s, primarily for the sword and sandal historical epics, popular at the time. When director Mario Bonnard fell ill during the production of the 1959 Italian epic The Last Days of Pompeii, starring Steve Reeves, Leone was asked to step in and complete the film. As a result, when the time came to make his directorial debut with The Colossus of Rhodes. His film A Fistful of Dollars was based upon Akira Kurosawas Edo-era samurai adventure Yojimbo, Leones film elicited a legal challenge from the Japanese director, though Kurosawas film was in turn probably based on the 1929 Dashiell Hammett novel, Red Harvest. A Fistful of Dollars is also notable for establishing Clint Eastwood as a star, until that time Eastwood had been an American television actor with few credited film roles. The look of A Fistful of Dollars was established by its Spanish locations, the film paid tribute to traditional American western films, but significantly departed from them in storyline, plot, characterization and mood. The characters were also morally ambiguous by appearing generously compassionate, or nakedly and brutally self-serving, relationships revolved around power and retributions were emotion-driven rather than conscience-driven. According to Christopher Fraylings book Something to do with Death, Leone knew a deal about the American Old West. It fascinated him as a child, which carried into his adulthood, the films featured innovative music scores by Ennio Morricone, who worked closely with Leone in devising the themes. Leone had a way of shooting scenes with Morricones music ongoing. In addition, Clint Eastwood stayed with the series, joined later by Eli Wallach, Lee van Cleef. Based on the success of The Man with No Name trilogy, the film was shot mostly in Almería, Spain and Cinecittà in Rome. It was also shot in Monument Valley, Utah. The film starred Charles Bronson, Henry Fonda, Jason Robards, Once Upon a Time in the West emerged as a long, violent, dreamlike meditation upon the mythology of the American Old West, with many stylistic references to iconic western films
29.
Bird's-eye shot
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A birds-eye view is an elevated view of an object from above, with a perspective as though the observer were a bird, often used in the making of blueprints, floor plans and maps. It can be a photograph, but also a drawing. Before manned flight was common, the birds eye was used to distinguish views drawn from direct observation at high locations. Birds eye views as a genre have existed since classical times, the last great flourishing of them was in the mid-to-late 19th century, when birds eye view prints were popular in the United States and Europe. The terms aerial view and aerial viewpoint are also sometimes used synonymous with birds-eye view, the term aerial view can refer to any view from a great height, even at a wide angle, as for example when looking sideways from an airplane window or from a mountain top. Overhead view is fairly synonymous with birds-eye view but tends to imply a less lofty vantage point than the latter term, for example, in computer and video games, an overhead view of a character or situation often places the vantage point only a few feet above human height. Recent technological and networking developments have made satellite images more accessible, microsoft Bing Maps offers direct overhead satellite photos of the entire planet but also offers a feature named Birds eye view in some locations. The Birds Eye photos are angled at 40 degrees rather than being straight down, satellite imaging programs and photos have been described as offering a viewer the opportunity to fly over and observe the world from this specific angle. In filmmaking and video production, a birds-eye shot refers to a shot looking directly down on the subject, the perspective is very foreshortened, making the subject appear short and squat. This shot can be used to give an overall establishing shot of a scene and these shots are normally used for battle scenes or establishing where the character is. It is shot by lifting the camera up by hands or by hanging it off something strong enough to support it, when a scene needs a large area shot, it is a crane shot. A distinction is drawn between a birds-eye view and a birds-flight view, or view-plan in isometrical projection. The technique was popular among local surveyors and cartographers of the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries
30.
Crane shot
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In filmmaking and video production, a crane shot is a shot taken by a camera on a moving crane or jib. Most cranes accommodate both the camera and an operator, but some can be moved by remote control, camera cranes go back to the dawn of movie-making, and were frequently used in silent films to enhance the epic nature of large sets and massive crowds. Another use is to move up and away from the actors, crane shots are often found in what are supposed to be emotional or suspenseful scenes. One example of this technique is the shots taken by remote cranes in the sequence of the 1985 film To Live. Some filmmakers place the camera on a boom arm simply to make it easier to move around between ordinary set-ups. The major supplier of cranes in the cinema of the United States throughout the 1940s, 1950s, the traditional design provided seats for both the director and the camera operator, and sometimes a third seat for the cinematographer as well. Large weights on the back of the crane compensate for the weight of the riding the crane. During the 1960s, the tallest crane was the Chapman Titan crane, the crane operator and camera operator had to precisely coordinate their moves so that focus, pan, and camera position all started and stopped at the same time, requiring great skill and rehearsal. Camera cranes may be small, medium, or large, depending on the load capacity, historically, the first camera crane provided for lifting the chamber together with the operator, and sometimes an assistant. The range of motion of the boom was restricted because of the load capacity. In recent years a camera crane boom tripod with a control has become popular. The operator controls the camera from the ground through a motorized panoramic head, using remote control, a separate category consists of telescopic camera cranes. These devices allow setting an arbitrary trajectory of the camera, eliminating the characteristic jib crane radial displacement that comes with traditional spanning shots, large camera cranes are almost indistinguishable from the usual boom-type cranes, with the exception of special equipment for smoothly moving the boom and controlling noise. Small camera cranes and crane-trucks have a construction, often without a mechanical drive. The valves are controlled manually by balancing the load-specific counterweight, facilitating manipulation, to improve usability and repeatability of movement of the crane in different takes, the axis of rotation arrows are provided with limbs and a pointer. In some cases, the crane is mounted on a dolly for even greater camera mobility. Such devices are called crane trolleys, in modern films robotic cranes allow use of multiple actuators for high-accuracy repeated movement of the camera in trick photography. These devices are called tap-robots, some use the term motion control
31.
Low-angle shot
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In cinematography, a low-angle shot, is a shot from a camera angle positioned low on the vertical axis, anywhere below the eye line, looking up. Sometimes, it is directly below the subjects feet. Psychologically, the effect of the shot is that it makes the subject look strong. M, Inspector Karl Lohmann is shot in low angle in his office, also, two disputing men, one small and the other tall, are shot in low and high angles, respectively. Citizen Kane, there are many such as during the scene where Kane fires Leland. In fact, the scene where Leland confronts Kane after his defeat in the election is entirely shot in a low angle view, psycho, the house where Norman Bates lives is usually shot from a low angle. Star Wars, Darth Vader is often shot at a low angle, for example, touch of Evil, In this film noir, Hank Quinlan is often shot in low angle to make him look menacing, large, and in-charge. The Lady From Shanghai, examples of low-angle shot are during the scene where George Grisby is confronted by Broome, used while filming World Wrestling Entertainment interviews with André the Giant. In this scene, the angle actually goes from a medium close up. Full Metal Jacket, examples of a low angle shot is during the scene where the boot camp Sgt. is yelling at Joker. The Untouchables, there is a shot during the scene where Frank Nitti is being searched outside the courtroom
32.
Point-of-view shot
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A point of view shot is a short film scene that shows what a character is looking at. It is usually established by being positioned between a shot of a looking at something, and a shot showing the characters reaction. The technique of POV is one of the foundations of film editing, a POV shot need not be the strict point-of-view of an actual single character in a film. Sometimes the point-of-view shot is taken over the shoulder of the character, sometimes a POV shot is shared, i. e. it represents the joint POV of two characters. Camera angles record the scene from a particular players viewpoint, the point-of-view is an objective angle, but since it falls between the objective and subjective angle, it should be placed in a separate category and given special consideration. A point-of-view shot is as close as a shot can approach a subjective shot—and still remain objective. The camera is positioned at the side of a subjective player—whose viewpoint is being depicted—so that the audience is given the impression they are standing cheek-to-cheek with the off-screen player. The viewer does not see the event through the players eyes and he sees the event from the players viewpoint, as if standing alongside him. Thus, the angle remains objective, since it is an unseen observer not involved in the action. —Joseph V. Mascelli, The Five Cs of Cinematography Supporting narrative elements are required to indicate the shot to the viewer as a POV shot and these may include shot sequencing, sound effects, visual effects and acting. When the leading actor is the subject of the POV it is known as the subjective viewpoint, the audience sees events through the leading actors eyes, as if they were experiencing the events themselves. Cameras were increasingly introduced into more difficult experiences, dick Barrymore, an early action filmmaker akin to Warren Miller, experimented with film cameras and counter weights mounted to a helmet. Barrymore could ski unencumbered while capturing footage of scenery and other skiers, though the unit was heavy relative to its manner of use, it was considered hands-free, and worked. On professional levels, the equipment is defined, expensive. However the race for hands-free POV cameras for use on a level has always faced problems. Gance wrote in the scenario that the camera defends itself as if it were Bonaparte himself. It is in the fortress and fights back and it clambers on the wall of snow and jumps down, as if it were human. Arms at the side of the camera as if the camera itself had arms, Camera K falls on the ground, struggles, gets up
33.
180-degree rule
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In film making, the 180-degree rule is a basic guideline regarding the on-screen spatial relationship between a character and another character or object within a scene. The camera passing over the axis is called jumping the line or crossing the line, the 180-degree rule enables the audience to visually connect with unseen movement happening around and behind the immediate subject and is important in the narration of battle scenes. In a dialogue scene between two characters, a line can be imagined running between the two characters, and extending to infinity. If the camera remains on one side of line, the spatial relationship between the two characters will be consistent from shot to shot, even if one of the characters is not on screen. Shifting to the side of the characters on a cut will reverse the order of the characters from left to right. The rule also applies to the movement of a character as the created by the path of the character. For example, if a character is walking in a direction and is to be picked up by another camera. A jump cut can be used to denote time, If a character leaves the frame on the left side and enters the frame on the left in a different location, it can give the illusion of an extended amount of time passing. Another example could be a car chase, If a vehicle leaves the side of the frame in one shot. Leaving from the right and entering from the right creates a sense of disorientation as in the dialogue example. The imaginary line allows viewers to orient themselves with the position and direction of action in a scene, If a shot following an earlier shot in a sequence is located on the opposite side of the 180-degree line, then it is called a reverse cut. The movement in the scene can be altered, or cameras set up on one side of the scene so that all the shots reflect the view from that side of the 180-degree line. Another way to allow for crossing the line is to have several shots with the camera arching from one side of the line to the other during the scene. That shot can be used to orient the audience to the fact that they are looking at the scene from another angle. To minimize the jolt between shots in a sequence on either sides of the 180-degree line, a shot can be included along the 180-degree line separating each side. This lets the viewer visually comprehend the change in viewpoint expressed in the sequence, in professional productions, the applied 180-degree rule is an essential element for a style of film editing called continuity editing. The rule is not always obeyed, sometimes a filmmaker purposely breaks the line of action to create disorientation. Dreyer did this in The Passion of Joan of Arc, Stanley Kubrick also did this—for example, the Wachowskis and directors Jacques Demy, Tinto Brass, Yasujirō Ozu, Wong Kar-wai, and Jacques Tati sometimes ignored this rule also, as has Lars von Trier in Antichrist
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Two shot
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A two shot is a type of shot in which the frame encompasses a view of two people. The subjects do not have to be next to other, and there are many common two-shots which have one subject in the foreground. It is very useful if the film is about two people, the shots are also used to show the emotional reactions between the subjects. For instance, in the movie Stand By Me, this shot is used multiple times to show these emotions, an American two shot shows the two heads facing each other in profile to the camera. A two shot west is a device used primarily in American soap operas. Similarly, a three shot has three people in the composition of the frame, in these shots the characters are given more importance, this type of image can also be seen in print advertising. It was used heavily in The Good, the Bad, logically, a one shot would imply a single person visible in the frame. However, this also has another meaning as in a single take. Cinematography, Theory and Practice, Image Making for Cinematographers and Directors, Second Edition by Blain Brown Page 20 Mittell, Jason
