1.
Shrine of Remembrance, Brisbane
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The Shrine of Remembrance is located in ANZAC Square, between Ann Street and Adelaide Street, in Brisbane, Queensland, Australia. With its Eternal Flame, the Shrine is a war dedicated to the Australian. A service marking Singapore Day is held annually on the closest Sunday to the 15th, funds were raised by public subscription for a memorial to fallen soldiers in World War I and in 1928 a competition was held for its design. The competition was won by Sydney architects Buchanan and Cowper who proposed a Greek Revival structure, the Shrine took two years to build and was dedicated on Armistice Day 11 November 1930 by Governor John Goodwin with a dedication plaque. Designed in the Greek Classic Revival style, the columns of the Shrine of Remembrance are built of Helidon sandstone, the steps leading to the Shrine of Remembrance from ANZAC Square are made of Queensland granite. The 18 columns of the Shrine symbolise the year 1918, when hostilities ceased, there is also a World War I memorial sculpture on the Shrine of Memories external wall. Each year, on ANZAC Day, on 25 April, a Dawn memorial service is held at the Shrine of Remembrance, there is also a memorial service held each year on Remembrance Day,11 November and wreaths are again laid at the Eternal Flame
2.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
3.
Melbourne
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Melbourne is the capital and most populous city of the Australian state of Victoria, and the second-most populous city in Australia and Oceania. The name Melbourne refers to an urban agglomeration spanning 9,900 km2, the metropolis is located on the large natural bay of Port Phillip and expands into the hinterlands towards the Dandenong and Macedon mountain ranges, Mornington Peninsula and Yarra Valley. It has a population of 4,641,636 as of 2016, and its inhabitants are called Melburnians. Founded by free settlers from the British Crown colony of Van Diemens Land on 30 August 1835, in what was then the colony of New South Wales, it was incorporated as a Crown settlement in 1837. It was named Melbourne by the Governor of New South Wales, Sir Richard Bourke, in honour of the British Prime Minister of the day, William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne. It was officially declared a city by Queen Victoria, to whom Lord Melbourne was close, in 1847, during the Victorian gold rush of the 1850s, it was transformed into one of the worlds largest and wealthiest cities. After the federation of Australia in 1901, it served as the interim seat of government until 1927. It is a financial centre in the Asia-Pacific region. It is recognised as a UNESCO City of Literature and a centre for street art, music. It was the host city of the 1956 Summer Olympics and the 2006 Commonwealth Games, the main passenger airport serving the metropolis and the state is Melbourne Airport, the second busiest in Australia. The Port of Melbourne is Australias busiest seaport for containerised and general cargo, Melbourne has an extensive transport network. The main metropolitan train terminus is Flinders Street Station, and the regional train. Melbourne is also home to Australias most extensive network and has the worlds largest urban tram network. Before the arrival of settlers, humans had occupied the area for an estimated 31,000 to 40,000 years. At the time of European settlement, it was inhabited by under 2000 hunter-gatherers from three indigenous tribes, the Wurundjeri, Boonwurrung and Wathaurong. The area was an important meeting place for the clans of the Kulin nation alliance and it would be 30 years before another settlement was attempted. Batman selected a site on the bank of the Yarra River. Batman then returned to Launceston in Tasmania, in early August 1835 a different group of settlers, including John Pascoe Fawkner, left Launceston on the ship Enterprize
4.
Victoria (Australia)
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Victoria is a state in southeast Australia. Victoria is Australias most densely populated state and its second-most populous state overall, most of its population is concentrated in the area surrounding Port Phillip Bay, which includes the metropolitan area of its state capital and largest city, Melbourne, Australias second-largest city. Prior to British European settlement, the area now constituting Victoria was inhabited by a number of Aboriginal peoples. With Great Britain having claimed the entire Australian continent east of the 135th meridian east in 1788, Victoria was included in the wider colony of New South Wales. The first settlement in the area occurred in 1803 at Sullivan Bay, and much of what is now Victoria was included in the Port Phillip District in 1836, Victoria was officially created as a separate colony in 1851, and achieved self-government in 1855. Politically, Victoria has 37 seats in the Australian House of Representatives and 12 seats in the Australian Senate, at state level, the Parliament of Victoria consists of the Legislative Assembly and the Legislative Council. Victoria is currently governed by the Labor Party, with Daniel Andrews the current Premier, the personal representative of the Queen of Australia in the state is the Governor of Victoria, currently Linda Dessau. Local government is concentrated in 79 municipal districts, including 33 cities, although a number of unincorporated areas still exist, Victorias total gross state product is ranked second in Australia, although Victoria is ranked fourth in terms of GSP per capita because of its limited mining activity. Culturally, Melbourne is home to a number of museums, art galleries and theatres and is described as the sporting capital of Australia. The Melbourne Cricket Ground is the largest stadium in Australia, and the host of the 1956 Summer Olympics, Victoria has eight public universities, with the oldest, the University of Melbourne, having been founded in 1853. Victoria, like Queensland, was named after Queen Victoria, who had been on the British throne for 14 years when the colony was established in 1851. The first British settlement in the later known as Victoria was established in October 1803 under Lieutenant-Governor David Collins at Sullivan Bay on Port Phillip. In the year 1826 Colonel Stewart, Captain S. Wright, fly and the brigs Dragon and Amity, took a number of convicts and a small force composed of detachments of the 3rd and 93rd regiments. Victorias next settlement was at Portland, on the south west coast of what is now Victoria, edward Henty settled Portland Bay in 1834. Melbourne was founded in 1835 by John Batman, who set up a base in Indented Head, from settlement the region around Melbourne was known as the Port Phillip District, a separately administered part of New South Wales. Shortly after the now known as Geelong was surveyed by Assistant Surveyor W. H. Smythe. And in 1838 Geelong was officially declared a town, despite earlier white settlements dating back to 1826, days later, still in 1851 gold was discovered near Ballarat, and subsequently at Bendigo. Later discoveries occurred at sites across Victoria
5.
Kings Domain
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Kings Domain is an area of parklands in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. It surrounds Government House Reserve, the home of the Governors of Victoria, the Sidney Myer Music Bowl, and the Shrine Reserve incorporating the Shrine of Remembrance. In the 19th century the Kings Domain was managed by the Director of the Botanic Gardens, around the Domain are scattered memorial statues and sculptures, each with their own story. Kings Domain is part of a group of parklands directly south-east of the city. It was officially opened by Prime Minister Robert Menzies on 12 February 1959 with an audience of some 30,000 people, the Shrine of Remembrance is one of the largest war memorials in Australia. It was built as a memorial to the men and women of Victoria who died in World War I, but soon came to be seen as Australias major memorial to all the 60,000 Australians who served in that war. Governor La Trobes Cottage is a cottage built in 1839 for the first superintendent of the Port Phillip District of New South Wales, Charles La Trobe. The cottage was constructed out of prefabricated materials imported from England on five hectares of land at Jolimont and it is one of the few surviving examples still standing of prefabricated houses from this period of history and gives an insight into early colonial domestic architecture and living arrangements. In 1963 the cottage was relocated to the Kings Domain as an historical landmark, Government House, Melbourne is the office and official residence of the Governor of Victoria. It has also used as the official residence of the Governor-General of Australia from 1901 to 1930. Built between 1871 to 1876 in the Victorian Period Italianate style, it reflects the extravagant style of the period arising from a booming economy due to the Victorian gold rushes. The Pioneer Womens Memorial Garden was designed by Hugh Linaker in tribute to the European pioneer women of the colony and it features a sunken garden area, with a blue-tiled grotto, which contains a small bronze figure of a woman. The garden was opened in 1935 during the year of the founding of Melbourne. The burial of the remains was performed as a tribute to the people whose relationship with the land was destroyed with European settlement. The poles were made in 1995 by Megan Evans and Ray Thomas, a memorial to Sir John Monash, as Commander in Chief of the Australian Forces during World War I, is commemorated in a bronze equestrian statue created by William Leslie Bowles. It was unveiled by the Governor-General, William McKell, on 12 November 1950, on the sculpture there is an embedded image of Tilly Aston with text in embossed lettering and in braille. The memorial was created by Anton Hasell in 1999, a memorial statue of Sir Thomas Blamey stands on the corner of Government House Drive and Birdwood Avenue. It was sculptured from granite and bronze by Raymond B, ewers and presented to the city in February 1960
6.
St Kilda Road, Melbourne
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St Kilda Road is a street in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. It is part of the locality of Melbourne which has the postcode of 3004, the road continues as Brighton Road, which becomes Nepean Highway, forming a major arterial connecting the bayside suburbs and Mornington Peninsula to the city. The first sale of Crown lands in St. Kilda took place on 7 December 1842, within a few years, St Kilda became a fashionable area for wealthy settlers, with the high ground above the beach offering a cool fresh breeze during Melbournes hot summer months. St Kilda Road was a track that linked St Kilda to the town centre. The road was impassable by carriage after rains, which turned the road to mud, prior to the building of the first bridge spanning the Yarra River in 1844, traffic crossed the river by privately operated punts. In 1844, a privately built wooden trestle bridge was built across the river at Swanston Street. In 1850, a government-built sandstone free bridge replaced the wooden bridge, in 1853, the Immigrants Aid Society established the Immigrants Home in St Kilda Road, which accommodated neglected and orphaned children and also had a reformatory for children. The Home existed until 1902 when it became the Melbourne Hospital site, in 1854, Kings Domain garden was established. In the same year the government offered four religious groups land on which to build schools and it offered the Wesleyan Methodist Church 10 acres facing St Kilda Road. It took a while to find sufficient funds to build the actual school, the foundation stone of Wesley College was laid on 4 January 1865 and the school was officially opened on 11 January 1866. In 1855, the government granted 15 acres on St Kilda Road to the Anglican Church on which Melbourne Grammar School was built, the foundation stone was laid on 30 July 1856 and the school was officially opened on 7 April 1858. During the early 1850s, St Kilda Road was the scene of frequent hold-ups by armed bandits, Victoria Barracks were built between 1856 and 1872. In the 1860s, St Kilda was a major bayside resort village, St Kilda Road was a main arterial connecting it with Melbourne, and was planned as a wide European-style boulevard to accommodate horse-drawn traffic. Fawkner Park was created in 1862, the Alfred Hospital was established in 1871. From the 1870s, some of Melbournes wealthiest residents erected grand mansions on significant lots along the street, in 1877, Cooper and Baileys Great American International Circus set up on the site of the present Arts Centre. The present Princes Bridge was built in 1888 to replace the 1850 structure, at this time, the beautiful elm trees were planted along the road. The Prince Henrys Hospital was opened in St Kilda Road in 1885, until the end of the 19th century, the Yarra River was subject to regular flooding. A new channel for the Yarra River was dug from 1896 to 1900 to straighten and widen the river, the spoil was used to fill the swampy lagoons and brickmakers pits and raise the height of the river bank where Alexandra Gardens now stands
7.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
8.
Anzac Day
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Observed on 25 April each year, Anzac Day was originally to honour the members of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps who fought at Gallipoli against the Ottoman Empire during World War I. Anzac Day is also observed in the Cook Islands, Niue, Pitcairn Islands, and Tonga, Anzac Day marks the anniversary of the first campaign that led to major casualties for Australian and New Zealand forces during the First World War. The acronym ANZAC stands for Australian and New Zealand Army Corps, when war broke out in 1914, Australia and New Zealand had been dominions of the British Empire for thirteen and seven years respectively. In 1915, Australian and New Zealand soldiers formed part of an Allied expedition that set out to capture the Gallipoli Peninsula to open the way to the Black Sea for the Allied navies. The objective was to capture Constantinople, the capital of the Ottoman Empire, the ANZAC force landed at Gallipoli on 25 April, meeting fierce resistance from the Ottoman Army commanded by Mustafa Kemal. What had been planned as a strike to knock the Ottomans out of the war quickly became a stalemate. At the end of 1915, the Allied forces were evacuated after both sides had suffered casualties and endured great hardships. The creation of what became known as an Anzac legend became an important part of the identity in both countries. This has shaped the way their citizens have viewed both their past and their understanding of the present, the heroism of the soldiers in the failed Gallipoli campaign made their sacrifices iconic in New Zealand memory, and is often credited with securing the psychological independence of the nation. On 30 April 1915, when the first news of the landing reached New Zealand, remnant seedlings of the original wattles still grow in Wattle Grove. Also in South Australia, Eight Hour Day,13 October 1915, was renamed Anzac Day, in New Zealand it was gazetted as a half-day holiday. This occurred in Egypt as well and he particularly feared that the universality of the ceremony would fall victim to religious sectarian disputes. In London, over 2,000 Australian and New Zealand troops marched through the streets of the city, a London newspaper headline dubbed them The Knights of Gallipoli. Marches were held all over Australia in 1916, wounded soldiers from Gallipoli attended the Sydney march in convoys of cars, over 2,000 people attended the service in Rotorua. For the remaining years of the war, Anzac Day was used as an occasion for patriotic rallies and recruiting campaigns, and marches of serving members of the AIF were held in most cities. Anzac Day was gazetted as a holiday in New Zealand in 1920, through the Anzac Day Act, after lobbying by the New Zealand Returned Soldiers’ Association. In Australia at the 1921 State Premiers Conference, it was decided that Anzac Day would be observed on 25 April each year, however, it was not observed uniformly in all the states. During the 1920s, Anzac Day became established as a National Day of Commemoration for the 60,000 Australians and 18,000 New Zealanders who died during the war
9.
Remembrance Day
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Following a tradition inaugurated by King George V in 1919, the day is also marked by war remembrances in many non-Commonwealth countries. Remembrance Day is observed on 11 November in most countries to recall the end of hostilities of World War I on that date in 1918, the First World War officially ended with the signing of the Treaty of Versailles on 28 June 1919. The memorial evolved out of Armistice Day, which continues to be marked on the same date, the first official Armistice Day was subsequently held on the grounds of Buckingham Palace the following morning. The red remembrance poppy has become an emblem of Remembrance Day due to the poem In Flanders Fields written by Canadian physician Lieutenant-Colonel John McCrae. After reading the poem, Moina Michael, a professor at the University of Georgia, wrote the poem, We Shall Remember, the custom spread to Europe and the countries of the British Empire and Commonwealth within three years. Madame Anne E. Guerin tirelessly promoted the practice in Europe, in the UK Major George Howson fostered the cause with the support of General Haig. Poppies were worn for the first time at the 1921 anniversary ceremony, at first real poppies were worn. These poppies bloomed across some of the worst battlefields of Flanders in World War I, the Flowers of the Forest, O Valiant Hearts, I Vow to Thee, My Country and Jerusalem are often played during the service. Services also include wreaths laid to honour the fallen, a blessing, the central ritual at cenotaphs throughout the Commonwealth is a stylised night vigil. The Last Post was the bugle call at the close of the military day. This makes the ritual more than just an act of remembrance, the act is enhanced by the use of dedicated cenotaphs and the laying of wreaths—the traditional means of signalling high honours in ancient Greece and Rome. Services are held at 11 am at war memorials and schools in suburbs and cities across the country, at which the Last Post is sounded by a bugler and a one-minute silence is observed. In recent decades, Remembrance Day has been eclipsed as the national day of war commemoration by ANZAC Day. When Remembrance Day falls on a working day in Melbourne and other major cities. While this occurs, the majority of passers by stop and observe a moment of silence while waiting for the bugler to finish the recital, in Barbados, Remembrance Day is not a public holiday. It is recognised as 11 November, but the parade and ceremonial events are carried out on Remembrance Sunday, the day is celebrated to recognise the Barbadian soldiers who died fighting in the First and Second World Wars. The parade is held at National Heroes Square, where a service is held. The Governor-General and Barbadian Prime Minister are among those who attend, along with government dignitaries
10.
Classicism
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Classicism, in the arts, refers generally to a high regard for a classical period, classical antiquity in the Western tradition, as setting standards for taste which the classicists seek to emulate. Classicism is a genre of philosophy, expressing itself in literature, architecture, art, and music, which has Ancient Greek and Roman sources. It was particularly expressed in the Neoclassicism of the Age of Enlightenment, Classicism is a recurrent tendency in the Late Antique period, and had a major revival in Carolingian and Ottonian art. Until that time the identification with antiquity had been seen as a history of Christendom from the conversion of Roman Emperor Constantine I. Renaissance classicism introduced a host of elements into European culture, including the application of mathematics and empiricism into art, humanism, literary and depictive realism, importantly it also introduced Polytheism, or paganism, and the juxtaposition of ancient and modern. The classicism of the Renaissance led to, and gave way to and this period sought the revival of classical art forms, including Greek drama and music. Opera, in its modern European form, had its roots in attempts to recreate the combination of singing and dancing with theatre thought to be the Greek norm, examples of this appeal to classicism included Dante, Petrarch, and Shakespeare in poetry and theatre. Tudor drama, in particular, modeled itself after classical ideals, studying Ancient Greek became regarded as essential for a well-rounded education in the liberal arts. They also began reviving plastic arts such as bronze casting for sculpture, for example, the painting of Jacques-Louis David which was seen as an attempt to return to formal balance, clarity, manliness, and vigor in art. Various movements of the period saw themselves as classical revolts against a prevailing trend of emotionalism and irregularity. The 20th century saw a number of changes in the arts, thus, both pre-20th century disciplines were labelled classical and modern movements in art which saw themselves as aligned with light, space, sparseness of texture, and formal coherence. Examples of classicist playwrights are Pierre Corneille, Jean Racine and Moliere, the influence of these French rules on playwrights in other nations is debatable. In the English theatre, Restoration playwrights such as William Wycherly and those of Shakespeares plays that seem to display the unities, such as The Tempest, probably indicate a familiarity with actual models from classical antiquity. Classicism in architecture developed during the Italian Renaissance, notably in the writings and designs of Leon Battista Alberti and this style quickly spread to other Italian cities and then to France, Germany, England, Russia and elsewhere. In the 16th century, Sebastiano Serlio helped codify the classical orders, building off of these influences, the 17th-century architects Inigo Jones and Christopher Wren firmly established classicism in England. For the development of classicism from the mid-18th-century onwards, see Neoclassical architecture, for Greek art of the 5th century B. C. E. See Classical art in ancient Greece and the Severe style Italian Renaissance painting and sculpture are marked by their renewal of classical forms, motifs and subjects. In the 15th century Leon Battista Alberti was important in theorizing many of the ideas for painting that came to a fully realised product with Raphaels School of Athens during the High Renaissance
11.
Mausoleum at Halicarnassus
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The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus or Tomb of Mausolus was a tomb built between 353 and 350 BC at Halicarnassus for Mausolus, a satrap in the Persian Empire, and his sister-wife Artemisia II of Caria. The structure was designed by the Greek architects Satyros and Pythius of Priene, the Mausoleum was approximately 45 m in height, and the four sides were adorned with sculptural reliefs, each created by one of four Greek sculptors—Leochares, Bryaxis, Scopas of Paros and Timotheus. The finished structure of the mausoleum was considered to be such a triumph that Antipater of Sidon identified it as one of his Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. It was destroyed by successive earthquakes from the 12th to the 15th century, the word mausoleum has now come to be used generically for an above-ground tomb. In the 4th century BC, Halicarnassus was the capital of a regional kingdom within the Achaemenid Empire on the western coast of Asia Minor. In 377 BC, the ruler of the region, Hecatomnus of Milas, died and left the control of the kingdom to his son. Hecatomnus, a local satrap under the Persians, took control of several of the neighboring cities, after Artemisia and Mausolus, he had several other daughters and sons, Ada, Idrieus and Pixodarus. Mausolus extended its territory as far as the southwest coast of Anatolia, Artemisia and Mausolus ruled from Halicarnassus over the surrounding territory for 24 years. Mausolus, although descended from people, spoke Greek and admired the Greek way of life. He founded many cities of Greek design along the coast and encouraged Greek democratic traditions, Mausolus decided to build a new capital, one as safe from capture as it was magnificent to be seen. He chose the city of Halicarnassus, Artemisia and Mausolus spent huge amounts of tax money to embellish the city. They commissioned statues, temples and buildings of gleaming marble, in 353 BC, Mausolus died, leaving Artemisia to rule alone. As the Persian satrap, and as the Hecatomnid dynast, Mausolus had planned for himself an elaborate tomb, when he died the projects was continued by his siblings. The tomb became so famous that Mausoluss name is now the eponym for all stately tombs, Artemisia lived for only two years after the death of her husband. The urns with their ashes were placed in the yet unfinished tomb. As a form of sacrifice ritual the bodies of a number of dead animals were placed on the stairs leading to the tomb. It is likely that Mausollos started to plan the tomb before his death, as part of the works in Halicarnassus. Artemisia spared no expense in building the tomb and she sent messengers to Greece to find the most talented artists of the time
12.
Halicarnassus
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Halicarnassus was an ancient Greek city at the site of modern Bodrum in Turkey. It was located in southwest Caria on a picturesque, advantageous site on the Ceramic Gulf. The city was famous for the tomb of Mausolus, the origin of the word mausoleum and it was part of the Persian Empire until captured by Alexander the Great at the siege of Halicarnassus in 334 BC. Halicarnassus originally occupied only an island near to the shore called Zephyria, which was the original name of the settlement. The suffix -ᾱσσός of Greek Ἁλικαρνᾱσσός is indicative of a substrate toponym and it has been recently proposed that the element -καρνᾱσσός is cognate with Luwian ha+ra/i-na-sà / ha+ra/i-ni-sà fortress. If so, the toponym is probably borrowed from Carian, a Luwic language spoken alongside Greek in Halicarnassus, the Carian name for Halicarnassus has been tentatively identified with Alos-δ karnos-δ in inscriptions. Some large Mycenaean tombs have found at Musgebi, not far from Halicarnassus. More than forty burial places dating back to time have been discovered. A rich collection of found in these tombs is now housed in the Bodrum Castle. These finds cast some light on the problem of determining the territories of ancient Arzawa and Ahhiyawa, the inhabitants appear to have accepted Anthes, a son of Poseidon, as their legendary founder, as mentioned by Strabo, and were proud of the title of Antheadae. In the early 5th century Halicarnassus was under the sway of Artemisia I of Caria, hecatomnus became king of Caria, at that time part of the Persian Empire, ruling from 404 BC to 358 BC and establishing the Hekatomnid dynasty. Mausolus moved his capital from Mylasa to Halicarnassus and his workmen deepened the citys harbor and used the dragged sand to make protecting breakwaters in front of the channel. On land they paved streets and squares, and built houses for ordinary citizens, and on one side of the harbor they built a massive fortified palace for Mausolus, positioned to have clear views out to sea and inland to the hills—places from where enemies could attack. On land, the workmen also built walls and watchtowers, a Greek–style theatre, Artemisia and Mausolus spent huge amounts of tax money to embellish the city. They commissioned statues, temples and buildings of gleaming marble, when he died in 353 BC, his wife, sister and successor, Artemisia II of Caria, began construction of a magnificent tomb for him and herself on a hill overlooking the city. This tomb of Mausolus came to be known as the Mausoleum, Artemisia was succeeded by her brother Idrieus, who, in turn, was succeeded by his wife and sister Ada when he died in 344 BC. However, Ada was usurped by her brother Pixodarus in 340 BC, on the death of Pixodarus in 335 BC his son-in-law, a Persian named Orontobates, received the satrapy of Caria from Darius III of Persia. When Alexander the Great entered Caria in 334 BC, Ada, during the siege of Halicarnassus the city was fired by the retreating Persians
13.
Parthenon
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The Parthenon is a former temple, on the Athenian Acropolis, Greece, dedicated to the goddess Athena, whom the people of Athens considered their patron. Construction began in 447 BC when the Athenian Empire was at the peak of its power and it was completed in 438 BC although decoration of the building continued until 432 BC. It is the most important surviving building of Classical Greece, generally considered the zenith of the Doric order and its decorative sculptures are considered some of the high points of Greek art. The Parthenon is regarded as an symbol of Ancient Greece, Athenian democracy and western civilization. The Greek Ministry of Culture is currently carrying out a programme of restoration and reconstruction to ensure the stability of the partially ruined structure. The Parthenon itself replaced a temple of Athena, which historians call the Pre-Parthenon or Older Parthenon. The temple is aligned to the Hyades. While a sacred building dedicated to the patron goddess, the Parthenon was actually used primarily as a treasury. For a time, it served as the treasury of the Delian League, in the final decade of the sixth century AD, the Parthenon was converted into a Christian church dedicated to the Virgin Mary. After the Ottoman conquest, it was turned into a mosque in the early 1460s, on 26 September 1687, an Ottoman ammunition dump inside the building was ignited by Venetian bombardment. The resulting explosion damaged the Parthenon and its sculptures. From 1800 to 1803, Thomas Bruce, 7th Earl of Elgin removed some of the sculptures with the alleged permission of the Ottoman Empire. These sculptures, now known as the Elgin Marbles or the Parthenon Marbles, were sold in 1816 to the British Museum in London, since 1983, the Greek government has been committed to the return of the sculptures to Greece. The Liddell–Scott–Jones Greek–English Lexicon states that this room was the western cella of the Parthenon, jamauri D. Christopher Pelling asserts that Athena Parthenos may have constituted a discrete cult of Athena, intimately connected with, but not identical to, that of Athena Polias. According to this theory, the name of the Parthenon means the temple of the virgin goddess and it has also been suggested that the name of the temple alludes to the maidens, whose supreme sacrifice guaranteed the safety of the city. Parthénos has also applied to the Virgin Mary, Parthénos Maria. The first instance in which Parthenon definitely refers to the building is found in the writings of the 4th century BC orator Demosthenes. In 5th-century building accounts, the structure is simply called ho naos, because the Parthenon was dedicated to the Greek goddess Athena, it has sometimes been referred to as the Temple of Minerva, the Roman name for Athena, particularly during the 19th century
14.
Athens
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Athens is the capital and largest city of Greece. In modern times, Athens is a cosmopolitan metropolis and central to economic, financial, industrial, maritime. In 2015, Athens was ranked the worlds 29th richest city by purchasing power, Athens is recognised as a global city because of its location and its importance in shipping, finance, commerce, media, entertainment, arts, international trade, culture, education and tourism. It is one of the biggest economic centres in southeastern Europe, with a financial sector. The municipality of Athens had a population of 664,046 within its limits. The urban area of Athens extends beyond its administrative city limits. According to Eurostat in 2011, the Functional urban areas of Athens was the 9th most populous FUA in the European Union, Athens is also the southernmost capital on the European mainland. The city also retains Roman and Byzantine monuments, as well as a number of Ottoman monuments. Athens is home to two UNESCO World Heritage Sites, the Acropolis of Athens and the medieval Daphni Monastery, Athens was the host city of the first modern-day Olympic Games in 1896, and 108 years later it welcomed home the 2004 Summer Olympics. In Ancient Greek, the name of the city was Ἀθῆναι a plural, in earlier Greek, such as Homeric Greek, the name had been current in the singular form though, as Ἀθήνη. It was possibly rendered in the later on, like those of Θῆβαι and Μυκῆναι. During the medieval period the name of the city was rendered once again in the singular as Ἀθήνα, an etiological myth explaining how Athens has acquired its name was well known among ancient Athenians and even became the theme of the sculpture on the West pediment of the Parthenon. The goddess of wisdom, Athena, and the god of the seas, Poseidon had many disagreements, in an attempt to compel the people, Poseidon created a salt water spring by striking the ground with his trident, symbolizing naval power. However, when Athena created the tree, symbolizing peace and prosperity. Different etymologies, now rejected, were proposed during the 19th century. Christian Lobeck proposed as the root of the name the word ἄθος or ἄνθος meaning flower, ludwig von Döderlein proposed the stem of the verb θάω, stem θη- to denote Athens as having fertile soil. In classical literature, the city was referred to as the City of the Violet Crown, first documented in Pindars ἰοστέφανοι Ἀθᾶναι. In medieval texts, variant names include Setines, Satine, and Astines, today the caption η πρωτεύουσα, the capital, has become somewhat common
15.
Choragic Monument of Lysicrates
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The choregos was the sponsor who paid for and supervised the training of the dramatic dance-chorus. The monument is known as the first use of the Corinthian order on the exterior of a building and it has been reproduced widely in modern monuments and building elements. The circular structure, raised on a high squared podium, is the first Greek monument built in the Corinthian order on its exterior and it was originally crowned with an elaborate floral support for the bronze tripod that was the prize Lysicrates chorus won. Its frieze sculptures depict episodes from the myth of Dionysus, the god whose rites developed into Greek theatre, in 1658, a French Capuchin monastery was founded by the site, in 1669 the monastery succeeded in purchasing the monument, then being called the Lantern of Demosthenes. It was also called Lantern of Diogenes, a reading of its inscription by Jacob Spon established its original purpose. The young British architects James Athenian Stuart and Nicholas Revett published the first measured drawings of the monument in their Antiquities of Athens, the monument became famous in France and England through engravings of it, and improved versions became eye-catching features in several English landscape gardens. Lord Byron stayed at the monastery during his visit to Greece. In 1818, friar Francis planted in its gardens the first tomato plants in Greece, in 1829, the monks offered the structure to an Englishman on tour, but it proved to be too cumbersome to disassemble and ship. Lord Elgin negotiated unsuccessfully for the monument, by then an icon in the Greek Revival, French archaeologists cleared the rubble from the half-buried monument and searched the area for missing architectural parts. In 1876–1887, the architects François Boulanger and E. Loviot supervised a restoration under the auspices of the French government, the Grade I-listed St John the Evangelists Church, Chichester, now redundant, is topped with a preposterous miniature of the monument. The design of the Portland Breakwater Light in Maine was inspired by the monument and it was adapted for Civil War memorials and capped many Beaux-Arts towers, such as The San Remos towers in New York. The most prominent example is the Soldiers and Sailors Monument designed by architects Charles and Arthur Stoughton, in Australia, there is a version in the Royal Botanic Gardens, Sydney in New South Wales. It is also reproduced at the Shrine of Remembrance in Melbourne where it forms an element at the top of the memorials pyramid-like roof. On June,2016, Anarchists vandalised the monument with spray paint, writing, excerpts from guidebooks American Beaux-Arts uses of the Choragic Monument Neoclassic architecture and the influence of Antiquity
16.
Granite
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Granite is a common type of felsic intrusive igneous rock that is granular and phaneritic in texture. Granites can be white, pink, or gray in color. The word granite comes from the Latin granum, a grain, in reference to the structure of such a holocrystalline rock. By definition, granite is a rock with at least 20% quartz. The term granitic means granite-like and is applied to granite and a group of igneous rocks with similar textures and slight variations in composition. Occasionally some individual crystals are larger than the groundmass, in case the texture is known as porphyritic. A granitic rock with a texture is known as a granite porphyry. Granitoid is a general, descriptive field term for lighter-colored, coarse-grained igneous rocks, petrographic examination is required for identification of specific types of granitoids. The extrusive igneous rock equivalent of granite is rhyolite, Granite is nearly always massive, hard and tough, and therefore it has gained widespread use throughout human history, and more recently as a construction stone. The average density of granite is between 2.65 and 2.75 g/cm3, its compressive strength usually lies above 200 MPa, and its viscosity near STP is 3–6 •1019 Pa·s. The melting temperature of dry granite at ambient pressure is 1215–1260 °C, it is reduced in the presence of water. Granite has poor primary permeability, but strong secondary permeability, true granite according to modern petrologic convention contains both plagioclase and alkali feldspars. When a granitoid is devoid or nearly devoid of plagioclase, the rock is referred to as alkali feldspar granite, when a granitoid contains less than 10% orthoclase, it is called tonalite, pyroxene and amphibole are common in tonalite. A granite containing both muscovite and biotite micas is called a binary or two-mica granite, two-mica granites are typically high in potassium and low in plagioclase, and are usually S-type granites or A-type granites. A worldwide average of the composition of granite, by weight percent, based on 2485 analyses. Much of it was intruded during the Precambrian age, it is the most abundant basement rock that underlies the relatively thin veneer of the continents. Outcrops of granite tend to form tors and rounded massifs, granites sometimes occur in circular depressions surrounded by a range of hills, formed by the metamorphic aureole or hornfels. Granite often occurs as small, less than 100 km² stock masses
17.
Marble
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Marble is a metamorphic rock composed of recrystallized carbonate minerals, most commonly calcite or dolomite. Geologists use the marble to refer to metamorphosed limestone, however. Marble is commonly used for sculpture and as a building material and this stem is also the basis for the English word marmoreal, meaning marble-like. In Hungarian it is called márvány, Marble is a rock resulting from metamorphism of sedimentary carbonate rocks, most commonly limestone or dolomite rock. Metamorphism causes variable recrystallization of the carbonate mineral grains. The resulting marble rock is composed of an interlocking mosaic of carbonate crystals. Primary sedimentary textures and structures of the carbonate rock have typically been modified or destroyed. Pure white marble is the result of metamorphism of a very pure limestone or dolomite protolith, green coloration is often due to serpentine resulting from originally magnesium-rich limestone or dolostone with silica impurities. These various impurities have been mobilized and recrystallized by the intense pressure, examples of historically notable marble varieties and locations, White marble has been prized for its use in sculptures since classical times. This preference has to do with its softness, which made it easier to carve, relative isotropy and homogeneity, construction marble is a stone which is composed of calcite, dolomite or serpentine which is capable of taking a polish. More generally in construction, specifically the dimension stone trade, the marble is used for any crystalline calcitic rock useful as building stone. For example, Tennessee marble is really a dense granular fossiliferous gray to pink to maroon Ordovician limestone that geologists call the Holston Formation. Ashgabat, the city of Turkmenistan, was recorded in the 2013 Guinness Book of Records as having the worlds highest concentration of white marble buildings. According to the United States Geological Survey, U. S. domestic marble production in 2006 was 46,400 tons valued at about $18.1 million, compared to 72,300 tons valued at $18.9 million in 2005. Crushed marble production in 2006 was 11.8 million tons valued at $116 million, of which 6.5 million tons was finely ground calcium carbonate and the rest was construction aggregate. For comparison,2005 crushed marble production was 7.76 million tons valued at $58.7 million, of which 4.8 million tons was finely ground calcium carbonate, U. S. dimension marble demand is about 1.3 million tons. The DSAN World Demand for Marble Index has shown a growth of 12% annually for the 2000–2006 period, the largest dimension marble application is tile. In 1998, marble production was dominated by 4 countries that accounted for almost half of production of marble
18.
First Australian Imperial Force
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The First Australian Imperial Force was the main expeditionary force of the Australian Army during World War I. It was formed on 15 August 1914, following Britains declaration of war on Germany, initially with a strength of one infantry division and one light horse brigade. The infantry division fought at Gallipoli between April and December 1915, being reinforced by a second division which was later raised. After being evacuated to Egypt the AIF was expanded to five infantry divisions, a sixth infantry division was partially raised in 1917 in the United Kingdom, but was broken up and used as reinforcements following heavy casualties on the Western Front. Meanwhile, two mounted divisions remained in the Middle East to fight against Turkish forces in the Sinai and Palestine. An all volunteer force, by the end of the war the AIF had gained a reputation as being a well-trained and highly effective military force, however, this reputation came at a heavy cost with a casualty rate among the highest of any belligerent for the war. After the war, the AFC evolved into the Royal Australian Air Force, after the war the achievements of the AIF and its soldiers, known colloquially as Diggers, became central to the national mythology of the Anzac legend. Generally known at the time as the AIF, it is referred to as the 1st AIF to it distinguish from the Second Australian Imperial Force raised during World War II. At the start of the war, Australias military forces were focused upon the part-time Militia, the small number of regular personnel were mostly artillerymen or engineers, and were generally assigned to the task of coastal defence. The Australian government pledged to supply 20,000 men organised as one division and one light horse brigade plus supporting units. Officially coming into being on 15 August 1914, the word imperial was chosen to reflect the duty of Australians to both nation and empire, the AIF was initially intended for service in Europe. Meanwhile, a separate 2, 000-man force—known as the Australian Naval, in addition, small military forces were maintained in Australia to defend the country from attack. Upon formation, the AIF consisted of one infantry division, the 1st Division. The 1st Light Horse Brigade was commanded by Colonel Harry Chauvel, the initial response for recruits was so good that in September 1914 the decision was made to raise the 4th Infantry Brigade and 2nd and 3rd Light Horse Brigades. The 4th Infantry Brigade was commanded by Colonel John Monash, a prominent Melbourne civil engineer, the AIF continued to grow through the war, eventually numbering five infantry divisions, two mounted divisions and a mixture of other units. As the AIF operated within the British war effort, its units were organised along the same lines as comparable British Army formations. However, there were small differences between the structures of British and Australian units, especially in regards to the AIF infantry divisions support units. Hastily deployed, the first contingent of AIF was essentially untrained and suffered from widespread equipment shortages, in early 1915 the AIF was largely an inexperienced force, with only a small percentage of its members having previous combat experience
19.
Keith Murdoch
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His paternal grandfather was a minister with the Free Church of Scotland, and his maternal grandfather was a Presbyterian minister. The family moved from West Melbourne to the affluent suburb of Camberwell in 1887, Keith was educated at his uncle Walters short-lived school, then at Camberwell Grammar School, where he became dux in 1903, despite extreme shyness and stammering. He decided not to go straight to university but to try a career in journalism, in 1912, he became Melbourne political correspondent for the Sydney Sun. They travelled from Wellington aboard the Ulimaroa, arriving in Sydney on 2 February 1915, unless first submitted to the Chief Field Censor. Murdoch visited Anzac Cove at the beginning of September, then moved to the headquarters on the island of Imbros. Murdoch agreed to carry a letter from Ashmead-Bartlett to the British Prime Minister H. H. Asquith in London, written on 8 September, hamilton quickly learned about the existence of this letter. Reaching France on his route to London, Murdoch was arrested by Military Police in Marseille, after sending the letter to Australia, he supplied two copies to the British Munitions Minister David Lloyd George, with his letter of introduction from Andrew Fisher. Very quickly, Murdochs letter reached Asquith and was circulated to senior ministers of the British government. Murdoch, initially alarmed that Northcliffes staff had obtained a copy of his private letter, arranging for the papers general manager to be demoted, he began applying Lord Northcliffes principles, with frequent advice from Northcliffe himself. As he had in London, he focused on political controversy, but he made the Herald influential in other ways, through such devices as improved arts coverage. He acquired the nickname Lord Southcliffe and in 1928 became managing director of the company, in 1927 he saw a photograph of an attractive 18-year-old débutante, Elisabeth Joy Greene, in Table Talk magazine, and arranged for a friend to introduce him. She became Mrs Elisabeth Murdoch in June 1928, honeymooning on his Cruden Farm estate at Langwarrin and they had children Helen, Rupert Murdoch, Anne and Janet. From 1926 onward, he had led a campaign to take over newspapers elsewhere in Australia, in Adelaide, for example, the Herald publisher took over the feeble Adelaide Register in 1928, and turned it into a Sun-style picture tabloid. Murdoch had also been investing in newspapers on his own account, notably in Brisbane and he kept pace with new technology, and by 1935 the Herald was involved with eleven radio stations. He received a knighthood in July 1933, and being an art connoisseur with an appreciation of modern work, became a trustee of Victorias museums and galleries. He later had some regrets about his support for the strong-willed Lyons, stating in 1936, I put him there, meanwhile, others were expressing deep concern about the dangers of concentrating so much press power in the hands of one person. This came to a head after Australia became involved in the Second World War, comparisons were made with Goebbels, press co-operation was swiftly withdrawn, politicians protested, and despite agreements to modify the regulation, in November he was obliged to resign the post. Returning to the newspapers he spent the rest of the war encouraging a patriotic spirit, sir Keith Murdoch died at Cruden Farm in the night of 4–5 October 1952 and the funeral service was held at Toorak Presbyterian Church
20.
Herald Sun
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The Herald Sun primarily serves Victoria and shares many articles with other News Corporation daily newspapers, especially those from Australia. In March 2009, the paper had a circulation of 530,000 from Monday to Friday. It was first published on 8 October 1990 as the Herald-Sun, the Herald was founded on 3 January 1840 by George Cavenagh as the Port Phillip Herald. In 1849, it became The Melbourne Morning Herald, at the beginning of 1855, it became The Melbourne Herald before settling on The Herald from 8 September 1855 - the name it would hold for the next 135 years. From 1869, it was an evening newspaper, colonel William Thomas Reay was sometime literary editor and later associate editor, before becoming managing editor in 1904. When The Argus newspaper closed in 1957, The Herald and Weekly Times bought out, in 1986, The Heralds Saturday edition - The Weekend Herald - which had adopted a tabloid format, in order to distinguish it from the Monday to Friday editions broadsheet format - was closed. The Sun News-Pictorial was founded on 11 September 1922, and bought by The Herald and this was much less than that of the morning Sun. The next day, The Sun News-Pictorial published its last edition, the Sunday editions of the two newspapers, The Sunday Herald and The Sunday Sun, were also merged to form the Sunday Herald Sun. The resulting newspaper had both the size and style of The Sun News-Pictorial, Bruce Baskett, the last Editor of The Herald, was the first Editor of the Herald Sun. After a progressive decline in circulation the afternoon edition was cancelled, recent editors include Peter Blunden, Simon Pristel, Phil Gardner and Bruce Guthrie. The Herald Sun is the daily newspaper in Australia, with a weekday circulation of 515,000. According to third-party web analytics providers Alexa and SimilarWeb, Herald Suns website is the 74th and 125th most visited in Australia respectively, SimilarWeb rates the site as the 15th most visited news website in Australia, attracting almost 6.6 million visitors per month. The Greens complained to the Australian Press Council, the text of their adjudication reads, In the context of an approaching election, the potential damage was considerable. The actual electoral impact cannot be known but readers were seriously misled, the controversy resulted in agitation to change the law to introduce shield laws in Australia to take into consideration the journalists code of ethics. The Sunday edition is called the Sunday Herald Sun and its counterparts in Sydney are The Daily Telegraph and The Sunday Telegraph. In Brisbane, it is linked with The Courier-Mail and The Sunday Mail, in Adelaide, The Advertiser and Sunday Mail. In Hobart, The Mercury and The Sunday Tasmanian, in Darwin, The Northern Territory News and Sunday Territorian. Video accessed online 6 June 2006
21.
Cenotaph
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A cenotaph is an empty tomb or a monument erected in honour of a person or group of people whose remains are elsewhere. It can also be the tomb for a person who has since been reinterred elsewhere. The word derives from the Greek, κενοτάφιον kenotaphion Cenotaphs were common in the ancient world with many built in Ancient Egypt, Ancient Greece and across Northern Europe. The Basilica di Santa Croce in Florence, Italy, contains a number of cenotaphs including one for Dante Alighieri, a cenotaph is the focal point of the Voortrekker Monument in Pretoria, South Africa. It is situated below the main point of interest, a marble Historical Frieze in the Hall of Heroes. The Hall of Heroes itself has a dome from the summit of one can view the interior of the monument. At noon on 16 December each year the sun shines through another opening in the dome onto the middle of the cenotaph, the ray of sunshine symbolises Gods blessing on the lives and endeavours of the Voortrekkers. 16 December is the date in 1838 that the Battle of Blood River was fought, durban, South Africa, has a striking and unusual cenotaph made of granite and lavishly decorated with brightly coloured ceramics. Port Elizabeth, South Africa, has a cenotaph, on either side of the central sarcophagus are statues by Technical College Art School principal, James Gardner, who served in the trenches during the war. One depicts St George and the Dragon, the other depicts the sanctity of family life, surrounding the sarcophagus are a number of bas-relief panels depicting scenes and people during the First World War. It was unveiled by Mrs W F Savage and dedicated by Canon Mayo on 10 November 1929, a surrounding memorial wall commemorates the men and women killed during World War II. In Livingstone there is a cenotaph at the Eastern Cataract of The Victoria Falls with the names of the men of Northern Rhodesia who died during the Great War 1914–18 and it was unveiled by HRH Prince Arthur of Connaught on 1 August 1923. There is also a cenotaph in Lusaka at Embassy Park, opposite the Cabinet Office along Independence Avenue, the cenotaph was commemorated in 1977. A monument which has come to be known to as the Cenotaph was erected in Plaza San Martín, in downtown Buenos Aires, to commemorate the Argentinian soldiers who died during the Falklands War, in 1982. The monument consists of a series of plaques of marble with the names of the fallen, surrounding a flame. Another cenotaph, which is a replica of the Argentine Military Cemetery in Darwin on the Falkland Islands, exists in Campo de Mayo, a limestone replica of the Cenotaph at Whitehall in London was erected outside the Cabinet Building in Hamilton, Bermuda in 1920. In the United States, a cenotaph in Yale Universitys Hewitt Quad honours men of Yale who died in battle, the John Fitzgerald Kennedy Memorial in Dallas is often described as a cenotaph. It has an Egyptian Revival cenotaph base, surmounted by a fasces bound together with ribbons bearing the names of the dead and it was designed by French émigré architect Maximilian Godefroy in 1815, and construction was completed in 1827
22.
John Monash
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General Sir John Monash, GCMG, KCB, VD was a civil engineer and an Australian military commander of the First World War. He commanded the 13th Infantry Brigade before the war and then, shortly after its outbreak, became commander of the 4th Brigade in Egypt, with whom he took part in the Gallipoli campaign. In July 1916 he took charge of the newly raised 3rd Division in northwestern France and in May 1918 became commander of the Australian Corps, Monash is considered one of the best Allied generals of the First World War and the most famous commander in Australian history. Monash was born in Dudley Street, West Melbourne, Victoria, on 27 June 1865 and he was born to Jewish parents, both from Krotoschin, in the Posen province, Kingdom of Prussia, the family name was originally spelt Monasch. The family spoke German as their native language, as might have been expected from a man brought up by cultivated German parents who had arrived in Australia barely two years before Johns birth, Monash spoke, read, and wrote German fluently. However, from 1914 until his death, Sir John Monash had no reason to attract attention to his German background. In 1874, the moved to the small town of Jerilderie in the Riverina region of New South Wales. Monash later claimed to have met the bushranger Ned Kelly during his raid there in 1879, Monash attended the public school and his intelligence was recognised. The family was advised to move back to Melbourne to let John reach his full potential and he was educated under Alexander Morrison at Scotch College, Melbourne, where he passed the matriculation examination when only 14 years of age. At age 16, he was dux of the school and he graduated from the University of Melbourne, a Master of Engineering in 1893, a Bachelor of Arts and Bachelor of Laws in 1895, and a Doctor of Engineering in 1921. On 8 April 1891, Monash married Hannah Victoria Moss, and their only child, Monash had previously engaged in an affair with Annie Gabriel, the wife of one of his colleagues, which ended as an active matter after his conscious choice of Vic for marriage. He worked as a engineer, and played a major role in introducing reinforced concrete to Australian engineering practice. He initially worked for private contractors on bridge and railway construction, following a period with the Melbourne Harbour Trust, in 1894 he entered into partnership with J. T. N. Anderson as consultants and contractors. He took a part in his profession and became president of the Victorian Institute of Engineers. Monash joined the university company of the militia in 1884, and he was promoted to captain in 1895, major in 1897, and in 1906 he became a lieutenant-colonel in the intelligence corps. He was colonel commanding the 13th Infantry Brigade in 1912, when the First World War broke out in August 1914, Monash became a full-time army officer, accepting an appointment as the chief censor in Australia. Monash did not enjoy the job, and was keen for a field command. In September, after the Australian Imperial Force was formed, he was appointed as the commander of the 4th Infantry Brigade, which consisted of four battalions, when the first contingent of Australian troops, the 1st Division, sailed in October, the 4th Brigade remained behind
23.
Walter Baldwin Spencer
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Sir Walter Baldwin Spencer KCMG, commonly referred to as W. Baldwin Spencer or Baldwin Spencer, was an English-Australian biologist and anthropologist. Baldwin was born in Stretford, Lancashire, Baldwin was educated at Old Trafford school, and on leaving entered the Manchester School of Art. He stayed only one year but never forgot his training in drawing, after leaving the school of arts Spencer went to Owens College where Milnes Marshall guided him in his study of biology. He gained a scholarship at Exeter College, Oxford, before going to Oxford he won the Dalton Prize for natural history. Spencer began his studies at Oxford in 1881, in June 1884 he qualified for his BA degree, obtaining first-class honours in biology. His association with these men in this task no doubt largely helped to develop his interest in anthropology. In January 1886 he obtained a fellowship at Lincoln College, Oxford, a few days later he was married to Mary Elizabeth Bowman and left for Australia where he arrived in March. He immediately set about organising his new school and succeeded in getting a grant of £8000 to begin building his lecture rooms and he showed much capability as a lecturer and organiser, and also took a full part in the general activities of the university. In 1894 a new field was opened up for Spencer when he joined the W. A, horn scientific expedition which left Adelaide in May 1894 to explore Australia. In July he met Francis James Gillen at Alice Springs with whom he was to be so much associated in the study of the Aborigines. The expedition covered some 2000 miles in three months and on his return Spencer busied himself with editing the report to which he also largely contributed. He continued this work with Gillen during the vacations of the two following years, a large amount of material relating to tribal customs was accumulated, and the book appeared with the names of both Gillen and Spencer on the title page. Spencer was recruited as science writer for the Australasian by its editor, Spencer had been appointed a trustee of the public library in 1895. When Sir Frederick McCoy died in May 1899 he became director of the national museum. He was to do an amount of work in the following years. In this year Spencer became president of the board, an office he was to hold for seven years. There was then no paid vice-chancellor at Melbourne university and much administrative work fell on Spencers shoulders, outside of these duties, he took an interest in the sporting activities of the undergraduates. The story of this will be found in Native Tribes of the Northern Territory of Australia, in 1914 Spencer was honorary secretary for the meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science held in Melbourne
24.
Architect
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An architect is someone who plans, designs, and reviews the construction of buildings. Etymologically, architect derives from the Latin architectus, which derives from the Greek, practical, technical, and academic requirements for becoming an architect vary by jurisdiction. The terms architect and architecture are used in the disciplines of landscape architecture, naval architecture. In most jurisdictions, the professional and commercial uses of the terms architect, throughout ancient and medieval history, most architectural design and construction was carried out by artisans—such as stone masons and carpenters, rising to the role of master builder. Until modern times, there was no distinction between architect and engineer. In Europe, the architect and engineer were primarily geographical variations that referred to the same person. It is suggested that various developments in technology and mathematics allowed the development of the gentleman architect. Paper was not used in Europe for drawing until the 15th century, pencils were used more often for drawing by 1600. The availability of both allowed pre-construction drawings to be made by professionals, until the 18th-century, buildings continued to be designed and set out by craftsmen with the exception of high-status projects. In most developed countries, only qualified people with appropriate license, certification, or registration with a relevant body, such licensure usually requires an accredited university degree, successful completion of exams, and a training period. To practice architecture implies the ability to independently of supervision. In many places, independent, non-licensed individuals may perform design services outside the professional restrictions, such design houses, in the architectural profession, technical and environmental knowledge, design and construction management, and an understanding of business are as important as design. However, design is the force throughout the project and beyond. An architect accepts a commission from a client, the commission might involve preparing feasibility reports, building audits, the design of a building or of several buildings, structures, and the spaces among them. The architect participates in developing the requirements the client wants in the building, throughout the project, the architect co-ordinates a design team. Structural, mechanical, and electrical engineers and other specialists, are hired by the client or the architect, the architect hired by a client is responsible for creating a design concept that meets the requirements of that client and provides a facility suitable to the required use. In that, the architect must meet with and question the client to ascertain all the requirements, often the full brief is not entirely clear at the beginning, entailing a degree of risk in the design undertaking. The architect may make proposals to the client which may rework the terms of the brief
25.
The Age
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The Age is a daily newspaper that has been published in Melbourne, Australia, since 1854. It is delivered in both hardcopy and online formats, the newspaper shares many articles with other Fairfax Media metropolitan daily newspapers, such as The Sydney Morning Herald. As at February 2017, The Age had a weekday circulation of 88,000. The Sunday Age had a circulation of 123,000 and these represented year-on-year declines of 8% to 9%. The Ages website, according to third-party web analytics providers Alexa and SimilarWeb, is the 44th and 58th most visited website in Australia respectively, SimilarWeb rates the site as the seventh most visited news website in Australia, attracting more than 7 million visitors per month. The newspaper went compact in March 2013, with the Saturday and Sunday editions retaining the broadsheet format, on 22/23 February 2014, the final weekend edition were produced in broadsheet format with these too converted to compact format on 1/2 March 2014. The Ages parent company Chief executive officer, Greg Hywood, has foreshadowed the end of the print edition of the newspaper, with some analysts saying this will occur during 2017. The Age was founded by three Melbourne businessmen, the brothers John and Henry Cooke, who had arrived from New Zealand in the 1840s, the first edition appeared on 17 October 1854. The first edition under the new owners was on 17 June 1856, Ebenezer Syme was elected to the Victorian Legislative Assembly shortly after buying The Age, and his brother David Syme soon came to dominate the paper, editorially and managerially. When Ebenezer died in 1860, David became editor-in-chief, a position he retained until his death in 1908, in 1891, Syme bought out Ebenezers heirs and McEwans and became sole proprietor. He built up The Age into Victorias leading newspaper, in circulation, it soon overtook its rivals The Herald and The Argus, and by 1890 it was selling 100,000 copies a day, making it one of the worlds most successful newspapers. Under Symes control The Age exercised enormous political power in Victoria, Syme was originally a free trader, but converted to protectionism through his belief that Victoria needed to develop its manufacturing industries behind tariff barriers. In the 1890s, The Age was a supporter of Australian federation. After Symes death the paper remained in the hands of his three sons, with his eldest son Herbert Syme becoming general manager until his death in 1939, by the 1940s, the papers circulation was smaller than it had been in 1900, and its political influence also declined. Although it remained more liberal than the extremely conservative Argus, it lost much of its political identity. The historian Sybil Nolan writes, Accounts of The Age in these years generally suggest that the paper was second-rate, walker described a newspaper which had fallen asleep in the embrace of the Liberal Party, querulous, doddery and turgid are some of the epithets applied by other journalists. In 1942, David Symes last surviving son, Oswald Syme and he modernised the papers appearance and standards of news coverage. A takeover attempt by the Warwick Fairfax family, publishers of The Sydney Morning Herald, was beaten off and this new lease on life allowed The Age to recover commercially, and in 1957 it received a great boost when The Argus ceased publication
26.
George Augustine Taylor
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George Augustine Taylor was an Australian artist, journalist, and inventor. Taylor was born at Sydney in 1872 and he began his working life articled to an architect. He contributed drawings to The Bulletin, Worker, Sunday Times, Referee, and London Punch, but later became interested in aviation and radio, Taylor was a member of the Dawn and Dusk Club, an association of bohemians and intellectuals that included the writer Henry Lawson. Taylor married his wife, Florence Mary Parsons in 1907 and he experimented with a motorless aeroplane and, in November 1909, constructed one of full size. He also contacted the retired inventor Lawrence Hargrave at this time, on 5 December, at Narrabeen, Sydney, Taylor flew in the glider he had designed and became the first person in Australia to fly in a heavier-than-air craft. Florence Taylor flew in her husbands glider on the same day, in March 1910 Taylor arranged a demonstration of wireless at Heathcote for his superior officers in the army. He enlisted the aid of three civilians to perform this task, Taylor not being an inventor or radio operator himself, messer’s Kirkby, Hannam and Wilkinson bought their own equipment with them set it up and performed the demonstrations. Taylor always used Kirkby to manufacture wireless sets and demonstrate wireless on other such as at his lecture on the air age. Hannam went on to be Mawson’s wireless operator on his Antarctic expeditions, Kirkby had built the Shaw wireless works. In 1910 and 1911 he succeeded in communicating from one part of a train to another. He had founded the league in 1909 and was a co-founder of the Wireless Institute of New South Wales in 1910. It was largely on account of his representations that the first government wireless station was erected in Australia and he did some interesting experimental work in connexion with locating sound by wireless, which proved useful in the 1914-18 war when methods of locating submarines had to be devised. Taylor visited Europe in 1922 and studied broadcasting developments, on his return at the end of that year he formed an association for developing wireless in Australia and was elected its president. At a conference of experts called together by the Commonwealth government in May 1923 Taylor was elected chairman. He was also a pioneer in the transmission of sketches by wireless, Taylor had for many years before this conducted a successful monthly trade journal called Building, of which he was proprietor and editor. Gradually other magazines were added, including the Construction and Local Government Journal, Australasian Engineer, the Soldier, the Commonwealth Home, and he also published two volumes of popular verse, Songs for Soldiers, and Just Jingles, and some small volumes of sketches and stories. He was much interested in town-planning, and published in 1914 Town Planning for Australia, an epileptic, he died as the result of a seizure in his bathtub on 20 January 1928 leaving his wife, Florence Mary Taylor, they had no children. The 25 January 1928 issue of the Construction and Local Government Journal contains an article The Life and Work of G. A. Taylor, which details the achievements and nature of this remarkable man
27.
Norman Lindsay
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Norman Alfred William Lindsay was an Australian artist, etcher, sculptor, writer, editorial cartoonist, scale modeler, and an accomplished amateur boxer. He was born in Creswick, Victoria, Lindsay was the son of Anglo-Irish surgeon Robert Charles William Alexander Lindsay and Jane Elizabeth Lindsay, daughter of Rev. Thomas Williams, Wesleyen missionary. The fifth of ten children, he was the brother of Percy Lindsay, Lionel Lindsay, Ruby Lindsay, Lindsay married Catherine Agatha Parkinson, in Melbourne on 23 May 1900. Their son Jack was born in Melbourne on 20 October 1900, followed by Raymond in 1903 and he later married Rose Soady who was also his business manager, a most recognizable model, and the printer for most of his etchings. They had a daughter, Jane Lindsay, born in 1920, Philip died in 1958 and Raymond in 1960. In the Lindsay tradition, Jack became a publisher, writer, translator. Philip also became a writer of novels, and worked for the film industry. Lindsay is buried in Springwood Cemetery in Springwood, close to Faulconbridge where he lived. A large body of his work is housed in his home at Faulconbridge, New South Wales, now the Norman Lindsay Gallery and Museum. His art continues to climb in value today, in 2002, a record price was attained for his oil painting Springs Innocence, which sold to the National Gallery of Victoria for A$333,900. His frank and sumptuous nudes were highly controversial, in 1940, Soady took sixteen crates of paintings, drawings and etchings to the U. S. to protect them from the war. Unfortunately, they were discovered when the train they were on fire and were impounded. Soadys older brother Lionel remembers Lindsays reaction, Dont worry, Ill do more, Lindsays creative output was vast, his energy enormous. Several eyewitness accounts tell of his practices in the 1920s. He would wake early and produce a watercolour before breakfast, then by mid-morning he would be in his studio where he would work until late afternoon. He would work on a sculpture in the garden during the afternoon. As a break, he would work on a ship some days. In 1938, Lindsay published Age of Consent, which described the experience of a painter on a trip to a rural area, who meets an adolescent girl who serves as his model
28.
University of Sydney
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The University of Sydney is an Australian public research university in Sydney, Australia. Founded in 1850, it is Australias first university and is regarded as one of the leading universities. The university comprises 16 faculties and schools, through which it offers bachelor, master, in 2011 it had 32,393 undergraduate and 16,627 graduate students. The university is known as one of Australias sandstone universities. Five Nobel and two Crafoord laureates have been affiliated with the university as graduates and faculty, the university has educated six prime ministers and 24 justices of the High Court of Australia, including four chief justices. Sydney has produced 24 Rhodes Scholars and several Gates Scholars and it would take two attempts on Wentworths behalf, however, before the plan was finally adopted. The university was established via the passage of the University of Sydney Act, two years later, the university was inaugurated on 11 October 1852 in the Big Schoolroom of what is now Sydney Grammar School. The first principal was John Woolley, the first professor of chemistry, by 1859, the university had moved to its current site in the Sydney suburb of Camperdown. Most of the estate of John Henry Challis was bequeathed to the university and this was thanks in part due to William Montagu Manning who argued against the claims by British Tax Commissioners. The following year seven professorships were created, anatomy, zoology, engineering, history, law, logic and mental philosophy, the New England University College was founded as part of the University of Sydney in 1938 and later separated in 1954 to become the University of New England. During the late 1960s, the University of Sydney was at the centre of rows to introduce courses on Marxism and feminism at the major Australian universities, prior to 1981, the Sydney Institute of Education was the Sydney Teachers College. In January 2005, the University of Sydney transferred the OAC to Charles Sturt University, in February 2007, the university agreed to acquire a portion of the land granted to St Johns College to develop the Sydney Institute of Health and Medical Research. This caused concern among some groups, who argued that it would interfere with scientific medical research, at the start of 2010, the university controversially adopted a new logo. It retains the same university arms, however it takes on a modern look. The original Coat of Arms from 1857 continues to be used for ceremonial and other formal purposes, concerns about public funding for higher education were reflected again in 2014 following the federal governments proposal to deregulate student fees. In order to enhance its competitiveness locally and internationally, the university has introduced plans to consolidate existing degrees to reduce the overall number of programs. In 2001, the University of Sydney chancellor, Dame Leonie Kramer, was forced to resign by the governing body. In 2005, the Public Service Association of New South Wales, action initiated by Spence to improve the financial sustainability of the university has alienated some students and staff
29.
Leslie Wilkinson
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Leslie Wilkinson was a professor of architecture at University of Sydney. He was born on the 12th of October 1882 at New Southgate, Middlesex, England and his whole life was dedicated to architecture as both an academic and practising architect. Wilkinson was the dean of the faculty of architecture at University of Sydney in 1920. His ideals on architecture as a form of art had influenced both the school and its students. The emphasis on the teaching of philosophy and practice of design was at the time a frontier in architecture education, Wilkinson was never a part of the modern architecture movement. His work, both as a teacher and practising architect, was involved only with traditional architecture, which was inspired by Australians colonial heritage. This is contributed by his training at the Royal Academy of Arts and his study tours in France, Italy, Spain. Wilkinsons influential work is seen in residential, church and University of Sydney master plan, leslie Wilkinson was the younger son of commercial clerk Edward Henry Wilkinson. It was in early years that his fascination with Mediterranean architecture developed. Wilkinson was James S. Gibsons assistant in 1900 and he was an associate of the Royal Institute of British Architects in 1907. In 1908, he became Professor F. M. Simpsons assistant at University College in London and he enlisted in the Territorial Force during World War I. Wilkinson had successfully applied for the creation of the faculty of architecture at the University of Sydney. He was appointed as the dean and continued for four years to move architectural education more towards the theory, during his career as an academic, Wilkinson had also practised as architect. He was appointed the University of Sydney architect in 1919, during which he contributed to the master plan. He was also influential in designing residential and church architecture and became the first president of New South Wales state chapter of the Royal Australian Institute of Architects in 1933, Wilkinson won the first gold medal in 1961. In that year the award was named the Wilkinson Award in his honour
30.
Christian
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A Christian is a person who follows or adheres to Christianity, an Abrahamic, monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ. Christian derives from the Koine Greek word Christós, a translation of the Biblical Hebrew term mashiach, while there are diverse interpretations of Christianity which sometimes conflict, they are united in believing that Jesus has a unique significance. The term Christian is also used as an adjective to describe anything associated with Christianity, or in a sense all that is noble, and good. According to a 2011 Pew Research Center survey, there were 2.2 billion Christians around the world in 2010, by 2050, the Christian population is expected to exceed 3 billion. According to a 2012 Pew Research Center survey Christianity will remain the worlds largest religion in 2050, about half of all Christians worldwide are Catholic, while more than a third are Protestant. Orthodox communions comprise 12% of the worlds Christians, other Christian groups make up the remainder. Christians make up the majority of the population in 158 countries and territories,280 million Christian live as a minority. In the Greek Septuagint, christos was used to translate the Hebrew מָשִׁיחַ, in other European languages, equivalent words to Christian are likewise derived from the Greek, such as Chrétien in French and Cristiano in Spanish. The second mention of the term follows in Acts 26,28, where Herod Agrippa II replied to Paul the Apostle, Then Agrippa said unto Paul, Almost thou persuadest me to be a Christian. The third and final New Testament reference to the term is in 1 Peter 4,16, which believers, Yet if as a Christian, let him not be ashamed. The city of Antioch, where someone gave them the name Christians, had a reputation for coming up with such nicknames, in the Annals he relates that by vulgar appellation commonly called Christians and identifies Christians as Neros scapegoats for the Great Fire of Rome. Another term for Christians which appears in the New Testament is Nazarenes which is used by the Jewish lawyer Tertullus in Acts 24, the Hebrew equivalent of Nazarenes, Notzrim, occurs in the Babylonian Talmud, and is still the modern Israeli Hebrew term for Christian. A wide range of beliefs and practices is found across the world among those who call themselves Christian, denominations and sects disagree on a common definition of Christianity. Most Baptists and fundamentalists, for example, would not acknowledge Mormonism or Christian Science as Christian, in fact, the nearly 77 percent of Americans who self-identify as Christian are a diverse pluribus of Christianities that are far from any collective unity. The identification of Jesus as the Messiah is not accepted by Judaism, the term for a Christian in Hebrew is נוּצְרי, a Talmudic term originally derived from the fact that Jesus came from the Galilean village of Nazareth, today in northern Israel. Adherents of Messianic Judaism are referred to in modern Hebrew as יְהוּדִים מָשִׁיחַיים, the term Nasara rose to prominence in July 2014, after the Fall of Mosul to the terrorist organization Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant. The nun or ن— the first letter of Nasara—was spray-painted on the property of Christians ejected from the city, where there is a distinction, Nasrani refers to people from a Christian culture and Masihi is used by Christians themselves for those with a religious faith in Jesus. In some countries Nasrani tends to be used generically for non-Muslim Western foreigners, another Arabic word sometimes used for Christians, particularly in a political context, is Ṣalībī from ṣalīb which refers to Crusaders and has negative connotations
31.
Paganism
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Paganism is a term that derives from Latin word pagan, which means nonparticipant, one excluded from a more distinguished, professional group. The term was used in the 4th century, by early Christian community, the term competed with polytheism already in use in Judaism, by Philo in the 1st century. Pagans and paganism was a pejorative for the same polytheistic group, Paganism has broadly connoted religion of the peasantry, and for much of its history a derogatory term. Alternate terms in Christian texts for the group was hellene. In and after the Middle Ages, paganism was a pejorative that was applied to any non-Abrahamic or unfamiliar religion, there has been much scholarly debate as to the origin of the term paganism, especially since no one before the 20th century self-identified as a pagan. In the 19th century, paganism was re-adopted as a self-descriptor by members of various artistic groups inspired by the ancient world. Forms of these religions, influenced by various historical pagan beliefs of pre-modern Europe, exist today and are known as contemporary or modern paganism, while most pagan religions express a worldview that is pantheistic, polytheistic, or animistic, there are some monotheistic pagans. It is crucial to stress right from the start that until the 20th century people did not call themselves pagans to describe the religion they practised, the notion of paganism, as it is generally understood today, was created by the early Christian Church. It was a label that Christians applied to others, one of the antitheses that were central to the process of Christian self-definition, as such, throughout history it was generally used in a derogatory sense. The term pagan is from Late Latin paganus, revived during the Renaissance and it is related to pangere and ultimately comes from Proto-Indo-European *pag-. The evolution occurred only in the Latin west, and in connection with the Latin church, elsewhere, Hellene or gentile remained the word for pagan, and paganos continued as a purely secular term, with overtones of the inferior and the commonplace. However, this idea has multiple problems, first, the words usage as a reference to non-Christians pre-dates that period in history. Second, paganism within the Roman Empire centered on cities, the concept of an urban Christianity as opposed to a rural paganism would not have occurred to Romans during Early Christianity. Third, unlike words such as rusticitas, paganus had not yet acquired the meanings used to explain why it would have been applied to pagans. Paganus more likely acquired its meaning in Christian nomenclature via Roman military jargon, Early Christians adopted military motifs and saw themselves as Milites Christi. As early as the 5th century, paganos was metaphorically used to persons outside the bounds of the Christian community. In response, Augustine of Hippo wrote De Civitate Dei Contra Paganos, in it, he contrasted the fallen city of Man to the city of God of which all Christians were ultimately citizens. Hence, the invaders were not of the city or rural
32.
Crucifix
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A crucifix is an image of Jesus on the cross, as distinct from a bare cross. The representation of Jesus himself on the cross is referred to in English as the corpus, the crucifix is a principal symbol for many groups of Christians, and one of the most common forms of the Crucifixion in the arts. The symbol is less common in churches of other Protestant denominations, the crucifix emphasizes Jesus sacrifice — his death by crucifixion, which Christians believe brought about the redemption of mankind. Most crucifixes portray Jesus on a Latin cross, rather than any other shape, Western crucifixes usually have a three-dimensional corpus, but in Eastern Orthodoxy Jesus body is normally painted on the cross, or in low relief. Strictly speaking, to be a crucifix, the cross must be three-dimensional, an entire painting of the Crucifixion of Jesus including a landscape background and other figures is not a crucifix either. Large crucifixes high across the axis of a church are known by the Old English term rood. By the late Middle Ages these were a feature of Western churches. The standard, four-pointed Latin crucifix consists of an upright post or stipes, there may also be a short projecting nameplate, showing the letters INRI. The corpus of Eastern crucifixes is normally a two-dimensional or low relief icon that shows Jesus as already dead, his face peaceful, more sculptural small crucifixes in metal relief are also used in Orthodoxy, including as pectoral crosses and blessing crosses. Western crucifixes may show Christ dead or alive, the presence of the wound in his ribs traditionally indicating that he is dead. In either case his face very often shows his suffering, in Orthodoxy he has normally been shown as dead since around the end of the period of Byzantine Iconoclasm. Eastern crucifixes have Jesus two feet nailed side by side, rather than crossed one above the other, as Western crucifixes have shown them since around the 13th century. The crown of thorns is also absent in Eastern crucifixes, since the emphasis is not on Christs suffering. The S-shaped position of Jesus body on the cross is a Byzantine innovation of the late 10th century, probably more from Byzantine influence, it spread elsewhere in the West, especially to Italy, by the Romanesque period, though it was more usual in painting than sculpted crucifixes. Its in Italy that the emphasis was put on Jesus suffering and realistic details, during the 13th century the suffering Italian model triumphed over the traditional Byzantine one anywhere in Europe also due to the works of artists such as Giunta Pisano and Cimabue. Since the Renaissance the S-shape is generally less pronounced. He may be robed as a prophet, crowned as a king, on some crucifixes a skull and crossbones are shown below the corpus, referring to Golgotha, the site at which Jesus was crucified, which the Gospels say means in Hebrew the place of the skull. Very large crucifixes have been built, the largest being the Cross in the Woods in Michigan, prayer in front of a crucifix, which is seen as a sacramental, is often part of devotion for Christians, especially those worshipping in a church, and also privately
33.
Australian Labor Party
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The Australian Labor Party is a political party in Australia. The party has been in opposition at federal level since the 2013 election, Bill Shorten has been the partys federal parliamentary leader since 13 October 2013. The party is a party with branches in each state. Labor is in government in the states of Victoria, Queensland, Western Australia, South Australia, the party competes against the Liberal/National Coalition for political office at the federal and state levels. Labors current National Platform describes the party as a social democratic party, the party of opportunity and security for working people. The ALP was not founded as a party until after the first sitting of the Australian Parliament in 1901. Nevertheless, it is regarded as descended from labour parties founded in the various Australian colonies by the labour movement in Australia. Labor is thus the countrys oldest political party, colonial labour parties contested seats from 1891, and federal seats following Federation at the 1901 federal election. Labor was the first party in Australia to win a majority in either house of the Australian Parliament, internationally, the ALP is a member of the Progressive Alliance network of social-democratic parties, having previously been a member of the Socialist International. The Australian Labor Party has its origins in the Labour parties founded in the 1890s in the Australian colonies prior to federation, Labor tradition ascribes the founding of Queensland Labour to a meeting of striking pastoral workers under a ghost gum tree in Barcaldine, Queensland in 1891. The Balmain, New South Wales branch of the party claims to be the oldest in Australia, Labour as a parliamentary party dates from 1891 in New South Wales and South Australia,1893 in Queensland, and later in the other colonies. The first election contested by Labour candidates was the 1891 New South Wales election, the major parties were the Protectionist and Free Trade parties and Labour held the balance of power. It offered parliamentary support in exchange for policy concessions, the United Labor Party of South Australia was founded in 1891, and three candidates were that year elected to the South Australian Legislative Council. The first successful South Australian House of Assembly candidate was John McPherson at the 1892 East Adelaide by-election, at the 1893 South Australian elections the ULP was immediately elevated to balance of power status with 10 of 54 lower house seats. The liberal government of Charles Kingston was formed with the support of the ULP, so successful, less than a decade later at the 1905 election, Thomas Price would form the worlds first stable Labor government. John Verran led Labor to form the states first of many majority governments at the 1910 election, in 1899, Anderson Dawson formed a minority Labour government in Queensland, the first in the world, which lasted one week while the conservatives regrouped after a split. The colonial Labour parties and the unions were mixed in their support for the Federation of Australia. They feared that federation would further entrench the power of the conservative forces, the first Labour leader and Prime Minister, Chris Watson, however, was a supporter of federation
34.
George Prendergast
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George Michael Mick Prendergast, Australian politician, was the 28th Premier of Victoria. He was born to Irish emigrant parents in Adelaide, but he grew up in Stawell, Wimmera and he was apprenticed as a printer, and worked as a compositor in Ballarat, Sydney and Narrandera before settling in Melbourne in 1887. A member of the Typographical Association, he represented that union at the Melbourne Trades Hall, Prendergast was one of the first Labor members of the Victorian Legislative Assembly, being elected for North Melbourne in 1894. At the 1897 election, Prendergast was defeated by William Watt, but regained the seat in 1900 and he then shifted to the electorate of Footscray, which he represented until his death. In all he was an MP for 40 years, but was noted more for his fiery stump oratory than any real ability, in 1904 Prendergast became the first leader of the Parliamentary Labor Party. He resigned this position through ill-health in 1913, allowing George Elmslie to become the first Labor Premier and he returned to the Labor leadership in 1918. He was the President of the North Melbourne Football Club for some time, Labors parliamentary representation was confined to the industrial areas of Melbourne and a few provincial towns. There was little talent in the Parliamentary Labor Party and few regarded Prendergast as likely ever to win a state election, in April 1924, however, the Country Party withdrew its support from the Nationalist government of Alexander Peacock when he tried to pass a bill reducing rural representation. Peacock called an election in June, at which Labor won 27 seats, the Nationalists 20, Labor offered a series of policy concessions to the Country Party, and the party agreed to support a minority Labor government. Prendergast thus became Premier at the age of 70 – the oldest man ever to take the office for the first time, the only real talents in his government were Edmond Hogan as Minister for Agriculture and Railways and William Slater as Attorney-General. John Cain was an Assistant Minister, prendergasts government was the first Labor government in Victoria able actually to govern. Increased expenditure was made available for rural roads, while reductions were made on rail freights, with the support of the Country Party, he was able to pass several bills assisting farmers, but the Country Party would not support anything which benefited Labors urban working-class base. This was a situation for Labor ministers, and several urged Prendergast to call another election in the hope of improving their position. In November the Country Party patched up its differences with the Nationalists, the Country Party leader, John Allan, succeeded him as Premier. Prendergast resigned as Labor Leader in 1926 and was succeeded by Hogan, in Hogans first minority government he was again Chief Secretary. He died in 1937, still an MP, aged 83, a History of the Parliament of Victoria, 1856–1990, Oxford University Press, Melbourne,1992 Ross McMullin, The Light on the Hill, The Australian Labor Party 1891–1991
35.
John Allan (Australian politician)
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John Allan, Australian politician, was the 29th Premier of Victoria. He was born near Lancefield, where his father was a farmer of Scottish origin and he took up wheat and dairy farming at Wyuna and was director of a butter factory at Kyabram. In 1892 he married Annie Stewart, with whom he had six children, northern Victoria was a centre of the movement of militant small farmers who founded first the Victorian Farmers Union and later the Country Party as an outlet for their grievances. In 1917 Allan was elected to the Victorian Legislative Assembly as VFU member for Rodney, in 1919 he became a founding member of the Country Party and its first parliamentary leader, and was a member of its Victorian Central Council. The result was a state election in which the Nationalists won 31 seats, Labor 21. The Country Party then split over the issue of whether to support Lawson or Labor, with Allan in favour of Lawson, allans faction propped up Lawsons government until 1923, when a new coalition government was formed with Lawson as Premier and Allan as Minister for Lands and Immigration. This was the first Nationalist-Country coalition state government, george Prendergast then formed a minority Labor government. This in turn fell in November when the Nationalists and Country Party came to a new agreement, under the new coalition agreement, Allan became Australias first Country Party Premier, with Peacock as his deputy. Dunstans faction seceded from the party and formed the Country Progressive Party, attempts by both Labor and Nationalists to reduce the over-representation of country areas were resisted by Allan and blocked by the Legislative Council. As a result, the April 1927 state election saw a big swing to Labor, which won 28 seats to the Nationalists 15, the Country Partys 10, the Country Progressives four and independents eight. This was Labors best result yet, and enough for the Labor leader Edmond Hogan to form a minority government with Progressive support, Allan resigned in May, and the Country Party stayed in opposition until 1935. In 1930 Dunstan led his followers back into a united party, Allan refused to serve in this government, and remained on the backbench until his death in 1936. A1928 oil portrait of Allan by artist Aileen Dent hangs in the Victorian Parliament House
36.
National Party of Australia
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The National Party of Australia is an Australian political party. Traditionally representing graziers, farmers, and rural voters generally, it began as the Australian Country Party in 1920 at a federal level and it would later briefly adopt the name National Country Party in 1975, before adopting its current name in 1982. In Opposition the Coalition was usually maintained, but otherwise still generally continued to work in co-operation with the Liberal Party of Australia. In Queensland however, they were the coalition party between 1925 and 2008, after which they merged with the junior Liberal Party of Australia to form the Liberal National Party. The current federal leader and Deputy Prime Minister is Barnaby Joyce, both were elected in a party-room ballot on 11 February 2016, following the retirement of former leader and Deputy Prime Minister Warren Truss and the elevation of former deputy leader Joyce. Australias first Country Party was founded in 1912 by Harry J. Stephens, editor of The Farmer & Settler, the VFU won a seat in the House of Representatives at the Corangamite by-election held in December 1918, with the help of the newly-introduced preferential voting system. At the 1919 federal election the state-based Country Parties won federal seats in New South Wales, Victoria and they also began to win seats in state parliaments. In 1920 the Country Party was established as a party led by William McWilliams from Tasmania. McWilliams would later leave the Country Party to sit as an Independent, according to historian B. D. Graham, the graziers who operated the sheep stations were politically conservative. They disliked the Labor Party, which represented their workers, and feared that Labor governments would pass legislation and listen to foreigners. The graziers were satisfied with the organisation of their industry, opposed any change in land tenure and labour relations, and advocated lower tariffs, low freight rates. On the other hand, Graham reports, the farmers, not the graziers. The farmers advocated government intervention in the market price support schemes. The graziers often politically and financially supported the Country party, which in turn made the Country party more conservative, at the 1922 election, it won enough seats to deny the Nationalists an overall majority, and was the Nationalists only realistic coalition partner. However, Page let it be known that his party would not serve under Hughes, Page then entered negotiations with the Nationalists new leader, Stanley Bruce, for a coalition government. Pages terms were stiff—five seats in a Cabinet of 11, including the Treasurer portfolio, nonetheless, Bruce readily agreed, and the Bruce-Page Ministry was formed—thus beginning the tradition of the partys leader ranking second in Coalition cabinets. The coalition was re-formed under Archie Cameron in 1940, and continued until October 1941 despite the election of Arthur Fadden as leader after the 1940 Election, Fadden was well regarded within conservative circles and proved to be a loyal deputy to Menzies in the difficult circumstances of 1941. When Menzies was forced to resign as Prime Minister, the UAP was so bereft of leadership that Fadden briefly succeeded him, however, the two independents who had been propping up the government rejected Faddens budget and brought the government down
37.
Nationalist Party of Australia
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The Nationalist Party of Australia was an Australian political party. The Nationalist Party was in government until electoral defeat in 1929, in October 1915 the Australian Prime Minister, Andrew Fisher of the Australian Labor Party, retired, Billy Hughes was chosen unanimously by the Labor caucus to succeed him. A majority of his party, most notably Roman Catholics and trade representatives, was opposed to this. In October Hughes held a plebiscite to try to gain approval for conscription, daniel Mannix, the Catholic Archbishop of Melbourne, was his main opponent on the conscription issue. The defeat did not deter Hughes, who continued to argue in favour of conscription. This produced a deep and bitter split within the Australian public, on 15 September 1916 the New South Wales executive of the Political Labour League expelled Hughes from the Labor Party. When the Federal Parliamentary Labor caucus met on 14 November 1916, the remaining 43 members of the caucus then passed a motion of no confidence in the leadership, effectively expelling Hughes and the other members. Hughes and his followers formed a minority Government, with support from Cook, with the war dragging on, Hughes began negotiations with Cook to turn their confidence-and-supply agreement into formal party unity. That February, at the urging of the Governor-General, Sir Robert Munro Ferguson, the new party was dominated by former Liberals, and as such was basically an upper- and middle-class party. However, the presence of many former Labor men—many of whom had been leaders in that party—allowed the Nationalists to project an image of national unity. In May 1917 the Nationalists won an electoral victory. The size of the landslide was magnified by the number of Labor MPs who followed Hughes into the Nationalist Party. At this election Hughes abandoned his working-class division of West Sydney and he had promised to resign if his Government did not win the power to conscript. A second plebiscite on conscription was held in December 1917, but the proposition was again defeated, Hughes, after receiving a vote of confidence in his leadership by his party, resigned as Prime Minister. However, there were no alternative candidates available, Ferguson used his reserve power to immediately re-commission Hughes as Prime Minister, thus allowing him to remain in office while having kept his promise to resign. Hughes and the Nationalists governed on their own until the elections of 1922, the Nationalists could not govern without Country Party support, and it was obvious that a confidence-and-supply agreement would not be enough to keep the Nationalists in office. However, the Country Party had never liked Hughes rural policy, several of the more conservative elements of the Nationalist Party had only tolerated Hughes after the war, suspecting he was still a socialist at heart. Pages demand finally gave them an excuse to dump Hughes, who was forced to resign in January 1923, former Treasurer Stanley Bruce was chosen as leader, and quickly entered into a coalition with the Country Party
38.
Parliament House, Melbourne
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Parliament House, Melbourne was constructed between 1855 and 1929 and is located on Spring Street in East Melbourne, Victoria. It has served as both the seat of the Parliament of Victoria and as the seat of the Federal Parliament of Australia, the building is listed on the Victorian Heritage Register and celebrated its 150th anniversary in 2005–6. The Victorian gold rush and population boom led calls for greater democracy, prior to the Colony of Victoria acquiring self-government in 1851, Governor Charles La Trobe instructed Surveyor General Robert Hoddle to select a site for the colonys new parliament to meet. Hoddle selected a site on the hill at the top of Bourke Street. It was not until April 1854 that Eastern Hill, the current Spring Street site, was agreed to due to ongoing disagreements over the best location. A competition was held to design the new building and John Knights design won the first prize of £500, the Colonial Engineer Charles Pasley subsequently produced his own design. Observers have suggested that his design borrowed heavily from Leeds Town Hall, the design was later modified by an architect in Pasleys office, Peter Kerr. The building is an example of Neoclassical architecture, construction began in December 1855 and was managed by the original competition designer John Knight, who also happened to be on Pasleys staff. The chambers for the Victorian Legislative Assembly and the Victorian Legislative Council were finished in 1856, the building opened and the Victorian Government first sat there in 1856. Parliament House was then extended, in stages, to the present state between 1856 and 1929, construction of the Library and eastern wing began in 1858 and was completed in 1860. With the library complete, the two chambers were joined at the rear, resulting in a U-shaped building. The classical architectural detail of the east facade were noted as the first expression of Peter Kerrs vision for the building, no further construction took place for 18 years, however the first set of electrical bells used to call members to divisions were installed circa 1877. In 1878 a Royal Commission was formed to oversee continued construction and it tabled several changes, including the addition of a large dome, the appointment of Peter Kerr as leading architect and a resumption of construction. Subsequently, the Great Hall and vestibule were completed in 1879, queens Hall was used for formal receptions and banquets, while the Vestibule offered a formal entry to Parliament House. After completion of the vestibule a dome was to be added, although eventually approved to support the dome in 1882, the assessment delayed construction and the dome was eventually abandoned. At the height of the great boom fuelled by the rush, it was decided to add a classical colonnade and portico facing Spring St. The western facade and colonnade were completed in 1888, the north wing was completed in 1893 and refreshment rooms at the back of the building were added in 1929. During these years the Victorian Parliament met in the Royal Exhibition Building in Carlton, the building resumed its original use as the Victorian Parliament chambers in 1928
39.
Hotel Windsor (Melbourne)
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The Hotel Windsor is a luxury hotel in Melbourne. The Windsor is notable for being Australias only surviving grand 19th century city hotel, the Hotel Windsor has a 5-star rating and is considered one of the grandest hotels in Melbourne. The Windsor is situated on Bourke Hill in the Parliament Precinct on Spring Street, the hotel has a significant role in the history of Australia as the place where the Constitution of Australia was drafted in 1898. For much of its 20th Century life the hotel, dubbed the Duchess of Spring Street, was one of the most favoured and it has hosted many notable national and international guests. The hotel is currently planning a renovation which was required by permit to begin by January 2015. The original hotel was built by shipping magnate George Nipper and designed by Charles Webb in a broadly Renaissance Revival style and was completed in 1884, however, Nipper soon sold the building, in 1886, to the a company headed by James Munro and James Balfour. Munro was declared bankrupt in February 1893, and a new owner of the hotel took over in 1897, the hotel was amalgamated with the neighbouring Old White Hart Hotel, re-licensed, and its name was changed back to the Grand Hotel. In March 1898, the Constitutional Convention met at the hotel to finalise the final draft of the Constitution of Australia, in 1920, the hotel changed hands again, was refurbished, and renamed Windsor Hotel, in honour of the British Royal Family. For much of the 20th century, the hotel dubbed the Duchess of Spring Street was one of the most favoured and luxurious hotels in Melbourne, with the construction of modern international hotels, starting with the Southern Cross in 1962, the Windsor declined in popularity. In a bid to regain marketshare, the Windsor expanded, purchasing the four storey White Hart Hotel on the Bourke Street corner, the White Hart was demolished and a new classically inspired extension became the Windsors north wing designed by the office of Harry A. Norris. By the mid-1970s, the Windsor was run-down and the last of the major historic 19th century hotels in Australia still operating, the other major hotels, the Menzies and the Federal in Melbourne, and the Australia and Metropole in Sydney, had all been demolished. Several proposals were put forward included the demolition of the Windsor. A1974 proposal for a 38 storey tower on the corner of Spring and Bourke Street was opposed by the state government, the Rupert Hamer-led state government purchased the building in 1976 to ensure its preservation and in 1980 leased it to The Oberoi Group. This was one of the first major private historic restorations in Melbourne and its position as a leading five-star hotel and a major Melbourne landmark was then firmly re-established. The cricketers bar, afternoon tea in the dining room. The John Cain II state government sold the hotel to the Oberoi Group giving the company freehold possession in 1990, in 2005, Oberoi sold the hotel to the Halim family based in Indonesia. The plan was approved by Heritage Victoria and the government after significant negotiations with the owners which included reducing the impacts of the proposal. However development did not commence due to the Financial crisis of 2007–2010, in July 2009, the Halim group proposed a new $260 million refurbishment project which would add 152 rooms to the hotel
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Returned and Services League of Australia
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The Returned and Services League, Australia is a support organisation for men and women who have served or are serving in the Defence Force. The League evolved out of concern for the welfare of returned servicemen from the first World War, New South Wales was admitted to the League the following year, and Western Australia in 1918. In 1927, the Australian Capital Territory formed a branch and was admitted, two more name changes occurred, in 1983 to Returned Services League of Australia Limited and in 1990 to Returned & Services League of Australia Limited. The objects of the League remain relatively unchanged from its first incorporation, at the top of the badge is the Crown signifying allegiance to Queen and country. Below the crown are the flowers of Australia, Wales, England, Scotland and Ireland – the wattle, the leek, the rose, the thistle. The red of the badge is symbolic of the tie of war. The white background stands for the purity of motive – and to service without personal gain. The blue is a symbol of willingness to render service to a comrade anywhere under the blue sky, the influence of the League comes from its founding days organising rituals for ANZAC Day dawn services and march, and Remembrance Day commemorations. However, even as early as the 1920s, the role of the League became controversial as it banned women from attending the service because of their wailing. As well as arguing for veterans benefits, it has entered other areas of political debate and it was politically conservative, Anglophilic, and monarchist. This may have been reflective of the status of Vietnam veterans in the 1970s and 80s. Nevertheless, the focus of the RSL is above all on the welfare of Australian men and women serving in the armed forces and it has advocated for veterans entitlements, the protection of former battlefields and the rights of serving soldiers, sailors and airmen. The National CEO has operational control of the National Office, in 2015 the redevelopment of the site of the Office on Constitution Avenue, Campbell, in Canberra commenced. A new building should be completed in 2019, in the interim, the National Office is in temporary accommodation at 7-9 Geelong Street, Fyshwick. Each State and Territory is a Branch of the National League and has a hierarchical structure that brings together the interests of the state members. Within each Branch, there are a series of Districts and Sub-branches that bring together the interests of members in a geographic area. The naming of these Branches and Sub-branches should not be confused with the commercial entities, the editorial board of the Sydney Morning Herald ran an editorial calling on Mr White to step aside to rebuild public trust. It was reported that Mr White was receiving pressure from Australian retired senior military officials to step aside pending an investigation into the consulting payments
41.
City of Melbourne
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The City of Melbourne is a local government area in Victoria, Australia, located in the central city area of Melbourne. The city has an area of 36 square kilometres and has a population of 127,672, the citys motto is Vires acquirit eundo which means She gathers strength as she goes. The current Lord Mayor is Robert Doyle, the Melbourne City Council holds office in Melbourne Town Hall. Unlike other Australian capital cities, Melbourne did not originate under official auspices, having been a province of New South Wales from its establishment in 1835, affairs of the settlement had been administered by the Parliament of New South Wales. With the growth of the settlement there had been a demand by the inhabitants for greater autonomy over their own affairs. On 12 August 1842, Melbourne was incorporated as a town by Act 6 Victoria No.7 of the Governor and Legislative Council of New South Wales. The town of Melbourne was raised to the status of a city by Letters Patent of Queen Victoria dated 25 June 1847, the Letters Patent also constituted the Anglican Diocese of Melbourne and declared Melbourne a cathedral city. The citys initial boundaries, as set down in Act 8 Victoria No, on 18 December 1902, King Edward VII conferred the title Lord Mayor on the mayor of the City of Melbourne. On 30 October 1905, Melbourne absorbed two neighbouring council areas, now included in the City was the Borough of Flemington and Kensington which had been formed in 1882 when it broke away from the City of Essendon. The second, the Town of North Melbourne, formerly known as Hotham, had established on 30 September 1859. Both town halls are still in use today as public buildings—the former in Kensington near the present-day Newmarket railway station, the Melbourne and Geelong Corporations Act 1938 allowed for three councillors for each of the eleven wards, with a general election held on 24 August 1939. Following a recommendation by the Local Government Advisory Board in 1978, three years later, an additional ward was added. The wards were abolished in 2001, with the council having an elected Lord Mayor with a Deputy Lord Mayor, in 2012, the number of Councillors was increased to nine, in addition to the Lord Mayor and Deputy Lord Mayor. In 2005, the announced the construction of a new 6-star environmental office building, Council House 2. In July 2009, Lord Mayor Robert Doyle unveiled a new identity for the City of Melbourne. Melbourne City Council is composed of eleven Councillors, including the Lord Mayor, both the Lord Mayor and Deputy Lord Mayor are directly elected, while the nine other Councillors are elected proportionally as a single ward. Voting entity eligibility includes various classes of business interests, in addition to residents and they are, Some other local councils in the Melbourne metropolitan area have sister city relationships, see Local Government Areas of Victoria
42.
Legacy Australia
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Legacy is an Australian organisation, established in 1923 by ex-servicemen. The organisation has the aim of caring for the dependents of deceased Australian service men and women, the dependants of World War I, World War II, the Korean War, Malayan emergency and Vietnam War deceased are cared for. In addition the peacekeeping operations in East Timor, the wars in Iraq, finally, any death which is deemed service-related is attended to by Legacy. Volunteer members are called Legatees because they accept the legacy of care for their comrades families, some 5,500 legatees assist more than 90,000 widows and 1,900 children and disabled dependents across Australia providing assistance, accommodation, medical and social support. Legacys assistance depends on the situation of the person supported. With the help of Legatees, who stay in touch with all families, Legacy ensures families receive their Legacy entitlements, as well as financial help, Legacy provides companionship and assistance with the education of children. Assistance in dealing with the Army, Navy or Air Force, if initial claims are unsuccessful, when appropriate, Legacy will arrange for advocates before review tribunals. These services are provided at no cost to claimants, a road tunnel under construction in Brisbane is named Legacy Way in honour of the men and women serving in the Australian Defence Force. Funds are raised by a variety of methods, the most notable being the sale of special badges and this is usually during the first week of September when mainly school children volunteer their time to accomplish these sales, especially in Australias central business districts. Legacy also solicits donations from the public to assist with its mission, in the past money has also been raised from special events, sponsorships, dinners, bequests and other events. In 1973, the Australian Post Office issued a 7 cent commemorative stamp to commemorate 50 years of Legacy in Australia, ten values were issued and were intended to raise funds for Legacy. It is believed these stamps were authorised by the secretary of Fremantle Legacy Club in Western Australia, Legacy, The First Fifty Years - Lyons, Mark
43.
Duke of York
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The Duke of York is a title of nobility in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. Since the 15th century, it has, when granted, usually given to the second son of English monarchs. The equivalent title in the Scottish peerage was Duke of Albany, initially granted in the 14th century in the Peerage of England, the title Duke of York has been created eight times. Additionally, the title Duke of York and Albany has been created three times and these occurred during the 18th century, following the 1707 unification of the Kingdom of England and Kingdom of Scotland into a single, united realm. The double naming was done so that a territorial designation from each of the separate realms could be included. The current Duke of York is Prince Andrew, the son of Queen Elizabeth II. Prince Andrew currently has no heirs and has been unmarried since his 1996 divorce. In medieval times, York was the city of the North of England. Yorkshire was Englands largest shire in area, York under its Viking name Jorvik was a petty kingdom in the Early Medieval period. In the interval between the fall of independent Jorvik under Eirik Bloodaxe, last King of Jorvik, and the first creation of the Dukedom of York, there were a few Earls of York. The title Duke of York was first created in the Peerage of England in 1385 for Edmund of Langley, the surviving son of Edward III. His son Edward, who inherited the title, was killed at the Battle of Agincourt in 1415, the title passed to Edwards nephew Richard, the son of Richard of Conisburgh, 3rd Earl of Cambridge. The younger Richard managed to obtain a restoration of the title, but when his eldest son, who inherited the title, became king in 1461 as Edward IV, the title was next created for Richard of Shrewsbury, second son of King Edward IV. Richard was one of the Princes in the Tower, and, as he died without heirs, the third creation was for Henry Tudor, second son of King Henry VII. When his elder brother Arthur, Prince of Wales, died in 1502, when Henry ultimately became King Henry VIII, his titles merged into the crown. The title was created for the time for Charles Stuart. When his elder brother, Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales, died in 1612 and he was created Prince of Wales in 1616 and eventually became Charles I in 1625 when the title again merged into the Crown. The fifth creation was in favour of James Stuart, the son of Charles I
44.
George VI
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George VI was King of the United Kingdom and the Dominions of the British Commonwealth from 11 December 1936 until his death. He was the last Emperor of India and the first Head of the Commonwealth, known as Albert until his accession, George VI was born in the reign of his great-grandmother Queen Victoria, and was named after his great-grandfather Albert, Prince Consort. As the second son of King George V, he was not expected to inherit the throne and spent his life in the shadow of his elder brother. He attended naval college as a teenager, and served in the Royal Navy, in 1920, he was made Duke of York. He married Lady Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon in 1923 and they had two daughters, Elizabeth and Margaret, in the mid-1920s, he had speech therapy for a stammer, which he never fully overcame. Georges elder brother ascended the throne as Edward VIII upon the death of their father in 1936, however, later that year Edward revealed his desire to marry divorced American socialite Wallis Simpson. British Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin advised Edward that for political and religious reasons he could not marry a divorced woman, Edward abdicated in order to marry, and George ascended the throne as the third monarch of the House of Windsor. During Georges reign, the break-up of the British Empire and its transition into the Commonwealth of Nations accelerated, the parliament of the Irish Free State removed direct mention of the monarch from the countrys constitution on the day of his accession. The following year, a new Irish constitution changed the name of the state to Ireland, from 1939, the Empire and Commonwealth – except Ireland – was at war with Nazi Germany. War with Italy and Japan followed in 1940 and 1941, respectively, though Britain and its allies were ultimately victorious in 1945, the United States and the Soviet Union rose as pre-eminent world powers and the British Empire declined. After the independence of India and Pakistan in 1947, George remained king of countries, but relinquished the title of Emperor of India in June 1948. Ireland formally declared itself a republic and left the Commonwealth in 1949, George adopted the new title of Head of the Commonwealth. He was beset by problems in the later years of his reign. He was succeeded by his eldest daughter, Elizabeth II, George was born at York Cottage, on the Sandringham Estate in Norfolk, during the reign of his great-grandmother Queen Victoria. His father was Prince George, Duke of York, the second and eldest-surviving son of the Prince and his mother was the Duchess of York, the eldest child and only daughter of the Duke and Duchess of Teck. His birthday was the 34th anniversary of the death of his great-grandfather, Albert, uncertain of how the Prince Consorts widow, Queen Victoria, would take the news of the birth, the Prince of Wales wrote to the Duke of York that the Queen had been rather distressed. Two days later, he again, I really think it would gratify her if you yourself proposed the name Albert to her. Consequently, he was baptised Albert Frederick Arthur George at St. Mary Magdalenes Church near Sandringham three months later, within the family, he was known informally as Bertie
45.
The Argus (Melbourne)
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The Argus was a morning daily newspaper in Melbourne that was established in 1846 and closed in 1957 and was considered to be the general Australian newspaper of record for this period. Widely known as a newspaper for most of its history. The main competitor over the life of the newspaper was David Symes more liberal-minded The Age, the newspaper was originally owned by William Kerr, a journalist who had worked with the Sydney Gazette before moving to Melbourne in 1839 to work on John Pascoe Fawkners Port Phillip Patriot. The first edition was published on 2 June 1846, the paper was known for its scurrilous abuse and sarcasm and by 1853 Kerr lost ownership through a series of libel suits. The paper was published under the name of Edward Wilson. The paper was also to become a stablemate to the weekly The Australasian which was to become The Australasian Post in 1946. During the Depression in 1933 it launched the Melbourne Evening Star in competition with The Herald newspaper of The Herald and Weekly Times Ltd, in 1949 the paper was acquired by the London-based Daily Mirror newspaper group. On 28 July 1952, The Argus became the first newspaper in the world to publish colour photographs in a daily paper. The paper had interests in radio and, in 1956, the new medium of television, being part of the consortium General Telecasters Victoria, and its television station GTV-9. The companys newspaper operation experienced severe loss of profitability in the 1950s, attributable to increased costs of newsprint, in 1957 the paper was discontinued and sold to the Herald and Weekly Times group, which undertook to re-employ Argus staff and continue publication of selected features. HWT made an allocation of shares to the UK owners, the final edition was published on 19 January 1957. The companys other print and broadcasting operations were unaffected, ironically, the takeover of The Argus by the powerful Mirror Group, of Fleet Street, led to hopes of a renaissance for The Argus. Fresh capital, new ideas, and new strategies from London, but instead, the new arrivals from England finished up destroying their new possession
46.
Edmond Hogan
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Edmond John Ned Hogan, Australian politician, 30th Premier of Victoria, was born in Wallace, Victoria, where his Irish-born parents were small farmers. After attending a Roman Catholic primary school he became a worker and then a timber worker. Hogan became active in union and Labor Party politics in Kalgoorlie. In 1912 he contracted typhoid and returned to Victoria to recuperate, in 1913 Hogan was elected to the Victorian Legislative Assembly for Warrenheip, a seat near Ballarat, which was renamed Warrenheip and Grenville in 1927. He held this seat for 30 years, although it was not a natural Labor seat, it was heavily Irish-Catholic, which helped Hogan, in 1914 he was elected to the Labor Partys state executive and in 1922 he became State President. In 1924 he was Minister for Agriculture and Railways in the minority government of George Prendergast. Hogan was a speaker and soon became a leading figure in a parliamentary party which was thin on talent. Victoria was Labors weakest state and in the 1920s there seemed little chance it would win a state election. When Prendergast stepped down in 1926, Hogan was the choice to succeed him. His main drawback was his association with the Melbourne horse-racing, boxing and gambling identity John Wren. The Wren connection alienated many voters from Labor through the 1920s and 1930s. Nevertheless, at the 1927 state election Hogan was able to capitalise on resentment against rural over-representation in the state Parliament and consequent domination by the Country Party, Labor won 28 seats to the Nationalists 15 and the Country Partys ten. Hogan was able to form a government with the support of the four Country Progressive Party, in 1929 the Country Party withdrew its support from McPhersons government and there was another election, fought just as the Great Depression was breaking over Australia. Hogan led Labor to its best result yet, winning 30 seats to the Nationalists 17, a collection of Country Progressives, Liberals and independents held the balance, and they agreed to support a second Hogan government. Tom Tunnecliffe was Chief Secretary, John Cain was Minister for Railways, by 1931 most Victorian farmers were bankrupt and about 25 percent of the workforce was unemployed. Hogans government, in common with all governments, had no solution to this disaster. Even if the Labor government was minded to attempt radical solutions, it was dependent on Country Progressive support in the Assembly and this increased the burdens on the poor and unemployed, while providing no stimulus to the economy. There was little possibility of unemployment relief, although there were some government works to soak up unemployment, such as the Shrine of Remembrance
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Tomb of the Unknown Soldier
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A Tomb of the Unknown Soldier refers to a monument in dedication to the services of an unknown soldier and to the common memories of all soldiers killed in any war. Such tombs can be found in nations and are usually high-profile national monuments. Throughout history, many soldiers have died in war with their remains being unidentified, following World War I, a movement arose to commemorate these soldiers with a single tomb, containing the body of one such unidentified soldier. During the First World War, the British and French armies who were allies during the war decided to bury soldiers themselves. The idea received the support of the Dean of Westminster, Prime Minister David Lloyd George, at the same time, there was a similar undertaking in France, where the idea was debated and agreed upon in Parliament. Britain and France conducted services connected with their graves on Armistice Day 1920. In Britain, the Tomb of the Unknown Warrior was created at Westminster Abbey, the idea of a symbolic Tomb of the Unknown Soldier then spread to other countries. In 1921, the Tomb of the Unknowns, Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, other nations have followed the practice and created their own tombs. In the United States and other countries, tombs have also been created representing the fallen of other wars in their history, in Chile and Ukraine, second unknown tombs were unveiled to commemorate The Unknown Sailor. The Tombs of the Unknown Soldiers typically contain the remains of a soldier who is unidentified. These remains are considered impossible to be identified, and so serve as a symbol for all of a countrys unknown dead wherever they fell in the war being remembered. Michał Chilczuk, Chairman, Working Group on Central and Eastern Europe, SCEA Vivaboo. com, Tomb Of The Unknown Soldier Around The World
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