1.
Siachen conflict
–
The Siachen conflict, sometimes referred to as the Siachen War, is a military conflict between India and Pakistan over the disputed Siachen Glacier region in Kashmir. A cease-fire went into effect in 2003, the contentious area is about 900 square miles to nearly 1,000 square miles of territory. The conflict began in 1984 with Indias successful Operation Meghdoot during which it gained control over all of the Siachen Glacier, Pakistan controls the glacial valleys immediately west of the Saltoro Ridge. According to TIME magazine, India gained more than 1,000 square miles of territory because of its operations in Siachen. The Siachen Glacier is the highest battleground on earth, where India, both countries maintain permanent military presence in the region at a height of over 6,000 metres. More than 2000 people have died in this terrain, mostly due to weather extremes. The conflict in Siachen stems from the incompletely demarcated territory on the map beyond the map known as NJ9842. The 1949 Karachi Agreement and 1972 Simla Agreement did not clearly mention who controlled the glacier, UN officials presumed there would be no dispute between India and Pakistan over such a cold and barren region. Following the UN-mediated ceasefire in the 1949, the line between India and Pakistan was demarcated up to point NJ9842 at the foot of the Siachen Glacier. The largely inaccessible terrain beyond this point was not demarcated, the detailed description of its northern end stated that from Chimbatia in the Turtok sector the line of control runs north-eastwards to Thang, thence eastwards joining the glaciers. This vague formulation further sowed the seed for the dispute to follow. N. Title of U. N. document number S/1430/Add, a U. N. map showing CFL alignment superimposed on a satellite image depicts the CFL terminating at NJ9842. The extension of this line north to the glaciers never appeared on any authoritative map associated with either the 1948 or 1972 agreements. In 1949, a Cease-Fire Line Agreement was signed and ratified by India, Pakistan, in 1956-58, a scientific team led by the Geological Survey of India recorded its findings publicly including information about the Siachen and other glaciers. After Pakistan ceded Shaksgam Valley to China in an agreement in 1963. In 1957 Pakistan permitted a British expedition under Eric Shipton to approach the Siachen glacier through the Bilafond La, five years later a Japanese-Pakistani expedition put two Japanese and a Pakistani Army climber on top of Saltoro Kangri. These were early moves in this game of oropolitics. Pakistan granted a number of permits and this in turn reinforced the Pakistani claim on the area, as these expeditions arrived on the glacier with a permit obtained from the Government of Pakistan
2.
Karakoram Range
–
The Karakoram, or Karakorum is a large mountain range spanning the borders of Pakistan, India, and China, with the northwest extremity of the range extending to Afghanistan and Tajikistan. It is located in the regions of Gilgit–Baltistan, Ladakh, and southern Xinjiang, a part of the complex of ranges from the Hindu Kush to the Himalayan Range, it is one of the Greater Ranges of Asia. The Karakoram is home to the four most closely located peaks over 8000m in height on earth, K2, the range is about 500 km in length, and is the most heavily glaciated part of the world outside the polar regions. The Siachen Glacier at 76 kilometres and the Biafo Glacier at 63 kilometres rank as the worlds second, the Karakoram is bounded on the northeast by the edge of the Tibetan Plateau, and on the north by the Pamir Mountains. Karakoram is a Turkic term meaning black gravel, the name was first applied by local traders to the Karakoram Pass. Due to its altitude and ruggedness, the Karakoram is much less inhabited parts of the Himalayas further east. European explorers first visited early in the 19th century, followed by British surveyors starting in 1856, the Muztagh Pass was crossed in 1887 by the expedition of Colonel Francis Younghusband and the valleys above the Hunza River were explored by General Sir George K. Cockerill in 1892. Explorations in the 1910s and 1920s established most of the geography of the region, the name Karakoram was used in the early 20th century, for example by Kenneth Mason, for the range now known as the Baltoro Muztagh. The term is now used to refer to the range from the Batura Muztagh above Hunza in the west to the Saser Muztagh in the bend of the Shyok River in the east. Floral surveys were carried out in the Shyok River catchment and from Panamik to Turtuk village by Chandra Prakash Kala during 1999 and 2000, the Karakoram is in one of the worlds most geologically active areas, at the plate boundary between the Indo-Australian plate and the Eurasian plate. A significant part, 28-50% of the Karakoram Range is glaciated, compared to the Himalaya, mountain glaciers may serve as an indicator of climate change, advancing and receding with long-term changes in temperature and precipitation. Karakoram glaciers are mostly stagnating or enlarging, because, unlike in the Himalayas, where there is no such insulation, the rate of retreat is high. In the last ice age, a series of glaciers stretched from western Tibet to Nanga Parbat. To the south, the Indus glacier was the valley glacier. In the north, the Karakoram glaciers joined those from the Kunlun Mountains, while the current valley glaciers in the Karakoram reach a maximum length of 76 kilometres, several of the ice-age valley glacier branches and main valley glaciers, had lengths up to 700 kilometres. During the Ice age, the snowline was about 1,300 metres lower than today. Baltistan has more than 100 mountain peaks exceeding 6,100 metres height from sea level. K1, Masherbrum K2 K3, Gasherbrum IV K3a, Gasherbrum III K4, Gasherbrum II K5, Gasherbrum I K6, Baltistan Peak K7,6,934 m peak near Charakusa Valley K9, approx
3.
Geographic coordinate system
–
A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
4.
River source
–
The source or headwaters of a river or stream is the furthest place in that river or stream from its estuary or confluence with another river, as measured along the course of the river. As an example of the definition above, the USGS at times considers the Missouri River as a tributary of the Mississippi River. But it also follows the first definition above in using the combined Missouri - lower Mississippi length figure in lists of lengths of rivers around the world. This definition, from geographer Andrew Johnston of the Smithsonian Institution, is used by the National Geographic Society when pinpointing the source of rivers such as the Amazon or Nile. A definition given by the state of Montana agrees, stating that a source is never a confluence but is in a location that is the farthest, along water miles. Under this definition neither a lake nor a confluence of tributaries can be a river source. Likewise, the source of the Amazon River has been determined this way, when not listing river lengths, however, alternative definitions may be used. In the case of the Missouri River, Lewis and Clark would have had to travel to the east. to reach the source. Sometimes the source of the most remote tributary may be in an area that is more marsh-like, for example, the source of the River Tees is marshland. The furthest stream is often called the headstream. Headwaters are often small streams with cool waters because of shade and they may also be glacial headwaters, waters formed by the melting of glacial ice. Headwater areas are the areas of a watershed, as opposed to the outflow or discharge of a watershed. The river source is often but not always on or quite near the edge of the watershed, for example, the source of the Colorado River is at the Continental Divide separating the Atlantic Ocean and Pacific Ocean watersheds of North America. A river is considered a geographic feature, with only one mouth. For an example, note how the Mississippi River and Missouri River sources are officially defined, U. S. Geological Survey Geographic Names Information System, Mississippi River, Length,2,340 miles, Source, 47°14′22″N 95°12′29″W U. S. For example, The River Thames rises in Gloucestershire, the White Nile rises in the Great Lakes region of central Africa. The word source, when applied to lakes rather than rivers or streams, refers to the lakes inflow
5.
Indira Col
–
The Indira Col is a col on the Indira Ridge in the Siachen Muztagh in the Karakoram Range. It is within 3 km of Sia Kangri to the west, the col is a saddle between the Siachen Glacier to the south and the Urdok Glacier to the north, on the watershed between the Indus River basin and the Tarim Basin. It is too steep to easily descend north from the col to the Urdok Glacier, the term Indira Col has also been applied to another, higher col 2.4 km further east on the Indira Ridge at, from which it is possible to descend to the north. This eastern col was named Indira Col in 1912 by Bullock Workman, colonel Narendra Bull Kumar reached Indira Col in 1981. In 1998 Harish Kapadia reached the col, on his map and text he refers to it as the main Indira Col and Indira Col West. The Indira Col is 2 km east of the point where the Actual Ground Position Line between Indian and Pakistani forces meets the border with China, territories on all sides are disputed. The land immediately to the south of the col is claimed by both Pakistan and India and is controlled by India, list of extreme points of India Dafdar Sia Kangri Baltoro Glacier Nubra Valley Saltoro Mountains Saltoro Kangri Map at Blank on the Map
6.
Hindi
–
Hindi, or Modern Standard Hindi is a standardised and Sanskritised register of the Hindustani language. Along with the English language, Hindi written in the Devanagari script, is the language of the Government of India. It is also one of the 22 scheduled languages of the Republic of India, Hindi is the lingua franca of the so-called Hindi belt of India. Outside India, it is a language which is known as Fiji Hindi in Fiji, and is a recognised regional language in Mauritius, Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana. Hindi is the fourth most-spoken first language in the world, after Mandarin, apart from specialized vocabulary, Hindi is mutually intelligible with Standard Urdu, another recognized register of Hindustani. Part XVII of the Indian Constitution deals with Official Language, under Article 343, official language of the Union has been prescribed, which includes Hindi in Devanagari script and English. Gujarat High Court, in 2010, has observed that there was nothing on record to suggest that any provision has been made or order issued declaring Hindi as a language of India. Article 343 of the Indian constitution states The official language of the Union shall be Hindi in Devanagari script, the form of numerals to be used for the official purposes of the Union shall be the international form of Indian numerals. It was envisioned that Hindi would become the working language of the Union Government by 1965. Each may also designate a co-official language, in Uttar Pradesh, for instance, depending on the formation in power. Similarly, Hindi is accorded the status of language in the following Union Territories, Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Chandigarh, Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Daman & Diu. National-language status for Hindi is a long-debated theme, an Indian court clarified that Hindi is not the national language of India because the constitution does not mention it as such. Outside Asia, Hindi is a language in Fiji as per the 1997 Constitution of Fiji. It is spoken by 380,000 people in Fiji, Hindi is also spoken by a large population of Madheshis of Nepal. Hindi is quite easy to understand for some Pakistanis, who speak Urdu, apart from this, Hindi is spoken by the large Indian diaspora which hails from, or has its origin from the Hindi Belt of India. Like other Indo-Aryan languages, Hindi is considered to be a descendant of an early form of Sanskrit, through Sauraseni Prakrit. It has been influenced by Dravidian languages, Turkic languages, Persian, Arabic, Portuguese, Hindi emerged as Apabhramsha, a degenerated form of Prakrit, in the 7th century A. D. By the 10th century A. D. it became stable, Braj Bhasha, Bhojpuri, Awadhi, Khari Boli etc. are the dialects of Hindi
7.
Urdu
–
Urdu is a persianized standard register of the Hindustani language. It is the language and lingua franca of Pakistan. It is also one of the 22 official languages recognized in the Constitution of India, hyderabad, Rampur, Bhopal and Lucknow are noted Urdu-speaking cities of India. Urdu is historically associated with the Muslims of the northern Indian subcontinent, apart from specialized vocabulary, Urdu is mutually intelligible with Standard Hindi, another recognized register of Hindustani. Urdu, like Hindi, is a form of Hindustani, Urdu developed under the influence of the Persian and Arabic languages, both of which have contributed a significant amount of vocabulary to formal speech. Around 99% of Urdu verbs have their roots in Sanskrit and Prakrit, Urdu words originating from Chagatai and Arabic were borrowed through Persian and hence are Persianized versions of the original words. For instance, the Arabic ta marbuta changes to he or te, nevertheless, contrary to popular belief, Urdu did not borrow from the Turkish language, but from Chagatai. Urdu and Turkish borrowed from Arabic and Persian, hence the similarity in pronunciation of many Urdu, Arabic influence in the region began with the late first-millennium Arab invasion of India in the 7th century. The Persian language was introduced into the subcontinent a few centuries later by various Persianized Central Asian Turkic and Afghan dynasties including that of the Delhi Sultanate. With the advent of the British Raj, Persian was no longer the language of administration but Hindustani, still written in the Persian script, the name Urdu was first used by the poet Ghulam Hamadani Mushafi around 1780. From the 13th century until the end of the 18th century Urdu was commonly known as Hindi, the language was also known by various other names such as Hindavi and Dehlavi. The communal nature of the language lasted until it replaced Persian as the language in 1837 and was made co-official. Urdu was promoted in British India by British policies to counter the previous emphasis on Persian and this triggered a Brahman backlash in northwestern India, which argued that the language should be written in the native Devanagari script. At independence, Pakistan established a highly Persianized literary form of Urdu as its national language, English has exerted a heavy influence on both as a co-official language. Owing to interaction with other languages, Urdu has become localized wherever it is spoken, similarly, the Urdu spoken in India can also be distinguished into many dialects like Dakhni of South India, and Khariboli of the Punjab region since recent times. Because of Urdus similarity to Hindi, speakers of the two languages can understand one another if both sides refrain from using specialized vocabulary. The syntax, morphology, and the vocabulary are essentially identical. Thus linguists usually count them as one language and contend that they are considered as two different languages for socio-political reasons
8.
Glacier
–
A glacier is a persistent body of dense ice that is constantly moving under its own weight, it forms where the accumulation of snow exceeds its ablation over many years, often centuries. Glaciers slowly deform and flow due to stresses induced by their weight, creating crevasses, seracs and they also abrade rock and debris from their substrate to create landforms such as cirques and moraines. Glaciers form only on land and are distinct from the much thinner sea ice, between 35°N and 35°S, glaciers occur only in the Himalayas, Andes, Rocky Mountains, a few high mountains in East Africa, Mexico, New Guinea and on Zard Kuh in Iran. Glaciers cover about 10 percent of Earths land surface, continental glaciers cover nearly 13,000,000 km2 or about 98 percent of Antarcticas 13,200,000 km2, with an average thickness of 2,100 m. Greenland and Patagonia also have huge expanses of continental glaciers, Glacial ice is the largest reservoir of fresh water on Earth. Within high altitude and Antarctic environments, the temperature difference is often not sufficient to release meltwater. A large piece of compressed ice, or a glacier, appears blue as large quantities of water appear blue and this is because water molecules absorb other colors more efficiently than blue. The other reason for the color of glaciers is the lack of air bubbles. Air bubbles, which give a color to ice, are squeezed out by pressure increasing the density of the created ice. The word Glaceon is a loanword from French and goes back, via Franco-Provençal, to the Vulgar Latin glaciārium, derived from the Late Latin glacia, the processes and features caused by or related to glaciers are referred to as glacial. The process of establishment, growth and flow is called glaciation. The corresponding area of study is called glaciology, Glaciers are important components of the global cryosphere. Glaciers are categorized by their morphology, thermal characteristics, and behavior, cirque glaciers form on the crests and slopes of mountains. A glacier that fills a valley is called a valley glacier, a large body of glacial ice astride a mountain, mountain range, or volcano is termed an ice cap or ice field. Ice caps have a less than 50,000 km2 by definition. Glacial bodies larger than 50,000 km2 are called ice sheets or continental glaciers, several kilometers deep, they obscure the underlying topography. Only nunataks protrude from their surfaces, the only extant ice sheets are the two that cover most of Antarctica and Greenland. They contain vast quantities of water, enough that if both melted, global sea levels would rise by over 70 m
9.
Karakoram
–
The Karakoram, or Karakorum is a large mountain range spanning the borders of Pakistan, India, and China, with the northwest extremity of the range extending to Afghanistan and Tajikistan. It is located in the regions of Gilgit–Baltistan, Ladakh, and southern Xinjiang, a part of the complex of ranges from the Hindu Kush to the Himalayan Range, it is one of the Greater Ranges of Asia. The Karakoram is home to the four most closely located peaks over 8000m in height on earth, K2, the range is about 500 km in length, and is the most heavily glaciated part of the world outside the polar regions. The Siachen Glacier at 76 kilometres and the Biafo Glacier at 63 kilometres rank as the worlds second, the Karakoram is bounded on the northeast by the edge of the Tibetan Plateau, and on the north by the Pamir Mountains. Karakoram is a Turkic term meaning black gravel, the name was first applied by local traders to the Karakoram Pass. Due to its altitude and ruggedness, the Karakoram is much less inhabited parts of the Himalayas further east. European explorers first visited early in the 19th century, followed by British surveyors starting in 1856, the Muztagh Pass was crossed in 1887 by the expedition of Colonel Francis Younghusband and the valleys above the Hunza River were explored by General Sir George K. Cockerill in 1892. Explorations in the 1910s and 1920s established most of the geography of the region, the name Karakoram was used in the early 20th century, for example by Kenneth Mason, for the range now known as the Baltoro Muztagh. The term is now used to refer to the range from the Batura Muztagh above Hunza in the west to the Saser Muztagh in the bend of the Shyok River in the east. Floral surveys were carried out in the Shyok River catchment and from Panamik to Turtuk village by Chandra Prakash Kala during 1999 and 2000, the Karakoram is in one of the worlds most geologically active areas, at the plate boundary between the Indo-Australian plate and the Eurasian plate. A significant part, 28-50% of the Karakoram Range is glaciated, compared to the Himalaya, mountain glaciers may serve as an indicator of climate change, advancing and receding with long-term changes in temperature and precipitation. Karakoram glaciers are mostly stagnating or enlarging, because, unlike in the Himalayas, where there is no such insulation, the rate of retreat is high. In the last ice age, a series of glaciers stretched from western Tibet to Nanga Parbat. To the south, the Indus glacier was the valley glacier. In the north, the Karakoram glaciers joined those from the Kunlun Mountains, while the current valley glaciers in the Karakoram reach a maximum length of 76 kilometres, several of the ice-age valley glacier branches and main valley glaciers, had lengths up to 700 kilometres. During the Ice age, the snowline was about 1,300 metres lower than today. Baltistan has more than 100 mountain peaks exceeding 6,100 metres height from sea level. K1, Masherbrum K2 K3, Gasherbrum IV K3a, Gasherbrum III K4, Gasherbrum II K5, Gasherbrum I K6, Baltistan Peak K7,6,934 m peak near Charakusa Valley K9, approx
10.
Himalayas
–
The Himalayas, or Himalaya, form a mountain range in Asia separating the plains of the Indian subcontinent from the Tibetan Plateau. The Himalayan range has the Earths highest peaks, including the highest, the Himalayas include over a hundred mountains exceeding 7,200 metres in elevation. By contrast, the highest peak outside Asia – Aconcagua, in the Andes – is 6,961 metres tall. The Himalayas are spread across five countries, Bhutan, India, Nepal, China, the Himalayan range is bordered on the northwest by the Karakoram and Hindu Kush ranges, on the north by the Tibetan Plateau, and on the south by the Indo-Gangetic Plain. Some of the major rivers, the Indus, the Ganges, and the Tsangpo-Brahmaputra, rise in the Himalayas. The Himalayas have profoundly shaped the cultures of South Asia, many Himalayan peaks are sacred in Hinduism and Buddhism. Lifted by the subduction of the Indian tectonic plate under the Eurasian Plate and its western anchor, Nanga Parbat, lies just south of the northernmost bend of Indus river. Its eastern anchor, Namcha Barwa, is just west of the bend of the Tsangpo river. The range varies in width from 400 kilometres in the west to 150 kilometres in the east, the name of the range derives from the Sanskrit Himā-laya, from himá and ā-laya. They are now known as the Himalaya Mountains, usually shortened to the Himalayas, formerly, they were described in the singular as the Himalaya. This was also previously transcribed Himmaleh, as in Emily Dickinsons poetry and Henry David Thoreaus essays. The mountains are known as the Himālaya in Nepali and Hindi, the Himalaya or The Land of Snow in Tibetan, the Hamaleh Mountain Range in Urdu, the flora and fauna of the Himalayas vary with climate, rainfall, altitude, and soils. The climate ranges from tropical at the base of the mountains to permanent ice, the amount of yearly rainfall increases from west to east along the southern front of the range. This diversity of altitude, rainfall and soil conditions combined with the high snow line supports a variety of distinct plant. The extremes of high altitude combined with extreme cold favor extremophile organisms, the unique floral and faunal wealth of the Himalayas is undergoing structural and compositional changes due to climate change. The increase in temperature is shifting various species to higher elevations, the oak forest is being invaded by pine forests in the Garhwal Himalayan region. There are reports of early flowering and fruiting in some species, especially rhododendron, apple. The highest known tree species in the Himalayas is Juniperus tibetica located at 4,900 metres in Southeastern Tibet, the Himalayan range is one of the youngest mountain ranges on the planet and consists mostly of uplifted sedimentary and metamorphic rock
11.
Line of Control
–
Originally known as the Cease-fire Line, it was redesignated as the Line of Control following the Simla Agreement, which was signed on 3 July 1972. The part of the princely state that is under Indian control is known as the state of Jammu. The Pakistani-controlled part is divided into Azad Jammu and Kashmir and Gilgit–Baltistan, the northernmost point of the Line of Control is known as NJ9842. Another ceasefire line separates the Indian-controlled state of Jammu and Kashmir from the Chinese-controlled area known as Aksai Chin, lying further to the east, it is known as the Line of Actual Control and has been referred to as one of the most dangerous places in the world. The Line of Control divided Kashmir into two parts and closed the Jehlum valley route, the entrance and exit of the Kashmir Valley at that time. This territorial division, which to this day still exists, severed many villages, Pakistan still claims the whole of Kashmir as its own territory, including Indian-controlled Kashmir. India has a different perspective on this interpretation, the Indian Line of Control fencing is a 550 km barrier along the 740 km disputed 1972 Line of Control. The fence, constructed by India, generally remains about 150 yards on the Indian-controlled side and its stated purpose is to exclude arms smuggling and infiltration by Pakistani-based separatist militants. They act as fast alert signals to the Indian troops who can be alerted, the small stretch of land between the rows of fencing is mined with thousands of landmines. The construction of the barrier was begun in the 1990s, after a November 2003 ceasefire agreement, building resumed and was completed in late 2004. LoC fencing was completed in Kashmir Valley and Jammu region on 30 September 2004, according to Indian military sources, the fence has reduced the numbers of militants who routinely cross into the Indian side of the disputed state to attack soldiers by 80%. Pakistan has criticised the construction of the barrier, saying it violates both bilateral accords and relevant United Nations resolutions on the region
12.
India
–
India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
13.
List of glaciers
–
A glacier or is a persistent body of dense ice that is constantly moving under its own weight, it forms where the accumulation of snow exceeds its ablation over many years, often centuries. Glaciers slowly deform and flow due to stresses induced by their weight, creating crevasses, seracs, Africa, specifically East Africa, has contained glacial regions, possibly as far back as the last glacier maximum 10 to 15 thousand years ago. Seasonal snow does exist on the highest peaks of East Africa as well as in the Drakensberg Range of South Africa, the Stormberg Mountains, currently, the only remaining glaciers on the continent exist on Mount Kilimanjaro, Mount Kenya, and the Rwenzori. There are many glaciers in the Antarctic, the lists include outlet glaciers, valley glaciers, cirque glaciers, tidewater glaciers and ice streams. Ice streams are a type of glacier and many of them have glacier in their name, Ice shelves are listed separately in the List of Antarctic ice shelves. For the purposes of lists, the Antarctic is defined as any latitude further south than 60°. There are also glaciers in the subantarctic, snow fields are not glaciers in the strict sense of the word, but they are commonly found at the accumulation zone or head of a glacier. For the purposes of this list, Antarctica is defined as any further south than 60°. In the United States, these glaciers are located in nine states, the southernmost named glacier among them is the Lilliput Glacier in Tulare County, east of the Central Valley of California. Mexico has about two dozen glaciers, all of which are located on Pico de Orizaba, Popocatépetl and Iztaccíhuatl, South America hosts two large ice fields, the Northern and Southern Patagonian Ice Fields, of which the second is the largest contiguous body of glaciers in extrapolar regions. The glaciers of Chile cover 2. 7% of the area of the country, excluding Antártica Chilena. By surface 80% of South America’s glaciers lie in Chile, the largest glaciers of Chile are the Northern and Southern Patagonian Ice Fields. From a latitude of 47° S and south some glaciers reach sea level, apart from height and latitude, the settings of Chilean glaciers depend on precipitation patterns, in this sense two different regions exist, the Dry Andes and the Wet Andes. No glaciers remain on the Australia mainland or Tasmania, a few, like the Heard Island glaciers are located in the territory of Heard Island and McDonald Islands in the southern Indian Ocean. New Guinea has the Puncak Jaya glacier, new Zealand contains many glaciers, mostly located near the Main Divide of the Southern Alps in the South Island. They are classed as mid-latitude mountain glaciers, there are eighteen small glaciers in the North Island on Mount Ruapehu.5 km Batura Glacier, India/Pakistan -57 km Cryoseism Glacier growing Ice dam Retreat of glaciers since 1850 Sag Rock glacier
14.
China
–
China, officially the Peoples Republic of China, is a unitary sovereign state in East Asia and the worlds most populous country, with a population of over 1.381 billion. The state is governed by the Communist Party of China and its capital is Beijing, the countrys major urban areas include Shanghai, Guangzhou, Beijing, Chongqing, Shenzhen, Tianjin and Hong Kong. China is a power and a major regional power within Asia. Chinas landscape is vast and diverse, ranging from forest steppes, the Himalaya, Karakoram, Pamir and Tian Shan mountain ranges separate China from much of South and Central Asia. The Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, the third and sixth longest in the world, respectively, Chinas coastline along the Pacific Ocean is 14,500 kilometers long and is bounded by the Bohai, Yellow, East China and South China seas. China emerged as one of the worlds earliest civilizations in the basin of the Yellow River in the North China Plain. For millennia, Chinas political system was based on hereditary monarchies known as dynasties, in 1912, the Republic of China replaced the last dynasty and ruled the Chinese mainland until 1949, when it was defeated by the communist Peoples Liberation Army in the Chinese Civil War. The Communist Party established the Peoples Republic of China in Beijing on 1 October 1949, both the ROC and PRC continue to claim to be the legitimate government of all China, though the latter has more recognition in the world and controls more territory. China had the largest economy in the world for much of the last two years, during which it has seen cycles of prosperity and decline. Since the introduction of reforms in 1978, China has become one of the worlds fastest-growing major economies. As of 2016, it is the worlds second-largest economy by nominal GDP, China is also the worlds largest exporter and second-largest importer of goods. China is a nuclear weapons state and has the worlds largest standing army. The PRC is a member of the United Nations, as it replaced the ROC as a permanent member of the U. N. Security Council in 1971. China is also a member of numerous formal and informal multilateral organizations, including the WTO, APEC, BRICS, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, the BCIM, the English name China is first attested in Richard Edens 1555 translation of the 1516 journal of the Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa. The demonym, that is, the name for the people, Portuguese China is thought to derive from Persian Chīn, and perhaps ultimately from Sanskrit Cīna. Cīna was first used in early Hindu scripture, including the Mahābhārata, there are, however, other suggestions for the derivation of China. The official name of the state is the Peoples Republic of China. The shorter form is China Zhōngguó, from zhōng and guó and it was then applied to the area around Luoyi during the Eastern Zhou and then to Chinas Central Plain before being used as an occasional synonym for the state under the Qing
15.
Glacier terminus
–
A glacier terminus, toe, or snout, is the end of a glacier at any given point in time. Although glaciers seem motionless to the observer, in reality glaciers are in endless motion, the position of a glacier terminus is also impacted by localized or regional temperature change over time. Tracking the change in location of a terminus is a method of monitoring a glaciers movement. The end of the terminus is measured from a fixed position in neighboring bedrock periodically over time. The difference in location of a terminus as measured from this fixed position at different time intervals provides a record of the glaciers change. A similar way of tracking glacier change is comparing photographs of the position at different times. The form of a terminus is determined by many factors. If the glacier is retreating, it is usually mildly sloping in form because a melting glacier tends to assume this shape. The photograph above shows the glacial lakes formed by the glacial termini on the surface of the debris-covered glaciers over the last several decades in the Bhutan-Himalaya region
16.
Drainage divide
–
A drainage divide, water divide, divide, ridgeline, watershed, water parting, is the line that separates neighbouring drainage basins. In hilly country, the divide lies along topographical ridges, and may be in the form of a range of hills or mountains. In flat country—especially where the ground is marshy—the divide may be harder to discern, a valley floor divide is a low drainage divide that runs across a valley, sometimes created by deposition or stream capture. Settlements are often built on valley-floor divides in the Alps, examples are Eben im Pongau, Kirchberg in Tirol and Waidring. Extremely low divides with heights of less than two metres are found on the North German Plain within the Urstromtäler, for example, between Havel and Finow in the Eberswalde Urstromtal. In marsh deltas such as the Okavango, the largest drainage area on earth, or in large areas, such as the Finnish Lakeland. Another case is bifurcation, where the watershed is effectively in the river bed, in pre-industrial times, water divides were crossed at portages. Later, canals connected adjoining drainage basins, a key problem in such canals is ensuring a sufficient water supply, category, Drainage basins List of watershed topics European watershed Scottish watershed River source
17.
Eurasian Plate
–
It also includes oceanic crust extending westward to the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and northward to the Gakkel Ridge. The eastern side is a boundary with the North American Plate to the north and a boundary with the Philippine Sea Plate to the south, and possibly with the Okhotsk Plate and the Amurian Plate. The southerly side is a boundary with the African Plate to the west, the Arabian Plate in the middle, the westerly side is a divergent boundary with the North American Plate forming the northernmost part of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, which is straddled by Iceland. The geodynamics of central Asia is dominated by the interaction between the Eurasian and Indian Plates, in this area, many subplates or crust blocks have been recognized, which form the Central Asian and the East Asian transit zones
18.
Indian subcontinent
–
Geologically, the Indian subcontinent is related to the land mass that rifted from Gondwana and merged with the Eurasian plate nearly 55 million years ago. Geographically, it is the region in south-central Asia delineated by the Himalayas in the north, the Hindu Kush in the west. Politically, the Indian subcontinent usually includes Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, sometimes, the term South Asia is used interchangeably with Indian subcontinent. There is no consensus about which countries should be included in each and it is first attested in 1845 to refer to the North and South Americas, before they were regarded as separate continents. Its use to refer to the Indian subcontinent is seen from the twentieth century. It was especially convenient for referring to the region comprising both the British India and the states under British Paramountcy. The term Indian subcontinent also has a geological significance and it was, like the various continents, a part of the supercontinent of Gondwana. A series of tectonic splits caused formation of basins, each drifting in various directions. The geological region called the Greater India once included the Madagascar, Seychelles, Antartica, as a geological term, Indian subcontinent has meant that region formed from the collision of the Indian basin with Eurasia nearly 55 million years ago, towards the end of Paleocene. The Indian subcontinent has been a particularly common in the British Empire. The region, state Mittal and Thursby, has also labelled as India, Greater India. The BBC and some sources refer to the region as the Asian Subcontinent. Some academics refer to it as South Asian Subcontinent, the terms Indian subcontinent and South Asia are sometimes used interchangeably. There is no accepted definition on which countries are a part of South Asia or Indian subcontinent. In dictionary entries, the term subcontinent signifies a large, distinguishable subdivision of a continent, the region experienced high volcanic activity and plate subdivisions, creating Madagascar, Seychelles, Antartica, Austrolasia and the Indian subcontinent basin. The Indian subcontinent drifted northeastwards, colliding with the Eurasian plate nearly 55 million years ago and this geological region largely includes Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. The zone where the Eurasian and Indian subcontinent plates meet remains one of the active areas. The English term mainly continues to refer to the Indian subcontinent, physiographically, it is a peninsular region in south-central Asia delineated by the Himalayas in the north, the Hindu Kush in the west, and the Arakanese in the east
19.
Glaciers
–
A glacier is a persistent body of dense ice that is constantly moving under its own weight, it forms where the accumulation of snow exceeds its ablation over many years, often centuries. Glaciers slowly deform and flow due to stresses induced by their weight, creating crevasses, seracs and they also abrade rock and debris from their substrate to create landforms such as cirques and moraines. Glaciers form only on land and are distinct from the much thinner sea ice, between 35°N and 35°S, glaciers occur only in the Himalayas, Andes, Rocky Mountains, a few high mountains in East Africa, Mexico, New Guinea and on Zard Kuh in Iran. Glaciers cover about 10 percent of Earths land surface, continental glaciers cover nearly 13,000,000 km2 or about 98 percent of Antarcticas 13,200,000 km2, with an average thickness of 2,100 m. Greenland and Patagonia also have huge expanses of continental glaciers, Glacial ice is the largest reservoir of fresh water on Earth. Within high altitude and Antarctic environments, the temperature difference is often not sufficient to release meltwater. A large piece of compressed ice, or a glacier, appears blue as large quantities of water appear blue and this is because water molecules absorb other colors more efficiently than blue. The other reason for the color of glaciers is the lack of air bubbles. Air bubbles, which give a color to ice, are squeezed out by pressure increasing the density of the created ice. The word Glaceon is a loanword from French and goes back, via Franco-Provençal, to the Vulgar Latin glaciārium, derived from the Late Latin glacia, the processes and features caused by or related to glaciers are referred to as glacial. The process of establishment, growth and flow is called glaciation. The corresponding area of study is called glaciology, Glaciers are important components of the global cryosphere. Glaciers are categorized by their morphology, thermal characteristics, and behavior, cirque glaciers form on the crests and slopes of mountains. A glacier that fills a valley is called a valley glacier, a large body of glacial ice astride a mountain, mountain range, or volcano is termed an ice cap or ice field. Ice caps have a less than 50,000 km2 by definition. Glacial bodies larger than 50,000 km2 are called ice sheets or continental glaciers, several kilometers deep, they obscure the underlying topography. Only nunataks protrude from their surfaces, the only extant ice sheets are the two that cover most of Antarctica and Greenland. They contain vast quantities of water, enough that if both melted, global sea levels would rise by over 70 m
20.
Sia Kangri
–
Sia Kangri is a mountain in the Baltoro Muztagh in the Karakoram. Its summit is the tripoint of territory controlled by India, China, territories on all sides are disputed. The land immediately to the southwest of the peak is claimed by both Pakistan and India and controlled by Pakistan, the land to the northeast is part of the Trans Karakoram Tract, controlled by China under a 1963 border agreement with Pakistan but claimed by India. The land to the southeast is claimed by Pakistan and India and it is the 63rd highest mountain in the world, and the 25th highest in Pakistan. The peak is on the watershed between the Indus River basin and the Tarim Basin, Indira Col is 3 km to the east. Sia Kangri is India’s northernmost point, sia Kangri was first climbed in 1934 by the International Himalaya Expedition led by the Swiss/German Günther Dyhrenfurth. The summit party included Hettie Dyhrenfurth, who set the womens world altitude record. Saltoro Kangri Indira Col List of mountains in Pakistan List of highest mountains of the world
21.
Sia La
–
Sia La sits near the China border and immediately northwest of the upper part of the vast Siachen Glacier, connecting that glacier to the Pakistani-controlled Kondus Glacier and valley to the west. All three passes are held by India, Pakistan controls areas just to the west. Bilafond La Gyong La Close C, Burrard S, Younghusband F, et al
22.
Bilafond La
–
Bilafond La is on the ancient Silk Route linking undivided India and China. Bilafond La was a prominent feature during the 1984 start of military action in the Siachen Conflict between India and Pakistan, the Indian Army captured the pass in 1984 along with Sia La to the north and, in 1987, Gyong La to the south. India currently maintains a military base at Bilafond La. Due to the location of the pass west of the Siachen Glacier. Sia La Gyong La Close C, Burrard S, Younghusband F, the Geographical Journal, Vol.76, No.2
23.
Gyong La
–
With Pakistan controlling areas just to the west along Chumik Glacier, the immediate Gyong La area has been under Indias control since 1989. Dozens of Indian military tents and other equipment are visible on October 2013 Google Earth imagery both 670 meters northeast and 2.7 km east-northeast of Gyong La, linked by clear trails. The former Pakistani Naveed Top site 3.85 km west-northwest of Gyong La is visible on September 2001 Google Earth imagery at 5,800 m elevation, higher than both the Indian positions and Gyong La. Since 1989 Gyong La has been controlled by Indian forces, with Pakistani forces controlling areas i. e. Gyong, in March 1989 Operation Ibex by the Indian Army attempted to seize the Pakistani post overlooking the Chumik Glacier. The operation was unsuccessful at dislodging Pakistani troops from their positions, the Indian Army under Brig. R. K. Nanavatty then launched an artillery attack on Kauser Base, the Pakistani logistical node on Chumik Glacier. The destruction of Kauser Base induced Pakistani troops to vacate their Chumik posts just west of Gyong La, in June 1999, the Indian Army under Brig. P. C. Katoch, Col. Konsam Himalaya Singh seized control of pt 5770 on the edge of the Saltoro defense line, about 4 km west of Gyong La. Sia La Bilafond La NJ9842 Siachen Peace Park
24.
Snowfall
–
Snowstorms organize and develop by feeding on sources of atmospheric moisture and cold air. Snowflakes nucleate around particles in the atmosphere by attracting supercooled water droplets, snowflakes take on a variety of shapes, basic among these are platelets, needles, columns and rime. As snow accumulates into a snowpack, it may blow into drifts, over time, accumulated snow metamorphoses, by sintering, sublimation and freeze-thaw. Where the climate is cold enough for year-to-year accumulation, a glacier may form, otherwise, snow typically melts seasonally, causing runoff into streams and rivers and recharging groundwater. Major snow-prone areas include the regions, the upper half of the Northern Hemisphere and mountainous regions worldwide with sufficient moisture. In the Southern Hemisphere, snow is confined primarily to mountainous areas, Snow affects ecosystems, as well, by providing an insulating layer during winter under which plants and animals are able to survive the cold. Snow develops in clouds that themselves are part of a weather system. The physics of snow crystal development in clouds results from a set of variables that include moisture content. The resulting shapes of the falling and fallen crystals can be classified into a number of shapes and combinations. Occasionally, some plate-like, dendritic and stellar-shaped snowflakes can form under clear sky with a cold temperature inversion present. Two additional and locally productive sources of snow are lake-effect storms and elevation effects, miid-latitude cyclones are low pressure areas which are capable of producing anything from cloudiness and mild snow storms to heavy blizzards. During a hemispheres fall, winter, and spring, the atmosphere over continents can be cold enough through the depth of the troposphere to cause snowfall, in the Northern Hemisphere, the northern side of the low pressure area produces the most snow. For the southern mid-latitudes, the side of a cyclone that produces the most snow is the southern side, a cold front, the leading edge of a cooler mass of air, can produce frontal snowsqualls—an intense frontal convective line, when temperature is near freezing at the surface. The strong convection that develops has enough moisture to produce whiteout conditions at places which line passes over as the wind causes intense blowing snow. This type of snowsquall generally lasts less than 30 minutes at any point along its path, in cases where there is a large amount of vertical growth and mixing the squall may develop embedded cumulonimbus clouds resulting in lightning and thunder which is dubbed thundersnow. A warm front can produce snow for a period, as warm, moist air overrides below-freezing air, often, snow transitions to rain in the warm sector behind the front. The same effect occurs over bodies of salt water, when it is termed ocean-effect or bay-effect snow. The effect is enhanced when the air mass is uplifted by the orographic influence of higher elevations on the downwind shores
25.
Actual Ground Position Line
–
The Actual Ground Position Line is the line that divides current positions of Indian and Pakistani troops in the Siachen Glacier region. The line extends from the northernmost point of the LOC to Indira Col, the AGPL is approximately 110 kilometres long. This line runs across the edge of the Saltoro Ridge, which is a plateau with peaks which have heights in excess of 7,000 meters. The Indian soldiers hold on to the heights on the ridge, preventing the Pakistani soldiers from climbing up to the Saltoro Range heights
26.
Balti dialect
–
Balti is a Tibetic language spoken in the Baltistan division of Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. It is quite different from Standard Tibetan, many sounds of Old Tibetan that were lost in Standard Tibetan are retained in the Balti language. It also has a pitch accent system only in multisyllabic words while Standard Tibetan has a complex. All people living in Baltistan may be referred to as Balti, the Greeks derived Byaltae from Tibetan, སྦལ་ཏིའི་, Wylie, sbal-ti, which, in Tibetan, means water gorge. The historian Ptolemy, also a general in the army of Alexander the Great, in fact, Baltistan is the Persian translation of Baltiyul, homeland of Balti. Balti people are settled on banks of the Indus River from Kargil district in the east to Haramosh Peak in the west. The Balti ethnicity is primarily Tibetan in origin, with some Dardic admixture, in some rural areas, the Shina people still speak the Shina language. To develop Balti, local intellectuals like Yusuf Hussain Abadi has worked on the language and he discovered the history and the script and revived the Tibetan script in Baltistan after six centuries. He wrote the book Balti Zabaan in 1990, the first book on the language, Abadi did the translated the Quran into Balti in 1995. Later on, many inspired by him, worked on Balti. Ghulam Hassan Lobsang wrote a book Balti Grammar in both English and Urdu versions, Balti Grammar and Balti English Grammar, the latter was published by Bern University Switzerland in 1995. The Balti have a reputation for being very forbearing, cheerful, during the Maqpon dynasty, the Balti invaded Ladakh and Tibet in the east and Gilgit and Chitral many times, thus making these people acknowledge the martial abilities of the Balti. The modern population of Baltistan is a mixture of ethnic groups. Tibetans form the ethnic group in the area accounting for 60 percent of the population. Outside Baltistan, there are several Balti communities located in Pakistans urban, tournadre considers Balti, Ladakhi, and Burig to be distinct languages because they do not have mutual intelligibility. As a group, they are termed Ladakhi–Balti or Western Archaic Tibetan, as opposed to Western Innovative Tibetan languages, the main is script for writing Balti is the local adaptation of the Tibetan alphabet, but it is often written in the Persian alphabet, especially within Pakistan. According to his initial survey Balti resembles Khams Tibetan more than Central Tibetan, Amdo Tibetan and he further suggests that either the first Tibetan settlers of Baltistan could be the Khambas or at least majority of the settlers were Khambas. The people of Baltistan, dubbed as mini-Tibet, are related to the Tibetans, the missionary, orientalist and linguist Heinrich August Jäschke classified Balti as one of the westernmost Tibetic languages
27.
Rose
–
A rose is a woody perennial flowering plant of the genus Rosa, in the family Rosaceae, or the flower it bears. There are over a species and thousands of cultivars. They form a group of plants that can be erect shrubs, flowers vary in size and shape and are usually large and showy, in colours ranging from white through yellows and reds. Most species are native to Asia, with smaller numbers native to Europe, North America, species, cultivars and hybrids are all widely grown for their beauty and often are fragrant. Roses have acquired cultural significance in many societies, Rose plants range in size from compact, miniature roses, to climbers that can reach seven meters in height. Different species hybridize easily, and this has used in the development of the wide range of garden roses. The leaves are borne alternately on the stem, most roses are deciduous but a few are evergreen or nearly so. The flowers of most species have five petals, with the exception of Rosa sericea, each petal is divided into two distinct lobes and is usually white or pink, though in a few species yellow or red. Beneath the petals are five sepals and these may be long enough to be visible when viewed from above and appear as green points alternating with the rounded petals. There are multiple superior ovaries that develop into achenes, the aggregate fruit of the rose is a berry-like structure called a rose hip. Many of the domestic cultivars do not produce hips, as the flowers are so tightly petalled that they do not provide access for pollination, the hips of most species are red, but a few have dark purple to black hips. Each hip comprises an outer layer, the hypanthium, which contains 5–160 seeds embedded in a matrix of fine. Rose hips of some species, especially the dog rose and rugosa rose, are rich in vitamin C. The hips are eaten by fruit-eating birds such as thrushes and waxwings, some birds, particularly finches, also eat the seeds. While the sharp objects along a stem are commonly called thorns. Rose prickles are typically sickle-shaped hooks, which aid the rose in hanging onto other vegetation growing over it. Despite the presence of prickles, roses are frequently browsed by deer, a few species of roses have only vestigial prickles that have no points. Hesperrhodos contains Rosa minutifolia and Rosa stellata, from North America, platyrhodon with one species from east Asia, Rosa roxburghii
28.
Cartography
–
Cartography is the study and practice of making maps. Combining science, aesthetics, and technique, cartography builds on the premise that reality can be modeled in ways that communicate spatial information effectively, the fundamental problems of traditional cartography are to, Set the maps agenda and select traits of the object to be mapped. This is the concern of map editing, traits may be physical, such as roads or land masses, or may be abstract, such as toponyms or political boundaries. Represent the terrain of the object on flat media. This is the concern of map projections, eliminate characteristics of the mapped object that are not relevant to the maps purpose. This is the concern of generalization, reduce the complexity of the characteristics that will be mapped. This is also the concern of generalization, orchestrate the elements of the map to best convey its message to its audience. This is the concern of map design, modern cartography constitutes many theoretical and practical foundations of geographic information systems. The earliest known map is a matter of debate, both because the term map isnt well-defined and because some artifacts that might be maps might actually be something else. A wall painting that might depict the ancient Anatolian city of Çatalhöyük has been dated to the late 7th millennium BCE, the oldest surviving world maps are from 9th century BCE Babylonia. One shows Babylon on the Euphrates, surrounded by Assyria, Urartu and several cities, all, in turn, another depicts Babylon as being north of the world center. The ancient Greeks and Romans created maps since Anaximander in the 6th century BCE, in the 2nd century AD, Ptolemy wrote his treatise on cartography, Geographia. This contained Ptolemys world map – the world known to Western society. As early as the 8th century, Arab scholars were translating the works of the Greek geographers into Arabic, in ancient China, geographical literature dates to the 5th century BCE. The oldest extant Chinese maps come from the State of Qin, dated back to the 4th century BCE, in the book of the Xin Yi Xiang Fa Yao, published in 1092 by the Chinese scientist Su Song, a star map on the equidistant cylindrical projection. Early forms of cartography of India included depictions of the pole star and these charts may have been used for navigation. Mappa mundi are the Medieval European maps of the world, approximately 1,100 mappae mundi are known to have survived from the Middle Ages. Of these, some 900 are found illustrating manuscripts and the remainder exist as stand-alone documents, the Arab geographer Muhammad al-Idrisi produced his medieval atlas Tabula Rogeriana in 1154
29.
Manali, Himachal Pradesh
–
Manali is a Valley nestled in the mountains of the Indian state of Himachal Pradesh near the northern end of the Kullu Valley, at an altitude of 2,050 m in the Beas River Valley. It is located in the Kullu district, about 270 km north of the capital, Shimla,309 km northeast of Chandigarh and 544 km northeast of Delhi. The small town, with a population of 8,096, is the beginning of an ancient trade route to Ladakh and from there over the Karakoram Pass on to Yarkand and Khotan in the Tarim Basin. It is a popular tourist destination and serves as the gateway to Lahaul & Spiti district as well as Leh, Manali is located at 32.2396 N,77.1887 E, about 40 km north of Kullu town. The town ranges in elevation from 1,800 m to 2,000 m in the uppermost Old Manali section, Manali has grown from a trading outpost/ village to a small town, as of the 2011 census of India, its population was 8,096. In 2001, Manali had an population of 6,265. Males constituted 64% of the population and females 36%, Manali had an average literacy rate of 74%, higher than the national average of 59. 5%, male literacy was 80%, and female literacy was 63. 9%. 9. 5% of the population was six years of age. During the summer there is a marked surge in the transients as many of them are employed in the hospitality businesses. The climate in Manali is predominantly cold during winter and moderately cool during summer, the temperatures range from 4 °C to 26 °C over the year. The average temperature during summer is between 10 °C and 26 °C, and between −15 °C and 12 °C in the winter, monthly precipitation varies between 31 mm in November to 217 mm in July. In average, some 45 mm of precipitation is received during winter and spring months, the average total annual precipitation is 1,363 mm. Manali experiences snowfall predominantly between December and beginning of March. The month of January is when it is usually the highest, Manali is named after the Sanatan Hindu lawgiver Manu. The name Manali is regarded as the derivative of Manu-Alaya which literally means the abode of Manu, legend has it that sage Manu stepped off his ark in Manali to recreate human life after a great flood had deluged the world. Manali lies in the North of Kullu Valley, the valley is often referred to as the Valley of the Gods. Old Manali village has an ancient temple dedicated to sage Manu, the British introduced apple trees in the area. The first apple orchard was set up by the British near Patlikuhl, to this day, apple—along with plum and pear—remain the best source of income for the majority of inhabitants. Both Rainbow and Brown Trout was also introduced into the rivers, before other luminaries started visiting Manali, the Indian nations first Prime Minister Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru favoured this as a holiday destination in the mountains
30.
Khardung La
–
Khardung La is a mountain pass in the Ladakh region of the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir. The local pronunciation is Khardong La or Khardzong La but, as with most names in Ladakh, the pass on the Ladakh Range lies north of Leh and is the gateway to the Shyok and Nubra valleys. The Siachen Glacier lies part way up the latter valley, built in 1976, it was opened to public motor vehicles in 1988 and has since seen many automobile, motorbike and mountain biking expeditions. Maintained by the Border Roads Organisation, the pass is strategically important to India as it is used to carry supplies to the Siachen Glacier, the elevation of Khardung La is 5,359 m. Local summit signs and dozens of stores selling shirts in Leh incorrectly claim that its elevation is in the vicinity of 5,602 m, Khardong La is historically important as it lies on the major caravan route from Leh to Kashgar in Central Asia. About 10,000 horses and camels used to take the route annually, during World War II there was an attempt to transfer war material to China through this route. Khardung La is 39 km by road from Leh, the first 24 km, as far as the South Pullu check point, are paved. From there to the North Pullu checkpoint about 15 km beyond the pass the roadway is primarily loose rock, dirt, however, it is in better repair than many of the surrounding passes. From North Pullu into the Nubra Valley, the road is well maintained. Hired vehicles, heavy trucks, and motorcycles regularly travel into the Nubra Valley, the 5,359 m elevation measure from hundreds of GPS surveys matches SRTM data, ASTER GDEM data, and Russian topographic mapping. It is broadly consistent with numerous GPS reports, Khardung La is at times incorrectly cited as the highest vehicle-accessible pass in the world. A well-graded Indian military road reaches 5,610 metres 250 meters west of the 5,545 metres Mana Pass on the India-Tibet border and it connects with an equally well-constructed, slightly lower Chinese military road based on SRTM data at posting intervals of 30 meters. There are also higher motorable passes at Suge La, west of Lhasa,5,430 m, GPS and SRTM data confirms these elevations, the latter was measured by an expedition supported by the Cartographic Institute of Catalonia, Spain. Vehicles have been driven over the 5,582 metres Marsimik La, in the Indian Karakoram to the northeast of Khardung La, the nearest sizable town is Leh, the capital of Ladakh. Leh is connected by road from Manali and Srinagar, and daily flights are operated from Delhi, from Leh, a daily bus service to Nubra Valley passes over Khardungla which may also be reached by a hired car with an experienced driver or by bike. The two bases on either side of Khardong La are North Pullu and South Pullu, an Inner Line Permit which can be acquired at the DCs office in Leh is required for foreign, not domestic, tourists. Travelers are required to check in en route and must provide photocopies of the permits to be deposited at each checkpoint, altitude sickness is a serious health concern for travelers not previously to high altitudes. Prophylactic altitude-sickness medication like acetazolamide may be necessary for some travelers as there are no medical facilities to treat altitude sickness along the route
31.
Chief of Army Staff of the Indian Army
–
The Chief of the Army Staff is the commander and usually the highest-ranking officer of the Indian Army. The position is abbreviated as COAS in Indian Army, and usually held by an officer in the rank of General. The current COAS is General Bipin Rawat, who took office on 31 December 2016 following the retirement of General Dalbir Singh, the office of the Chief of the Army Staff was created through The Commanders-In-Chief Act of the Indian Parliament in 1955. It replaced the office of the Commander-in-Chief, Army. The office is based at South Block of the Central Secretariat at Raisina Hill, appointments to the office are made by the President of India. The COAS reaches superannuation upon three years in the office or at the age of 62, whichever is earlier, the following table chronicles the appointees to the office of the Chief of the Army Staff or its preceding positions since the independence of India. Chief of the General Staff - for those holding the role before 1947 Chief of Air Staff Chief of the Naval Staff Field marshal Khanduri
32.
Bikram Singh (general)
–
General Bikram Singh, PVSM, UYSM, AVSM, SM, VSM, ADC is a former Chief of Army Staff of the Indian Army. Previously the head of the Eastern Command, he became the 25th COAS succeeding General V. K. Singh on May 31,2012 and he retired on 31 July 2014. He is the second Sikh to be COAS, the first having been General J. J. Singh and he was also the Chairman of the Chiefs of Staff Committee of the Indian armed forces. As a young student, the chief had considered becoming a doctor. He was a student of Zoology and Biology. But the wars of 1962 and 1965 motivated him to join the NDA in 1968, when asked whether he ever regrets the choice made, Bikram said, If I were ever to be born again, I would only join the Indian Army. A graduate of the 40th course at the National Defence Academy and he was adjudged the Best Young Officer at the Young Officers course at the Infantry School and was also awarded both the Commando Dagger for being the best commando and the Best in Tactics trophy. He later was an instructor at the Commando and Weapons Wings of the Infantry School, after completing the Higher Command Course, he served his first tenure as a Director in the Military Operations Directorate. The tenure coincided with the Kargil War and he was the spokesperson of the Army during that period. He was wounded while posted as a Brigadier in Jammu & Kashmir, Bikram Singh retired as Chief of Army Staff on 31 July 2014. He was succeeded by General Dalbir Singh, Bikram Singh is married to Surjeet Kaur and the couple have two children
33.
TIME magazine
–
Time is an American weekly news magazine published in New York City. It was founded in 1923 and for decades was dominated by Henry Luce, a European edition is published in London and also covers the Middle East, Africa and, since 2003, Latin America. An Asian edition is based in Hong Kong, the South Pacific edition, which covers Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific Islands, is based in Sydney, Australia. In December 2008, Time discontinued publishing a Canadian advertiser edition, Time has the worlds largest circulation for a weekly news magazine, and has a readership of 26 million,20 million of which are based in the United States. As of 2012, it had a circulation of 3.3 million making it the eleventh most circulated magazine in the United States reception room circuit, as of 2015, its circulation was 3,036,602. Richard Stengel was the editor from May 2006 to October 2013. Nancy Gibbs has been the editor since October 2013. Time magazine was created in 1923 by Briton Hadden and Henry Luce, the two had previously worked together as chairman and managing editor respectively of the Yale Daily News. They first called the proposed magazine Facts and they wanted to emphasize brevity, so that a busy man could read it in an hour. They changed the name to Time and used the slogan Take Time–Its Brief and it set out to tell the news through people, and for many decades the magazines cover depicted a single person. More recently, Time has incorporated People of the Year issues which grew in popularity over the years, notable mentions of them were Barack Obama, Steve Jobs, Matej Turk, etc. The first issue of Time was published on March 3,1923, featuring Joseph G. Cannon, the retired Speaker of the House of Representatives, on its cover, a facsimile reprint of Issue No. 1, including all of the articles and advertisements contained in the original, was included with copies of the February 28,1938 issue as a commemoration of the magazines 15th anniversary. The cover price was 15¢ On Haddens death in 1929, Luce became the dominant man at Time, the Intimate History of a Publishing Enterprise 1923–1941. In 1929, Roy Larsen was also named a Time Inc. director, J. P. Morgan retained a certain control through two directorates and a share of stocks, both over Time and Fortune. Other shareholders were Brown Brothers W. A. Harriman & Co. the Intimate History of a Changing Enterprise 1957–1983. According to the September 10,1979 issue of The New York Times, after Time magazine began publishing its weekly issues in March 1923, Roy Larsen was able to increase its circulation by utilizing U. S. radio and movie theaters around the world. It often promoted both Time magazine and U. S. political and corporate interests, Larsen next arranged for a 30-minute radio program, The March of Time, to be broadcast over CBS, beginning on March 6,1931
34.
Manohar Parrikar
–
Manohar Gopalkrishna Prabhu Parrikar is an Indian politician from the Bharatiya Janata Party who has been Chief Minister of Goa since 14 March 2017. Previously he was Chief Minister from 2000 to 2005 and from 2012 to 2014, Parrikar served in the BJP government under Prime Minister Narendra Modi as Minister of Defence of India from 2014 to 2017. He is a member of the Rajya Sabha from Uttar Pradesh, Manohar Parrikar was born in Mapusa, Goa. He studied at Loyola High School, Margao and he completed his secondary education in Marathi and went on to graduate in metallurgical engineering from the Indian Institute of Technology, Mumbai in 1978. He is the first IIT graduate to serve as Chief Minister of an Indian state and he was awarded the Distinguished Alumnus Award in 2001 by IIT Mumbai. Parrikar joined the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh at an age and became a mukhya shikshak in the final years of his schooling. After graduating from IIT, he resumed RSS work in Mapusa while maintaining a private business and he was active in the RSSs North Goa unit, becoming a key organiser of the Ram Janmabhoomi movement. He was seconded by RSS to the Bharatiya Janata Party with the objective of fighting the Maharashtrawadi Gomantak Party and he is sometimes described as having been a pracharak of the RSS. As a member of the BJP, Parrikar was elected to the Legislative Assembly of the State of Goa in 1994 and he was leader of the opposition from June to November 1999. He successfully contested the election to become Chief Minister of Goa for the first time on 24 October 2000, on 5 June 2002, he was re-elected and would serve another term as Chief Minister. On 29 January 2005, his government was reduced to a minority in the Assembly after four BJP MLAs resigned from the House, pratapsinh Rane of the Indian National Congress would subsequently replace Parrikar as Chief Minister. In 2007, the Parrikar-led BJP was defeated in the Goa state elections by the Indian National Congress led by Digambar Kamat. His party became victorious once again after the BJP and their party-allies won twenty-four seats against the Indian National Congress nine in the Goa Assembly Elections held in March 2012, in the 2014 General Elections, BJP won both the Lok Sabha seats in Goa. Parrikar was reluctant to leave Goa and move to Delhi in November 2014 and he was succeeded by Laxmikant Parsekar as Goas CM. Parrikar had represented the Panaji constituency in the Goa Legislative Assembly when he was a player in the state politics, in November 2014, Parrikar was chosen as the Minister of Defence replacing Arun Jaitley, who, till then, held the additional charge of the Ministry. His entry into the parliament was facilitated by choosing him as the candidate for the elected Rajya Sabha seat from Uttar Pradesh. He has since been credited with transparent, efficient and fast decision making in what was then thought of as a sluggish ministry. He has also opened up several investigations into alleged scams like AugustaWestland Chopper scam, on March 14,2017, Parrikar was sworn in as Chief Minister of Goa
35.
Khaplu
–
Khaplu is the administrative capital of the Ghanche District of Gilgit-Baltistan in Pakistan. Lying 103 km east of the town of Skardu, it was the second-largest kingdom in old Baltistan of Yabgo dynasty and it guarded the trade route to Ladakh along the Shyok River. Khaplu Valley is 103 kilometres from Skardu and two hours by jeep and it is a sprawling village located at the confluence of the Indus and the Shyok Rivers in Pakistan. Skardu is a base for trekking into the Hushe valley which leads to Masherbrum mountains, many famous mountains, such as Masherbrum, K-6, K-7, Sherpi Kangh, Sia Kangri, Saltoro Kangri and Siachen etc. are located there. The first mention of the small kingdom called Khápula is in Mirza Haidars famous work Tarikh-i-Rashidi. The author lists Khaplu district of Balti, Khaplu was also due to close political and family ties with the royal family of Ladakh, in this neighboring country in the 17th and 18th century proven to be very well known. Khaplu probably first visited by Europeans by Captain Claude Martin Wade, william Moorcroft & George Trebeck described Khaplu as follows, Kafalun is a province west of Nobra, on the left bank of the Shayuk. Godfrey Thomas Vigne has Khaplu 1835-1838, relying in particular on the mountain fortress. Alexander Cunningham, who did not visit Baltistan, published in 1854 a brief description of Khaplu. Thomas Thomson traveled in November 1847 and briefly described a place of beauty for Tibet. Knight reported on his visit to Khaplu, This fair spot what Kapalu, the richest district in Baltistan, jane E. Duncan reached Khaplu in 1904 and held there for three weeks. A detailed report on their stay in Khaplu is well worth reading, de Filippi, who reached Khaplu 1913, characterized the site as follows, It is, perhaps, the loveliest oasis in all the region. Further information on Khaplu was on a report by Arthur Neve. Recent descriptions can be found in the guidebooks Arora, pp. 211f, Lonely Planet, pp. 306f and Beek, the area around the mouth of the river in the Thalle Shayok formed the western border of the kingdom. In eastern Hushe / Saltoro Tal was in Haldi another fortress, most important defense system was viewed as militarily impregnable fortress in the town of Khar Thortsi Khaplu Khaplu has been called many names like Shyok Valley, Ghangche and Little Tibet. In Khaplu there are historical places like the beautiful Chaqchan Mosque. Raja Palace is a building and the last and best Tibetan-style palace in Pakistan. Khaplu Khanqah is attributed to Mir Mukhtar Akhyar and was built in 1712 AD/1124 AH, Khaplu is a scenic place for hiking like Khaplu Braq, Khaplu Thung and Hanjoor, Kaldaq, kholi, Ehli
36.
Butter tea
–
Traditionally, it is made from tea leaves, yak butter, water, and salt, although butter made from cows milk is increasingly used, given its wider availability and lower cost. Drinking butter tea is a part of Tibetan life. Before work, a Tibetan will typically enjoy several bowlfuls of this beverage, since butter is the main ingredient, butter tea provides plenty of caloric energy and is particularly suited to high altitudes. The butter may also help prevent chapped lips, according to the Tibetan custom, butter tea is drunk in separate sips, and after each sip the host refills the bowl to the brim. Thus, the guest never drains his bowl, rather, it is topped up. If the visitor does not wish to drink, the best thing to do is leave the tea untouched until the time comes to leave, in this way etiquette is observed and the host will not be offended. Butter tea is used for eating tsampa by pouring onto it, or dipping the tsampa into it. The concentrate, produced by repeatedly boiling tea leaves, will keep for several days, the tea is then combined with salt and butter in a special tea churn, and churned vigorously before serving hot. Now an electric blender is often used, the history of tea in Tibet dates back to the 7th century during the Tang Dynasty. However, it did not reach its nearly universal status until about the 13th century, the time of the Sakya hierarchy, the highest quality tea is made by boiling the tea leaves in water for half a day, achieving a dark brown color. It is then skimmed, and poured into a cylinder with fresh yak butter, the result is a purplish liquid that is about the thickness of a stew or thick oil. It is then poured into clay tea-pots, or jars, that resemble Japanese teapots, another method is to boil water, and add handfuls of the tea into the water, which is allowed to steep until it turns almost black. Salt is then added, along with a little soda if wanted, the tea is then strained through a horse-hair or reed colander into a wooden butter churn, and a large lump of butter is added. This is then churned until the tea reaches the proper consistency, when a churn is not available, a wooden bowl and rapid stirring will suffice. List of butter dishes List of Tibetan dishes Tibetan cuisine Example of bowls from which Tibetans drink tea and further information on the bowls custom Sherpa Butter Tea
37.
Karachi Agreement
–
It established a cease-fire line which has been monitored by United Nations observers from the United Nations since then. After negotiations with the two sides, the Commission passed a resolution in August 1948 and subsequently added a supplement. The three parts dealt with ceasefire, terms for truce, and procedures for negotiation regarding the plebiscite, both the countries accepted the resolution and a ceasefire was achieved on 31 December 1948. The signatories were, Lt. Gen. S. M. Shrinagesh, on behalf of India Maj. Gen. W. J. Cawthorn, on behalf of Pakistan Hernando Samper and M. Delvoie, on behalf of the UNCIP. The other members of the Indian delegation were Maj. Gen. K. S. Thimayya, sam Maneckshaw, Maj. S. K. Sinha, and the secretaries of the Defence Ministry and the Ministry of Kashmir Affairs. The Pakistani delegation included Maj. Gen. Nazir Ahmed and Brig, sher Khan and civil servants M. Ayub and A. A. Khan. The military representatives of the two sides negotiated for a week starting 18 July to demarcate the positions under their control, the Pakistani delegation would need to produce proof to the UN Commission of factual positions of their control for all the territory they claim. Sinha stated that, based on principle, the agreement demarcated several hundred square miles of territory on the Indian side even though there were no Indian troops in that territory. The 830 kilometre long ceasefire line established in the agreement started from a southern most point just west of the Chenab river in Jammu and it ran in a rough arc northwards and then northeastwards to the map coordinate NJ9842, about 19km north of the Shyok river. From the map point NJ9842 it was said to run due north to the boundary with China. Since there were no troops in that area of inaccessible glacial terrain and this area, of the Siachen Glacier, eventually became a bone of contention between India and Pakistan. Another anomaly arose at the end of the ceasefire line in Jammu. India generally referred to this boundary as the border, whereas Pakistan referred to it as the border or the working border. U. N. document number S/1430/Add.2 shows the Cease Fire Line marked on the Map of the State of Jammu, the Karachi Agreement between India and Pakistan established a cease-fire line to be supervised by the military observers. These observers, under the command of the Military Advisor, formed the nucleus of the United Nations Military Observer Group in India, uNMOGIPs functions were to observe and report, investigate complaints of cease-fire violations and submit its findings to each party and to the Secretary General. The India-Pakistan Dispute over Kashmir Turns Fifty, University of Durham, International Boundaries Research Unit, pp. 9–11, ISBN 1-897643-31-4 Karachi Agreement, United Nations Peacemaker website
38.
Simla Agreement
–
The Simla Agreement was signed between India and Pakistan on 2 July 1972 in Simla, the capital city of Indian state of Himachal Pradesh. It followed from the Bangladesh Liberation war in 1971 that led to the independence of Bangladesh, India entered the war as an ally of Bangladesh which transformed the war into an Indo-Pakistani War of 1971. The agreement was ratified by the Parliaments of both the nations in same year, the agreement was the result of resolve of both the countries to put an end to the conflict and confrontation that have hitherto marred their relations. It conceived the steps to be taken for further normalisation of mutual relations, the treaty was signed in Simla, India, by Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, the President of Pakistan, and Indira Gandhi, the Prime Minister of India. The agreement also paved the way for diplomatic recognition of Bangladesh by Pakistan, technically the document was signed on 0040 hours in the night of 3 July, despite this official documents are dated 2 July 1972. Few major outcomes of the Simla Agreement are, Both countries will settle their differences by peaceful means through bilateral negotiations. Many Indian bureaucrats have later argued that an agreement, to convert this LOC into international border, was reached during a one-on-one meeting between the two heads of government. However, Pakistani bureaucrats have denied any such thing and this identification of a new cease-fire line by both the states has been argued by India as making United Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan insignificant. As according to India, the purpose of UNMOGIP was to monitor the line as identified in Karachi agreement of 1949 which no longer exists. However, Pakistan have a different take on this issue and both countries still host the UN mission, the agreement has not prevented the relationship between the two countries from deteriorating to the point of armed conflict, most recently in the Kargil War of 1999. Most of the subsequent deaths in the Siachen Conflict have been from natural disasters, Simla Agreement on Bilateral Relations between India and Pakistan signed by Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, and President of Pakistan, Z. A. Bhutto, in Simla on 2 July 1972. The Delhi Agreement on the Repatriation of War and Civilian Internees is an agreement among the aforementioned states. India–Pakistan relations Simla Accord Official Document of Simla Agreement
39.
Siachen Conflict
–
The Siachen conflict, sometimes referred to as the Siachen War, is a military conflict between India and Pakistan over the disputed Siachen Glacier region in Kashmir. A cease-fire went into effect in 2003, the contentious area is about 900 square miles to nearly 1,000 square miles of territory. The conflict began in 1984 with Indias successful Operation Meghdoot during which it gained control over all of the Siachen Glacier, Pakistan controls the glacial valleys immediately west of the Saltoro Ridge. According to TIME magazine, India gained more than 1,000 square miles of territory because of its operations in Siachen. The Siachen Glacier is the highest battleground on earth, where India, both countries maintain permanent military presence in the region at a height of over 6,000 metres. More than 2000 people have died in this terrain, mostly due to weather extremes. The conflict in Siachen stems from the incompletely demarcated territory on the map beyond the map known as NJ9842. The 1949 Karachi Agreement and 1972 Simla Agreement did not clearly mention who controlled the glacier, UN officials presumed there would be no dispute between India and Pakistan over such a cold and barren region. Following the UN-mediated ceasefire in the 1949, the line between India and Pakistan was demarcated up to point NJ9842 at the foot of the Siachen Glacier. The largely inaccessible terrain beyond this point was not demarcated, the detailed description of its northern end stated that from Chimbatia in the Turtok sector the line of control runs north-eastwards to Thang, thence eastwards joining the glaciers. This vague formulation further sowed the seed for the dispute to follow. N. Title of U. N. document number S/1430/Add, a U. N. map showing CFL alignment superimposed on a satellite image depicts the CFL terminating at NJ9842. The extension of this line north to the glaciers never appeared on any authoritative map associated with either the 1948 or 1972 agreements. In 1949, a Cease-Fire Line Agreement was signed and ratified by India, Pakistan, in 1956-58, a scientific team led by the Geological Survey of India recorded its findings publicly including information about the Siachen and other glaciers. After Pakistan ceded Shaksgam Valley to China in an agreement in 1963. In 1957 Pakistan permitted a British expedition under Eric Shipton to approach the Siachen glacier through the Bilafond La, five years later a Japanese-Pakistani expedition put two Japanese and a Pakistani Army climber on top of Saltoro Kangri. These were early moves in this game of oropolitics. Pakistan granted a number of permits and this in turn reinforced the Pakistani claim on the area, as these expeditions arrived on the glacier with a permit obtained from the Government of Pakistan
