1.
Reconquista
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The Reconquista ended just before the European discovery of the Americas—the New World—which ushered in the era of the Portuguese and Spanish colonial empires. The concept of a Christian reconquest of the peninsula first emerged, in tenuous form, a landmark was set by the Christian Chronica Prophetica, a document stressing the Christian and Muslim cultural and religious divide in Iberia and the necessity to drive the Muslims out. Nevertheless, the difference between Christian and Muslim kingdoms in early medieval Spain was not seen at the time as anything like the clear-cut opposition that later emerged, both Christian and Muslim rulers fought amongst themselves. Alliances between Muslims and Christians were not uncommon, blurring distinctions even further were the mercenaries from both sides who simply fought for whoever paid the most. The period is looked back upon today as one of religious tolerance. In fact previous documents from the 10th and 11th centuries are mute on any idea of reconquest and their rebellious pursuit was thus a Crusade for the restoration of Churchs unity, where Franco stood for both Pelagius of Asturias and El Cid. Many recent historians dispute the concept of Reconquista as a concept created a posteriori in the service of later political goals. A number of historians have called it a myth, One of the first Spanish intellectuals to question the idea of a reconquest that lasted for eight centuries was José Ortega y Gasset, writing in the first half of the 20th century. However, the term is widely in use. In 711, Muslim Moors, mainly North African Berber soldiers with some Arabs, crossed the Strait of Gibraltar, from their stronghold of Narbonne, they launched raids into the Duchy of Aquitaine. At no point did the invading Islamic armies exceed 60,000 men and these armies established an Islamic rule that would last 300 years in much of the Iberian Peninsula and 770 years in Granada. After the establishment of a local Emirate, Caliph Al-Walid I, ruler of the Umayyad caliphate, tariq ibn Ziyad, the first governor of the newly conquered province of Al-Andalus, was recalled to Damascus and replaced with Musa bin Nusair, who had been his former superior. Musas son, Abd al-Aziz ibn Musa, apparently married Egilona, Roderics widow and he was suspected of being under the influence of his wife, accused of wanting to convert to Christianity, and of planning a secessionist rebellion. Apparently a concerned Al-Walid I ordered Abd al-Azizs assassination, Caliph Al-Walid I died in 715 and was succeeded by his brother Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik. Sulayman seems to have punished the surviving Musa bin Nusair, who soon died during a pilgrimage in 716. In the end Abd al-Aziz ibn Musas cousin, Ayyub ibn Habib al-Lakhmi became the emir of Al-Andalus, the conquering generals were necessarily acting very independently, due to the methods of communication available. Old rivalries and perhaps even full-fledged conspiracies between rival generals may have had influence over this development, in the end, the old successful generals were replaced by a younger generation considered more loyal by the government in Damascus. A serious weakness amongst the Muslim conquerors was the tension between Berbers and Arabs
2.
Second Crusade
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The Second Crusade was the second major crusade launched from Europe as a Catholic holy war against Islam. The Second Crusade was started in response to the fall of the County of Edessa the previous year to the forces of Zengi, the county had been founded during the First Crusade by King Baldwin of Boulogne in 1098. While it was the first Crusader state to be founded, it was also the first to fall, the armies of the two kings marched separately across Europe. After crossing Byzantine territory into Anatolia, both armies were defeated by the Seljuk Turks. Louis and Conrad and the remnants of their armies reached Jerusalem, the crusade in the east was a failure for the crusaders and a great victory for the Muslims. It would ultimately have a key influence on the fall of Jerusalem, the only Christian success of the Second Crusade came to a combined force of 13,000 Flemish, Frisian, Norman, English, Scottish, and German crusaders in 1147. Travelling from England, by ship, to the Holy Land, after the First Crusade and the minor Crusade of 1101 there were three crusader states established in the east, the Kingdom of Jerusalem, the Principality of Antioch and the County of Edessa. A fourth, the County of Tripoli, was established in 1109, Count Baldwin II and future count Joscelin of Courtenay were taken captive after their defeat at the Battle of Harran in 1104. Baldwin and Joscelin were both captured a second time in 1122, and although Edessa recovered somewhat after the Battle of Azaz in 1125, Joscelin was killed in battle in 1131. His successor Joscelin II was forced into an alliance with the Byzantine Empire, Joscelin had also quarreled with the Count of Tripoli and the Prince of Antioch, leaving Edessa with no powerful allies. Meanwhile, the Seljuq Zengi, Atabeg of Mosul, had added to his rule in 1128 Aleppo, both Zengi and King Baldwin II turned their attention towards Damascus, Baldwin was defeated outside the great city in 1129. Damascus, ruled by the Burid Dynasty, later allied with King Fulk when Zengi besieged the city in 1139 and 1140, in late 1144, Joscelin II allied with the Ortoqids and marched out of Edessa with almost his entire army to support the Ortoqid army against Aleppo. Zengi, already seeking to take advantage of Fulks death in 1143, hurried north to besiege Edessa, manasses of Hierges, Philip of Milly and others were sent from Jerusalem to assist, but arrived too late. Joscelin II continued to rule the remnants of the county from Turbessel, Zengi himself was praised throughout Islam as defender of the faith and al-Malik al-Mansur, the victorious king. He did not pursue an attack on the territory of Edessa, or the Principality of Antioch. Events in Mosul compelled him to home, and he once again set his sights on Damascus. However, he was assassinated by a slave in 1146 and was succeeded in Aleppo by his son Nur ad-Din, the news of the fall of Edessa was brought back to Europe first by pilgrims early in 1145, and then by embassies from Antioch, Jerusalem and Armenia. Bishop Hugh of Jabala reported the news to Pope Eugene III, Hugh also told the Pope of an eastern Christian king, who, it was hoped, would bring relief to the crusader states, this is the first documented mention of Prester John
3.
Alfredo Roque Gameiro
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Alfredo Roque Gameiro was a Portuguese painter and graphic artist who specialized in watercolors. When he was ten years old, he went to live in Lisbon with his oldest brother, Justin and he studied at the Faculty of Fine Arts of the University of Lisbon, where José Simões de Almeida was one of his professors. After receiving a scholarship from the Portuguese government, he attended the Hochschule für Grafik und Buchkunst in Leipzig and studied lithography with Ludwig Nieper. Upon returning to Portugal in 1886, he became the Director of the Companhia Nacional Editora and and he was a frequent contributor to several weekly and monthly periodicals and worked with Manuel de Macedo to provide illustrations for a deluxe edition of The Lusiads, published in 1900. From 1910 to 1920 he created 10 watercolors and 90 lithographs for what would be his most popular work, Lisboa Velha and he also illustrated several popular novels by Júlio Dinis. In 1919, he became the first Director of the Escola Secundária Artística António Arroio, the following year, he and his daughter Helena had a successful joint exhibition in Brazil. He was elected a member of the Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando in 1923, a majority of his works are on display at the municipal museum there, including many on loan from the Gulbenkian Foundation. Some of his designs appear on Portuguese postage stamps, all five of his children became artists, Raquel Roque Gameiro Ottolini, also a watercolorist, Manuel Roque Gameiro, who worked with diverse materials. His sculptures may be seen in Portugal and Mozambique, maria Lucília Abreu, Roque Gameiro, o homem e a obra, ACD Edições,2005, ISBN 972-8855-17-6 Thereza Leitão de Barros, Exposição retrospectiva da obra de Roque Gameiro, Lisbon,1946. A Tribo dos Pincéis a book issued on the occasion of a conference held at his home in Amadora and it includes his postage stamp designs and book illustrations by his entire family. A Tribo dos Pincéis a website devoted to Roque Gameiro and his family, biographies and critical material compiled @ jcabral. info
4.
Lisbon
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Lisbon is the capital and the largest city of Portugal, with a population of 552,700 within its administrative limits in an area of 100.05 km². Its urban area extends beyond the administrative limits with a population of around 2.7 million people. About 2.8 million people live in the Lisbon Metropolitan Area and it is continental Europes westernmost capital city and the only one along the Atlantic coast. Lisbon lies in the western Iberian Peninsula on the Atlantic Ocean, the westernmost areas of its metro area is the westernmost point of Continental Europe. Lisbon is recognised as a city because of its importance in finance, commerce, media, entertainment, arts, international trade, education. It is one of the economic centres on the continent, with a growing financial sector. Humberto Delgado Airport serves over 20 million passengers annually, as of 2015, and the motorway network, the city is the 7th-most-visited city in Southern Europe, after Istanbul, Rome, Barcelona, Madrid, Athens and Milan, with 1,740,000 tourists in 2009. The Lisbon region contributes with a higher GDP PPP per capita than any region in Portugal. Its GDP amounts to 96.3 billion USD and thus $32,434 per capita, the city occupies 32nd place of highest gross earnings in the world. Most of the headquarters of multinationals in the country are located in the Lisbon area and it is also the political centre of the country, as its seat of Government and residence of the Head of State. Lisbon is one of the oldest cities in the world, julius Caesar made it a municipium called Felicitas Julia, adding to the name Olissipo. Ruled by a series of Germanic tribes from the 5th century, in 1147, the Crusaders under Afonso Henriques reconquered the city and since then it has been a major political, economic and cultural centre of Portugal. Unlike most capital cities, Lisbons status as the capital of Portugal has never been granted or confirmed officially – by statute or in written form. Its position as the capital has formed through constitutional convention, making its position as de facto capital a part of the Constitution of Portugal. It has one of the warmest winters of any metropolis in Europe, the typical summer season lasts about four months, from June to September, although also in April temperatures sometimes reach around 25 °C. Although modern archaeological excavations show a Phoenician presence at this location since 1200 BC, another conjecture based on ancient hydronymy suggests that the name of the settlement derived from the pre-Roman appellation for the Tagus, Lisso or Lucio. Lisbons name was written Ulyssippo in Latin by the geographer Pomponius Mela and it was later referred to as Olisippo by Pliny the Elder and by the Greeks as Olissipo or Olissipona. The Indo-European Celts invaded in the 1st millennium BC, mixing with the Pre-Indo-European population and this indigenous settlement maintained commercial relations with the Phoenicians, which would account for the recent findings of Phoenician pottery and other material objects
5.
Kingdom of Portugal
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The Kingdom of Portugal was a monarchy on the Iberian Peninsula and the predecessor of modern Portugal. It was in existence from 1139 until 1910, after 1248, it was also known as the Kingdom of Portugal and the Algarves and between 1815 and 1822, it was known as the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. The name is often applied to the Portuguese Empire, the realms extensive overseas colonies. The nucleus of the Portuguese state was the County of Portugal, established in the 9th century as part of the Reconquista, by Vímara Peres, a vassal of the King of Asturias. The county became part of the Kingdom of León in 1097, the kingdom was ruled by the Alfonsine Dynasty until the 1383–85 Crisis, after which the monarchy passed to the House of Aviz. During the 15th and 16th century, Portuguese exploration established a vast colonial empire, from 1580 to 1640, the kingdom of Portugal was in personal union with Habsburg Spain. After the Portuguese Restoration War of 1640–1668, the passed to the House of Braganza and after to the House of Braganza-Saxe-Coburg. From this time, the influence of Portugal declined, but it remained a major due to its most valuable colony. Portugal was an absolute monarchy before 1822. It rotated between absolute and constitutional monarchy from 1822 until 1834, and was a constitutional monarchy after 1834. The Kingdom of Portugal finds its origins in the County of Portugal, the Portuguese County was a semi-autonomous county of the Kingdom of León. Independence from León took place in three stages, The first on 26 July 1139 when Afonso Henriques was acclaimed King of the Portuguese internally, the second was on 5 October 1143, when Alfonso VII of León and Castile recognized Afonso Henriques as king through the Treaty of Zamora. The third, in 1179, was the Papal Bull Manifestis Probatum, once Portugal was independent, D. Afonso Is descendants, members of the Portuguese House of Burgundy, would rule Portugal until 1383. Even after the change in houses, all the monarchs of Portugal were descended from Afonso I, one way or another. With the start of the 20th century, Republicanism grew in numbers and support in Lisbon among progressive politicians, however a minority with regard to the rest of the country, this height of republicanism would benefit politically from the Lisbon Regicide on 1 February 1908. When returning from the Ducal Palace at Vila Viçosa, King Carlos I, with the death of the king and his heir, Carlos Is second son would become king as King Manuel II of Portugal. Manuels reign, however, would be short-lived, ending by force with the 5 October 1910 revolution, sending Manuel into exile in England, on 19 January 1919, the Monarchy of the North was proclaimed in Porto. The monarchy would be deposed a month later and no other monarchist counterrevolution in Portugal has happened since, after centuries of Portuguese dominion in Angola, the Kingdom of Kongo was made a vassal state of the Portuguese kingdom, its king pledging allegiance to the King of Portugal
6.
Crusades
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The First Crusade arose after a call to arms in a 1095 sermon by Pope Urban II. Urban urged military support for the Byzantine Empire and its Emperor, Alexios I, the response to Urbans preaching by people of many different classes across Western Europe established the precedent for later Crusades. Volunteers became Crusaders by taking a vow and receiving plenary indulgences from the church. Some were hoping for apotheosis at Jerusalem, or forgiveness from God for all their sins, others participated to satisfy feudal obligations, gain glory and honour, or find opportunities for economic and political gain. Many modern Historians have polarised opinions of the Crusaders behaviour under Papal sanction, to some it was incongruous with the stated aims and implied moral authority of the papacy and the Crusades, to the extent that on occasions that the Pope excommunicated Crusaders. Crusaders often pillaged as they travelled, while their leaders retained control of captured territory rather than returning it to the Byzantines. During the Peoples Crusade thousands of Jews were murdered in what is now called the Rhineland massacres, Constantinople was sacked during the Fourth Crusade rendering the reunification of Christendom impossible. These tales consequently galvanised medieval romance, philosophy and literature, but the Crusades also reinforced the connection between Western Christendom, feudalism, and militarism. Crusade is not a term, instead the terms iter for journey or peregrinatio for pilgrimage were used. Not until the word crucesignatus for one who was signed with the cross was adopted at the close of the century was specific terminology developed. The Middle English equivalents were derived from old French, croiserie in the 13th–15th centuries, croisade appeared in English c1575, and continued to be the leading form till c1760. By convention historians adopt the term for the Christian holy wars from 1095, the Crusades in the Holy Land are traditionally counted as nine distinct campaigns, numbered from the First Crusade of 1095–99 to the Ninth Crusade of 1271/2. Usage of the term Crusade may differ depending on the author, pluralists use the term Crusade of any campaign explicitly sanctioned by the reigning Pope. This reflects the view of the Roman Catholic Church that every military campaign given Papal sanction is equally valid as a Crusade, regardless of its cause, justification, generalists see Crusades as any and all holy wars connected with the Latin Church and fought in defence of their faith. Popularists limit the Crusades to only those that were characterised by popular groundswells of religious fervour – that is, only the First Crusade, Medieval Muslim historiographers such as Ali ibn al-Athir refer to the Crusades as the Frankish Wars. The term used in modern Arabic, ḥamalāt ṣalībiyya حملات صليبية, campaigns of the cross, is a loan translation of the term Crusade as used in Western historiography. The Islamic prophet Muhammad founded Islam in the Arabian Peninsula, the resulting unified polity in the seventh and eighth centuries led to a rapid expansion of Arab power. This influence stretched from the northwest Indian subcontinent, across Central Asia, the Middle East, North Africa, southern Italy, tolerance, trade, and political relationships between the Arabs and the Christian states of Europe waxed and waned
7.
Afonso I of Portugal
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Afonso I, nicknamed the Conqueror, the Founder or the Great by the Portuguese, and El-Bortukali and Ibn-Arrink by the Moors whom he fought, was the first King of Portugal. Afonso I was born in Coimbra, Guimarães or Viseu and he was the son of Henry of Burgundy and Theresa, the natural daughter of King Alfonso VI of León and Castile. The pair reigned jointly as Count and Countess of Portugal until Henrys death, Afonso was slightly more than two years old when his father, Count Henry, died on 22 May 1112 during the siege of Astorga. In an effort to pursue a share in the Leonese inheritance, his mother Theresa joined forces with Fernando Pérez de Trava. The Portuguese nobility disliked the alliance between Galicia and Portugal and rallied around the infant Afonso, in 1122, Afonso turned fourteen, the adult age in the 12th century. He made himself a knight on his own account in the Cathedral of Zamora, raised an army, in 1128, near Guimarães, at the Battle of São Mamede Afonso and his supporters overcame troops under his Count Fernando Peres de Trava of Galicia. Afonso exiled his mother to Galicia, and took rule of the County of Portugal. He also vanquished his mothers nephew, Alfonso VII of León, who came to her rescue, on 6 April 1129, Afonso Henriques dictated the writ in which he proclaimed himself Prince of Portugal. Afonso then turned his arms against the persistent problem of the Moors in the south, the first assembly of the Portuguese Cortes convened at Lamego is a 17th-century embellishment of Portuguese history. Independence from Alfonso VII of Leóns suzerainty, however, was not a thing he just could achieve militarily, the County of Portugal still had to be acknowledged diplomatically by the neighboring lands as a kingdom and, most importantly, by the Roman Catholic Church and the Pope. Afonso wed Mafalda of Savoy, daughter of Amadeus III, Count of Savoy and he succeeded in renouncing the suzerainty of his cousin, Alfonso VII of León, becoming instead a vassal of the papacy, as the kings of Sicily and Aragon had done before him. In 1179 the bull Manifestis Probatum accepted the new king as vassal to the pope exclusively, in Portugal he built several monasteries and convents and bestowed important privileges to religious orders. He is notably the builder of Alcobaça Monastery, to which he called the Cistercian Order of his uncle Bernard of Clairvaux of Burgundy. In 1143, he wrote to Pope Innocent II to declare himself, bypassing any king of León, Afonso declared himself the direct liege man of the papacy. Afonso continued to distinguish himself by his exploits against the Moors, from whom he wrested Santarém and he also conquered an important part of the land south of the Tagus River, although this was lost again to the Moors in the following years. Meanwhile, King Alfonso VII of León regarded the independent ruler of Portugal as nothing, conflict between the two was constant and bitter in the following years. Afonso became involved in a war, taking the side of the Aragonese king, to ensure the alliance, his son Sancho was engaged to Dulce, sister of the Count of Barcelona and Infanta of Aragon. Finally after winning the Battle of Valdevez, the Treaty of Zamora established peace between the cousins and the recognition by the Kingdom of León that Portugal was a sovereign kingdom
8.
Battle of Covadonga
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The Battle of Covadonga was the first victory by Christendom military forces in Iberia since the Islamic conquest of Hispania in 711–718. It was fought at Covadonga, most likely in the summer of 722, as a result, the Battle of Covadonga has been credited by historians with catalyzing the Reconquista or the reconquest of Christian rule to the entire peninsula. According to texts written by Mozarabs in northern Iberia during the ninth century, from the beginning of the Muslim invasion of Iberia, refugees and combatants from the south of the peninsula had been moving north to avoid Islamic authority. Some had taken refuge in the mountains of Asturias in the northwestern part of the Iberian peninsula. There, from among the dispossessed of the south, Pelagius recruited his band of fighters and his first acts were to refuse to pay the Jizya to the Muslims any longer and to assault the small Umayyad garrisons that had been stationed in the area. Eventually, he managed to expel a provincial governor named Munuza from Asturias and he held the territory against a number of attempts to re-establish Muslim control, and soon founded the Kingdom of Asturias, which became a Christian stronghold against further Muslim expansion. For the first few years, this rebellion posed no threat to the new masters of Hispania, consequently, there was only a minor perfunctory reaction. Pelagius was not always able to keep the Muslims out of Asturias but neither could defeat him. Islamic forces were focused on raiding Narbonne and Gaul, and there was a shortage of manpower for putting down an insurrection in the mountains. Pelagius never attempted to force the issue, and it was a Umayyad defeat elsewhere that probably set the stage for the Battle of Covadonga. On July 9,721, a Muslim force that had crossed the Pyrenees and invaded the Kingdom of the Franks was defeated by them in the Battle of Toulouse and this was the first serious setback in the Muslim campaign in southwestern Europe. In 722, forces commanded by the Umayyad commanders Al Qama and Munuza, as Al Qama overran much of the region, folklore suggests that Oppas attempted to broker the surrender of his fellow Christians, but he failed in the effort. Pelagius may have had as few as three hundred men with him, Al Qama eventually arrived at Covadonga, and sent forward an envoy to convince Pelagius to surrender. He refused, so Al Qama ordered his best troops into the valley to fight, the Asturians opened fire from the slopes of the mountains, and then, at the climactic moment, Pelagius personally led some of his soldiers out into the valley. They had been hiding in a cave, unseen by the Muslims, the Christian accounts of the battle claim that the slaughter among the Muslims was horrific, while Umayyad accounts describe it as a mere skirmish. Al Qama himself fell in the battle, and his soldiers fled from the battlefield, in the aftermath of Pelagius victory, the people of the conquered villages of Asturias now emerged with their weapons, and killed hundreds of Al Qamas fleeing troops. Munuza, learning of the defeat, organized force. At some later date, he confronted Pelagius and his now greatly augmented force, again Pelagius won, and Munuza was killed in the fighting
9.
Battle of Roncevaux Pass
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The Basque attack was a retaliation for Charlemagnes destruction of the city walls of their capital, Pamplona. As the Franks retreated across the Pyrenees back to France, the rearguard of Frankish lords was cut off, stood its ground, Roncevaux was Charlemagnes only military defeat. There are numerous works about the battle, some of which change. The battle is recounted in the 11th century The Song of Roland, the oldest surviving work of French literature. Modern adaptations of the battle include books, plays and works of fiction, with the rise of the Carolingians and Pepin the Shorts war on Aquitaine, the Duchy of Aquitaine led by Waifer was defeated and further ensued Frankish penetration into the duchy. Their masters had been cornered in the Iberian peninsula by Abd ar-Rahman I, the three rulers also conveyed that the caliph of Baghdad, Muhammad al-Mahdi, was preparing an invasion force against Abd ar-Rahman. Seeing an opportunity to extend Christendom and his own power, Charlemagne agreed to go to Spain, al-Arabi induced him to invade al Andalus by promising him an easy surrender of its Upper March, of which Zaragoza was the capital. Following the sealing of this alliance at Paderborn, Charlemagne marched across the Pyrenees in 778 at the head of all the forces he could muster. Charlemagne led the Neustrian army over Vasconia into the Western Pyrenees, while the Austrasians, Lombards and his troops were welcomed in Barcelona and Girona by Sulayman al-Arabi. As he moved towards Zaragoza, the troops of Charlemagne were joined by troops led by al-Arabi, Abd ar-Rahman of Córdoba sent his most trusted general, Thalaba Ibn Obeid, to take control of the possibly rebellious city and to prevent the Frankish invasion. Husayn and Ibn Obeid clashed repeatedly, eventually Husayn managed to defeat and he seems to have tried to appease Charlemagne by giving him the prisoner General Ibn Obeid and a large tribute of gold, but Charlemagne was not easily satisfied, putting Sulayman al-Arabi in chains. Meanwhile, the force sent by the Baghdad caliphate seems to have been stopped near Barcelona, though initially having the upper hand, the siege of Zaragoza dragged for over a month. Eventually a deal was struck between Charlemagne and Husayn, the latter would pay gold and the release of several prisoners, while the Franks in return would withdraw their siege. After the negotiation at Zaragoza, Charlemagne heard news of a Saxon revolt in the North, but before leaving Spain he decided to further secure his hold on the Vascone territory. Charlemagne first eliminated any opposition from the natives of the region. He gave orders to tear down the walls of the Basque capital Pamplona, some primary sources suggest that he destroyed the city altogether, and many towns in the region were also razed. Garrisons and military outposts were placed throughout the territory, and there were accounts of the Franks harsh treatment of the Basques during their occupation, after securing the region, Charlemagne marched for the Pyrenees mountain pass in hopes of returning to France. In the evening of August 15,778, Charlemagnes rearguard was attacked by the Basques as they crossed the mountain pass
10.
Battle of the Burbia River
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The battle occurred in the context of the Ghazws of Hisham I against the Christian rebels of the northern Iberian Peninsula. The battle took place near the Río Burbia, in the area which is known as Villafranca del Bierzo. The battle resulted in Andalusian victory, the Emir, in his attempt to annex the Kingdom of Asturias, organized two armies for the purpose of enforcing this annexation. The first army was tasked with conquering Galicia, and the second with conquering western Basque lands, when Hisham I was returning to Córdoban territory with the spoils of his conquests, the Asturian army attacked. The Cordoban army, under the competent leadership of general Yusuf ibn Bujt, were able to repel the attack. Alfonsos first move as the new king would be to move the capital to Ovetao or Oviedo and he was crowned according to the rights of the old Visigothic Kings in Toledo on September 14,791. Bermudo returned to his old lifestyle in the same year. He would be remembered as a generous, magnanimous and illustrious king and this defeat forced the postponement of the Reconquista for many years. El Condado de Castilla, La historia frente a la leyenda
11.
Battle of Pancorbo (816)
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The battle was fought when the Muslim forces attempted to cross the pass at Pancorbo. The battle resulted in a Muslim victory and was instrumental in the Basque revolt and their goal was to coordinate operations to take Al-Tagr al-Ala in the name of Louis the Pious. The Arabs, commanded by Muawiya ibn al-Hàkam, son of Emir Al-Hakam I, attacked Álava and the Kingdom of Castile in 801, crossing the River Ebro and the pass of las Conchas. They were surprised by Velasco, a Basque commander in control of troops all over the Christian kingdoms. By 806, Pamplona and the western Basque territories fell again in the hands of a Frankish vassal, Velasco and he was Charlemagnes man in the Basque territories extending up to the boundaries of Alfonso IIs realm. Meanwhile, in 812 Seguin was appointed dux Wasconum in Bordeaux, but soon after the spread of news of Charlemagnes death, Abd al-Karim ibn Abd al-Wahid ibn Mugit directed the incursion of 816 into the Kingdom of Pamplona. There the Muslim forces pillaged the valley of Orón, balask al-Yalasqi, the lord of Pamplona pleaded for assistance from the Kingdom of Asturias. On the Basque-Asturian side another two leaders are cited besides Velasco and Alfonso, Alfonsos maternal uncle Garcia ibn Lubb, Sancho, the best knight of Pamplona, and the pagan warrior Ṣaltān. Finally, the Christian-Basque forces took the offensive and tried to cross the river but the Muslims had sealed off the crossing and massacred them with swords, the major part of the victims died after falling off of the cliffs surrounding the battleground. With the subsequent rains, the Christians were found ill prepared after all their works had been destroyed. The Basque-Asturians vassals of Charlemagne were forced to withdraw, however, the Muslims were equally in a difficult situation and despite victorious much of their army deserted the field
12.
Battle of Clavijo
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The Battle of Clavijo is a mythical battle, to a serious historian, the existence of the Battle of Clavijo is not even a topic of discussion. However, it was believed for centuries to be historical, in the legend, the apostle Saint James, an associate of Jesus Christ who died a 800 years earlier, suddenly appeared and led an outnumbered Christian army to gain its victory. He became the saint of Spain and is known to Spaniards as Santiago Matamoros. Aspects of the historical Battle of Monte Laturce were incorporated into this legend, the date originally assigned to the battle,834, was changed in modern times to 844 to suit the inherent contradictions of the account. The day is given as 23 May. The legend as it survives was first written down about 300 years after the event on a spurious charter. The history of the cult of Saint James is rich in such frauds, historian Jean Mitchell-Lanham says, While this event is based on legend, the supposed battle has provided one of the strongest ideological icons in the Spanish national identity. Saint James appearance at Clavijo has been a theme in art. Among those artists who portrayed him there are Aniello Falcone, Paolo da San Leocadio, Evaristo Muñoz, Mateo Pérez de Alesio, Martin Schongauer, Corrado Giaquinto, lo viejo y lo nuevo sobre el origin del Reino de Pamplona. Saint Jamess Catapult, The Life and Times of Diego Gelmírez of Santiago de Compostela
13.
Battle of Guadalacete
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The outcome was a Muslim victory. After the death of Emir Abd ar-Rahman II in the year 852 and their reasons were both internal, such as corrupt governance, and external as they identified more with the Christian kingdoms to the north. They also frequently were harassed by the Mozárabes people who resided in the Muslim borderlands. The Toledo army formed by the union of the people of Toledo and he retreated to the lands to the south, followed by the army of Toledo which fell into an ambush, as the bulk of the arab army had anticipated this movement. This resulted in the massacre of more than 8,000 souls, giving victory to the Muslim empire, the organized forces of Muhammad I were easily able to rout the town rabble and their Christian men at arms from Asturias and Navarre. They were however, unable to take the city for another 7 years. After the Toledan and Asturian forces were defeated at Guadalacete, Muhammad I failed to capture the city, the rebellion, which was inspired by the Christian clergy and aided by the Muladi, was prolonged until the year 858 due to a continued desire for independence from Cordoba. In 858 Muhammad finally conquered the city and jailed Bishop Eugenio, reconquista Muhammad I of Córdoba Emirate of Córdoba Kingdom of Asturias Historia del Condado de Castilla
14.
Battle of Monte Laturce
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The Battle of Monte Laturce, also known as the second Battle of Albelda, was a victory for the forces of Ordoño I of the Kingdom of Asturias and his ally García Íñiguez of Pamplona. The battle took place during the Asturian siege of a new fortress under construction by Musa at Albelda, the fortress was taken a few days after the battle. The Chronicle of Alfonso III relates how, in an unspecified year, while the Asturian monarch circumvallated the new fortress, Musa camped his army on the nearby hill of Monte Laturce, hoping to force the raising of the siege. Ordoño divided his forces, leaving one half to tend to the ongoing siege, in a pitched battle the Muslims were routed, Musa was severely injured and barely evaded capture, while his Basque son-in-law, García, was killed. The Christians counted 12,000 Muslim cavalry among the dead, Ordoño then concentrated all his men on taking the fortress, which they did on the seventh day of the siege. Its defenders were executed and then its walls razed, Musas son, Lubb ibn Musa, the governor of Toledo, on learning of his fathers defeat, immediately submitted to Ordoño and remained loyal to him until his death. The battle appears to have impressed itself on the memory of its generation, besides the name and reign of Ordoño I is the notice Ipse allisit Albaida, This one destroyed Albelda. The Battle of Monte Laturce provided aspects for the fictional Battle of Clavijo. He himself was pierced by an arrow and would have been captured had not a friend of his — a Christian soldier in another time, the rout of Monte Laturce is usually dated to 859 or 860. The next day he was defeated in battle and many Muslims lost their lives as martyrs, the date of Sancho and Emenons capture is not given. Los Banu Qasi, Príncipe de Viana,41, 5-96, lo viejo y lo nuevo sobre el origen del Reino de Pamplona
15.
Day of Zamora
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The battle ended with in victory for the citys defenders. The troops of Ahmed-ben-Moavia surrounded the city of Zamora in July of 901, the battle lasted four days, finally resulting in victory for the citys Christian defenders. After the victory, the chronicles describe how the Asturian defenders severed the heads of Muslim leaders, a portion of the wall south of the citys main cathedral lies next to a street called Calle Balborraz. This denomination originates from the Arab word bab al ras where bab means door, the Hispano-Muslim chroniclers of this battle include Ibn Hayyan, who followed the account written by Ahmad ibn Muhammad al-Razi. He attributes the attack to the Shia movement under the authority of the prophet Ibn al-Quitt, battle of Alhandic - The battle of the same nickname which took place outside the city walls in 939 and resulted in Muslim victory. Zamora, Spain Alfonso III of Asturias Reconquista
16.
Battle of San Esteban de Gormaz (917)
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The Battle of San Esteban de Gormaz was a battle of the Spanish Reconquista which occurred in the year 917. The battle pitted the Omayyad forces of the Caliphate of Cordoba under Abi-Abda against the troops of the Kingdom of Leon under Ordoño II of León, the battle resulted in a Leonese victory. In 912, Ordoño II ordered the repoblación of San Esteban de Gormaz as the city had one of the borderline cities in between the Moorish and Christian zones of the Iberian Peninsula. This region had become depopulated early in the Muslim takeover and acted as a zone between the two groups. Once hearing of Ordoño IIs efforts to repopulate and take control of the city, Ordoño II was able to successfully come to the citys aid and routed the Muslim forces. Abi-Abda himself was captured during the fray and executed by decapitation and his head was put on display on the citys ramparts as a warning to the Muslims. A similar battle would take place in 919 where the Muslims were repulsed, the city would change hands multiple times until 1054 when the town was permanently retaken by the Christian forces under the command of Rodrigo Diaz de Vivar, also known as el Cid. Historia de San Esteban de Gormaz
17.
Battle of Alhandic
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The Battle of Alhandic, also known as Zamoras trench Battle, was a battle that occurred on August 5,939 in the city of Zamora, Spain. The battle occurred when the troops of Abd-ar-Rahman III assaulted the walls of Zamora, the defending troops were those loyal to Ramiro II of León, King of the Kingdom of Leon. The fighting was so bloody that the tide of the battle did not turn until the surrounding the city walls was entirely filled with corpses. The troops of Aberraman III won the day and were able to seize the city of Zamora and this battle should not be confused with the Day of Zamora which took place a few decades before in the year 901. Once Abd-ar-Rahman III came to power, he was quick to assert his power and he wanted to consolidate his power base and reestablish the internal order of the Emirate of Córdoba. He decided to go to the border and attack the cities that acted as a buffer against the Asturian / Leonese lands to the north. It was on this line that he came upon Zamora. The city was important because it was squarely in the path of march typically used by the Leonese troops. Abderraman attacked the city on August 5,939 and his strategy was to fill the pit, or moat around the city with bodies and debris so that his men could more easily climb the parapets and thus engage the defending soldiers directly. This bloodthirsty strategy lends its name to the battle which is known as the Batalla del Foso de Zamora. The final result was a victory for the troops of Abderramán III who conquered the city of Zamora. The actual occupation of the city however lasted less than one year, Day of Zamora - Celebrates the battle which took place outside the city walls in 901. Zamora, Spain Ramiro II of León Battle of Simancas
18.
Battle of Simancas
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The battle decided the control of the lands of the Duero. The battle unfolded after the army of Abd al-Rahman III launched toward the northern Christian territories in 934, Abd al-Rahman III had gathered a large army of caliphal fighters, with the help of the Andalusian governor of Zaragoza, Abu Yahya. The Leonese king Ramiro II led the counterattack with an army constituted of his own troops, those of Castile under Count Fernan Gonzalez, two days passed without either side making any movement. The battle lasted some days, with the allied Christian troops emerging victorious, furtun ibn Muhammad, wali of Huesca, withheld his troops from the battle. He was hunted down near Calatayud by Salama ibn Ahmad ibn Salama, taken to Córdoba and this eclipse corresponds with the following eclipse from NASA, http, //eclipse. gsfc. nasa. gov/SEsearch/SEsearchmap. php. Ecl=09390719 Corresponding to a totality of 96.8 percent
19.
Battle of Estercuel
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The Battle of Estercuel took place on 6 July 975 between the forces of the Kingdom of Viguera, under king Ramiro Garcés, and those of the Caliphate of Córdoba, under the kaid of Zaragoza, al-Tuyibi. The battle, a skirmish of the Christian–Muslim frontier, was a victory for the Caliphate. Several leading Navarrese magnates were killed and Ramiro was injured, the forces of the Kingdom of Pamplona, under Sancho II Garcés Abarca, Ramiros half-brother, were also engaged at Gormaz, where they were defeated alongside the Castilians under García Fernández. The kaid was on the road to Zaragoza when he encountered a Christian army under Ramiro Garcés, the chief source for the encounter is the Muqtabis of Ibn Hayyan, whose account of these years is derived directly from the so-called Anales palatinos of Isa ibn Ahmad-Razi. The disorderly Christians crossed the river Ebro at a ford and soon had lost four men, from the captive the kaid learned that the Christian army numbered some 500 cavalrymen who had marched from Sos, Ramiros chief castle, thinking that the governor of Zaragoza was away in Gormaz. Surprised by the Muslim presence, Ramiro made for the Christian castle of al-Qastil, according to Ibn Hayyan, the Muslims pursued the Christians until the asr, the afternoon prayer. Probably this chase took place over the semiarid Bardenas mountains, terminating in the valley of the river Aragón, in the region of Carcastillo, Murillo el Fruto. The site of Estercuel was to the southeast of Tudela, today uninhabited. Although Ramiro made it to safety, thirty-three of his men were killed, among them Fortún Mahunis, Fortún López, Jimeno Fortún, and the adalides Íñigo Velázquez, Íñigo Galíndez, and García ibn Salit. Another forty-seven were captured and, among Ramiros baggage, were found a silver-plated horn for calling the troops, Ramiros younger brother, Jimeno, appears as a hostage at the court of al-Hakam II in Córdoba later in 975. It has been speculated that he may have exchanged for the liberty of Sancho II
20.
Battle of Torrevicente
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It was Galibs intention to continue the policy of previous caliphs, Abd ar-Rahman III and al-Hakam II, which was to maintain supremacy over the Christian principalities in peace. Ibn Abi ‘Amir was pursuing a new policy of jihad, signalled by his seven aggressive actions against the Christians in the three years. Both Ramiro and Galib died during the battle and Ibn Abi ‘Amir was victorious and it was the twelfth of Ibn Abi ‘Amirs military campaigns, and was called in Muslim sources the Campaign of the Victory. The principal sources for the battle—all Arabic—are Ibn al-Khatib, Ibn Hazm, and al-Udri, while Ibn Idari, al-Maqqari, and Ibn Alabar give brief notices. Ibn Hazm relied for his account on his father, Ahmad ibn Hazm, no Christian or Latin source mentions the battle, but the Anales castellanos segundos states that the Moors took Atienza in the year 1018 of the Spanish era, which correspondsd to 980. Atienza was conquered, not from the Christians, but from Galibs partisans as a result of their defeat at Torrevicente, Ibn Abi ‘Amir left Córdoba on 4 Dhu al-Qidah 370 in the Islamic calendar. Friday passed without battle, perhaps out of respect for the Muslim holy day, the octogenarian Galib, riding a horse and wearing a tall helmet, himself led the initial charge against the Berbers, who immediately broke ranks and fled. The left wing likewise broke under a charge and, in Ahmad ibn Hazms words, having dispersed both of Ibn Abi ‘Amirs flanks, Galib reportedly prayed that God would aid whomever was better suited to lead the Muslims. Then, spurring his horse, he descended into a nearby ravine. His comrades, presuming he was relieving himself, did not follow, the cause of death was unknown. Believing Galibs death was a sign from God, a group of his followers went to seek peace from Ibn Abi ‘Amir. One brought his seal, another his hand, and another his horse and it was then that the Muslims inflicted a severe defeat on Galibs Christian allies. Galibs remaining Muslim troops panicked and fled in the direction of Atienza, garcía managed to escape, but Ramiro was found among the dead, along with many other Christians. Muslim historians interpreted the battle as a victory over the Christians, Ibn Abi ‘Amir followed his victory by taking Atienza and Calatayud, the centres of Galibs support, and directing a razzia into Castile. After sevety-eight days campaigning, he returned to Córdoba in triumph on 27 July and it is by the medieval Latinisation of al-Manṣūr that Ibn Abi ‘Amir is best known today, Almanzor. In Córdoba, Galibs skin was stuffed with cotton and crucified in the gate of the alcázar and his head, also nailed to a cross, was placed in the gateway of al-Zahira, where it remained until the destruction of that place. Both the identity and the death of Ramiro at Torrevicente has been a matter of some controversy, Ibn al-Khatib and Ibn Hazm refer to him as Rudmir ibn San, that is, Ramiro Sánchez. The well-known difficulties of Arab historiographers in tracking the various Sanchos, Ramiro Garcés was Sancho of Navarres brother and he is not known from any documents dating later than 981
21.
Battle of Rueda
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The battle ended in a disastrous defeat for the Christian kingdoms and resulted in the rebellion of the Galician nobles and the eventual abdication of King Ramiro III in favor of Bermudo II of León. The battle followed a similar defeat at the Battle of Torrevicente, reconquista Almanzor Sancho II of Pamplona Bermudo II of León Ramiro III of Leon Martínez Díez, Gonzalo. El Condado de Castilla, la historia frente a la leyenda
22.
Battle of Cervera
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The battle, tremendous and difficult to describe, was a victory for Almanzor. The battle is listed as the fifty-second of Almanzors career in the Dikr bilad al-Andalus, on 21 June 1000 an army left Córdoba under Almanzor for a punitive expedition against Castile. The subsequent campaign is the most well-recorded of Almanzors many wars after his Compostela campaign of 997. Almanzor crossed the Duero and invaded Castile near Madinat Selim, where he sighted an army under Sancho García, Almanzor passed by the fortresses of Osma, San Esteban de Gormaz, and Clunia, which had been in Muslim hands for several years at that point. Just north of Clunia he was surprised to find a large Christian army, the implication of these events is that Sanchos planning and communications had been superior to those of Almanzor. According to Ibn al-Khatib the Christians solemnly swore an oath not to retreat from battle, Almanzor was aware of his disadvantaged position—the Christians had a stronger camp and better sightlines, with a large open field before them—but his viziers could not agree on how to proceed. Then, without planning and without strategy, the Christian host descended on the unsuspecting Muslims, Almanzors right and left columns were attacked simultaneously and soon fell back, which inspired the Christians to press their advantage even more boldly. The majority of the Muslim rear, disoriented by the attack and disheartened by the result. According to the eyewitness Jalaf ibn Husayn, Almanzor, with his escort, while he was debating whether to throw his retinue into the fight the right wing broke, which furthered the confusion. One of Almanzors secretaries, Abd al-Malik ibn Idris al-Yaziri, said to Said Ibn Yusuf, as reported by Ibn al-Qalina, Come to say goodbye, O martyr, by the end of the day Said Ibn Yusuf was dead. Jalaf also related how, when Almanzor asked him how many of his own retinue remained, Jalaf counted them off for him one by one, Almanzor eventually dismounted and returned to his couch in order to strengthen the confidence of those around him. It was there that Jalaf says he hit upon the idea of transferring the camp from the depression in which he had first pitched it to the hill from which he had been observing the battle. The sight of the tent of Almanzor now propped on the hill demoralised the Christians. In their ten-mile flight many Christians were captured and many more killed, the Christian camp was captured and pillaged. Among these, Kayaddayr al-Dammari al-Abra, a prince of the north African tribe of the Banu Dammari, was most famous, at Cervera he reputedly decapitated one of the counts of the Banu Gumis and carried his head about with him. Ibn al-Khatib also praises Almanzors second son by another woman, Abd al-Rahman, both brothers watched the battle with their father until he finally permitted them, tearfully, to join it. Though the battle was a Muslim victory, the Christians did succeed in preventing further inroads by Almanzor in Castile, in fact Almanzors attention was drawn away from Castile and towards Pamplona. On 4 September he took a place, Kashtila, best identified with Carcastillo, on the road from Zaragoza to Pamplona
23.
Battle of Llantada
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The Battle of Llantada or Llantadilla was a border skirmish fought on 19 July 1068 on the banks of the Pisuerga near the frontier between León and Castile. There Sancho II of Castile defeated his brother Alfonso VI of León, Llantadilla was a small village located some ten kilometres southwest of Melgar de Fernamental, and about two kilometers west of the river Pisuerga on the Leonese side of the frontier. The closeness of the location of battle to the border suggests that no major invasion took place, the skirmish may have resulted from the increasing ambitions of Sancho, the eldest son of Ferdinand I, whose inheritance was smaller than his brothers. Sancho may have been encouraged by his brothers ambitious invasion of the Taifa of Badajoz, whose king, al-Muzzaffar, was fatally ill, sometime between 1 May and 7 June 1068. Bernard Reilly writes that such an initiative on Alfonsos part would have been the first, Pelayo of Oviedo is the earliest source for the battle, and he probably relied on stories then current or from his childhood. He attributes the victory to Sancho and says that Alfonso returned to León, subsequent historians treated the battle as a sort of judicial duel deciding which brother would accede to the others kingdom. Already in Pelayos chronicle the influence of this interpretation, abetted by hindsight, are evident, the late-twelfth-century Chronica Naierensis provides a year for the battle, but otherwise relies on Pelayo. The slightly earlier Annales Complutenses place it on 19 July, though there is a discrepancy in the record, since 19 July was not a Wednesday but a Saturday. On 20 July, the day after the battle if the Annales Complutenses can be trusted, Alfonsos alférez, Martín Alfónsez, likewise, the long-term effect of the battle was muted. Alfonso resumed his attack on Badajoz, now ruled by the old kings two rival sons, between 22 November 1068, when the king was again at Sahagún, and March 1069, the Kingdom of León-Castilla under King Alfonso VI, 1065–1109
24.
Battle of Golpejera
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The Battle of Golpejera also known as Golpejar, was an internecine battle among Christian kingdoms fought in early January,1072. King Sancho II of Castile defeated the forces of his brother Alfonso VI of León near Carrión de los Condes and it is notable as being one of the battles in which El Cid participated. In the 11th century, the three kingdoms of Castile, León and Galicia had been united under the ruler, King Ferdinand I of León. But his elaborate plans for succession led to years of infighting among siblings, if Ferdinand had followed the Navarrese Succession Law, then his elder son, Sancho of Castile, should have receive either all or the most of the inheritance. The nobility of León, however, saw itself as the heir of the ancient Hispanic-Gothic kingdom. Castile until recently had been merely frontier county of León, ultimately, in a King Lear-like compromise, Ferdinand elected to divide among his sons his domains into three kingdoms. Alfonso would inherit León, García, Galicia, and Sancho, to his two daughters, Urraca and Elvira, he granted the towns of Zamora and Toro. After his fathers death, Sancho made claims on his brothers domains, Sancho II of Castile defeated his brother, Alfonso VI of León over the Carrión River. The battle started at dawn and after a fight and the Castilians were driven from the field. Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar, El Cid, managed to encourage both King and army, and lead them in a new attack the following morning, Alfonso was captured, but released into exile, where he sought refuge in Toledo, which was then in Moorish hands. Despite this outcome, Sanchos victory was short lived, he was assassinated by treachery while besieging Leonese nobles who had sequestered with Sanchos sister Urraca in the town of Zamora. Alfonso was able to return and rule the joint Kingdom of León-Castile and this battle is featured as part of the series of the El Cid campaign in Age of Empires II, The Conquerors Expansion as Brother Against Brother. Short synopsis of the Battle of Golepejera and Llantada Date of Golpejera
25.
Battle of Cabra
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The Battle of Cabra took place in 1079 in southern Iberia between two Islamic states, Granada and Seville. Each side was aided by Castilian knights under Alfonso VI and it resulted in a victory for El Cid, who routed the invading forces of Emir Abd Allah of Granada and his Christian allies led by Count García Ordóñez. El Cid captured Ordóñez and other Christian knights and held them for three days until releasing them to return to Castile, following this, in the battle of Coria, Alfonso VI defeated the Muslim Emir of Badajoz, Al-Mutawwakkil. Al-Mutawwakkil renounces control of Toledo, and al-Qadir is reinstated, a Leonese garrison is established at Zorita to the east of Toledo
26.
Battle of Piedra Pisada
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On 25 December 1084, at the Battle of Piedra Pisada, the Taifa of Zaragoza fought and probably defeated the Kingdom of Aragon on the road south from Naval to El Grado. The ruler of Aragon, who led his men in battle at Piedra Pisada, Sancho Ramírez. The battle is recorded in two later sources, the Aragonese and Latin versions of the Chronicle of San Juan de la Peña. The former says that in the year of our Lord 1083, did battle in Piedra-pissada with the Moors on Christmas day. The Latin translation reads, And made battle before Petram Pisadam with the Moors, the two texts differ in the year, and neither specifies the winner of the engagement. The location of Petra Pisata was long thought to be Piedratajada, in the thirteenth century, the name of the site had degenerated further to simply Pisa, which has been identified with the coto redondo de Pisa, a collection of farms south of Naval. The Reconquista of what are today the comarcas of Bajo Cinca, Cinca Medio, Ribagorza, Sobrarbe, one followed the river Ésera through the important town of Graus south to Monzón and the lower reaches of the river Cinca. East of the Cinca lay the other route, connecting Boltaña, the Reconquista of the Cinca valley and surrounding territory to its west was rapid. By 1049 Perarrúa was the most advanced position on the Ésera, held by a don Suniero, both faced the formidable city of Graus, which was unsuccessfully besieged as early as 1055 and again in 1063 with disastrous results, finally falling to the Christians on 14 April 1083. By 1083 all lands north of the Sierra de Estada were in Aragonese hands, on the other side of the Cinca the town of Castejón de Sobrarbe fell in 1057 and that of Abizanda in 1059, but further progress was slower. Naval, which was essential to the defence of Barbastro, and Arguedas were not taken until 1084, and shortly lost to the Moors for a decade. Since Piedra Pisada lies on the south from Naval, the Aragonese army would have had to bypass an important enemy fortification in order to fight there. It is most likely therefore that the date of 1084 found in the Latin chronicle is correct, in the aftermath of the defeat at Piedra Pisada, in 1085 Sancho invested his son Peter as king of Ribagorza and Sobrarbe under Aragonese suzerainty. Estada was conquered in July 1087, and Monzón with the aid of some defecting Muslims in 1089, in 1095 Peter accepted the surrender of the garrison of the castle Naval, and in October 1099 he made an accord with its Christian populators
27.
Battle of Morella
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All surviving sources for the battle are either later by a generation or literary in character, and they are confused on the chronology and dating of the event. The encounter was a defeat for Sancho and sparked a brief reversal of fortunes in the Navarro-Aragonese Reconquista, the Castilian hero, Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar, the Cid, was a general for al-Mutamin at the time. According to the Aragonese Crónica de San Juan de la Peña, Sancho later sought out the Cid, who had defeated his father in the Battle of Graus. In 1084 Sancho attacked the kingdom of Zaragoza, on 5 April he took Arguedas, across the Ebro from Tudela, which he may have attacked but did not take. Moving east he captured Secastilla on 22 June, an important position that offered defence of Graus, according to the Historia Roderici, the Cid and the king of Zaragoza, setting out from Monzón, perpetrated a five-day raid on Aragon. Then the Cid targeted the southeast of the Taifa of Tortosa, ravaging the territory around Morella, even re-fortifying the castle at Olocau. Sancho, who had avoided confrontation during the raid on his own kingdom, joined with Mundhir al-Hayib, the ruler of the realms of Denia, Lleida, and Tortosa. The Crónica dates it to the Saturday after the capture of Secastilla, the year 1084 was accepted by Ramón Menéndez Pidal, but Antonio Ubieto Arteta suggested 1088, the year under which the Crónica refers to Sancho seeking out the Cid and defeating him. Bernard Reilly argued for a date of 1084 on the grounds that it would best explain the events of 1085, Ubieto Arteta elsewhere places the Battle of Piedra Pisada in 1084, the unsuccessful culmination of Sanchos campaign into Zaragozan territory. The aforementioned Historia adds that the Cid chased his fleeing Christian enemies and he was even greeted by celebrant Zaragozans at Fuentes some distance away
Portugal
Crusaders
