1.
Nikkormat
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Nikkormat was a brand of cameras produced by the Japanese optics company Nippon Kogaku K. K. as a consumer version of the professional Nikon brand. Nikkormat cameras, produced from 1965 until 1978, were simpler and more affordable than Nikon-branded cameras, the Nikkormat FT was an all-metal, mechanically controlled, manual focus SLR with match-needle exposure control, manufactured in Japan from 1965 to 1967. It was available in two colors, black with chrome trim and all black, the unmetered version was designated Nikkormat FS. The FT had dimensions of 95 mm height,146 mm width,54 mm depth and 745 g weight, the FT used a metal-bladed, vertical travel, focal plane shutter with a speed range of 1 to 1/1000 second plus Bulb and flash X-sync of 1/125th second. The Nikkormat F-series had a shutter speed ring concentric with the lens mount, the photographer would adjust the shutter speed to freeze or blur motion and/or the lens aperture f-stop to control depth of field until the needle was centered between two pincer-like brackets. The needle array was duplicated in a window next the film rewind crank to allow exposure control without looking through the viewfinder. The meter was turned on by pulling the film wind lever out to the ready position. This was very advanced in 1965 and proved to be remarkably long-lived, Nippon Kogaku used it for all versions of the Nikkormat FT with incremental improvements. The Nikon FM, FM2 and FM2N of the succeeding Nikon compact F-series SLRs used an improved viewfinder only, the FTs viewfinder also had a fixed focusing screen with Nippon Kogakus then standard central 4 mm microprism focusing aid plus 12 mm matte focusing surface. The Nikkormat FT accepted all lenses with the Nikon F bayonet mount, the FT had a mirror lockup allowing its use with some specialised lenses for which an auxiliary viewfinder was provided. The FT was Nippon Kogakus first SLR with a built-in TTL light meter, as such, Nippon Kogaku could not find a way to automatically synchronize their Nikkor Auto lenses aperture information with the FT body. Therefore, mounting lenses required a special preparatory procedure, first, the lens maximum aperture must set against the film speed scale on the FTs shutter speed ring. Note that the maximum aperture had to be reset every time the lens was changed. This was very inconvenient compared to some other SLRs of the 1960s, although most AF Nikkor lenses will mount and manually focus on the FT, the combination cannot provide open aperture metering, only stop down metering. However, the FT did not have an accessory shoe to mount flash units. The Nikkormat accessory shoe must be screwed to the top of the pentaprism cover via the eyepiece first, note that this shoe only mounts the flash. A PC cord must still be plugged into the appropriate PC terminal and this was normal for most SLRs of the 1960s. The Nikkormat FS, manufactured from 1965 to 1971, was an FT stripped of the light meter with its exposure information system
2.
Photography
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Typically, a lens is used to focus the light reflected or emitted from objects into a real image on the light-sensitive surface inside a camera during a timed exposure. With an electronic sensor, this produces an electrical charge at each pixel. A negative image on film is used to photographically create a positive image on a paper base, known as a print. The word photography was created from the Greek roots φωτός, genitive of φῶς, light and γραφή representation by means of lines or drawing, several people may have coined the same new term from these roots independently. Johann von Maedler, a Berlin astronomer, is credited in a 1932 German history of photography as having used it in an article published on 25 February 1839 in the German newspaper Vossische Zeitung. Both of these claims are now widely reported but apparently neither has ever been confirmed as beyond reasonable doubt. Credit has traditionally given to Sir John Herschel both for coining the word and for introducing it to the public. Photography is the result of combining several technical discoveries, later Greek mathematicians Aristotle and Euclid also independently described a pinhole camera in the 5th and 4th centuries BCE. Daniele Barbaro described a diaphragm in 1566, wilhelm Homberg described how light darkened some chemicals in 1694. The fiction book Giphantie, published in 1760, by French author Tiphaigne de la Roche, the discovery of the camera obscura that provides an image of a scene dates back to ancient China. Leonardo da Vinci mentions natural camera obscura that are formed by dark caves on the edge of a sunlit valley, a hole in the cave wall will act as a pinhole camera and project a laterally reversed, upside down image on a piece of paper. So the birth of photography was primarily concerned with inventing means to capture, renaissance painters used the camera obscura which, in fact, gives the optical rendering in color that dominates Western Art. The camera obscura literally means dark chamber in Latin and it is a box with a hole in it which allows light to go through and create an image onto the piece of paper. Around the year 1800, British inventor Thomas Wedgwood made the first known attempt to capture the image in a camera obscura by means of a light-sensitive substance and he used paper or white leather treated with silver nitrate. The shadow images eventually darkened all over, the first permanent photoetching was an image produced in 1822 by the French inventor Nicéphore Niépce, but it was destroyed in a later attempt to make prints from it. Niépce was successful again in 1825, in 1826 or 1827, he made the View from the Window at Le Gras, the earliest surviving photograph from nature. Because Niépces camera photographs required a long exposure, he sought to greatly improve his bitumen process or replace it with one that was more practical. With an eye to eventual commercial exploitation, the partners opted for total secrecy, Daguerres efforts culminated in what would later be named the daguerreotype process
3.
Camera
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Thumb|A2016 Nikon D810 A camera is an optical instrument for recording or capturing images, which may be stored locally, transmitted to another location, or both. The images may be individual still photographs or sequences of images constituting videos or movies, the camera is a remote sensing device as it senses subjects without physical contact. The word camera comes from camera obscura, which means dark chamber and is the Latin name of the device for projecting an image of external reality onto a flat surface. The modern photographic camera evolved from the camera obscura, the functioning of the camera is very similar to the functioning of the human eye. A camera may work with the light of the spectrum or with other portions of the electromagnetic spectrum. A still camera is a device which creates a single image of an object or scene. All cameras use the basic design, light enters an enclosed box through a converging lens/convex lens. A shutter mechanism controls the length of time that light can enter the camera, a display, often a liquid crystal display, permits the user to view scene to be recorded and settings such as ISO speed, exposure, and shutter speed. A movie camera or a video camera operates similarly to a camera, except it records a series of static images in rapid succession. When the images are combined and displayed in order, the illusion of motion is achieved, the forerunner to the photographic camera was the camera obscura. The oldest known record of this principle is a description by Han Chinese philosopher Mozi, Mozi correctly asserted that the camera obscura image is inverted because light travels in straight lines from its source. In the 11th century Arab physicist Ibn al-Haytham s wrote very influential essays about experiments with light through an opening in a darkened room. The use of a lens in the opening of a wall or closed window shutter of a room to project images used as a drawing aid has been traced back to circa 1550. Since the late 17th century portable camera obscura devices in tents, before the development of the photographic camera, it had been known for hundreds of years that some substances, such as silver salts, darkened when exposed to sunlight. The first person to use this chemistry to create images was Thomas Wedgwood, to create images, Wedgwood placed items, such as leaves and insect wings, on ceramic pots coated with silver nitrate, and exposed the set-up to light. These images werent permanent, however, as Wedgwood didnt employ a fixing mechanism and he ultimately failed at his goal of using the process to create fixed images created by a camera obscura. The first permanent photograph of an image was made in 1826 by Joseph Nicéphore Niépce using a sliding wooden box camera made by Charles. Niépce had been experimenting with ways to fix the images of a camera obscura since 1816, the photograph Niépce succeeded in creating shows the view from his window
4.
Shutter (photography)
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A shutter can also be used to allow pulses of light to pass outwards, as seen in a movie projector or a signal lamp. A shutter of variable speed is used to control exposure time of the film, the shutter is so constructed that it automatically closes after a certain required time interval. The speed of the shutter is controlled by a ring outside the camera, focal-plane shutters are mounted near the focal plane and move to uncover the film or sensor. Behind-the-lens shutters were used in cameras with limited lens interchangeability. Shutters in front of the lens, sometimes simply a lens cap that is removed and replaced for the long exposures required, were used in the days of photography. Other mechanisms than the aperture and the sliding curtains have been used. The time for which a shutter remains open is determined by a timing mechanism and these were originally pneumatic or clockwork, but since the late twentieth century are mostly electronic. The reciprocal of time in seconds is often used for engraving shutter settings. For example, a marking of 250 denotes 1/250 and this does not cause confusion in practice. The exposure time and the aperture of the lens must together be such as to allow the right amount of light to reach the film or sensor. Additionally, the time must be suitable to handle any motion of the subject. Usually it must be fast enough to freeze rapid motion, unless a controlled degree of motion blur is desired, most shutters have a flash synchronization switch to trigger a flash, if connected. This was quite a complicated matter with mechanical shutters and flashbulbs which took a time to reach full brightness. Special flashbulbs were designed which had a burn, illuminating the scene for the whole time taken by a focal plane shutter slit to move across the film. These problems were solved for non-focal-plane shutters with the advent of electronic flash units which fire virtually instantaneously. When using a focal-plane shutter with a flash, if the shutter is set at its X-sync speed or slower the whole frame will be exposed when the flash fires, some electronic flashes can produce a longer pulse compatible with a focal-plane shutter operated at much higher shutter speeds. The focal-plane shutter will still impart focal-plane shutter distortions to a moving subject. Cinematography uses a rotary shutter in movie cameras, a continuously spinning disc which conceals the image with a reflex mirror during the intermittent motion between frame exposure
5.
Photographic film
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This article is mainly concerned with still photography film. For motion picture film, please see film stock, photographic film is a strip or sheet of transparent plastic film base coated on one side with a gelatin emulsion containing microscopically small light-sensitive silver halide crystals. The sizes and other characteristics of the crystals determine the sensitivity, contrast, the emulsion will gradually darken if left exposed to light, but the process is too slow and incomplete to be of any practical use. Instead, a short exposure to the image formed by a camera lens is used to produce only a very slight chemical change. This creates an invisible latent image in the emulsion, which can be developed into a visible photograph. In addition to light, all films are sensitive to ultraviolet, X-rays. Unmodified silver halide crystals are only to the blue part of the visible spectrum. This problem was overcome with the discovery that certain dyes, called sensitizing dyes, first orthochromatic and finally panchromatic films were developed. Panchromatic film renders all colors in shades of gray approximately matching their subjective brightness, by similar techniques special-purpose films can be made sensitive to the infrared region of the spectrum. In black-and-white photographic film there is one layer of silver halide crystals. When the exposed silver halide grains are developed, the silver halide crystals are converted to metallic silver, color film has at least three sensitive layers, incorporating different combinations of sensitizing dyes. Typically the blue-sensitive layer is on top, followed by a filter layer to stop any remaining blue light from affecting the layers below. Next come a green-and-blue sensitive layer, and a sensitive layer. During development, the silver halide crystals are converted to metallic silver. Because the by-products are created in direct proportion to the amount of exposure and development, following development, the silver is converted back to silver halide crystals in the bleach step. It is removed from the film during the process of fixing the image on the film with a solution of ammonium thiosulfate or sodium thiosulfate, fixing leaves behind only the formed color dyes, which combine to make up the colored visible image. Later color films, like Kodacolor II, have as many as 12 emulsion layers, the earliest practical photographic process, the daguerreotype, introduced in 1839, did not use film. The light-sensitive chemicals were formed on the surface of a copper sheet
6.
Image sensor
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An image sensor or imaging sensor is a sensor that detects and conveys the information that constitutes an image. It does so by converting the variable attenuation of light waves into signals, the waves can be light or other electromagnetic radiation. As technology changes, digital imaging tends to replace analog imaging, early analog sensors for visible light were video camera tubes. Currently, used types are semiconductor charge-coupled devices or active pixel sensors in complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor or N-type metal-oxide-semiconductor technologies, analog sensors for invisible radiation tend to involve vacuum tubes of various kinds. Digital sensors include flat panel detectors, today, most digital cameras use a CMOS sensor, because CMOS sensors perform better than CCDs. An example is the fact that they incorporate an integrated circuit, CCD is still in use for cheap low entry cameras, but weak in burst mode. Both types of sensor accomplish the task of capturing light. Each cell of a CCD image sensor is an analog device, when light strikes the chip it is held as a small electrical charge in each photo sensor. This process is repeated until all the lines of pixels have had their charge amplified. A CMOS image sensor has an amplifier for each compared to the few amplifiers of a CCD. Some CMOS imaging sensors also use Back-side illumination to increase the number of photons that hit the photodiode, CMOS sensors can potentially be implemented with fewer components, use less power, and/or provide faster readout than CCD sensors. They are also vulnerable to static electricity discharges. Another approach is to utilize the very fine dimensions available in modern CMOS technology to implement a CCD like structure entirely in CMOS technology and this can be achieved by separating individual poly-silicon gates by a very small gap. These hybrid sensors are still in the phase and can potentially harness the benefits of both CCD and CMOS imagers. There are many parameters that can be used to evaluate the performance of a sensor, including dynamic range, signal-to-noise ratio. For sensors of comparable types, the ratio and dynamic range improve as the size increases. In order to avoid interpolated color information, techniques like color co-site sampling use a mechanism to shift the color sensor in pixel steps. 3CCD, using three discrete image sensors, with the color separation done by a dichroic prism, while in general digital cameras use a flat sensor, Sony prototyped a curved sensor in 2014 to reduce/eliminate Petzval field curvature that occurs with a flat sensor
7.
F-number
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The f-number of an optical system such as a camera lens is the ratio of the systems focal length to the diameter of the entrance pupil. It is a number that is a quantitative measure of lens speed. It is also known as the ratio, f-ratio, f-stop. The f-number is commonly indicated using a hooked f with the format f/N, the f-number N or f# is given by, N = f D where f is the focal length, and D is the diameter of the entrance pupil. It is customary to write f-numbers preceded by f/, which forms a mathematical expression of the pupil diameter in terms of f and N. Ignoring differences in light transmission efficiency, a lens with a greater f-number projects darker images, the brightness of the projected image relative to the brightness of the scene in the lenss field of view decreases with the square of the f-number. Doubling the f-number decreases the brightness by a factor of four. To maintain the same photographic exposure when doubling the f-number, the time would need to be four times as long. Most lenses have a diaphragm, which changes the size of the aperture stop. The entrance pupil diameter is not necessarily equal to the aperture stop diameter, a 100 mm focal length f/4 lens has an entrance pupil diameter of 25 mm. A200 mm focal length f/4 lens has a pupil diameter of 50 mm. The 200 mm lenss entrance pupil has four times the area of the 100 mm lenss entrance pupil, a T-stop is an f-number adjusted to account for light transmission efficiency. The word stop is sometimes confusing due to its multiple meanings, a stop can be a physical object, an opaque part of an optical system that blocks certain rays. In photography, stops are also a used to quantify ratios of light or exposure. The one-stop unit is known as the EV unit. On a camera, the setting is traditionally adjusted in discrete steps. Each stop is marked with its corresponding f-number, and represents a halving of the light intensity from the previous stop. This corresponds to a decrease of the pupil and aperture diameters by a factor of 1/2 or about 0.7071, each element in the sequence is one stop lower than the element to its left, and one stop higher than the element to its right
8.
Film speed
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Film speed is the measure of a photographic films sensitivity to light, determined by sensitometry and measured on various numerical scales, the most recent being the ISO system. A closely related ISO system is used to measure the sensitivity of digital imaging systems, highly sensitive films are correspondingly termed fast films. In both digital and film photography, the reduction of exposure corresponding to use of higher sensitivities generally leads to reduced image quality, in short, the higher the sensitivity, the grainier the image will be. Ultimately sensitivity is limited by the efficiency of the film or sensor. The speed of the emulsion was then expressed in degrees Warnerke corresponding with the last number visible on the plate after development. Each number represented an increase of 1/3 in speed, typical speeds were between 10° and 25° Warnerke at the time. The concept, however, was built upon in 1900 by Henry Chapman Jones in the development of his plate tester. In their system, speed numbers were inversely proportional to the exposure required, for example, an emulsion rated at 250 H&D would require ten times the exposure of an emulsion rated at 2500 H&D. The methods to determine the sensitivity were later modified in 1925, the H&D system was officially accepted as a standard in the former Soviet Union from 1928 until September 1951, when it was superseded by GOST 2817-50. The Scheinergrade system was devised by the German astronomer Julius Scheiner in 1894 originally as a method of comparing the speeds of plates used for astronomical photography, Scheiners system rated the speed of a plate by the least exposure to produce a visible darkening upon development. ≈2 The system was extended to cover larger ranges and some of its practical shortcomings were addressed by the Austrian scientist Josef Maria Eder. Scheiners system was abandoned in Germany, when the standardized DIN system was introduced in 1934. In various forms, it continued to be in use in other countries for some time. The DIN system, officially DIN standard 4512 by Deutsches Institut für Normung, was published in January 1934, International Congress of Photography held in Dresden from August 3 to 8,1931. The DIN system was inspired by Scheiners system, but the sensitivities were represented as the base 10 logarithm of the sensitivity multiplied by 10, similar to decibels. Thus an increase of 20° represented an increase in sensitivity. ≈3 /10 As in the Scheiner system, speeds were expressed in degrees, originally the sensitivity was written as a fraction with tenths, where the resultant value 1.8 represented the relative base 10 logarithm of the speed. Tenths were later abandoned with DIN4512, 1957-11, and the example above would be written as 18° DIN, the degree symbol was finally dropped with DIN4512, 1961-10
9.
Luminance
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Luminance is a photometric measure of the luminous intensity per unit area of light travelling in a given direction. It describes the amount of light passes through, is emitted or reflected from a particular area. The SI unit for luminance is candela per square metre, a non-SI term for the same unit is the nit. The CGS unit of luminance is the stilb, which is equal to one candela per square centimetre or 10 kcd/m2, luminance is often used to characterize emission or reflection from flat, diffuse surfaces. The luminance indicates how much power will be detected by an eye looking at the surface from a particular angle of view. Luminance is thus an indicator of how bright the surface will appear, in this case, the solid angle of interest is the solid angle subtended by the eyes pupil. Luminance is used in the industry to characterize the brightness of displays. A typical computer display emits between 50 and 300 cd/m2, the sun has luminance of about 1. 6×109 cd/m2 at noon. Luminance is invariant in geometric optics and this means that for an ideal optical system, the luminance at the output is the same as the input luminance. For real, passive, optical systems, the luminance is at most equal to the input. As an example, if one uses a lens to form an image that is smaller than the source object, the luminous power is concentrated into a smaller area, meaning that the illuminance is higher at the image. The light at the plane, however, fills a larger solid angle so the luminance comes out to be the same assuming there is no loss at the lens. The image can never be brighter than the source, if light travels through a lossless medium, the luminance does not change along a given light ray. In the case of a perfectly diffuse reflector, the luminance is isotropic, then the relationship is simply L v = E v R / π A variety of units have been used for luminance, besides the candela per square metre. One candela per square metre is equal to, 10−4 stilbs π apostilbs π×10−4 lamberts 0.292 foot-lamberts Retinal damage can occur when the eye is exposed to high luminance, damage can occur due to local heating of the retina. Photochemical effects can cause damage, especially at short wavelengths. Also available in PDF form and Google Docs online version Autodesk Design Academy Measuring Light Levels
10.
Exposure (photography)
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In photography, exposure is the amount of light per unit area reaching a photographic film or electronic image sensor, as determined by shutter speed, lens aperture and scene luminance. Exposure is measured in lux seconds, and can be computed from exposure value, in photographic jargon, an exposure generally refers to a single shutter cycle. For the same speed, the accumulated photometric exposure should be similar in both cases. A photograph may be described as underexposed when it has a loss of detail, that is. As the adjacent image shows, these terms are technical ones, there are three types of settings, manual, automatic and exposure compensation. Radiant exposure of a surface, denoted He and measured in J/m2, is given by H e = E e t, where Ee is the irradiance of the surface, measured in W/m2, t is the exposure duration, measured in s. Luminous exposure of a surface, denoted Hv and measured in lx⋅s, is given by H v = E v t, many photographic materials are also sensitive to invisible light, which can be a nuisance, or a benefit. The use of units is appropriate to characterize such sensitivity to invisible light. In sensitometric data, such as curves, the log exposure is conventionally expressed as log10. Photographers more familiar with base-2 logarithmic scales can convert using log2 ≈3.32 log10, correct exposure may be defined as an exposure that achieves the effect the photographer intended. A more technical approach recognises that a film has a physically limited useful exposure range. If, for any part of the photograph, the exposure is outside this range. In a very simple model, for example, out-of-range values would be recorded as black or white rather than the precisely graduated shades of colour and this ensures that no significant information is lost during capture. However, it is much easier to discard recorded information during post processing than to try to re-create unrecorded information. In a scene with strong or harsh lighting, the ratio between highlight and shadow luminance values may well be larger than the ratio between the maximum and minimum useful exposure values. A photograph may be described as underexposed when it has a loss of detail, that is. In manual mode, the photographer adjusts the lens aperture and/or shutter speed to achieve the desired exposure, manual exposure calculations may be based on some method of light metering with a working knowledge of exposure values, the APEX system and/or the Zone System. A camera in automatic exposure mode automatically calculates and adjusts exposure settings to match the subjects mid-tone to the mid-tone of the photograph, for most cameras this means using an on-board TTL exposure meter
11.
Exposure value
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In photography, exposure value is a number that represents a combination of a cameras shutter speed and f-number, such that all combinations that yield the same exposure have the same EV. Exposure value is used to indicate an interval on the photographic exposure scale, with a difference of 1 EV corresponding to a standard power-of-2 exposure step. The EV concept was developed by the German shutter manufacturer Friedrich Deckel in the 1950s and its intent was to simplify choosing among equivalent camera exposure settings by replacing combinations of shutter speed and f-number with a single number. This was especially helpful to beginners with limited understanding of the shutter speed and aperture. The concept became known as the Light Value System in Europe, the proper EV was determined by the scene luminance and film speed, it was intended that the system also include adjustment for filters, exposure compensation, and other variables. With all of elements included, the camera would be set by transferring the single number thus determined. Exposure value has been indicated in various ways, although all camera settings with the same EV nominally give the same exposure, they do not necessarily give the same picture. The f-number determines the depth of field, and the shutter speed determines the amount of motion blur, if the EV is known, it can be used to select combinations of exposure time and f-number, as shown in Table 1. Greater exposure values are appropriate for photography in more brightly lit situations, to avoid confusion, some authors have used camera exposure to refer to combinations of camera settings. The 1964 ASA standard for automatic exposure controls for cameras, ASA PH2. 15-1964, took the same approach, common practice among photographers is nonetheless to use “exposure” to refer to camera settings as well as to photometric exposure. If, for example, the f-number is changed, an equivalent exposure time can be determined from t 2 t 1 = N22 N12. Performing this calculation mentally is tedious for most photographers, but the equation is solved with a calculator dial on an exposure meter or a similar dial on a standalone calculator. If the camera controls have detents, constant exposure can be maintained by counting the steps as one control is adjusted, the ratio t/N2 could be used to represent equivalent combinations of exposure time and f-number in a single value. But for many such combinations used in photography, the ratio gives a fractional value with a large denominator. For example, beginning with 1 s and f/1, decreasing exposure gives the simple sequence 0,1,2,3, the last two values shown frequently apply when using ISO100 speed imaging media in outdoor photography. Current cameras do not allow direct setting of EV, and cameras with automatic exposure control generally obviate the need for it, EV can nonetheless be helpful when used to transfer recommended exposure settings from an exposure meter to an exposure calculator. Used as an indicator of camera settings, EV corresponds to actual combinations of shutter speed, when the actual EV matches that recommended by the light level and the ISO speed, these settings should result in the “correct” exposure. If the common value of K =12.5 is used, at EV =15 the luminance is 380 cd/ft2 or 4096 cd/m2
12.
Aperture
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In optics, an aperture is a hole or an opening through which light travels. More specifically, the aperture and focal length of a system determine the cone angle of a bundle of rays that come to a focus in the image plane. The aperture determines how collimated the admitted rays are, which is of importance for the appearance at the image plane. If an aperture is narrow, then highly collimated rays are admitted, a wide aperture admits uncollimated rays, resulting in a sharp focus only for rays coming from a certain distance. This means that a wide aperture results in an image that is sharp for things at the correct distance, the aperture also determines how many of the incoming rays are actually admitted and thus how much light reaches the image plane. In the human eye, the pupil is the aperture, an optical system typically has many openings or structures that limit the ray bundles. In general, these structures are called stops, and the stop is the stop that primarily determines the ray cone angle. In some contexts, especially in photography and astronomy, aperture refers to the diameter of the aperture stop rather than the stop or the opening itself. For example, in a telescope, the stop is typically the edges of the objective lens or mirror. One then speaks of a telescope as having, for example, note that the aperture stop is not necessarily the smallest stop in the system. Magnification and demagnification by lenses and other elements can cause a large stop to be the aperture stop for the system. In astrophotography, the aperture may be given as a measure or as the dimensionless ratio between that measure and the focal length. In other photography, it is given as a ratio. Sometimes stops and diaphragms are called apertures, even when they are not the stop of the system. The word aperture is used in other contexts to indicate a system which blocks off light outside a certain region. In astronomy, for example, a photometric aperture around a star usually corresponds to a window around the image of a star within which the light intensity is assumed. The aperture stop is an important element in most optical designs and its most obvious feature is that it limits the amount of light that can reach the image/film plane. This can be unavoidable, as in a telescope where one wants to collect as much light as possible, or deliberate
13.
Bulb (photography)
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Bulb, abbreviated B, is a shutter speed setting on an adjustable camera that allows long exposure times under the direct control of the photographer. With this setting, the shutter simply stays open as long as the shutter button remains depressed, an alternative setting common on film cameras is Time, abbreviated T, where the button is pressed once to open the shutter and again to close it. The term bulb is a reference to old-style pneumatically actuated shutters, squeezing an air bulb would open the shutter, according to the Focal Encyclopedia of Photography, BULB EXPOSURE. Another term for a brief exposure—in which the shutter remains open only so long as the release is held down. The word originated with the early pneumatic shutter release and it is not clear when the term actually originated. The first industrial produced leaf shutters from Voigtländer in Germany in 1890 had two settings, M for Moment exposure and Z for Zeit exposure, the M-setting enabled the adjustable fractions of a second. With the Z-setting the shutter opened when pressed and closed when it was triggered again, around 1894 the third setting B for Beliebig was added for the shutter of C. A. Steinheil & Söhne in Munich. The B-setting enabled his shutter to stay opened as long as the release was pressed, bausch & Lomb in Rochester overtook these settings for their popular Unicum shutters in 1898. With the worldwide success of the shutters of Wollensak like the Junior since 1903, most of the other manufacturers in the world overtook the settings T for time. The B setting was kept until today for the familiar bulb behavior that could be achieved by a release in the English-speaking world. The bulb setting is used on cameras, including some point-and-shoot cameras. Because of the risk of camera movement, the camera is most often mounted on a tripod for the duration of the exposure, the cable releases generally include a locking feature to eliminate the need to keep the button or plunger depressed during extremely long exposures. On others, including many Digital SLR cameras, bulb is typically available from the exposure mode and—rarely—also from shutter priority mode. When set to bulb, generally on the M or manual setting of the camera, some mid-level or bridge cameras such as the Olympus SP-560UZ have a limited bulb setting, allowing time exposures up to 8 minutes and at an ISO setting of 200 ISO and lower. The display refresh rate for this mode can be configured between 0.5 s and 60 s, some specialized cameras use other image triggers
14.
135 film
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135 is photographic film in a film format used for still photography. It is a film with a film gauge of 35 mm. Its engineering standard for the film is controlled by ISO1007, the term 135 was introduced by Kodak in 1934 as a designation for the cassette for 35 mm film, specifically for still photography. It quickly grew in popularity, surpassing 120 film by the late 1960s to become the most popular photographic film size, despite competition from formats such as 828,126,110, and APS, it remains so today. 135 camera film always comes perforated with Kodak Standard perforations, the size of the 135 film frame has been adopted by many high-end digital single-lens reflex and digital mirrorless cameras, commonly referred to as full frame. Even though the format is smaller than historical medium format and large format film, it is much larger than image sensors in most compact cameras. Individual rolls of 135 film are enclosed in single-spool, light-tight, the film is clipped or taped to a spool and exits via a slot lined with flocking. The end of the film is cut on one side to form a leader and it has the same dimensions and perforation pitch as 35 mm movie print film. Most cameras require the film to be rewound before the camera is opened, disposable cameras use the same technique so that the user does not have to rewind. Since the 1980s film cassettes have been marked with a DX encoding pattern, conforming cameras detect this, different films are sensitive to light at different degrees, this film speed is standardised by ISO.135 film has been made in several emulsion types and sensitivities. Since the introduction of digital cameras the most usual films have colour emulsions of ISO 100/21° to ISO 800/30°, films of lower sensitivity and higher sensitivity are for more specialist purposes. There are colour and monochrome films, negative and positive, monochrome film is usually panchromatic, orthochromatic has fallen out of use. Film designed to be sensitive to infrared radiation can be obtained, more exotic emulsions have been available in 135 than other roll-film sizes. The term 135 format usually refers to a 36×24 mm film format, the 36×24 mm format is common to digital image sensors, where it is typically referred to as full frame format. On 135 film, the dimension of the 36×24 mm frame runs parallel to the length of the film. The perforation size and pitch are according to the standard specification KS-1870, for each frame, the film advances 8 perforations. This is specified as 38.00 mm and this allows for 2 mm gaps between frames. Each camera model has a different location for the sprocket which advances the film, therefore, each camera model’s frame will vary in position relative to the perforations
15.
Normal lens
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In photography and cinematography, a normal lens is a lens that reproduces a field of view that appears natural to a human observer. Lenses with longer or shorter focal lengths produce an expanded or contracted field of view appears to distort the perspective when viewed from a normal viewing distance. Lenses of shorter focal length are called wide-angle lenses, while longer-focal-length lenses are referred to as long-focus lenses, such is the extent of distortions of perspective with these lenses that they may not be permitted as legal evidence. That is, the relationships of objects in the photograph should be equivalent to what they actually are. For cinematography, where the image is larger relative to viewing distance, the term normal lens can also be used as a synonym for rectilinear lens. This is a different use of the term. The 50 mm focal length was chosen by Oskar Barnack, the creator of the Leica camera. Note that the angle of view depends on the ratio as well. In digital photography, the type is not the sensor diameter. The normal lens focal length is roughly 2/3 of the TV tube diameter and this is a mathematical calculation because most of the cameras are equipped with zoom lenses
16.
Tripod (photography)
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In photography, a tripod is used to stabilize and elevate a camera, a flash unit, or other photographic equipment. All photographic tripods have three legs and a head to couple with a camera. Tripod legs are made to telescope, in order to save space when not in use. Tripods are usually made from aluminum, carbon fiber, steel, tripods are used for both still and motion photography to prevent camera movement. They are necessary when slow-speed exposures are being made, or when lenses of extreme focal length are used, in the same vein, they reduce camera shake, and thus are instrumental in achieving maximum sharpness. A tripod is also helpful in achieving precise framing of the image, or when more than one image is being made of the same scene, use of a tripod may also allow for a more thoughtful approach to photography. For all of reasons, a tripod of some sort is often necessary for professional photography as well as certain video uses. Tripods are also used as an alternative to C-Stands to photographic accessories, for maximum strength and stability, most photographic tripods are braced around a center post, with collapsible telescoping legs and a telescoping section at the top that can be raised or lowered. Some tripods also feature integrated remote controls to control a camcorder or camera, materials used in the construction of tripod or monopod legs include metal, wood and carbon fiber-reinforced plastics, among others. Per ISO1222,2010, the current tripod screw thread standard for attaching the camera calls for a 1/4-20 UNC or 3/8-16 UNC thread, most consumer cameras are fitted with 1/4-20 UNC threads. Larger, professional cameras and lenses may be fitted with 3/8-16 UNC threads, plus a removable 1/4-20 UNC adapter, in this application, the BSW and UNC thread profiles are similar enough that one can mount a modern camera on a legacy tripod and vice versa. The UNC threads are a 60-degree angle and flattened, whereas the BSW are a 55-degree angle, however, at least one English manufacturer uses No.1 B. A. for its tripod mount thread. There are several types of tripods, the least expensive, generally made of aluminum tubing and costing less than US$50, is used primarily for consumer still and video cameras, these generally come with an attached head and rubber feet. The head is very basic, and often not entirely suitable for smooth panning of a camcorder, a common feature, mostly designed for still cameras, allows the head to flip sideways 90 degrees to allow the camera to take pictures in portrait format rather than landscape. Often included is a pin on the front of the mounting screw that is used to stabilize camcorders. This is not found on the more expensive photographic tripods, more expensive tripods are sturdier, stronger, and usually come with no integrated head. The separate heads allow a combination to be customized to the photographers needs. There are expensive carbon fiber tripods, used for applications where the needs to be lightweight
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Image stabilization
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Image stabilization is a family of techniques used to reduce blurring associated with the motion of a camera or other imaging device during exposure. Generally, it compensates for pan and tilt of the imaging device and it is used in image-stabilized binoculars, still and video cameras, astronomical telescopes, and also smartphones, mainly the high-end. With still cameras, camera shake is particularly problematic at slow speeds or with long focal length lenses. With video cameras, camera shake causes visible frame-to-frame jitter in the recorded video, in astronomy, the problem of lens-shake is added to by variations in the atmosphere over time, which will cause the apparent positions of objects to change. In photography, image stabilization can often permit the use of shutter speeds 2–4.5 stops slower, for example, at a focal length of 125 mm on a 35 mm camera, vibration or camera shake could affect sharpness if the shutter speed was slower than 1/125 second. The sharpness obtainable at a speed can increase dramatically. When calculating the effective length, it is important to take into account the image format a camera uses. For example, many digital SLR cameras use a sensor that is 2/3, 5/8. This means that the 35 mm frame is 1.5,1.6, the latter values are referred to as the crop factor, field-of-view crop factor, focal-length multiplier, or format factor. On a 2x crop factor camera, for instance, a 50 mm lens produces the field of view as a 100 mm lens used on a 35 mm film camera. However, image stabilization does not prevent motion blur caused by the movement of the subject or by extreme movements of the camera, Image stabilization is only designed for and capable of reducing blur that results from normal, minute shaking of a lens due to hand-held shooting. Some lenses and camera bodies include a secondary panning mode or a more aggressive active mode, image-stabilization features can also be a benefit in astrophotography, when the camera is technically—but not effectively—fixed in place. The Pentax K-5 and K-r can use their sensor-shift capability to reduce star trails in reasonable exposure times, in effect, the stabilization compensates for the Earths motion, not the cameras. There are two types of implementation - lens-based, or body-based stabilization and these refer to where the stabilizing system is located. Both have their advantages and disadvantages, an optical image stabilizer, often abbreviated OIS, IS, or OS, is a mechanism used in a still camera or video camera that stabilizes the recorded image by varying the optical path to the sensor. This technology is implemented in the lens itself, as distinct from In Body Image Stabilization, the key element of all optical stabilization systems is that they stabilize the image projected on the sensor before the sensor converts the image into digital information. In Nikon and Canons implementation, it works by using a lens element that is moved orthogonally to the optical axis of the lens using electromagnets. Vibration is detected using two piezoelectric angular velocity sensors, one to detect movement and the other to detect vertical movement
18.
Shutter priority
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Shutter priority refers to a setting on some cameras that allows the user to choose a specific shutter speed while the camera adjusts the aperture to ensure correct exposure. Shutter priority with longer exposures is chosen to create an impression of motion, for example, a waterfall will appear blurred and fuzzy. If the camera is panned with a subject, the background will appear blurred. When photographing sports or high-speed phenomena, shutter priority with short exposures can ensure that the motion is effectively frozen in the resulting image, like aperture priority, this mode allows for partial automation thus decreasing the need for total concentration. Shutter priority is often abbreviated as S or Tv on a mode dial. List of digital camera modes Aperture priority
19.
Motion blur
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Motion blur is the apparent streaking of rapidly moving objects in a still image or a sequence of images such as a movie or animation. It results when the image being recorded changes during the recording of a single exposure, when a camera creates an image, that image does not represent a single instant of time. Because of technological constraints or artistic requirements, the image may represent the scene over a period of time, in such an image, any object moving with respect to the camera will look blurred or smeared along the direction of relative motion. This smearing may occur on an object that is moving or on a static background if the camera is moving, in a film or television image, this looks natural because the human eye behaves in much the same way. Because the effect is caused by the motion between the camera, and the objects and scene, motion blur may be avoided by panning the camera to track those moving objects. In this case, even with long exposure times, the objects will appear sharper, in computer animation this effect must be simulated as a virtual camera actually does capture a discrete moment in time. This simulated motion blur is typically applied when either the camera or objects in the scene move rapidly, without this simulated effect each frame shows a perfect instant in time, with zero motion blur. This is why a game with a frame rate of 25-30 frames per second will seem staggered. Many modern video games feature motion blur, especially vehicle simulation games, some of the better-known games that utilise this are the recent Need for Speed titles, Unreal Tournament III, The Legend of Zelda, Majoras Mask, among many others. In pre-rendered computer animation, such as CGI movies, realistic motion blur can be drawn because the renderer has more time to each frame. Temporal anti-aliasing produces frames as a composite of many instants, frames are not points in time, they are periods of time. Most computer animations systems make the classic fence-post error in the way they handle time, thus most computer animation systems will incorrectly place an object on a four frame trip along a path at 0%,0. 33%,0. 66%, and 1. Motion lines in cel animation are drawn in the direction as motion blur. Go motion is a variant of stop motion animation that moves the models during the exposure to create a less staggered effect, in 2D computer graphics, motion blur is an artistic filter that converts the digital image/bitmap/raster image in order to simulate the effect. Many graphical software products offer simple motion blur filters, however, for advanced motion blur filtering including curves or non-uniform speed adjustment, specialized software products are necessary. When an animals eye is in motion, the image will suffer from motion blur, to cope with this, humans generally alternate between saccades and fixation. Saccadic masking makes motion blur during a saccade invisible, similarly, smooth pursuit allows the eye to track a target in rapid motion, eliminating motion blur of that target instead of the scene. Although this gives sharper slow motion replays it can look strange at normal speed because the eye expects to see motion blurring and is not provided with blurred images, conversely, extra motion blur can unavoidably occur on displays when it is not desired
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Light painting
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The technique is used for both scientific and artistic purposes, as well as in commercial photography. Light painting dates back to 1889 when Étienne-Jules Marey and Georges Demeny traced human motion in the first known light painting “Pathological Walk From in Front”, man Ray, in his 1935 series Space Writing, was the first known art photographer to use the technique. Photographer Barbara Morgan began making paintings in 1940. In 1949 Pablo Picasso was visited by Gjon Mili, a photographer and lighting innovator, immediately Picasso started making images in the air with a small flashlight in a dark room. This series of photos became known as Picassos light drawings and he produced a series Schwingungsfigur of complex linear meshes, often with moiré effects, using a point-source light on a pendulum. During the 1970s and 80s Eric Staller used this technology for numerous projects that were called Light Drawings. Light paintings up to 1976 are classified as light drawings, in 1977 Dean Chamberlain gave birth to light painting with his image Polyethylene Bags On Chaise Longue at The Rochester Institute of Technology. Dean Chamberlain was the first artist to dedicate his entire body of work to the light painting art form, the artist photographer Jacques Pugin made several series of images with the light drawing technique in 1979. Picasso and Milis images should be regarded as some of the first light drawings, now, with modern light painting, one uses more frequently choreography and performance to photograph and organize. Since the 1980s, Vicki DaSilva has been working exclusively in light painting, in 1980, Vicki DaSilva started making deliberate text light graffiti works, the first being Cash. She continued these light graffiti photographs throughout the 1980s and eventually started using 4 foot fluorescent bulbs hooked up to pulley systems to create sheets of light. In the early 2000s she began making work with 8 foot fluorescent lamps, holding the lamp vertically, Light painting requires a slow shutter speed, usually at least a second in duration. Light paintings can be created using a webcam, the painted image can already be seen while drawing by using a monitor or projector. Another technique is the projection of images on to irregular surfaces, a photograph or other fixed portrayal of the resulting image is then made. Kinetic light painting is achieved by moving the camera, and is the antithesis of traditional photography, at night, or in a dark room, the camera can be removed from the tripod and used like a paintbrush. An example is using the sky as the canvas, the camera as the brush. Putting energy into moving the camera by stroking lights, making patterns, a variety of light sources can be used, ranging from simple flashlights to dedicated devices like the Hosemaster, which uses a fiber optic light pen. Other sources of light including candles, matches, fireworks, lighter flints, glowsticks, the PixelStick offer users the ability to control their light source in order to create images from letters to pictures that they have imported
21.
Panning (camera)
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In cinematography and photography panning means swiveling a still or video camera horizontally from a fixed position. This motion is similar to the motion of a person when they turn their head on their neck from left to right. The term panning is short for panorama, suggesting a view that exceeds the gaze. Panning, in words, is a device for gradually revealing and incorporating off-screen space into the image. Panning should never be confused with tracking or travelling, in which the camera is not just swivelled but is physically displaced left or right, in video technology, panning refers to the horizontal scrolling of an image wider than the display. For 3D modeling in computer graphics, panning means moving parallel to the current view plane, in other words, the camera moves perpendicular to the direction it is pointed. The technique also has limited applications in still photography, in other disciplines, this motion is called yaw. When photographing a subject, the panning technique is achieved by keeping the subject in the same position of the frame for the duration of the exposure. The length of the exposure must be enough to allow the background to blur due to the movement of the camera as the photographer follows the subject in the viewfinder. The exact length of exposure required will depend on the speed at which the subject is moving, the length of the lens. The faster shutter speed allowed by fast moving subjects are easier to capture in a smoothly panned shot. With slower moving subjects, the risk is that the motion will be jerky. To aid in capturing panned pictures, photographers use aids such as tripods and monopods, a low budget option is to tie a piece of string around the lens, then to drop the other end to the floor and step on it to pull it taut. This will allow a bit more stability and allow for smoother blur
22.
Fog
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Fog consists of visible cloud water droplets or ice crystals suspended in the air at or near the Earths surface. Fog can be considered a type of low-lying cloud and is influenced by nearby bodies of water, topography. In turn, fog has affected many human activities, such as shipping, travel, the term fog is typically distinguished from the more generic term cloud in that fog is low-lying, and the moisture in the fog is often generated locally. By definition, fog reduces visibility to less than 1 kilometre, for aviation purposes in the UK, a visibility of less than 5 kilometres but greater than 999 metres is considered to be mist if the relative humidity is 70% or greater, below 70%, haze is reported. Fog forms when the difference between air temperature and dew point is less than 2.5 °C or 4 °F, Fog begins to form when water vapor condenses into tiny liquid water droplets suspended in the air. Water vapor normally begins to condense on condensation nuclei such as dust, ice, Fog, like its elevated cousin stratus, is a stable cloud deck which tends to form when a cool, stable air mass is trapped underneath a warm air mass. Fog normally occurs at a relative humidity near 100% and this occurs from either added moisture in the air, or falling ambient air temperature. However, fog can form at lower humidities, and can fail to form with relative humidity at 100%. At 100% relative humidity, the air cannot hold additional moisture, thus, Fog can form suddenly and can dissipate just as rapidly. The sudden formation of fog is known as flash fog, Fog commonly produces precipitation in the form of drizzle or very light snow. Drizzle occurs when the humidity of fog attains 100% and the cloud droplets begin to coalesce into larger droplets. This can occur when the fog layer is lifted and cooled sufficiently, drizzle becomes freezing drizzle when the temperature at the surface drops below the freezing point. The inversion boundary varies its altitude primarily in response to the weight of the air above it, the marine layer, and any fogbank it may contain, will be squashed when the pressure is high, and conversely, may expand upwards when the pressure above it is lowering. Fog can form in a number of ways, depending on how the cooling that caused the condensation occurred, radiation fog is formed by the cooling of land after sunset by thermal radiation in calm conditions with clear sky. The warm ground produces condensation in the air by heat conduction. In perfect calm the fog layer can be less than a meter deep, radiation fogs occur at night, and usually do not last long after sunrise, but they can persist all day in the winter months especially in areas bounded by high ground. Radiation fog is most common in autumn and early winter, examples of this phenomenon include the Tule fog. Ground fog is fog that obscures less than 60% of the sky, advection fog occurs when moist air passes over a cool surface by advection and is cooled
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Landscape photography
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Landscape photography shows spaces within the world, sometimes vast and unending, but other times microscopic. Landscape photographs typically capture the presence of nature but can focus on man-made features or disturbances of landscapes. Landscape photography is done for a variety of reasons, perhaps the most common is to recall a personal observation or experience while in the outdoors, especially when traveling. Others pursue it particularly as a lifestyle, to be involved with nature. As with most forms of art, the definition of a photograph is broad and may include rural or urban settings. Notable landscape photographers include Ansel Adams, Mark Gray, Galen Rowell, some of the most important and celebrated landscape photographers have been motivated by an appreciation of the beauty of the natural environment and a desire to see it preserved. The work of William Henry Jackson in the century was instrumental in convincing Congress in 1872 to create Yellowstone. Photography produced by Philip Hyde for the Sierra Club found extensive use in promoting the preservation of natural places in the Western United States during the 20th century. Photography of artificial scenery, such as fields, orchards, gardens and architecture. Even the presence of structures or art may be considered landscape if presented in artistic settings or appearing in artistic style. Further, landscape photography is typically of relatively stationary subjects—arguably a form of still life and this tends to simplify the task, as opposed to photography of kinetic or live subjects. Landscape photography typically requires relatively simple equipment, though more sophisticated equipment can give a wider range of possibilities to the art. An artists eye for the subject can yield attractive and impressive results even with modest equipment, any ordinary camera -- film camera or digital camera—can be readily used for common landscape photography. Higher-resolution and larger-format digital cameras permit a greater amount of detail, however, a larger-format camera yields a more limited depth of field for a given aperture value, requiring greater care in focusing. A camera with panorama function or frame can permit very wide images suitable for capturing a panoramic view, for wide open spaces, a wide-angle lens is generally the preferred lens, allowing a broad angle of view. However, medium-range to telephoto lenses can achieve satisfying imagery, as well, other lenses that can help include the fisheye lens for extremely wide angles and dramatic effect, and the macro lens for extreme close-up work. While variable-range zoom lenses are used, some landscape photographers prefer fixed-range prime lenses to provide higher clarity and quality in the image. The sensitivity to light, of the film or the digital camera sensor—is important in landscape photography
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APS-C
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Advanced Photo System type-C is an image sensor format approximately equivalent in size to the Advanced Photo System classic negatives of 25. 1×16.7 mm, an aspect ratio of 3,2. Sensors approximating these dimensions are used in many digital single-lens reflex cameras, Mirrorless interchangeable-lens cameras, APS-C size sensors are also used in a few digital rangefinders. Such sensors exist in different variants depending on the manufacturer. All APS-C variants are considerably smaller than 35 mm standard film which measures 36×24 mm, sensor sizes range from 20. 7×13.8 mm to 28. 7×19.1 mm, but are typically about 22. 5×15 mm for Canon and 24×16 mm for other manufacturers. Each variant results in a different angle of view from lenses at the same focal length. This is why each manufacturer offers a range of lenses designed for its format, the quality of the image from an APS-C sensor is higher when compared to a smaller sensor due to its larger size which allows it to collect more light. However, compared to a camera, image quality is lower. Most DSLR and third party lens manufacturers now make lenses designed for APS-C cameras. Actual multiplier factor is 1. 255× for the 1D Digital,1. 28× for the Canon EOS-1D Mark III and 1. 29× for the Canon EOS-1D Mark IV. Leica M8 is 1. 33× Canon, Nikon, Pentax, whilst Canon uses a factor of 1. 6×, the other three brands all use 1. 5×. APS-C cameras use an area to form the image than traditional 35 mm cameras. For example, a 28 mm lens is a wide angle lens on a traditional 35 mm camera. But the same lens on an APS-C camera, with a factor of 1. 6×, has the same angle of view as a 45 mm lens on a 35 mm camera—i. e. Several third-party lens manufacturers, such as Tamron, Tokina, and Sigma, Canon introduced the Canon EF-S line of lenses in 2003 alongside the 300D. These lenses place the rear of the closer to the cameras sensor. This has several benefits, including lighter lenses and a field of view. EF-S lenses are compatible with Canons APS-C digital SLRs, with the exception of the early Canon EOS D30, Canon EOS D60, and Canon EOS 10D, EF-S lenses will not physically mount on Canons full-frame digital or 35mm film SLRs. More recently, the introduced the EF-M line for its EOS M series of mirrorless interchangeable-lens cameras
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Digital single-lens reflex camera
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A digital single-lens reflex camera is a digital camera that combines the optics and the mechanisms of a single-lens reflex camera with a digital imaging sensor, as opposed to photographic film. The reflex design scheme is the difference between a DSLR and other digital cameras. In the reflex design, light travels through the lens, then to a mirror that alternates to send the image to either the viewfinder or the image sensor, the alternative would be to have a viewfinder with its own lens, hence the term single lens for this design. By using only one lens, the viewfinder of a DSLR presents an image that will not perceptibly differ from what is captured by the cameras sensor, like SLRs DSLRs typically use interchangeable lenses with a proprietary lens mount. A movable mechanical mirror system is switched down to light from the lens over a matte focusing screen via a condenser lens. Most of the entry-level DSLRs use a instead of the traditional pentaprism. Focusing can be manual or automatic, activated by pressing half-way on the release or a dedicated AF button. DSLRs typically use autofocus based on phase detection and this method allows the optimal lens position to be calculated, rather than found, as would be the case with autofocus based on contrast maximisation. Phase-detection autofocus is typically faster than other passive techniques, as the phase sensor requires the same light going to the image sensor, it was previously only possible with an SLR design. Digital SLR cameras, along with most other cameras, generally have a mode dial to access standard camera settings or automatic scene-mode settings. Sometimes called a PASM dial, they typically provide such as program, aperture-priority, shutter-priority. Scene modes vary from camera to camera, and these modes are inherently less customizable and they often include landscape, portrait, action, macro, night, and silhouette, among others. However, these different settings and shooting styles that scene mode provides can be achieved by calibrating certain settings on the camera, professional DSLRs seldom contain automatic scene modes as professionals often do not require these and professionals know how to achieve the looks they want. A method to prevent dust entering the chamber, by using a dust cover filter right behind the mount, was used by Sigma in its first DSLR. Olympus used a built-in sensor cleaning mechanism in its first DSLR that had a sensor exposed to air, several Canon DSLR cameras rely on dust reduction systems based on vibrating the sensor at ultrasonic frequencies to remove dust from the sensor. Interchangeable lenses for SLRs and DSLRs are built to operate correctly with a lens mount that is generally unique to each brand. There are also lens adapters that allow a lens for one mount to be used on a camera body with a different lens mount. Many lenses are mountable, diaphragm-and-meter-compatible, on modern DSLRs and on older film SLRs that use the lens mount
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Canon Inc.
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It is headquartered in Ōta, Tokyo, Japan. Canon has a listing on the Tokyo Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the TOPIX index. It has a listing on the New York Stock Exchange. At the beginning of 2015, Canon was the tenth largest public company in Japan when measured by market capitalization, the company was originally named Seikikōgaku kenkyūsho. In 1934 it produced the Kwanon, a prototype for Japan’s first-ever 35 mm camera with a plane based shutter. In 1947 the company name was changed to Canon Camera Co. Inc. shortened to Canon Inc. in 1969, the name Canon comes from Buddhist bodhisattva Guan Yin, previously transliterated as Kuanyin, Kwannon, or Kwanon in English. The origins of Canon date back to the founding of Precision Optical Instruments Laboratory in Japan in 1937 by Takeshi Mitarai, Goro Yoshida, Saburo Uchida and Takeo Maeda. During its early years the company did not have any facilities to produce its own optical glass, between 1933 and 1936 ‘The Kwanon’, a copy of the Leica design, Japan’s first 35 mm focal plane-shutter camera, was developed in prototype form. In 1940 Canon developed Japans first indirect X-ray camera, Canon introduced a field zoom lens for television broadcasting in 1958 and in 1959 introduced the Reflex Zoom 8, the world’s first movie camera with a zoom lens, and the Canonflex. In 1961 Canon introduced the Rangefinder camera, Canon 7, in 1965 Canon introduced the Canon Pellix, a single lens reflex camera with a semi-transparent stationary mirror which enabled the taking of pictures through the mirror. In 1971 Canon introduced the F-1, a high-end SLR camera, in 1976 Canon launched the AE-1, the world’s first camera with an embedded micro-computer. In 1982 Wildlife as Canon Sees It print ads first appeared in National Geographic magazine, Canon introduced the world’s first Inkjet printer using bubble jet technology in 1985. Canon introduced Canon Electro-Optical System in 1987, named after the goddess of the dawn, EOS650 autofocus SLR camera is introduced. Also in 1987 the Canon Foundation was established, in 1988 Canon introduced Kyosei philosophy. The EOS1 Flagship Professional SLR line was launched in 1989, in the same year the EOS RT, the worlds first AF SLR with a fixed, semi-transparent pellicle mirror, was unveiled. In 1992 Canon launched the EOS5, the camera with eye-controlled AF. In 1995 Canon introduced the first commercially available SLR lens with image stabilization. EOS-1N RS, the worlds fastest AF SLR camera with a shooting speed of 10 frame/s at the time
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Canon EOS-1D
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The Canon EOS-1D is a 4-megapixel professional digital single-lens reflex camera launched in November 2001 as part of Canons flagship EOS-1 series. It was the first digital camera in the EOS-1 line, succeeding Canon final flagship film camera and it was also the first professional-level digital camera developed and released entirely by Canon, the previous D2000 being a collaborative effort with Kodak. It has a 1. 3x crop factor with a CCD image sensor sourced from Panasonic, the camera shares its body design with the Canon EOS-1V 35mm camera. It was succeeded by the 1Ds in 2002 and the 1D Mark II in April 2004, in addition to offering a wide range of image settings, it had many features that are not present in its successors, Features a CCD sensor instead of a CMOS sensor. The only Canon SLR to have an X-sync speed of up to 1/500 of a second, the only Canon SLR to have a shutter speed of up to 1/16000 of a second. The only PC connectivity was provided via an IEEE1394 connection, as USB was still only on version 1.1, while not a feature, it was the only 1D Pro Digital camera from Canon to have no magnify in playback. The 1D also included a microphone for voice annotation and this feature had been present in the earlier DCS and D2000, and was retained on later models. It was added to the 5D line on the 5D Mark II, in addition the camera used an externally mounted white balance sensor, another feature which had earlier appeared on the D2000. The 1D is the first Canon DSLR to store 9,999 images to one folder - a feature that became the standard for subsequent Canon products
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Nikon
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Nikon Corporation, also known just as Nikon, is a Japanese multinational corporation headquartered in Tokyo, Japan, specializing in optics and imaging products. The companies held by Nikon form the Nikon Group, Nikons main competitors in camera and lens manufacturing include Canon, Sony, Fujifilm, Panasonic, Pentax, and Olympus. Founded on July 25,1917 as Nippon Kōgaku Kōgyō Kabushikigaisha, Nikon is a member of the Mitsubishi group of companies. Nikon Corporation was established on 25 July 1917 when three leading optical manufacturers merged to form a comprehensive, fully integrated optical company known as Nippon Kōgaku Tōkyō K. K. Over the next sixty years, this company became a manufacturer of optical lenses and equipment used in cameras, binoculars, microscopes. During World War II the company operated thirty factories with 2,000 employees, manufacturing binoculars, lenses, bomb sights, after the war Nippon Kōgaku reverted to producing its civilian product range in a single factory. In 1948, the first Nikon-branded camera was released, the Nikon I, Nikon lenses were popularised by the American photojournalist David Douglas Duncan. Duncan was working in Tokyo when the Korean War began, Duncan had met a young Japanese photographer, Jun Miki, who introduced Duncan to Nikon lenses. From July 1950 to January 1951, Duncan covered the Korean War, fitting Nikon optics to his Leica rangefinder cameras produced high contrast negatives with very sharp resolution at the centre field. Founded in 1917 as Nippon Kōgaku Kōgyō Kabushikigaisha, the company was renamed Nikon Corporation, after its cameras, the name Nikon, which dates from 1946, is a merging of Nippon Kōgaku and Zeisss brand Ikon. This would cause some problems in Germany as Zeiss complained that Nikon violated its trademarked camera. From 1963 to 1968 the Nikon F in particular was therefore labeled Nikkor, the Nikkor brand was introduced in 1932, a westernised rendering of an earlier version Nikkō, an abbreviation of the companys original full name. Nikkor is the Nikon brand name for its lenses, another early brand used on microscopes was Joico, an abbreviation of Japan Optical Industries Co. Expeed is the brand Nikon uses for its processors since 2007. The Nikon SP and other 1950s and 1960s rangefinder cameras competed directly with models from Leica, however, the company quickly ceased developing its rangefinder line to focus its efforts on the Nikon F single-lens reflex line of cameras, which was successful upon its introduction in 1959. For nearly 30 years, Nikons F-series SLRs were the most widely used small-format cameras among professional photographers, however, as autofocus SLRs became available from Minolta and others in the mid-1980s, Nikons line of manual-focus cameras began to seem out of date. Canon introduced a new type of lens-camera interface with its entirely electronic Canon EOS cameras, the much faster lens performance permitted by Canons electronic focusing and aperture control prompted many professional photographers to switch to the Canon system through the 1990s. Nikon created some of the first digital SLRs for NASA, used in the Space Shuttle since 1991, after a 1990s partnership with Kodak to produce digital SLR cameras based on existing Nikon film bodies, Nikon released the Nikon D1 SLR under its own name in 1999
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Nikon D1
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The Nikon D1 is a digital single-lens reflex camera made by Nikon Corporation introduced on June 15,1999. It featured a 2. 7-megapixel image sensor,4. 5-frames-per-second continuous shooting, the camera body strongly resembled the F5 and had the same general layout of controls, allowing users of Nikon film SLR cameras to quickly become proficient in using the camera. Autofocus speed on the D1 series bodies is extremely fast, even with screw-driven AF lenses, unusual for a DSLR, the D1 uses the NTSC color space instead of the conventional sRGB or Adobe RGB color spaces. The resulting color on the D1 can be a bit unorthodox, the D1 was replaced by the D1H and D1X on February 5,2001. The D1X offered higher resolution with a 3,008 ×1,960 -5.3 effective megapixels sensor, and continuous shooting of 3 frames per second for up to 21 consecutive shots. The D1H was oriented towards fast-action photography, keeping the same 2.7 megapixels image sensor as the D1, both the D1H and D1X use the sRGB/AdobeRGB color spaces, which is an improvement over the original D1. Development began on the D1 in 1996, when digital imaging was in its infancy in the consumer market, at that time the major market leader for DSLR cameras was Kodak, who produced their own image sensors and assembled digital cameras under the brand Kodak DCS. The DCS cameras were based upon 35 mm SLR cameras, replacing the back with one incorporating a CCD sensor. This in turn was connected to a supply and image processing. Initially no major manufacturer was prepared to produce the sensor for Nikon. Eventually though a foundry was located and prototype designs entered production, several years of refinement followed - working to reduce power use and improve read speeds - until a design was perfected. The final design that was used in the D1 was for a 23.7 ×15.6 mm CCD producing images with a resolution of 2000 ×1312 pixels. This allowed multiple photosites to be grouped together into units that formed the final pixels in the image, contributing to the high sensitivity
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Nikon 1 series
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The Nikon 1 series are high-speed mirrorless interchangeable-lens cameras with 60 frames per second continuous shooting speed, using Nikon 1-mount lenses and announced on 21 September 2011. The J5 model added a 20. 8MP sensor in 2015, slow-motion movies can be captured in up to 1200 fps with reduced resolution. Its inbuilt intervalometer enables time-lapse photography, the smaller CX sensor considerably increases the depth of field by 2.90 stops compared to a 35mm FX camera at the same angle of view and f-number. Nikon CX format with 2.7 times crop factor, although the image sensor area of 13.2 x 8. Nikon 1-mount and F-mount adapter FT1 enabling the use of all F-mount lenses especially with integrated autofocus motor, the FT1 adapter mounts and meters with all AI-P, AF, AF-S, D and G lenses and compatibles providing autofocus with all lenses with integrated autofocus motor. It further mounts Pre-AI, AI, AI-S and E lenses without metering as well as lenses which jut out the F-mount, although not recommended, it is used with teleconverters for extreme telephotos. Lenses featuring Rear Focusing system with reduced moving masses and worlds fastest extremely quiet Voice Coil motors or Stepping motors to speed-up autofocus, 3-Speed silent Power-Drive motor zoom in the Nikkor VR 10-100mm f/4. 5-5.6 PD-Zoom optimized for shooting HD movies. Nikon 1 Nikkor VR 10-100mm f/4. 5-5, together with the Canon EF 28-300mm lens it is the only current superzoom with 20 elements or more. Fast electronic shutter or additional electronically controlled mechanical focal-plane shutter, the V1 incorporates a multi accessory port currently used for dedicated 1 Series flash and GPS units as well as AS-N1000 cold shoe adapter for mounting the ME-1 stereo microphone. High-speed dual multi-core image-processing pipelines with 600 megapixels per second speed, Expeed 3, smart Photo Selector Mode enables selection of the best candidates out of a high-speed sequence. Advanced High-definition video recording allows uninterrupted filming while capturing high-resolution photos, firmware updates of the Nikon 1 lenses are possible. As all Nikon DSLRs with CMOS sensor it integrates an active D-Lighting system, automatic correction of chromatic aberration. Autofocus modes include 3D subject-tracking,41 points auto-area, manual focus, inbuilt time-lapse photography intervalometer Nikon developed an entirely new system of lenses and the Nikon 1-mount lens mount for the Nikon 1 series. These lenses are compatible with 1-mount cameras. Nikon has not debuted a new lens mount since the F mount that routine users of the Nikon D series are accustomed to, although the F-mount adapter FT1 enables the use of all F-mount compatible lenses, these lenses are meant to be portable and compact. There are 12 Nikkor lenses specifically built to fit the Nikon 1-mount additionally to several manual focus lenses from Samyang, Nikon presented at PDN PhotoPlus International Conference + Expo 2011 many forthcoming lenses, LED video and macro lights and video kits. Independent reviews and image comparisons at all ISO speeds in JPEG, both of the initially released 1 series cameras were criticized for having DSLR-like prices. DxO Labs awarded the J1 sensor a score of 56
31.
35 mm film
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35 mm film is the film gauge most commonly used for motion pictures and chemical still photography. The name of the gauge refers to the width of the photographic film, the standard negative pulldown for movies is four perforations per frame along both edges, which results in 16 frames per foot of film. For still photography, the frame has eight perforations on each side. This resulted in cameras, projectors, and other equipment having to be calibrated to each gauge, the 35 mm width, originally specified as 1.375 inches, was introduced in 1892 by William Dickson and Thomas Edison, using film stock supplied by George Eastman. The gauge has been versatile in application, Eastman Kodak, Fujifilm and Agfa-Gevaert are some companies which offered 35 mm films. Today Kodak is the last remaining manufacturer of motion picture film and it is difficult to compare the quality of film to digital media but a good estimate would be about 20.8 million total pixels would equal one 35 millimeter high quality color frame of film. In 1880, George Eastman began to manufacture gelatin dry plates in Rochester. Along with W. H. Walker, Eastman invented a holder for a roll of picture-carrying gelatin layer coated paper, hannibal Goodwins invention of nitrocellulose film base in 1887 was the first transparent, flexible film. With the advent of film, Thomas Alva Edison quickly set out on his invention, the Kinetoscope. The Kinetoscope was a loop system intended for one-person viewing. Edison, along with assistant W. K. L. Dickson, followed that up with the Kinetophone, beginning in March 1892, Eastman and then, from April 1893 into 1896, New Yorks Blair Camera Co. supplied Edison with film stock. Edisons aperture defined a single frame of film at 4 perforations high, a court judgment in March 1902 invalidated Edisons claim, allowing any producer or distributor to use the Edison 35 mm film design without license. Filmmakers were already doing so in Britain and Europe, where Edison had failed to file patents, at the time, film stock was usually supplied unperforated and punched by the filmmaker to their standards with perforation equipment. A variation developed by the Lumière Brothers used a circular perforation on each side of the frame towards the middle of the horizontal axis.33 aspect ratio. Spehr describes the importance of these developments, The early acceptance of 35 mm as a standard had momentous impact on the development and spread of cinema. The film format was introduced into still photography as early as 1913 but first became popular with the launch of the Leica camera, created by Oskar Barnack in 1925. The costly image-forming silver compounds in a film stocks emulsion meant from the start that 35 mm filmmaking was to be a hobby with a high barrier to entry for the public at large. Furthermore, the film base of all early film stock was highly flammable
32.
Single-lens reflex camera
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A single-lens reflex camera is a camera that typically uses a mirror and prism system that permits the photographer to view through the lens and see exactly what will be captured. With twin lens reflex and rangefinder cameras, the image could be significantly different from the final image. When the shutter button is pressed on a mechanical SLR, the mirror out of the light path, allowing light to pass through to the light receptor. Prior to the development of SLR, all cameras with viewfinders had two light paths, one path through the lens to the film, and another path positioned above or to the side. Because the viewfinder and the lens cannot share the same optical path. This is not problematic for pictures taken at a middle or longer distance, moreover, focusing the lens of a fast reflex camera when it is opened to wider apertures is not easy. Most SLR cameras permit upright and laterally correct viewing through use of a roof pentaprism situated in the path between the reflex mirror and viewfinder. When the shutter is released, the mirror out of the light path. The Canon Pellix film camera was an exception to the mirror system. Focus can be adjusted manually by the photographer or automatically by an autofocus system, the viewfinder can include a matte focusing screen located just above the mirror system to diffuse the light. This permits accurate viewing, composing and focusing, especially useful with interchangeable lenses, nearly all inexpensive compact digital cameras now include an LCD preview screen allowing the photographer to see what the CCD is capturing. However, SLR is still popular in high-end and professional cameras because they are system cameras with interchangeable parts and they also have far less shutter lag, allowing photographs to be timed more precisely. Also the pixel resolution, contrast ratio, refresh rate, and color gamut of an LCD preview screen cannot compete with the clarity, large format SLR cameras were probably first marketed with the introduction of C. R. Smiths Monocular Duplex. SLRs for smaller exposure formats were launched in the 1920s by several camera makers, the first 35mm SLR available to the mass market, Leicas PLOOT reflex housing along with a 200mm f4.5 lens paired to a 35mm rangefinder camera body, debuted in 1935. The Soviet Спорт, also a 24mm by 36mm image size, was prototyped in 1934, K. Nüchterleins Kine Exakta was the first integrated 35mm SLR to enter the market. Additional Exakta models, all with waist-level finders, were produced up to, another ancestor of the modern SLR camera was the Swiss-made Alpa, which was innovative, and influenced the later Japanese cameras. The Duflex, which went into production in 1948, was also the worlds first SLR with an instant-return mirror. The first commercially produced SLR that employed a roof pentaprism was the Italian Rectaflex A, the Japanese adopted and further developed the SLR
33.
Minolta
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Minolta Co. Ltd. was a Japanese worldwide manufacturer of cameras, camera accessories, photocopiers, fax machines, and laser printers. Minolta was founded in Osaka, Japan, in 1928 as Nichi-Doku Shashinki Shōten and it is perhaps best known for making the first integrated autofocus 35mm SLR camera system. In 1931, the company adopted its current name, an acronym for Mechanism, Instruments, Optics, in 1933, the brand name first appeared on a camera, a copy of the Plaubel Makina simply called Minolta. In 2003, Minolta merged with Konica Corporation to form Konica Minolta,1928, Kazuo Tashima establishes Nichi-Doku Shashinki Shōten. 1929, Marketed the companys first camera, the Nifcarette,1937, The Minolta Flex is Japans second twin-lens reflex camera. 1947, Introduction of the long lived 35mm rangefinder camera Minolta-351958,1962, John Glenn takes a specially modified Ansco-logoed Minolta Hi-Matic camera into space aboard Friendship 7. The company changes its name to Minolta Camera Co. Ltd,1966, The Minolta SR-T101 SLR camera is one of the first with TTL full aperture light metering. The first is Topcon RE Super from 1963,1972, Minolta signs an agreement to cooperate with Leica in SLR development,1973, The Minolta CL is the first fruit of this agreement. 1976, The Leica R3 is introduced, Minolta produces the R3, R4, and R5 models in the Leica R series. Subsequent cameras are built in Germany by Leica themselves,1977, The Minolta XD-11 is introduced, the worlds first multi mode SLR offering M, A, S modes, with a Program override in S mode effected by a computer chip, the worlds first Program mode. 1981, Implementation of Minoltas invention and patent of TTL OTF exposure metering, the Minolta X-700 manual-focus SLR is introduced, this model is sold until 1999 and is enormously successful. The Minolta XD-11 is the first Minolta product branded with an updated logo,1985, The Minolta Maxxum 7000 Alpha Mount Camera becomes the worlds first autofocus 35mm SLR with in-camera autofocus motor. 1987, Honeywell files lawsuit against Minolta for patent infringement over autofocus technologies,1991, Minoltas autofocus design was found to infringe on the patents of Honeywell, a U. S. corporation. 1994, The company changes its name to Minolta Co. Ltd. because it no longer is primarily a camera company,1995, Introduction of the Minolta RD-175, a 1. 75-megapixel digital SLR camera. 1996, The Minolta Vectis camera is a completely new SLR system designed around the Advanced Photo System film format,1998, The Minolta Maxxum 9 autofocus SLR is introduced. This system is targeted toward the photographer and has many features not duplicated by the competition. 2003, DiMAGE A1 introduced worlds first sensor-based anti-shake, and was the final Minolta product branded prior to the Konica Minolta merger,2004, Minolta and Konica officially merge to become Konica Minolta Holdings, Inc. 2005, The company announces joint venture with Sony on CCD,2006, Konica Minolta announces it is discontinuing all film and digital camera production, ending a 78-year history as a camera manufacturer
34.
Minolta 9xi
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The Minolta 9xi was, when new in 1992, an advanced 35 mm single-lens reflex camera design. It incorporated the worlds fastest autofocus system, had a shutter speed of 1/12000 of a second. The 9xi had been improved in areas over the previous flagships. Nearly the same shooting speed as the 9000, but without the additional heavy, an improved shutter speed from 1/8000 of a second or 1/4000 to 1/12000 of a second due to carbon-reinforced shutter blades. A pentaprism where information was projected directly in the image using transparent LCD technology, compatibility with xi zoom lenses having a power zoom function, allowing for extra functionality. An improved synchronization time for the new set of flashguns launched, a more contemporary, arguably even futuristic, design. The Minolta 9xi was a bold design compared to its rivals and it had smoothed contours completely unlike the previous 9-class camera the Minolta 9000, and unlike many competing cameras. Buttons were largely hidden, or placed directly by the fingers controlling them and this led to unusually clean aesthetics and an uncluttered appearance. The Minolta 9xi is, to day, still impressive in terms of technological ability. The autofocus system could focus at light levels of −1 ev and it also used a 14-segment light metering system, variations of it being used for many years in most Minolta cameras. It featured a 1/300 of a second x-sync flash synchronization with stepless shutter speeds from 1/12000 of a second to 30sec in Program, a mechanical shutter this fast is still to this day uncommon. The 9xi had many abilities, many perhaps hidden at first sight. The camera could, without any external backs like the Minolta 9000 or cards like the Minolta 8000i, bracket 3 exposures each one 1/2 a stop different. It could control a wireless system, if Minoltas 5400xi flash or the special wireless flash controller was used, at speeds of 1/60 of a second. This, in theory, allowed users to take a more quickly. The 9xi was and is criticized for many design choices, one was that it used the creative cards system, cards adding cost and being impractical for the cameras intended market. These cards worked in the way as the 8000is had. However, some functions were clearly present in the camera
35.
Minolta A-mount system
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The Minolta A-mount camera system was a line of photographic equipment from Minolta. The system used a mount called A-mount, with a flange focal distance 44.50 mm. The new mount was larger than the older SR-mount making old manual lenses incompatible with the new system, the mount is now used by Sony, who bought the SLR camera division from Konica Minolta, Konica and Minolta having merged a few years before. The Minolta A-mount system was at first marketed as Maxxum in North America and α in Japan, in Europe early Minolta A-mount cameras were initially identified by a 4 digit number followed by AF. The name Dynax was introduced later with the i cameras, the generation of Minolta A-mount camera. It was originally based around a selection of three 35 mm single-lens reflex bodies, the 5000,7000 and 9000, the system also included an extensive range of auto-focus lenses, flashes, a motor drive and other accessories. Compatible equipment was made by a number of third parties, in the following years, many different cameras and accessories were added to the range. The last film-based AF SLRs produced by Minolta were the Maxxum 50, the Dynax/Maxxum/α branding was also used on two Konica Minolta digital SLRs, prior to the acquisition by Sony. When Sony acquired Konica Minoltas camera technologies in 2006 they chose the α brand name for their new Sony α digital SLR system, the Dynax/Maxxum/α lens mount is now officially part of the α mount system. The Minolta 7000 was the first successful auto focus SLR using a motor integrated in the camera body and it was released in 1985 together with 11 lenses,2 flashguns and a complete lineup of accessories. The Maxxum 7000, when first released had the crossed xs in the name Maxxum, exxon had a registered trademark for the crossed xs and sued Minolta, forcing Minolta to change the way the name was shown.5 exposure steps and a flash sync speed of 1/250s. The 9000 had an extensive range of accessories, including several different backs. The Minolta 5000, Minoltas entry level camera and essentially a downscaled 7000, was released in 1986 and it featured shutter speeds of 1/2000 to 4 seconds and BULB, center-weighted lightmetering, exposure compensation of +1EV, flashsync speed of 1/100s and fully automatic programs. The 7000i supported the Maxxum lens system, and other previously introduced accessories such as the remote cords, perhaps more innovative and unusual than any other improvement was the expansion card system. While also used in models in the i-series, some models in the xi-series, and the 700si. These cards were the forerunners of todays picture/creativity modes and this camera was aimed at the same market as the 7000. Built-in flash with a head, programmed AE and metered manual exposure out of the box. A fairly direct replacement for the earlier 5000, essentially added a PC flash-sync terminal, ME capability, spot metering and faster shutter to the 7000i feature-set
36.
Full-frame digital SLR
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The term full frame is used by users of digital single-lens reflex cameras as a shorthand for an image sensor format which is the same size as 35mm format film. Historically, 35mm was considered a film format compared with medium format, large format. This is in contrast to cameras with smaller sensors, much smaller than a full 35mm frame. Currently, the majority of cameras, both compact and SLR models, use a smaller-than-35 mm frame, as it is easier and cheaper to manufacture imaging sensors at a smaller size. Historically, the earliest digital SLR models, such as the Nikon NASA F4 or Kodak DCS100, Kodak states that 35mm film has the equivalent of 6,000 pixel horizontal resolution according to a Senior Vice President of IMAX. If the lens mounts are compatible, many lenses, including manual-focus models, when a lens designed for a full-frame camera, whether film or digital, is mounted on a DSLR with a smaller sensor size, only the center of the lens image circle is captured. The edges are cropped off, which is equivalent to zooming in on the section of the imaging area. When used with lenses designed for full frame film or digital cameras full-frame DSLRs offer a number of advantages compared to their smaller-sensor counterparts, one advantage is that wide-angle lenses designed for full-frame 35mm retain that same wide angle of view. On smaller-sensor DSLRs, wide-angle lenses have smaller angles of view equivalent to those of longer-focal-length lenses on 35mm film cameras. For example, a 24 mm lens on a camera with a factor of 1.5 has a 62° diagonal angle of view. On a full-frame digital camera, the 24 mm lens has the same 84° angle of view as it would on a 35mm film camera, equivalently, for the same DoF, the full-frame format will require a larger f-number. There are optical quality implications as well—not only because the image from the lens is effectively cropped—but because many lens designs are now optimized for sensors smaller than 36 mm ×24 mm. The full-frame sensor can also be useful with wide-angle perspective control or tilt/shift lenses, in particular, for example, a 200 mm lens on a camera with a crop factor of 1. 5× has the same angle of view as a 300 mm lens on a full-frame camera. The extra reach, for a number of pixels, can be helpful in specific areas of photography such as wildlife or sports. Lower size sensors also allow for the use of a range of lenses. By only using the center of the lens, these impurities are not noticed, in practice, this allows for the use of lower cost glass without corresponding loss of quality. Finally, full frame sensors allow for sensor designs that result in noise levels at high ISO. Pixel density is lower on full frame sensors and this means the pixels can be either spaced further apart from each other, or each photodiode can be manufactured at a slightly larger size
37.
Sony SLT camera
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Single-Lens Translucent is a Sony proprietary designation for Sony Alpha cameras which employ a pellicle mirror, electronic viewfinder, and phase-detection autofocus system. They employ the same Minolta A-mount as Sony Alpha DSLR cameras, Sony SLT cameras have a semi-transparent fixed mirror which diverts a portion of incoming light to a phase-detection autofocus sensor, while the remaining light strikes a digital image sensor. The image sensor feeds the electronic viewfinder, and also records still images, the utility of the SLT design is to allow full-time phase-detection autofocus during electronic viewfinder, live view, and video recording operation. The term translucent is a misnomer for the actual SLT design, pellicle mirrors have been used in single-lens reflex cameras from at least the 1960s. All of the cameras record 1920x1080 video at 60i/30p, in MPEG-4. The Alpha 99II also records 4k video at 100Mbps with full sensor read-out, source, summarised from the full comparison table at DP Review. Sony ILCA camera Digital single-lens reflex camera
38.
Consumer
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A consumer is a person or organization that uses economic services or commodities. In economic systems consumers are utilities expressed in the decision to trade or not, the consumer is the one who pays to consume goods and services produced. As such, consumers play a role in the economic system of a nation. Without consumer demand, producers would lack one of the key motivations to produce, the consumer also forms part of the chain of distribution. The law primarily uses the notion of the consumer in relation to protection laws. As of all voters are also consumers, consumer protection takes on a clear political significance. Concern over the interests of consumers has also spawned activism, as well as incorporation of consumer education into school curricula, there are also various non-profit publications, such as Which. Consumer Reports and Choice Magazine, dedicated to assist in education and decision making. In India, the Consumer Protection Act 1986 differentiates the consummation of a commodity or service for use or to earn a livelihood. Only consumers are protected per this act and any person, entity or organization purchasing a commodity for commercial reasons are exempted from any benefits of this act, U. S. Government National Consumer Protection Week
39.
Sony Cyber-shot DSC-RX1
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The Sony Cyber-shot DSC-RX1 is a premium fixed-lens compact camera made by Sony as part of its Cyber-shot line of digital cameras. It was announced on September 12,2012, the DSC-RX1 features a 35 mm f/2 Zeiss Sonnar lens with leaf shutter capable of a minimum shutter speed of 1/2000 s, 1/3200 s, and even 1/4000 s. The camera is equipped with a 24, the Sony Cyber-shot DSC-RX1R, released in 2013, is a variant of the Sony DSC-RX1 without anti-aliasing filter in front of the image sensor. This can slightly increase the resolution at the expense of possibly more moiré in areas with fine repeating textures. In 2015, both models were succeeded by the Sony Cyber-shot DSC-RX1R II
40.
Tripod
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A tripod is a portable three-legged frame, used as a platform for supporting the weight and maintaining the stability of some other object. A tripod provides stability against downward forces and horizontal forces and movements about horizontal axes, the positioning of the three legs away from the vertical centre allows the tripod better leverage for resisting lateral forces. The earliest attested form of the word is the Mycenaean Greek
41.
Astrophotography
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Astrophotography is a specialized type of photography for recording photos of astronomical objects and large areas of the night sky. The first photograph of an object was taken in 1840. This is done by long time exposure since both film and digital cameras can accumulate and sum light photons over long periods of time. Astrophotography is a subdiscipline in amateur astronomy usually seeking aesthetically pleasing images rather than scientific data. Amateurs use a range of special equipment and techniques. With a few exceptions, astronomical photography employs long exposures since both film and digital imaging devices can accumulate and light photons over long periods of time, the amount of light hitting the film or detector is also increased by increasing the diameter of the primary optics being used. Since the Earth is constantly rotating, telescopes and equipment are rotated in the direction to follow the apparent motion of the stars overhead. This is accomplished by using either equatorial or computer-controlled altazimuth telescope mounts to keep celestial objects centered while the earth rotates, all telescope mount systems suffer from induced tracking error due to imperfect motor drives and mechanical sag of the telescope. Tracking errors are corrected by keeping a selected aiming point, usually a bright guide star, sometimes the object to be imaged is moving, so the telescope has to be kept constantly centered on that object. Guiding was formerly done manually throughout the exposure with an observer standing at the telescope making corrections to keep a cross hair on the guide star, since the advent of computer-controlled systems this is accomplished by an automated systems in professional and even amateur equipment. These all require specialized equipment such as telescopes designed for imaging, for wide field of view. Astronomical CCD cameras may use cryogenic cooling to reduce thermal noise, specialized filters are also used to record images in specific wavelengths. The development of astrophotography as a tool was pioneered in the mid-19th century for the most part by experimenters and amateur astronomers. Because of the long exposures needed to capture relatively faint astronomical objects. Early photographic processes also had limitations, the daguerreotype process was far too slow to record anything but the brightest objects, and the wet plate collodion process limited exposures to the time the plate could stay wet. The first-known attempt at astronomical photography was by Louis Jacques Mandé Daguerre, inventor of the process which bears his name. Tracking errors in guiding the telescope during the long exposure meant the photograph came out as an indistinct fuzzy spot, the Sun may have been first photographed in an 1845 daguerreotype by the French physicists Léon Foucault and Hippolyte Fizeau. No photographic alteration was caused by the light of the corona condensed by a lens for two minutes, during totality, on a sheet of paper prepared with bromide of silver, the Suns solar corona was first successfully imaged during the Solar eclipse of July 28,1851
42.
Six Flags Great America
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Six Flags Great America is a Six Flags theme park located at Gurnee, Illinois, in the Chicago metropolitan area. It first opened in 1976 as Marriotts Great America, Six Flags purchased the park from the Marriott Corporation in 1984, making it the seventh park in the chain. As of 2016, the park has ten themed sections, a 20-acre water park, the annual attendance of the park is estimated to be around 2.7 million. Six Flags Great America is 5th in number of roller coasters at any park in the world. Marriott Corporation began construction on the park in 1974 and opened it on May 29,1976, the park was an immediate success due in part to its Americana themes and grand opening during the American Bicentennial. A seventh area, The Great Southwest, was planned but was not built until 1996, each themed area had its own staff costumes, and the design of buildings, shops, and restaurants were also all unique to each theme. For example, the Klondike Cafe in Yukon Territory served beef dishes in large pans like those used for panning for gold, originally the park included three roller coasters, Willards Whizzer, Turn of the Century, and Gulf Coaster. Gulf Coaster lasted only one due to its unpopularity and a small fire. Eagles Flight was a commercially successful ride and was considered a top 10 ride by Roller Coaster Weekly magazine. Since the removal of Sky Whirl after the 2000 season, Six Flags Great America has continued to operate without a Ferris wheel, an original 1976 Marriotts Great America ride, Orleans Orbit, and renamed Orbit, took its final spin in August 2016. While resembling a Ferris wheel, it delivers a far different ride experience, the entire wheel rests flat, just above ground level, to allow simultaneous loading and unloading of all passenger cabins. Once riders are locked in, the wheel begins to rotate, the spinning wheel picks up speed and is lifted on an arm to a nearly vertical position, sending riders upside-down as they go over the highest point. Enterprise is the common name for such a ride. Originally installed in Orleans Place, the ride has since relocated to Hometown Square. It made way for White Water Rampage, now known as Roaring Rapids, Orleans Orbit is now known simply as The Orbit. Another original 1976 Marriotts Great America ride, Rue Le Dodge, is known as the worlds largest operating bumper car floor, an exact copy of the ride under the same name opened at Californias Great America in Santa Clara, California. In 2005, however, its bumper car floor became a one-way traffic ride, to determine the flow of traffic, a concrete island was added to the center of the floor, removing floor space. This left Rue Le Dodge at present-day Six Flags Great America as the largest operating bumper car floor in the world, the floor currently sits at 51 feet 9 inches × 124’9” or 6,455 sq ft
43.
London Waterloo station
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Waterloo main line station is one of 19 in the country that are managed by Network Rail and the station complex is in fare zone 1. The first railway station on site opened in 1848, the present structure was inaugurated in 1922. Part of the station is a Grade II listed building, with just under 100 million National Rail passenger entries/exits in 2015/16, Waterloo is Britains busiest railway station by patronage. Waterloo railway station alone is the 15th-busiest passenger station in Europe, however, including National Rail interchanges, the Underground station, and Waterloo East, the complex handled a total of 211 million passengers in the 2015/2016 financial year. It is therefore the busiest transport hub in Europe and it has more platforms and a greater floor area than any other station in the UK. The station was the London terminus for Eurostar international trains from 1994 until 2007, the London and South Western Railway opened the station on 11 July 1848 as Waterloo Bridge Station when its main line was extended from Nine Elms. The station, designed by William Tite, was raised above ground on a series of arches. The unfulfilled intention was for a station with services to the City of London. In 1886, it officially became Waterloo Station, reflecting long-standing common usage, the L&SWRs aim throughout much of the 19th century was to extend its main line eastward beyond Waterloo into the City of London. Given this, it was reluctant to construct a grand terminus at Waterloo. However traffic and passenger usage continued to grow and the company expanded the station at regular intervals and this resulted in the station becoming increasingly ramshackle. The original 1848 station became known as the Central Station as other platforms were added, each of these stations-within-a-station had its own booking office, taxi stand and public entrances from the street, as well as often poorly marked and confusing access to the rest of the station. Passengers were, not surprisingly, confused by the layout and by the two adjacent stations called Waterloo, from 1897 there had also been the adjacent Necropolis Company station. This complexity and confusion became the butt of jokes by writers and music hall comics for many years in the late 19th century, by the late 1890s the L&SWR accepted that main-line access to the City was impossible. In 1898, the company opened the Waterloo & City line and this gave the company the direct commuter service it had long desired. Legal powers to carry out the work were granted in 1899 and extensive groundwork and slum clearance were carried out until 1904, the new station was opened in stages, the first five new platforms being opened in 1910. The engineers J. W. Jacomb-Hood and Alfred Weeks Szlumper designed the roof and platforms, construction continued sporadically throughout the First World War, and the new station finally opened in 1922, with 21 platforms and a concourse nearly 800 feet long. The new station included a stained glass window depicting the L&SWRs company crest over the main road entrance
44.
New Technology Telescope
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The New Technology Telescope or NTT is an Alt-Az,3. 58-metre Ritchey–Chrétien telescope part of the European Southern Observatory and began operations in 1989. It is located in Chile at the La Silla Observatory and was a pioneer in the use of active optics. The telescope and its developed an revolutionary design for optimal image quality. The main mirror of NTT is flexible and its shape is adjusted during observations by actuators to preserve the optimal image quality. The secondary mirror position is also controlled in three directions. The design of the octagonal enclosure housing the NTT is another technological breakthrough, the telescope dome is relatively small, and is ventilated by a system of flaps that makes air flow smoothly across the mirror, reducing turbulence and leading to sharper images. Although other pre-existing telescopes such as the Nordic Optical Telescope had lightweight mirrors supported by actuators and its design as well as the design of its enclosure included many revolutionary features, from whence it was named. In particular, great care was taken to ensure a good ventilation of the telescope, since its construction, the NTT has undergone several upgrades which continued to improve its quality. It was used as a real-life test bench for the engineering concepts, the New Technology Telescope initially had the same problem as the Hubble Space Telescope - the mirror was ground to the wrong shape due to a mis-calibrated null corrector. However, the optics system of the NTT was able to correct that error without refiguring the mirror
45.
Rotary disc shutter
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A rotary disc shutter is a type of shutter. It is notably used in motion picture cameras, rotary shutters are semicircular discs that spin in front of the film gate, alternately allowing light from the lens to strike the film, or blocking it. When blocking the light, the portion of the film is advanced. The spinning disc then exposes the new frame of film, the nature of light-sensitive film requires a shutter to block the light and prevent smearing of the image as the film is advanced through the camera. Digital sensors do not require a rotary shutter, although some digital cinema cameras do have them. On more advanced cameras the open portion of the shutter can be adjusted and this shutter setting is referred to as the shutter angle. Adjusting the shutter angle controls the proportion of time that the film is exposed to light during each frame interval, the angle of the shutter forms a proportion to the time that each frame of film is exposed, Shutter Angle 360 ∘ = Exposure Time Frame Interval. The primary reason that cinematographers adjust the angle is to control the amount of motion blur that is recorded on each successive frame of film. A tight shutter angle will constrict motion blur, a wide shutter angle will allow it. A 180° shutter angle is considered normal, so for instance, at 24 fps the frame Interval value is 0.04167 second. Using an exposure time of 1/50 second gives a shutter angle value of 173° and this is the reason for the rule-of-thumb Use an exposure time twice the value of the frames-per-second to get normal motion blur. Tight shutters create a stuttering stop-motion animation look that has become popular in action, in particular, tight shutters are used to capture particles flying through the air, such as dirt from an exploding mortar. On most film cameras the shutter angle is changed by removing the lens and this cannot be done while the camera is operating. Some cameras such as the Arriflex 435ES can modify their shutter angle during the shot and this is sometimes referred to as an electronic shutter. An electronic shutter can compensate for the change caused by a speed ramp without changing the aperture. Other types of shutter adjustments, such as an out-of-phase shutter, normally the film is held steady in the gate whenever it is exposed to light. Special shutter adjustments allow the film to be exposed while the mechanism is actually moving the film to the next frame. In the film Saving Private Ryan, cinematographer Janusz Kamiński used such an adjustment to give his film the look of World War II newsreel photography
46.
Film
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A film, also called a movie, motion picture, theatrical film or photoplay, is a series of still images which, when shown on a screen, creates the illusion of moving images due to the phi phenomenon. This optical illusion causes the audience to perceive continuous motion between separate objects viewed rapidly in succession, the process of filmmaking is both an art and an industry. The word cinema, short for cinematography, is used to refer to the industry of films. Films were originally recorded onto plastic film through a photochemical process, the adoption of CGI-based special effects led to the use of digital intermediates. Most contemporary films are now fully digital through the process of production, distribution. Films recorded in a form traditionally included an analogous optical soundtrack. It runs along a portion of the film exclusively reserved for it and is not projected, Films are cultural artifacts created by specific cultures. They reflect those cultures, and, in turn, affect them, Film is considered to be an important art form, a source of popular entertainment, and a powerful medium for educating—or indoctrinating—citizens. The visual basis of film gives it a power of communication. Some films have become popular worldwide attractions by using dubbing or subtitles to translate the dialog into the language of the viewer, some have criticized the film industrys glorification of violence and its potentially negative treatment of women. The individual images that make up a film are called frames, the perception of motion is due to a psychological effect called phi phenomenon. The name film originates from the fact that film has historically been the medium for recording and displaying motion pictures. Many other terms exist for a motion picture, including picture, picture show, moving picture, photoplay. The most common term in the United States is movie, while in Europe film is preferred. Terms for the field, in general, include the big screen, the screen, the movies, and cinema. In early years, the sheet was sometimes used instead of screen. Preceding film in origin by thousands of years, early plays and dances had elements common to film, scripts, sets, costumes, production, direction, actors, audiences, storyboards, much terminology later used in film theory and criticism apply, such as mise en scène. Owing to the lack of any technology for doing so, the moving images, the magic lantern, probably created by Christiaan Huygens in the 1650s, could be used to project animation, which was achieved by various types of mechanical slides
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Cinematography
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Typically, a lens is used to repeatedly focus the light reflected from objects into real images on the light-sensitive surface inside a camera during a questioned exposure, creating multiple images. With an electronic sensor, this produces an electrical charge at each pixel. The result with photographic emulsion is a series of invisible latent images on the film stock, the images on the film stock are played back at a rapid speed and projected onto a screen, creating the illusion of motion. Cinematography finds uses in fields of science and business as well as for entertainment purposes. The word cinematography was created from the Greek words κίνημα, meaning movement, motion and γράφειν meaning to record, the word used to refer to the art, process, or job of filming movies, but later its meaning was restricted to motion picture photography. In the 1830s, moving images were produced on revolving drums and disks, with independent invention by Simon von Stampfer in Austria, Joseph Plateau in Belgium, and William Horner in Britain. In 1845, Francis Ronalds invented the first successful camera able to make recordings of the varying indications of meteorological. The cameras were supplied to numerous observatories around the world and some remained in use well into the 20th century. William Lincoln patented a device, in 1867, that showed animated pictures called the wheel of life or zoopraxiscope, in it, moving drawings or photographs were watched through a slit. On 19 June 1873, Eadweard Muybridge successfully photographed a horse named Sallie Gardner in fast motion using a series of 24 stereoscopic cameras. The cameras were arranged along a parallel to the horses. They were 21 inches apart to cover the 20 feet taken by the horse stride, although it was never played back at speed to create motion, this was the first step towards motion pictures. The late nineteenth to the twentieth century brought rise to the use of film not only for entertainment purposes. The experimental film Roundhay Garden Scene, filmed by Louis Le Prince on 14 October 1888, in Roundhay, Leeds and this movie was shot on paper film. W. K. L. Dickson, working under the direction of Thomas Alva Edison, was the first to design a successful apparatus and this camera took a series of instantaneous photographs on standard Eastman Kodak photographic emulsion coated onto a transparent celluloid strip 35 mm wide. The results of work were first shown in public in 1893, using the viewing apparatus also designed by Dickson. Contained within a box, only one person at a time looking into it through a peephole could view the movie. The Lumière brothers were the first to present projected, moving, photographic, in 1896, movie theaters were open in France, Italy, Brussels, and London
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Slow motion
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Slow motion is an effect in film-making whereby time appears to be slowed down. It was invented by the Austrian priest August Musger in the early 20th century, typically this style is achieved when each film frame is captured at a rate much faster than it will be played back. When replayed at normal speed, time appears to be moving more slowly, a term for creating slow motion film is overcranking which refers to hand cranking an early camera at a faster rate than normal. Slow motion can also be achieved by playing normally recorded footage at a slower speed and this technique is more often applied to video subjected to instant replay than to film. Motion can be slowed further by combining techniques, interpolating between overcranked frames, slow motion is ubiquitous in modern filmmaking. It is used by a range of directors to achieve diverse effects. Some classic subjects of slow motion include, Athletic activities of all kinds, to demonstrate skill, to recapture a key moment in an athletic game, typically shown as a replay. Natural phenomena, such as a drop of water hitting a glass, slow motion can also be used for artistic effect, to create a romantic or suspenseful aura or to stress a moment in time. Vsevolod Pudovkin, for instance, used slow motion in a scene in The Deserter. Another example is Face/Off, in which John Woo used the technique in the movements of a flock of flying pigeons. The Matrix made a success in applying the effect into action scenes through the use of multiple cameras, as well as mixing slow-motion with live action in other scenes. Japanese director Akira Kurosawa was a pioneer using this technique in his 1954 movie Seven Samurai, american director Sam Peckinpah was another classic lover of the use of slow motion. The technique is associated with explosion effect shots and underwater footage. The opposite of motion is fast motion. Cinematographers refer to fast motion as undercranking since it was achieved by cranking a handcranked camera slower than normal. It is often used for effect, time lapse or occasional stylistic effect. The concept of motion may have existed before the invention of the motion picture. There are two ways in which slow motion can be achieved in modern cinematography, both involve a camera and a projector
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