1.
Battle of Santiago de Cuba
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Cuban revolutionaries had staged revolts against Spanish colonial authority in the Ten Years War, the Little War, and the Cuban War of Independence. As a consequence, many Cubans died of disease and malnutrition, enrique Dupuy de Lȏme was appointed the Spanish Minister to the United States in 1892. In this capacity, it was his duty to refrain from allowing his personal beliefs to intervene with his duty to support peaceful diplomatic relations between the United States and Spain. However, a letter that expressed his opposition to McKinley’s foreign policy decisions was exposed, many Americans considered it an insult to the nation and to the president. Although Spain apologized, on February 13,1898, the Maine exploded and sank in Havana Harbor, Cuba, after a hasty naval court of inquiry, the American press blamed Spain and accused them of planting a mine that sank the battleship. The war with Spain became known as the “Correspondents’ War”, journalists not only wrote stories about the conflict, but took part in the fight. In 1898, the prestige of the press ran high, American society was changing as literacy rates increased. There was a new revolution of readers, as war zones became more open to the press, journalists wrote eyewitness accounts of what was happening. In an era before radio and television, newspapers were the source of information, opinion. You furnish the pictures and Ill furnish the war, newspaper magnate William Randolph Hearst declared, in New York City, where the population was about 2,800,000, the combined circulation of daily papers was about 2,000,000. In response to the outcry, McKinley took action against Spain. On April 25, the United States declared war, moreover, the United States sought to expand economic ties with Cuba for its resources in sugar and tobacco, all of which influenced America’s decision to intervene. It was evident that gaining territories across the globe would increase the strength and influence of the United States, Spanish Prime Minister Práxedes Mateo Sagasta did not seek war with the United States. He did not expect victory, but he knew Spanish citizens would revolt if he conceded to American demands in Cuba. Meanwhile, Spanish naval leaders tried to employ a strategy where they would not win the war outright, on May 1,1898, American and Spanish naval forces met in the Philippines at the Battle of Manila Bay, which resulted in a decisive victory for the United States. The Spanish government sent their fleet under Admiral Pascual Cervera y Topete to defend Cuba and keep a line of communication with the Spanish garrison there. Indeed, that surprise is well justified, for nothing can be expected of this expedition except the total destruction of the fleet or its hasty and demoralized return. Lacking a clear strategy, the Spanish may have hoped to end the war quickly in a defeat against the more powerful U. S. Navy
2.
Santiago de Cuba
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Santiago de Cuba is the second largest city of Cuba and capital city of Santiago de Cuba Province in the south-eastern area of the island, some 870 km south-east of the Cuban capital of Havana. Historically Santiago de Cuba has long been the second most important city on the island after Havana and it is on a bay connected to the Caribbean Sea and is an important sea port. In 2004 the city of Santiago de Cuba had a population of about 509,143 people, Santiago de Cuba was the fifth village founded by Spanish conquistador Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar on July 25,1515. In 1516 the settlement was destroyed by fire, and was immediately rebuilt and this was the starting point of the expeditions led by Juan de Grijalba and Hernán Cortés to the coasts of Mexico in 1518, and in 1538 by Hernando de Sotos expedition to Florida. The first cathedral was built in the city in 1528, from 1522 until 1589 Santiago was the capital of the Spanish colony of Cuba. The city was plundered by French forces in 1553, and by British forces under Christopher Myngs in 1662, the city experienced an influx of French and British immigrants in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, many coming from Haiti after the Haitian slave revolt of 1791. This added to the citys cultural mix, already rich with Spanish. It was also the location where Spanish troops faced their main defeat at San Juan Hill on July 1,1898, after capturing the surrounding hills, General William Rufus Shafter laid siege to the city. Spain later surrendered to the United States after Admiral William T. Sampson destroyed the Spanish Atlantic fleet just outside Santiagos harbor on July 3,1898, Cuban poet, writer, and national hero, José Martí, is buried in Cementerio Santa Efigenia. Pope Francis visited Cuba in 2015, Santiago was also the home of the revolutionary hero, Frank País. On July 26,1953, the Cuban Revolution began with an armed attack on the Moncada Barracks by a small contingent of rebels led by Fidel Castro. Shortly after this incident, País began talking with students and young working people informally. This developed into highly organized cells coordinating a large scale urban resistance that became instrumental in the success of the Cuban Revolution, País group prepared carefully, accruing weapons, collecting money, collecting medical supplies. They published a newsletter that reported news that criticized the government. In the summer of 1955, País organization merged with Castros July 26 Movement, País became the leader of the new organization in Oriente province, though two years later he was betrayed to the police and was shot after his capture. On January 1,1959, Fidel Castro proclaimed the victory of the Cuban Revolution from a balcony on Santiago de Cubas city hall, Santiago de Cuba was the hometown of poet José María Heredia. It is the birthplace of the world-famous Bacardi Brand, which was started by Facundo Bacardi Masso in 1862 and it now houses a museum that displays the extensive art collection of the Bacardí family. Santiago de Cuba is well known for its cultural life, some of Cubas most famous musicians, including Compay Segundo, Ibrahim Ferrer and Eliades Ochoa and trova composer Ñico Saquito were born in the city or in one of the villages surrounding it
3.
Cuba
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Cuba, officially the Republic of Cuba, is a country comprising the island of Cuba as well as Isla de la Juventud and several minor archipelagos. Cuba is located in the northern Caribbean where the Caribbean Sea, the Gulf of Mexico, and it is south of both the U. S. state of Florida and the Bahamas, west of Haiti, and north of Jamaica. Havana is the largest city and capital, other cities include Santiago de Cuba. Cuba is the largest island in the Caribbean, with an area of 109,884 square kilometres, prior to Spanish colonization in the late 15th century, Cuba was inhabited by Amerindian tribes. It remained a colony of Spain until the Spanish–American War of 1898, as a fragile republic, Cuba attempted to strengthen its democratic system, but mounting political radicalization and social strife culminated in the dictatorship of Fulgencio Batista in 1952. Further unrest and instability led to Batistas ousting in January 1959 by the July 26 Movement, since 1965, the state has been governed by the Communist Party of Cuba. A point of contention during the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States, a nuclear war broke out during the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. Culturally, Cuba is considered part of Latin America, Cuba is a Marxist–Leninist one-party republic, where the role of the vanguard Communist Party is enshrined in the Constitution. Independent observers have accused the Cuban government of human rights abuses. It is one of the worlds last planned economies and its economy is dominated by the exports of sugar, tobacco, coffee, according to the Human Development Index, Cuba is described as a country with high human development and is ranked the eighth highest in North America. It also ranks highly in some metrics of national performance, including health care, the name Cuba comes from the Taíno language. The exact meaning of the name is unclear but it may be translated either as where fertile land is abundant, authors who believe that Christopher Columbus was Portuguese state that Cuba was named by Columbus for the town of Cuba in the district of Beja in Portugal. Before the arrival of the Spanish, Cuba was inhabited by three distinct tribes of indigenous peoples of the Americas, the Taíno, the Guanajatabey, and the Ciboney people. The ancestors of the Ciboney migrated from the mainland of South America, the Taíno arrived from Hispanola sometime in the 3rd century A. D. When Columbus arrived they were the dominant culture in Cuba, having a population of 150,000. The name Cuba comes from the native Taíno language and it is derived from either coabana meaning great place, or from cubao meaning where fertile land is abundant. The Taíno were farmers, while the Ciboney were farmers as well as fishers and hunter-gatherers, Columbus claimed the island for the new Kingdom of Spain and named it Isla Juana after Juan, Prince of Asturias. In 1511, the first Spanish settlement was founded by Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar at Baracoa, other towns soon followed, including San Cristobal de la Habana, founded in 1515, which later became the capital
4.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
5.
Spain
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By population, Spain is the sixth largest in Europe and the fifth in the European Union. Spains capital and largest city is Madrid, other urban areas include Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, Bilbao. Modern humans first arrived in the Iberian Peninsula around 35,000 years ago, in the Middle Ages, the area was conquered by Germanic tribes and later by the Moors. Spain is a democracy organised in the form of a government under a constitutional monarchy. It is a power and a major developed country with the worlds fourteenth largest economy by nominal GDP. Jesús Luis Cunchillos argues that the root of the span is the Phoenician word spy. Therefore, i-spn-ya would mean the land where metals are forged, two 15th-century Spanish Jewish scholars, Don Isaac Abravanel and Solomon ibn Verga, gave an explanation now considered folkloric. Both men wrote in two different published works that the first Jews to reach Spain were brought by ship by Phiros who was confederate with the king of Babylon when he laid siege to Jerusalem. This man was a Grecian by birth, but who had given a kingdom in Spain. He became related by marriage to Espan, the nephew of king Heracles, Heracles later renounced his throne in preference for his native Greece, leaving his kingdom to his nephew, Espan, from whom the country of España took its name. Based upon their testimonies, this eponym would have already been in use in Spain by c.350 BCE, Iberia enters written records as a land populated largely by the Iberians, Basques and Celts. Early on its coastal areas were settled by Phoenicians who founded Western Europe´s most ancient cities Cadiz, Phoenician influence expanded as much of the Peninsula was eventually incorporated into the Carthaginian Empire, becoming a major theater of the Punic Wars against the expanding Roman Empire. After an arduous conquest, the peninsula came fully under Roman Rule, during the early Middle Ages it came under Germanic rule but later, much of it was conquered by Moorish invaders from North Africa. In a process took centuries, the small Christian kingdoms in the north gradually regained control of the peninsula. The last Moorish kingdom fell in the same year Columbus reached the Americas, a global empire began which saw Spain become the strongest kingdom in Europe, the leading world power for a century and a half, and the largest overseas empire for three centuries. Continued wars and other problems led to a diminished status. The Napoleonic invasions of Spain led to chaos, triggering independence movements that tore apart most of the empire, eventually democracy was peacefully restored in the form of a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. Spain joined the European Union, experiencing a renaissance and steady economic growth
6.
Restoration (Spain)
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After almost a whole century of political instability and many civil wars, the aim of the Restoration was to create a new political system, which ensured stability by the practice of turnismo. This was the rotation of the Liberal and Conservative parties in the government, so no sector of the bourgeoisie felt isolated. This was achieved by electoral fraud, opposition to the system came from republicans, socialists, anarchists, Basque and Catalan nationalists, and Carlists. The pronunciamiento by Martinez Campos established Alfonso XII as king, marking the end of the First Spanish Republic, after this, the Constitution of 1876 was written and enforced during the whole restoration. This constitution established Spain as a monarchy with a bicameral legislature, consisting of an upper house. This constitution gave the King the power to name Senators and to revoke laws if he wanted to and these years were marked by economic prosperity. Spains economy had fallen behind those of the other European countries, on most fronts production was increased, supported by extreme protectionist measures. The two parties alternated in the government in a process known as el turno pacífico, the Liberal Party was led by Sagasta. In 1898, Spain lost its last major overseas colonies in the Spanish–American War and this was the start of the systems decline, giving energy to all manner of conflicting opposition movements at a local and national level. The government declared a state of war and sent the army to crush the revolt, causing over a hundred deaths, the problems in Morocco worsened as an army of natives attacked the Spanish army. They achieved surprise and, due to the skill of the Moroccan chieftain, Abd-Al-Krim, virtually annihilated the Spanish army, advancing almost as far as Melilla in the Battle of Annual. The military discontent, the fear of anarchist terrorism or a revolution, and the rise of nationalist movements ultimately caused great agitation amongst the civilians. On 13 September 1923, Miguel Primo de Rivera, Captain General of Catalonia, orchestrated a coup détat, Alfonso XIII backed the General and named him Prime Minister. Primo de Rivera proceeded to suspend the Constitution and assume absolute powers as a dictator and he created the Unión Patriótica Española, which was meant to be the sole legal party, abolishing all other parties. During this time, he increased government spending on business and public services. He lost the support of the military and faced serious health problems, opposition to his regime was so great that Alfonso XIII stopped supporting him and forced him to resign in January 1930. Alfonso XIII, in an attempt to gradually to the previous system and restore his prestige. This failed utterly, as the King was considered a supporter of the dictatorship, Berenguer resigned and the King gave the government to Admiral Juan Bautista Aznar
7.
William Rufus Shafter
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William Rufus Shafter was a Union Army officer during the American Civil War who received Americas highest military decoration, the Medal of Honor, for his actions at the Battle of Fair Oaks. Shafter also played a prominent part as a general in the Spanish–American War. Fort Shafter, Hawaii, is named for him, as well as the city of Shafter, California, Shafter was born in Galesburg, Michigan on October 16,1835. He worked as a teacher and farmer in the preceding the Civil War. Shafter served as a 1st lieutenant the Union Armys 7th Michigan Volunteer Infantry Regiment at the battles of Balls Bluff and he was wounded at the Battle of Fair Oaks and later received the Medal of Honor for heroism during the battle. He led a charge on the first day of the battle and was wounded towards the close of days fighting. In order to stay with his regiment he concealed his wounds, on August 22,1862 he was mustered out of the volunteer service but returned to the field as major in the 19th Michigan Volunteer Infantry Regiment. He was captured at the Battle of Thompsons Station and spent 3 months in a Confederate prison, in April 1864 after his release he was appointed colonel of the 17th Regiment of U. S. Colored Troops and led the regiment at the Battle of Nashville, by the end of the war, he had been promoted to brevet brigadier general of volunteers. He stayed in the army when the war ended. During his subsequent service in the Indian Wars, he received his Pecos Bill nickname and he led the 24th Infantry, another United States Colored Troops regiment, in campaigns against the Cheyenne, Comanche, Kickapoo and Kiowa Indians in Texas. While commander of Fort Davis, he started a controversial court-martial of second lieutenant Henry Flipper, in May 1897 he was appointed as a brigadier general. Just before the outbreak of the Spanish–American War, Shafter was commander of the Department of California, Shafter was an unlikely candidate for command of the expedition to Cuba. He was aged 63, weighed over 300 pounds and suffered from gout, nevertheless, he received a promotion to Major General of Volunteers and command of the Fifth Army Corps being assembled in Tampa, Florida. One possible reason for his being given this command was his lack of political ambitions, Shafter appeared to maintain a very loose control over the expedition to Cuba from the beginning, commencing with a very disorganized landing at Daiquiri on the southern coast of Cuba. Confusion prevailed over landing priorities and the chain of command, during the disembarkation, Shafter sent forward Fifth Corps Cavalry Division under Joseph Wheeler to reconnoiter the road to Santiago de Cuba. In a complete disregard of orders, Wheeler brought on a fight which escalated into the Battle of Las Guasimas, Shafter apparently did not realize the battle was even underway nor did he say anything to Wheeler about it afterward. A plan was developed for the attack on Santiago
8.
Nelson A. Miles
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Nelson Appleton Miles was a United States soldier who served in the American Civil War, Indian Wars, and the Spanish–American War. Miles was born in Westminster, Massachusetts, on his familys farm and he worked in Boston, read military history, and mastered military principles and techniques, including battle drills. Miles was working as a store clerk in Boston when the Civil War began. He entered the Union Army on September 9,1861, as a volunteer and he became a lieutenant in the 22nd Regiment Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry, and was commissioned lieutenant colonel of the 61st New York Volunteer Infantry Regiment on May 31,1862. He was promoted to colonel after the Battle of Antietam, other battles he participated in include Fredericksburg, Chancellorsville, and the Appomattox Campaign. Wounded four times in battle, on March 2,1867 he was brevetted a brigadier general in the army in recognition of his actions at Chancellorsville. He was again brevetted, this time to the rank of general for his actions at Spotsylvania Court House. He received the Medal of Honor for his gallantry at Chancellorsville and he was appointed brigadier general of volunteers as of May 12,1864, for the Battles of the Wilderness and Spotsylvania Court House. On October 21,1865, he was appointed general of volunteers at age 26. After the war, he was commandant of Fort Monroe, Virginia, during his tenure at Fort Monroe, Miles was forced to defend himself against charges that Davis was being mistreated. In July 1866, Miles was appointed a colonel in the Regular Army, in March 1869 he became commander of the 5th U. S. On June 30,1868, he married Mary Hoyt Sherman, Miles played a leading role in nearly all of the U. S. Armys campaigns against the American Indian tribes of the Great Plains. In 1874–1875, he was a commander in the force that defeated the Kiowa, Comanche. In the winter of 1877, he drove his troops on a march across Montana. For the rest of Miles career, he would quarrel with General Oliver O. Howard over credit for Josephs capture, the heliographs were supplied by Brig. Gen. Albert J. Myer of the Signal Corps. In December 1880, he was promoted to general in the Regular Army. Crook had relied heavily on Apache scouts in his efforts to capture the Chiricahua leader, instead, Miles relied on white troops, who eventually traveled 3,000 miles without success as they tracked Geronimo through the tortuous Sierra Madre Mountains. Gatewood, who had studied Apache ways, succeeded in negotiating a surrender, under the terms of which Geronimo and his followers, agreed to spend two years in a Florida reservation
9.
William T. Sampson
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William Thomas Sampson was a United States Navy rear admiral known for his victory in the Battle of Santiago de Cuba during the Spanish–American War. He was born in Palmyra, New York, and entered the United States Naval Academy on September 24,1857, after graduating first in his class four years later, he served as an instructor at the Academy, teaching physics. In 1864, he became the officer of the monitor Patapsco of the South Atlantic Blockading Squadron and engaged in sweeping torpedoes off Charleston. He survived the loss of that ironclad on January 15,1865, when she struck a torpedo, exploded and he then commanded the Alert, the training ship Mayflower, and the Swatara while on duty at the Naval Academy. During the next years, he was Assistant to the Superintendent of the United States Naval Observatory, then Officer-in-Charge of the Naval Torpedo Station at Newport, on September 9,1886, he became Superintendent of the Naval Academy. He was promoted to Captain on April 9,1889, reported to the Mare Island Navy Yard to fit out the protected cruiser San Francisco, and assumed command when she was commissioned on November 15,1889. He was detached in June 1892 to serve as Inspector of Ordnance in the Washington Navy Yard and was appointed Chief of the Bureau of Ordnance on January 28,1893 and he assumed command of the battleship Iowa on June 15,1897. On February 17,1898, he was made President of the Board of Inquiry to investigate the destruction of the Maine, on March 26,1898, he assumed command of the North Atlantic Squadron, with the temporary rank of Rear Admiral. The United States declared war against Spain on April 25,1898, Rear Admiral Sampson, in flagship New York, put to sea from Key West. After this preliminary bombardment, Sampson helped lead an attack on San Juan, along with General William Shafter. On July 1, following the invasion, Sampson returned to Cuba, reinforcing the blockades in Santiago. On May 29, Elements of Sampsons command spotted Admiral Ceveras squadron moving into Santiago harbor, on the morning of July 3,1898, Cerveras fleet came out of the harbor. Sampson was ashore at a conference with General Shafter, making plans for an attack on Santiago. The next day, Rear Admiral Sampson sent his famous message, The Fleet under my command offers the nation as a Fourth of July present, Sampsons message omitted any mention of Schleys leadership in the battle, leading to a controversy as to who was responsible for the victory. Schley appealed for a court of inquiry, which he got in 1901, in the Navy, the quarrel was so divisive that the rank-and-file identified themselves as either a Schley man or a Sampson man. The court of inquiry heard testimony in support of Schley by his own men and, despite criticism of Schley. After the Battle of Santiago Bay, Sampson was appointed Cuban Commissioner on August 20,1898 and he became Commandant of the Boston Navy Yard in October 1899 and transferred to the Retired List on February 9,1902. Sampson was a companion of the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States and he was awarded an honorary doctorate by Yale University in October 1901, during celebrations for the bicentenary of the university
10.
Infantry
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Infantry is the general branch of an army that engages in military combat on foot. As the troops who engage with the enemy in close-ranged combat, infantry units bear the largest brunt of warfare, Infantry can enter and maneuver in terrain that is inaccessible to military vehicles and employ crew-served infantry weapons that provide greater and more sustained firepower. In English, the 16th-century term Infantry describes soldiers who walk to the battlefield, and there engage, fight, the term arose in Sixteenth-Century Spain, which boasted one of the first professional standing armies seen in Europe since the days of Rome. It was common to appoint royal princes to military commands, and the men under them became known as Infanteria. in the Canadian Army, the role of the infantry is to close with, and destroy the enemy. In the U. S. Army, the closes with the enemy, by means of fire and maneuver, in order to destroy or capture him, or to repel his assault by fire, close combat. In the U. S. Marine Corps, the role of the infantry is to locate, close with, and destroy the enemy fire and maneuver. Beginning with the Napoleonic Wars of the early 19th century, artillery has become a dominant force on the battlefield. Since World War I, combat aircraft and armoured vehicles have become dominant. In 20th and 21st century warfare, infantry functions most effectively as part of a combined arms team including artillery, armour, Infantry relies on organized formations to be employed in battle. These have evolved over time, but remain a key element to effective infantry development and deployment, until the end of the 19th century, infantry units were for the most part employed in close formations up until contact with the enemy. This allowed commanders to control of the unit, especially while maneuvering. The development of guns and other weapons with increased firepower forced infantry units to disperse in order to make them less vulnerable to such weapons. This decentralization of command was made possible by improved communications equipment, among the various subtypes of infantry is Medium infantry. This refers to infantry which are heavily armed and armored than heavy infantry. In the early period, medium infantry were largely eliminated due to discontinued use of body armour up until the 20th century. In the United States Army, Stryker Infantry is considered Medium Infantry, since they are heavier than light infantry, Infantry doctrine is the concise expression of how infantry forces contribute to campaigns, major operations, battles, and engagements. It is a guide to action, not a set of hard, doctrine provides a very common frame of reference across the military forces, allowing the infantry to function cooperatively in what are now called combined arms operations. Doctrine helps standardise operations, facilitating readiness by establishing common ways of accomplishing infantry tasks, doctrine links theory, history, experimentation, and practice
11.
Guerrilla warfare
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The term, the diminutive form of war in Spanish, is usually translated as little war, and the word, guerrilla, has been used to refer to the concept since the 18th century, and perhaps earlier. In correct Spanish usage, a person who is a member of a guerrilla is a guerrillero if male, the term guerrilla was used in English as early as 1809, to refer to the fighters, and also to denote a group or band of such fighters. However, in most languages guerrilla still denotes the style of warfare. The use of the diminutive evokes the differences in number, scale, guerrillas usually carries positive connotations, and is often used by such fighters themselves and by their sympathizers, while their foes in many cases call them terrorists. Making an objective definition of the difference between a guerrilla and a terrorist has proven a difficult task, the strategy and tactics of guerrilla warfare tend to focus around the use of a small, mobile force competing against a larger, more unwieldy one. The Guerrilla focuses on organizing in small units, depending on the support of the local population, tactically, the guerrilla army would avoid any confrontation with large units of enemy troops, but seek and eliminate small groups of soldiers to minimize losses and exhaust the opposing force. Not limiting their targets to personnel, enemy resources are preferred targets. All of that is to weaken the strength, to cause the enemy eventually to be unable to prosecute the war any longer. It is often misunderstood that guerrilla warfare must involve disguising as civilians to cause enemy troops to fail in telling friend from foe, however, this is not a primary feature of a guerrilla war. This type of war can be practiced anywhere there are places for combatants to cover themselves, at least one author credits the ancient Chinese work The Art of War with providing instruction in such tactics to Mao. The Chinese general and strategist Sun Tzu, in his The Art of War or 600 BC to 501 BC, was the earliest to propose the use of guerrilla warfare and this directly inspired the development of modern guerrilla warfare. Guerrilla tactics were employed by prehistoric tribal warriors against enemy tribes. Evidence of conventional warfare, on the hand, did not emerge until 3100 BC in Egypt. Since the Enlightenment, ideologies such as nationalism, liberalism, socialism, because of the innovative tactics he used during his command, he made himself the name of Terror Romanorum. A counter-insurgency or counterinsurgency operation involves actions taken by the government of a nation to contain or quell an insurgency taken up against it. Counter-insurgency operations are common during war, occupation and armed rebellions, the two most influential of scholars of counter-insurgency have been Westerners whose job it had been to fight insurgents. Robert Thompson fought during the Malayan Emergency and David Galula fought during the Algerian War, together these officers advocated multi-pronged strategies to win over the civilian population to the side of the counter-insurgent. The widely distributed and influential work of Sir Robert Thompson, counter-insurgency expert of the Malayan Emergency, thompsons underlying assumption was that the counter-insurgent was committed to improving the rule of law and bettering local governance
12.
Cuban War of Independence
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The Cuban War of Independence was the last of three liberation wars that Cuba fought against Spain, the other two being the Ten Years War and the Little War. The final three months of the conflict escalated to become the Spanish–American War, with United States forces being deployed in Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippine Islands against Spain. During the years 1869–1888 of the so-called “Rewarding Truce”, lasting for 17 years from the end of the Ten Years War in 1878, with the abolition of slavery in October 1886, freedmen joined the ranks of farmers and urban working class. Many wealthy Cubans lost their property, and joined the middle class. After his second deportation to Spain in 1878, José Martí moved to the United States in 1881, there he mobilized the support of the Cuban exile community, especially in Ybor City and Key West, Florida. His goal was revolution in order to achieve independence from Spain, Martí lobbied against the U. S. annexation of Cuba, which was desired by some politicians in both the US and Cuba. Two of the ships were seized by US authorities in early January, the insurrection began on February 24,1895, with uprisings all across the island. In Oriente, the most important ones took place in Santiago, Guantánamo, Jiguaní, San Luis, El Cobre, El Caney, Alto Songo, Bayate, in the province of Havana, the insurrection was discovered before it was underway, and authorities detained its leaders. The insurgents further west in Pinar del Río were ordered by rebel leaders to wait, around that time, Spanish forces in Cuba numbered about 80,000, of which 20,000 were regular troops and 60,000 were Spanish and Cuban volunteer militia. The latter were a locally enlisted force that took care of most of the “guard, wealthy landowners would “volunteer” a number of their slaves to serve in this force, which was under local control as militia and not under official military command. By December, Spain had sent 98,412 regular troops to the island, by the end of 1897, there were 240,000 regulars and 60,000 irregulars on the island. The Mambises were named after the Negro Spanish officer, Juan Ethninius Mamby who joined the Dominican fight for independence in 1844, the Spanish soldiers referred to the insurgents in the Dominican Republic as “the men of Mamby” or “Mambies”. When Cuba’s first war of independence broke out in 1868, some of those soldiers were assigned to Cuba. The Cubans adopted the name with pride, after the Ten Years War, the government had forbidden possession of weapons by private individuals. From the beginning of the uprising, the rebels were hampered by the lack of suitable weapons and they acquired most of their weapons and ammunition in raids on the Spaniards. Between June 11,1895, and November 30,1897, out of sixty attempts to bring weapons and supplies to the rebels from outside the country, only one succeeded through the protection of the British. Martí was killed shortly after landing on May 19,1895, at Dos Rios, by the end of June, all of Camagüey was at war. Based on new research in Cuban sources, historian John Lawrence Tone demonstrated that Gomez and Maceo were the first to force the civilian forces to choose sides
13.
Action of 25 April 1898
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After a fierce exchange of fire, Foote, seriously damaged, was forced to withdraw. The engagement was the first battle of the war, as well as the first naval Spanish success. It proved to be a task due to the large number of inlets, keys. One of that ports was Cárdenas, the naval units based there were the gunboats Alerta, Ligera and Antonio López, the last a former tugboat operated by the Spanish Line, which had ceded it to the navy. The port was defended by two shore-batteries, but the Spanish accounts didnt mention their presence prior to their installation on 12 May. The entrances to the bay were covered by 20 Bustamante mines, most of them defective, the gunboats belonged to the Spanish Caribbean squadron under Admiral Vicente Manterola, and most of its units had been described as unhelpful even to the coastal police. Antonio López, nevertheless, had captured the filibuster ship Genoveva, on 25 April, the Ligera patrolled the entrance of Cárdenas port. Her commander was Lieutenant Antonio Pérez Rendón y Sánchez, an experienced Cádiz-born officer who had seen action against the Cuban insurgents many times during the war. The American torpedo boat Foote, a 142-ton warship armed with three 1-pounder guns and three 457 mm torpedo tubes, was sighted off Cayo Diana, both ships soon opened fire on each other. The American fired more rapidly, but less accurately, Foote fired about 70 shots, of which only one hit Ligera, while Ligera only managed 10. The damage and casualties aboard the Spanish ship were minimal, Foote, meanwhile, took several hits that caused heavy damage. Foote left the combat enveloped in smoke with its boilers badly damaged, at the time the Spanish believed that the U. S. torpedo boat was the USS Cushing. Antonio Rendón was awarded with the Naval Cross of Maria Cristina for his success, subsequently, the American and Spanish navies fought several more engagements near Cárdenas. On 8 May, the three Spanish gunboats under Rendón surprised the American torpedo boat USS Winslow, which was part of a flotilla led by the gunboat USS Machias. The most important of the battles around Cárdenas, the Battle of Cárdenas, took place on 11 May, Spanish naval successes of the war were mainly due to the actions of their small coastguard vessels. Besides the actions off Cárdenas they faced the American Mosquito Squadron with some success in Manzanillo, Cienfuegos, there the gunboat Elcano captured the American bark Saranac on 26 April 1898. Saranac, under Captain Bartaby, was carrying 1,640 tons of coal from Newcastle, New South Wales, to Iloilo, carpenter, Mark A. Thomas, Historical Dictionary of the Spanish American War. ISBN 0-313-28852-6 Agustín Ramón Rodríguez González, Buques de la armada española a través de la fotografía, ISBN 84-95088-37-1 Agustín Ramón Rodríguez González, Operaciones de la Guerra de 1898, una revisión crítica
14.
Battle of Cienfuegos
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The Battle of Cienfuegos, or the Raid on Cienfuegos, was an engagement of the Spanish–American War, intended by the United States Navy to tighten its blockade of Cuba. The Spanish were using undersea cables as a means to communicate not only the rest of Cuba. These cables had many key junctions, namely, a shore near Cienfuegos, the cables connected to Havana, the port of Santiago, and then branched off to other Caribbean islands such as Jamaica. The cables were run out from an easily located house which contained a critical hub for the cable system. While the house could easily be destroyed, this would only inflict largely superficial damage, therefore, command decided to grapple the three cables out of the sea and cut them in several places, disrupting much of the communications between the Spanish and their operations in Cuba. This damage would be more difficult to repair, as the cables were nearing two inches in diameter which made cutting, and by extension repairing them, a difficult task. For the mission, the cruiser USS Marblehead, the gunboat USS Nashville, the Marblehead and Nashville both opened fire on the cable house at 6,45 a. m. on May 11,1898. Rather quickly, the house collapsed from the fire from the two warships. Ten minutes later, at 6,55 a. m. the warships dispatched their work boats, each carrying a crew of sixteen. The element of surprise was quickly lost, as a Spanish Cavalryman spotted the ships en route to the beach, while the first cable was out of the line of fire, the second cable would not be so easy to cut. Because of coral formation, the cable was very difficult to snare in order to bring it up to the surface, the Spanish forces were also much closer to the second cable, so the crew had to contend with both of these problems. In order to suppress the fire from the Spanish forces. As the raid crew hauled up the cable to cut it, they discovered a third. After the second had been cut, they moved on to find this third and they would not be able to however, as a large contingent of Spanish forces arrived from Cienfuegos to repel what they thought at the time was a full-scale invasion. By 11,15 a. m. the raid was over, after a tense, hour-long firefight, two cables were cut, and the sailors and Marines withdrew, but a third cable near the shore remained untouched. Fifty-two US sailors and marines were awarded the Congressional Medal of Honor for setting an example of extraordinary bravery and coolness under fire
15.
USS Merrimac (1894)
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USS Merrimac was a United States Navy collier during the Spanish–American War. It was the only American vessel sunk by the Spanish navy in that conflict, Merrimac, a steamship, was built by Swan & Hunter shipyard as SS Solveig in Wallsend, England, in November 1894. She was purchased by the US Navy in April 1898, rear Admiral William T. Sampson ordered her to be sunk as a blockship at the entrance of Santiago Harbor, Cuba, in an attempt to trap the Spanish fleet in the harbor. On the night of 2–3 June 1898, eight attempted to execute this mission. Her crewmen were rescued by the Spanish and made prisoners-of-war, after the Battle of Santiago de Cuba destroyed the Spanish fleet a month later, the men were released. All eight were awarded Medals of Honor for their part in the mission, ISBN 0-87021-632-5 This article incorporates text from the public domain Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships. The entry can be found here, US People – Montague, Daniel, Chief Boatswain
16.
Action of 13 June 1898
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Diego Velázquez, markedly inferior to Yankee in armament, managed to return to Cienfuegos, where it was joined by the small gunboats Lince and Cometa. After the appearance of the latters, Yankee decided to withdraw, at the outbreak of the Spanish–American War Cienfuegos was a strategically important port due to its facilities and good communications with Havana. Some prewar plans recommended its prompt capture, but instead it was blockaded, along some other important ports of the southern coast of Cuba such as Santiago de Cuba. Various engagements were fought near Cienfuegos during the war, on 29 April the American protected cruiser Marblehead and the auxiliary Eagle exchanged fire for half an hour with the Spanish small gunboats Satélite, Lince and Gaviota. On 2 May the gunboat Alcedo and the small gunboats Almendores and Gaviota escorted several transport vessels to Casilda, delivering to the more than 3,000 men. A week later two small boats of Marblehead and the gunboat Nasheville tried to cut telegraph cables linking Cienfuegos with Madrid, two undersea cables were cut, but a third cable near the shore remained untouched. On 1 June a convoy of blockade runners and the transport María Cristina were successfully escorted into the port, Carranza took precautions in case the suspicious steamer proved to be an American warship. Wooden objects were left ashore, and bags of coal were emplaced around the guns to protect their crews from the American fire. The unknown steamer was USS Yankee, a 6, 888-ton auxiliary cruiser under Commander Willard H. Brownson armed with 10 5-inch guns,6 6-pound guns and two Colt machine guns. Yankee was carrying out blockade tasks off the port, and was in waiting for the arrival of Purísima Concepción in order to intercept it. At about 1,400 meters range, the American ship put her helm over, unmasked her port battery, and opened fire. Diego Velázquez opted for a fight, presenting the smallest possible target. The Spanish gunboat was hit twice, receiving minor damage, a grenade entered through the starboard hawse and broke the retainers of the redbout, throwing up the parapet of coal. Another grenade pierced the hull of the cone served as a carriage for one of the guns. Boatswain D. José Cacho Torres, cabo de mar de primera Eustaquio Bilbao, seamen Antonio Ferrer and José González, Diego Velázquez fired 193 shots, some of which hit Yankee inflicting some casualties and causing a small fire on board which forced the gunfire to be temporarily suspended. Diego Velázquez exited the port shortly after accompanied by the small gunboats Lince, according to Spanish sources, the American ship decided to withdraw from the battle at this point, and the Spanish vessels returned to Cienfuegos. According to American sources, the Spanish gunboats withdrew to Cienfuegos harbor, teniente Carranza was acclaimed as his force re-entered the port. Purísima Concepción eventually reached Cienfuegos without difficulties while Yankee set a course back to the end of Cuba
17.
Battle of Las Guasimas
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The battle unfolded from Wheelers attempt to storm Spanish positions at Las Guasimas de Sevilla, in the jungles surrounding Santiago de Cuba, with the 1st U. S. Volunteer Cavalry and the 10th Regular Cavalry, in fact, the Spanish troops had received orders to fall back on Santiago. Wheeler requested the assistance of the attached Cuban forces in an immediate attack, Wheeler decided to attack anyway, rushing his men forward with two guns. During the excitement of the battle, Wheeler, a former Confederate officer, supposedly called out Lets go, weve got the damn Yankees on the run again. With the old general confusing his wars, Wheelers forces moved to encircle the Spaniards first battle line, assaulting its front and right flank, but were repulsed. During a pause in the fighting, both sides reinforced their positions, the Spaniards sent forward two companies of the San Fernando Battalion, along with artillery. After midday the U. S. attack was renewed, after halting the American advance, the Spanish resumed their withdrawal towards Santiago. The battle had cost U. S. forces 17 dead and 52 wounded, while Spanish forces suffered seven dead, brigadier-General Lawton, commander of the 2nd Infantry Division of the U. S. Volunteers V Corps, had appointed chief of the landing operation by Major General William Rufus Shafter. American reports suggested the Spaniards were digging in with a gun, however, Cuban scouts contradicted these. On the 23rd, Major General Joseph Wheeler, received orders from Shafter to throw pickets to Siboney, Wheeler decided to attack the new Spanish positions the next day, which were established three miles from Siboney, with the aid of General Castillo. The American side included the 1st U. S, volunteer Cavalry, or Rough Riders, under Leonard Wood, the 1st U. S. Regular Cavalry, and the 10th U. S, supported by artillery, the American forces numbered 964 men, supported by 800 men from Castillo. The first sign the Americans had of the enemys proximity was a Cuban Army soldier lying dead by the road, the engagement began with shots by U. S. artillery. Spanish infantry returned fire, pinning down the advancing American units with rifle volleys, the Spaniards were armed with superior 7mm 1893 model Mauser repetition rifles that fired round after round of smokeless gunpowder, making them exceedingly difficult to target in return. Wheelers forces moved to encircle the Spaniards first echelon, assaulting its front, brigade commander SMB Young personally supervised the positioning of a battery of one pounder Hotchkiss field guns 900 yards from the Spanish main position on a dominant ridge pointing Southwest. Wanting to be sure that the troops on the hill were not Spanish. Immediately, two 75mm Spanish Krupp-designed mountain guns returned fire, satisfied that he was up against the Spanish
18.
First Battle of Manzanillo
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The First Battle of Manzanillo was a series of naval engagements during the Spanish–American War on 30 June 1898 in and outside of the harbor of Manzanillo, Cuba. Three American gunboats were forced to retire after attacking a squadron of Spanish gunboats, after the blockade of Santiago, the Spanish attempted to resupply the city by taking in provisions from ports on the southern coast of Cuba that were not blockaded. Aware of the situation, the American consul at Kingston sent word to the military that the Spanish were preparing to send a convoy from that city to the southern coast. To thwart these efforts, on 28 June President McKinley extended the blockade to include the southern coast of Cuba as well as Puerto Rico. In order to enforce the blockade, a flotilla of gunboats and auxiliaries — including the USS Hist, Hornet, the three American vessels began operations by conducting reconnaissance of the area between Santa Cruz and Manzanillo. While patrolling near the Niguero Bay, the small,30 long tons Spanish gunboat Centinela was sighted, since Wompatuck had a deep draft, Hornet and Hist moved in close to engage the vessel. Upon nearing her, Centinela opened fire with her two Maxim guns, Spanish troops from the shore also began firing on the Americans but were chased away when their fire was returned. Centinela aft gun was knocked out, and the vessel attempted to escape by maneuvering behind a small cay out of the Americans line of sight. This effort proved futile though, since the Americans still managed to hit the vessel, however, Centinela would later be refloated and join the Spanish squadron at Manzanillo. There were also many commercial vessels in port, the Americans opened fire at 15,20, and the Spanish accurately responded, hitting all three of the ships several times. Hist took several hits, including some near its engine room, contrary to the American reports, Hist did not sink any Spanish boats before Hornet was towed out of action by Wompatuck, which had only been damaged lightly compared to the other American vessels. As Wompatuck began to tow Hornet, the Spanish began to fire on those vessels, starting to take damage and casualties, the Americans decided to withdraw, since their gunboats armaments were not enough to destroy the rest of the Spanish squadron. Two vessels sent to rendezvous with the Americans arrived a day later, the Spanish vessels were later repaired, leaving the squadron mostly intact. More reinforcements would arrive by mid-July, and on the 18th a third decisive engagement was fought, finally destroying the small Spanish fleet once, although the fleet was destroyed, the towns garrison continued to hold out until August, when the Fourth Battle of Manzanillo was fought. Second Battle of Manzanillo Third Battle of Manzanillo Wilson, Herbert Wrigley, the Downfall of Spain, Naval History of the Spanish–American War. Operaciones de la Guerra de 1898, una revisión crítica
19.
Battle of Tayacoba
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The Battle of Tayacoba, June 30,1898, was a disastrous American effort to land supplies and reinforcements to Cuban rebels fighting for their independence in the Spanish–American War. The American force then sailed about 40 miles east along the south coast of Cuba, on June 30 a landing party went ashore on a beachhead just west of Tunas de Zaza, near the mouth of the Tallabacoa River. Four miles west of the town, at the mouth of the river, stood a large fort built of iron, surrounded by earthworks. The Peoria fired several shots with her three-pounders into the fort, rowing onto the beach, the force crept into the jungle but was discovered by Spanish scouts and came under heavy fire. Unable to retaliate or even themselves, the Americans retreated onto the beach only to find that their boats had been sunk by Spanish cannon fire. Captain Núñez died of a wound to the head, Chanler was shot in the elbow. Five Cuban soldiers were also wounded, the party took cover in a mangrove swamp and one of them, a German surgeon named Dr. Maximilian Lund swam out to the Peoria to report that survivors on the beach were in need of assistance. The Peoria continued firing at the Spanish troops, who were hidden behind a grove of coconut palms, on the Florida Lieutenant Johnson began organizing rescue attempts. The body of Captain Núñez was left on the beach, just before sunrise, a second boat manned by Lieutenant Ahern and war correspondent Grover Flint located Chanler and Abbott. Once they were aboard, the Florida promptly left the bay. On the afternoon of July 2 the Peoria returned to the mouth of the Tallacaboa River accompanied by the USS Helena and shelled the fort for 30 minutes, damaging the fort, the force then proceeded east to Palo Alto where the troops and supplies disembarked on July 3. Winthrop Chanler returned to his home in Barrytown, New York to recover from his injuries
20.
Battle of El Caney
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The Battle of El Caney was fought on 1 July 1898, during the Spanish–American War in southeastern Cuba. Lawton succeeded in capturing the town, fort and blockhouses and protected the flank of the main American attack on the Heights of San Juan to the south. The Spanish regular infantry was armed with fast-firing M1893 7mm Mauser rifles, some of the American forces were hindered by their equipment, in the case of the 2nd Massachusetts, the men were equipped with antiquated black-powder single-shot. 45-70 Springfield rifles. According to Frederick E. Pierce, a trooper of the 2nd Massachusetts, because of this unequal contest, the 2nd Massachusetts was later taken out of the line and replaced with troops armed with more modern weapons. The American forces also lacked effective support fire, as the single Gatling Gun Detachment had been sent to support the troops assaulting San Juan heights, General Lawtons artillery support consisted of a single battery of four 3. 2-inch Model 1885 field guns—light breech-loading rifled cannon using black-powder ammunition. General Lawtons initial decision to shift the batterys fire to multiple targets resulted in minimal effect on the Spanish strongpoints. Continued assaults took a toll of the attackers. During the fighting, General Vara del Rey was wounded in both legs and was captured by American troops, while being evacuated on a stretcher, Vara del Rey and his American escorts came under intense Spanish fire, killing the stretcher bearers and several American officers accompanying the group. A new set of stretcher bearers arrived, but a loyalist.43 Remington bullet then hit Vara del Rey in the head, with no one to evacuate, the stretcher bearers left the body on the field. His body was found after the battle by a group of Spanish officers sent to locate him. Despite Vara del Reys death, Spanish resistance continued, after an initial repulse, Lawton ordered his battery of four 3. 2-inch guns, commanded by Capt. Allyn Capron, to concentrate fire on the El Viso strongpoint in the Spanish defenses. Caprons guns successfully breached the strongpoint walls at a range of 1,000 yards, an attack was then launched by two U. S. infantry regiments, the 12th and the 25th, and after a bloody firefight, El Viso was captured. Butler, Company H, 25th Infantry, was the first man to enter the blockhouse at El Caney, once El Viso was taken, the U. S. battery reduced each Spanish strongpoint in turn. The fighting ended about 5, 00pm with the withdrawal of the Spanish troops, though eventually successful, the attack on the fortifications of El Caney had proved to be of little real value. The attack on two strongly defended points at both El Caney and San Juan diluted the strength of American forces, resulting in delays, about 185 Spanish escaped to the north, but Vara del Rey, his two sons, and his brother perished. One of the Spanish wounded was Colonel Salvador Diaz Ordóñez, who commanded the Spanish artillery and was the designer of the Ordóñez guns that the Spanish used as artillery in Cuba. After closing to within 200 yards of Kettle Hill, they were taken under fire at a range of 600 yards by a single ten-barrel.30 Gatling Gun atop San Juan Hill manned by Sgt, green of the Gatling Gun Detachment. According to Spanish commanders captured after the battle, all but 40 of the 600 attacking Spanish troops were killed by the Gatling gun fire, General Vara del Reys body was relocated where it had been buried and was exhumed five months after the battle by a Spanish commission
21.
Battle of San Juan Hill
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The Battle of San Juan Hill, also known as the battle for the San Juan Heights, was a decisive battle of the Spanish–American War. The San Juan heights was a north-south running elevation about 2 kilometres east of Santiago de Cuba, Cuba, the names San Juan Hill and Kettle Hill were given to the location by the Americans. This fight for the heights was the bloodiest and most famous battle of the war, the American press at the time overlooked the fact that the Buffalo Soldiers of the 10th Cavalry and 24th Infantry Regiments had actually done much of the heaviest fighting. Spanish General Arsenio Linares ordered 760 Spanish Army regular troops to hold the San Juan heights against an American offensive on July 1,1898. For unclear reasons, Linares failed to reinforce this position, choosing to hold nearly 10,000 Spanish reserves in the city of Santiago de Cuba. Spanish hilltop entrenchments, while typically well-concealed, were not all correctly positioned for plunging fire, most of the Spanish fortifications and trench lines were laid out along the geographic crest of the heights instead of the military crest. This meant that the fire from the Spanish troops would have difficulty hitting the enemy when the attacking Americans reached the defilade at the foot of the heights. Once they began scaling the hill, however, the attackers would be in view of the defenders. Most Spanish troops were recently arrived conscripts, but their officers were skilled in fighting Cuban insurgents, Spanish artillery units were armed mainly with modern rapid-fire breech-loading cannon, again using smokeless powder. The American regular forces and troopers were armed with bolt-action Krag rifles chambered in the smokeless.30 Army caliber. However, U. S.3. 2-inch artillery pieces were of a design, with a slow rate of fire due to bag powder charges. They also used less powerful black powder charges, which limited the range of support fire for U. S. troops. The Americans also had a detachment of older style hand-cranked Gatling guns in.30 Army caliber with swivel mounts to allow greater coverage. General William Rufus Shafter commanded Fifth Army Corps, of about 15,000 troops in three divisions, Kent commanded the corps 1st Division, while Henry W. Lawton commanded the 2nd Division. Joseph Wheeler commanded the dismounted Cavalry Division but was suffering from fever and had to turn over command to General Samuel S. Sumner. Shafters plans to attack Santiago de Cuba called for Lawtons division to move north and reduce the Spanish stronghold at El Caney, then they were to join with the rest of the troops for the attack on the San Juan Heights. The remaining two divisions would move directly against the San Juan heights, with Sumner in the center, Shafter, too ill to personally direct the operations, set up his headquarters at El Pozo 2 mi from the heights and communicated via mounted staff officers. Hawkins, consisted of the 6th and 16th Infantry Regiments, along with the 71st Infantry Regiment 2nd Brigade – Colonel E. P. Pearson, consisting of the 2nd, 10th, and 21st U. S
22.
Second Battle of Manzanillo
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The Second Battle of Manzanillo was a naval engagement of the Spanish–American War on 1 July 1898. Two American gunboats attempted unsuccessfully to destroy the present in the harbor of Manzanillo. The two vessels under Adolph Marix nonetheless decided to follow their orders and sailed into the bay to capture or destroy any enemy shipping there. In the harbor, they found several small vessels including the 42 long tons gunboats Estrella and Guantánamo, the 85 long tons Delgado Parejo, and a barracks ship. The Americans then proceeded to fire on the vessels but could not get close enough to destroy them due to the shallow water that lay in between the two aggressors. Not only did the Spanish gunboats return fire, but infantry and artillery from the shore as well, the Americans were outnumbered, and after Scorpion had been hit 12 times the attackers withdrew. Osceola was not hit and the Americans reported casualties, while Spanish casualties were three men wounded aboard the pontoon María, as had occurred the day before, the Spanish had managed to repel the American squadron. The Downfall of Spain, Naval History of the Spanish-American War, GUNBOATS ENGAGE SPANIARDS, The New York Times. MARIX AT MANZANILLO, The New York Times, operaciones de la Guerra de 1898, una revisión crítica
23.
Third Battle of Manzanillo
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The Third Battle of Manzanillo was fought in the harbor of Manzanillo, Cuba on July 18,1898. Both attacks on the harbor were failed due to numbers of Spanish Naval forces. What few ships were sunk in these attacks were refloated and repaired leaving the largest remaining Spanish naval force in Cuba relatively intact, although Marix had requested heavier units the Navy sent him the gunboats USS Wilmington and USS Helena. The American squadron now under command of C. C, Todd, captain of the Wilmington, set off on July 18 to clear Manzanillo harbor of Spanish presence once and for all. The harbor was defended by a fort and shore battery with ten guns, the American commander split his force into three sections so as to prevent any Spanish forces from escaping the harbor. All three of the American squadrons timed their passages through the channels to enter the bay concurrently, at 7,04 the battle began when Spanish batteries in the city sighted the Americans and opened fire, some 15 minutes later Scorpion and Osceola replied by attacking the shore batteries. As soon as they were in range Wilmington and Helena began attacking the merchant steamers El Gloria, several of the Spanish gunboats in the harbor sailed out to challenge the American fleet but were repulsed by heavy fire. Hist, Hornet, and Wompatuck pursued the gunboats to their moorings, Helena then changed targets and began to systematically engage the Spanish gunboats. Three of these caught fire and exploded while one grounded on the beach and sunk while another grounded and was thought to have been disabled, by the end of the battle the entire Spanish flotilla at Manzanillo had been destroyed or disabled. At 10,22 Todd gave the order for the American forces to withdraw and had the Helena lay down suppressing fire while the rest of the squadron sailed out of the harbor, by 10,35 the battle was over. The Spanish lost five gunboats, three transports and one pontoon while the Americans took no casualties and this article includes information collected from the Naval Vessel Register, which, as a U. S. government publication, is in the public domain. Exciting Experiences in Our Wars with Spain and the Filipinos
24.
Battle of Nipe Bay
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The Battle of Nipe Bay on July 21,1898 was an engagement of the Spanish–American War. The battle was fought in Nipe Bay, Cuba, by four United States Navy warships against the Spanish sloop-of-war Jorge Juan, Nipe Bay had been designated as a rendezvous point for American naval forces delegated to attack Puerto Rico. Upon finding the still occupied by Spanish forces, the American squadron, consisted of the gunboats USS Annapolis and USS Topeka, the armed tug USS Leyden. The squadron maneuvered through a minefield to engage the Spanish forces, Jorge Juan opened fire upon Wasp and Leyden but was quickly sunk by the two with the help from Annapolis. While the other three ships were engaging Jorge Juan, Topeka silenced the forts and fired on other Spanish works in the harbor. Seeing the hopelessness of the situation, the Spanish sailed the small gunboat Baracoa upriver, just as the fighting came to an end, the American crew boarded Jorge Juans sinking hulk, stripping several items from it as trophies. One such trophy was the Jorge Juans battle-flag, which was taken by one of the sailors from the Annapolis, the Americans suffered few, if any, casualties and a few days after the battle the small squadron received orders to depart. New York Times, July 24,1898 http, //www. history. navy. mil/danfs/w3/wasp-vii. htm The Downfall of Spain, Naval History of the Spanish–American War at Google Books
25.
Arsenio Linares y Pombo
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Arsenio Linares y Pombo was a Spanish military officer and government official. Born in Valencia, he earned the rank of lieutenant in 1868 and participated in operations against rebellions in Cuba and he occupied posts in the Philippines, Madrid, and Melilla, and later returned to Cuba. He organized the defense of Santiago de Cuba during the Battle of San Juan Hill, Linares failed to reinforce this position, choosing to hold nearly 10,000 Spanish reserves in the city of Santiago. Spanish entrenchments, crucial to the defense of the city, had poorly constructed. He was named Minister of War in 1900 by Prime Minister Francisco Silvela and he was appointed senator for life in 1900. In 1909, his call-up of troops from Catalonia to be sent to Morocco led to the Tragic Week in Barcelona and he died in Madrid in 1914
26.
Major general
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Major general is a military rank used in many countries. It is derived from the rank of sergeant major general. In the Commonwealth, major general is equivalent to the rank of rear admiral. In some countries, including much of Eastern Europe, major general is the lowest of the officer ranks. In the old Austro-Hungarian Army, the general was called a Generalmajor. Todays Austrian Federal Army still uses the same term, see also Rank insignias of the Austro-Hungarian armed forces General de Brigade is the lowest rank amongst general officers in the Brazilian Army. AGeneral de Brigada wears two-stars as this is the level for general officers in the Brazilian Army. In tha Brazilian Air Force, the two-star, three-star and four-star rank are known as Brigadeiro, Major-Brigadeiro, see Military ranks of Brazil and Brigadier for more information. In the Canadian Armed Forces, the rank of major-general is both a Canadian Army and Royal Canadian Air Force rank equivalent to the Royal Canadian Navys rank of rear-admiral, a major-general is a general officer, the equivalent of a naval flag officer. The major-general rank is senior to the ranks of brigadier-general and commodore, prior to 1968, the Air Force used the rank of air vice-marshal, instead. In the Canadian Army, the insignia is a wide braid on the cuff. It is worn on the straps of the service dress tunic. On the visor of the cap are two rows of gold oak leaves. Major-generals are initially addressed as general and name, as are all general officers, major-generals are normally entitled to staff cars. In the Estonian military, the general rank is called kindralmajor. The Finnish military equivalent is kenraalimajuri in Finnish, and generalmajor in Swedish and Danish, the French equivalent to the rank of major general is général de division. In the French military, major général is not a rank but an appointment conferred on some generals, usually of général de corps darmée rank, the position of major général can be considered the equivalent of a deputy chief of staff. In the French Army, Major General is a position and the general is normally of the rank of corps general
27.
Henry Ware Lawton
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The city of Lawton, Oklahoma, takes its name from General Lawton, and also a borough in the city of Havana, Cuba. Lawton was born on March 17,1843, in Maumee and he was the son of George W. Lawton, a millwright, and Catherine who had been married in December 1836. Henry had two brothers, George S. and Manley Chapin, in 1843, Lawtons father moved to Fort Wayne, Indiana, to work on a mill. The family followed him the same year, George went to California in 1850 to build shakers for the gold miners. He returned to Ft. Wayne later in 1853 and shortly after, on January 21,1854 and she had been living with family members in or near Birmingham and Sandusky, Ohio during Georges absence. According to accounts given by Andrew J. Barney, a resident of the area and family friend, given years later, Henry attended public school in Florence Twp. Mr. Barney married the sister of Henrys mother in 1856 and for a time, Henry lived with the Barney family and he traveled with his father to Iowa and Missouri in 1857, returning to Ft. Wayne in 1858. He enrolled at the Methodist Episcopal College in 1858 and was studying there when the Civil War began, Lawton was among the first to respond to President Lincolns call for three-month volunteers. He enlisted in Company E of the 9th Indiana Volunteers, and was mustered into service on 24 April 1861 as one of the four company sergeants and he saw action at Philippi, Laurel Hill, and Corricks Ford, in what is now West Virginia. He was mustered on 29 July 1861 and returned home, Colonel Sion S. Bass was then organizing the 30th Indiana Infantry, and Lawton re-enlisted. The 30th Indiana Infantry mustered into service on August 20,1861, Lawton was his companys first sergeant but was promoted to 1st lieutenant on August 20. The 30th joined the Army of the Ohio, under General Don Carlos Buell in Kentucky, the army moved on to Tennessee early in 1862. Its first major engagement would be at the Battle of Shiloh where Lawtons regiment suffered heavy losses, Lawton had experienced one of the bloodiest battles of the Civil War. His unit moved on and fought at Corinth, Mississippi, Lawtons unit also fought at Iuka while attached to Buells forces. At the age of nineteen, on May 7,1862, outside of Corinth and he fought at the battles of Stones River and Chickamauga, in all, at over twenty-two major engagements. He received the Medal of Honor years later for his bravery at the Atlanta campaign and he was a brevet colonel at the end of the war. After the Civil War he studied at Harvard Law School, graduating in 1866, Lawton wished for a Captains commission in the Army which was not forthcoming. Generals William Tecumseh Sherman and Philip Sheridan wrote recommendations supporting Lawtons efforts to rejoin the Army, Sheridan strongly urged Lawton to accept a 2nd lieutenants commission, which he did and he joined the 41st Infantry Regiment under the command of Colonel Ranald S. Mackenzie July 28,1866
28.
El Caney
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El Caney is a small village 4 miles to the northeast of Santiago, Cuba. It was known in centuries past as the site where Hernán Cortés received a vision supposedly ordering him to Christianize Mexico, the settlement was host to the Battle of El Caney on 1 July 1898. Manuel Fernández, Spanish military general San Juan Hill Siboney Daiquirí El Cobre
29.
.30-40 Krag
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Since the cartridge it was replacing was the. 45-70 Government, the round was considered small-bore at the time. The design selected was ultimately the Krag–Jørgensen, formally adopted as the M1892 Springfield and it was also used in M1893 and later Gatling guns. After a brief experiment with a 230-grain bullet loading, the.30 Army loading was standardized in 1894 using a 220-grain metal-jacketed round-nose bullet with 40 grains of nitrocellulose powder. This loading developed a velocity of 2,000 ft/s in the 30-inch barrel of the Krag rifle. The rimmed. 30-40 round was known as.30 Army. The first use of a smokeless powder round by Winchester was a shot in 30-40. From the outset, the. 30-40 cartridge proved popular for hunting, in 1899, a Krag in. 30-40 caliber was used to shoot the world-record Rocky Mountain elk. The record stood until the half of the 20th century. The new loading increased the velocity in the rifle version of the Krag to 2,200 ft/s at 45,000 psi. However, once the new loading was issued, reports of cracked locking lugs on service Krags began to surface, in March 1900 the remaining stocks of this ammunition were returned to the arsenals, broken down, and reloaded back to the original 2,000 ft/s specification. In 1903, after recommendations from the infantry Small Arms Board, the new cartridge was designated by its year of adoption, the. 30-03. Handbook of the Gatling Gun, Caliber.30
30.
Gatling gun
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The Gatling gun is one of the best-known early rapid-fire spring loaded, hand cranked weapons and a forerunner of the modern machine gun. Invented by Richard Gatling, it is known for its use by the Union forces during the American Civil War in the 1860s, which was the first time it was employed in combat. Later, it was used again in military conflicts, such as the Boshin War, the Anglo-Zulu War. It was also used by militias and the National Guard in episodes of the Great Railroad Strike of 1877, specifically in Pittsburgh, the Gatling guns operation centered on a cyclic multi-barrel design which facilitated cooling and synchronized the firing-reloading sequence. Each barrel fired a shot when it reached a certain point in the cycle, after which it ejected the spent cartridge, loaded a new round. This configuration allowed higher rates of fire to be achieved without the barrels overheating, the Gatling gun was designed by the American inventor Dr. Richard J. Gatling in 1861 and patented on November 4,1862. Gatling wrote that he created it to reduce the size of armies and so reduce the number of deaths by combat and disease, although the first Gatling gun was capable of firing continuously, it required a person to crank it, therefore it was not a true automatic weapon. The Maxim gun, invented and patented in 1883, was the first true fully automatic weapon, nonetheless, the Gatling gun represented a huge leap in firearm technology. The latter were used during and after the Napoleonic Wars. This negated much of the advantage of their rate of fire per discharge. In comparison, the Gatling gun offered a rapid and continuous rate of fire without having to be reloaded by opening the breech. The original Gatling gun was a weapon which used multiple rotating barrels turned by a hand crank. The US Army adopted Gatling guns in several calibers, including.42 caliber. 45-70.50 caliber,1 inch, the. 45-70 weapon was also mounted on some US Navy ships of the 1880s and 1890s. The Gatling gun was first used in warfare during the American Civil War, twelve of the guns were purchased personally by Union commanders and used in the trenches during the siege of Petersburg, Virginia. Eight other Gatling guns were fitted on gunboats, the gun was not accepted by the American Army until 1866, when a sales representative of the manufacturing company demonstrated it in combat. On July 17,1863, Gatling guns were used to over-awe New York anti-draft rioters. Two were brought by a National Guard unit from Philadelphia to use against strikers in Pittsburgh. Gatling guns were not used at the Battle of the Little Bighorn, also known as Custers Last Stand
31.
John Henry Parker (general)
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General John Henry Parker aka Gatling Gun Parker was a brigadier general in the United States Army. He is best known for his role as the commander of the Gatling Gun Detachment of the U. S. Armys V Corps in Cuba during the Santiago campaign in the Spanish–American War, John Henry Parker was born and raised in the small town of Sedalia, Missouri. Nominated by his congressman to attend the United States Military Academy at West Point, he graduated in 1892, known as Blackie to his fellow officers, Parker was tasked with the charge of training soldiers of the Machine Gun Detachment in the use of their weapons. Nevertheless, Parker successfully carried out his assignment, and was promoted to 1st Lieutenant on June 11,1892, at the time, all of the Armys artillery and ammunition supplies were transported by draft animals. In 1897, after considering the issue, Lt. Parker submitted a paper to the Army General Staff in which he advocated the use of mobile machine gun detachments. Unfortunately, Parkers treatise was ignored by the Army, though he continued to advocate the use of the gun in an offensive role. In September 1897 Parker was assigned to the Infantry and Cavalry School as a student officer and that same month he was assigned as a First Lieutenant of Infantry to the 25th Infantry Regiment. He joined the 25th IR at Tampa, Florida, where it was fitting out for an assault in Cuba. On May 27, Parker was given four of a consignment of fifteen brand-new ten-barrel Model 1895 Gatling guns in.30 Army caliber recently received from Colts Arms Company. In order to time, Parker also received permission from General Shafter to utilize men from the infantry regiments already in Tampa. However, the men themselves were selected by their existing company commanders. On his own initiative, Parker developed his own table of organization to include gun carriages, crew schedules, ammunition loads and he then commenced training drills for the crews, using his own theory of mobile machine gun tactics to structure the new unit. Parkers men responded enthusiastically to the challenge of learning to operate, maintain, under this pretext he was able to get his men, guns, wagons, and equipment aboard ship, though the Detachment still had not been supplied with any horses for pulling the guns. Parkers battery, consisting of four guns, carriages, and some 30,000 rounds of.30 Army ammunition, was given priority for disembarkation at Daiquirí, upon landing at Daiquirí, Parker immediately arranged for the purchase of several mules from local sources to pull the guns. After being officially mustered into service on June 30,1898, the Gatling Gun Detachment was ordered to advance to El Pozo, Parkers battery was initially ordered to provide covering fire for the artillery. One of the Gatlings was detached to the service of General Shafters aide, during the assault on San Juan Heights, Lt. Parker and his men used three of their four Gatling guns to cover the American assaults on both San Juan Hill and Kettle Hill. Equipped with swivel mountings that enabled the gunners to rake Spanish positions, Col. Theodore Roosevelt later noted that the hammering sound of the Gatling guns raised the spirits of his men, While thus firing, there suddenly smote on our ears a peculiar drumming sound. One or two of the men cried out, The Spanish machine guns, but, after listening a moment, I leaped to my feet and called, Its the Gatlings, men
32.
Dynamite gun
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A dynamite gun is any of a class of artillery pieces that use compressed air to propel an explosive projectile. Dynamite guns were in use for a period from the 1880s to the beginning of the twentieth century. Because of the instability of early high explosives, it was impractical to fire a shell from a conventional gun. The violent deflagration of the propellant charge and the acceleration of the shell would set off the explosive in the barrel of the weapon. By using compressed air, the gun was able to accelerate the projectile more gradually through the length of the barrel. Guns for naval use were supplied with air from shipboard compressors, a small model for field use by land forces employed a powder charge to drive a piston down a cylinder, compressing air that was then fed into the gun barrel. This field model was used by Theodore Roosevelts Rough Riders during the Spanish–American War. The guns fired a relatively lightweight shell, necessarily the guns had a low muzzle velocity and this increased the flight time of the shell, resulting in a loss of accuracy. By 1900, the availability of high explosives, the longer range of conventional artillery, the guns mechanical complexity. The original invention of a gun to fire an explosive charge with compressed air was the work of D. M. Medford of Chicago and his prototype was demonstrated in 1883 at Fort Hamilton, New York. Edmund Zalinski, an American artillery officer, saw the demonstration, some of his work took place at Fort Lafayette, New York. The Navy was impressed, and commissioned the construction of a dynamite gun cruiser. The USS Vesuvius, launched in 1888, was armed with three fifteen-inch pneumatic guns capable of firing an explosive projectile 1.5 miles, and eventually bombarded Cuba in the Spanish–American War, the projectiles were sometimes called aerial torpedoes. In 1897, an 8. 4-inch Zalinski dynamite gun was fitted to the first commissioned US submarine USS Holland and it was later removed in 1900. From 1894 to 1901, the Army purchased and installed several coastal batteries of 15 inch dynamite guns as part of the coast defense modernization program initiated by the Endicott Board. These could throw a projectile from 2,000 to 5,000 yards depending on the weight of the projectile. Compressed air at 2,500 psi was supplied by a steam-driven compressor, in addition to the guns and their ammunition, the steam boiler, compressor, and other equipment necessary to operate the guns weighed over 200 tons. Among other locations, three guns were installed as Battery Dynamite at Fort Winfield Scott, near the Presidio of San Francisco, in 1904 the batteries were decommissioned, and the guns dismounted and scrapped
33.
Washington, D.C.
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Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing
34.
United States Navy
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The United States Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The U. S. Navy is the largest, most capable navy in the world, the U. S. Navy has the worlds largest aircraft carrier fleet, with ten in service, two in the reserve fleet, and three new carriers under construction. The service has 323,792 personnel on duty and 108,515 in the Navy Reserve. It has 274 deployable combat vessels and more than 3,700 operational aircraft as of October 2016, the U. S. Navy traces its origins to the Continental Navy, which was established during the American Revolutionary War and was effectively disbanded as a separate entity shortly thereafter. It played a role in the American Civil War by blockading the Confederacy. It played the role in the World War II defeat of Imperial Japan. The 21st century U. S. Navy maintains a global presence, deploying in strength in such areas as the Western Pacific, the Mediterranean. The Navy is administratively managed by the Department of the Navy, the Department of the Navy is itself a division of the Department of Defense, which is headed by the Secretary of Defense. The Chief of Naval Operations is an admiral and the senior naval officer of the Department of the Navy. The CNO may not be the highest ranking officer in the armed forces if the Chairman or the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The mission of the Navy is to maintain, train and equip combat-ready Naval forces capable of winning wars, deterring aggression, the United States Navy is a seaborne branch of the military of the United States. The Navys three primary areas of responsibility, The preparation of naval forces necessary for the prosecution of war. The development of aircraft, weapons, tactics, technique, organization, U. S. Navy training manuals state that the mission of the U. S. Armed Forces is to prepare and conduct prompt and sustained combat operations in support of the national interest, as part of that establishment, the U. S. Navys functions comprise sea control, power projection and nuclear deterrence, in addition to sealift duties. It follows then as certain as that night succeeds the day, that without a decisive naval force we can do nothing definitive, the Navy was rooted in the colonial seafaring tradition, which produced a large community of sailors, captains, and shipbuilders. In the early stages of the American Revolutionary War, Massachusetts had its own Massachusetts Naval Militia, the establishment of a national navy was an issue of debate among the members of the Second Continental Congress. Supporters argued that a navy would protect shipping, defend the coast, detractors countered that challenging the British Royal Navy, then the worlds preeminent naval power, was a foolish undertaking. Commander in Chief George Washington resolved the debate when he commissioned the ocean-going schooner USS Hannah to interdict British merchant ships, and reported the captures to the Congress
35.
Joseph Wheeler
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Joseph Fighting Joe Wheeler was an American military commander and politician. For much of the Civil War he served as the cavalry general in the Army of Tennessee. Between the Civil War and the Spanish–American War, Wheeler served multiple terms as a United States Representative from the state of Alabama as a Democrat. Although of New England ancestry, Joseph Wheeler was born near Augusta, Georgia and his parents were Joseph Wheeler and Julia Knox Hull Wheeler. He was the grandson of Brigadier General William Hull, a veteran of the American Revolution who was court-martialed for surrendering at Detroit early in the War of 1812. Despite his northern upbringing, he was appointed to the United States Military Academy at West Point from the state of Georgia and always considered himself a Georgian, Wheeler entered West Point in July 1854, barely meeting the height requirement at the time for entry. He graduated on July 1,1859, placing 19th out of 22 cadets and it was while stationed in New Mexico and fighting in a skirmish with Indians that Joseph Wheeler picked up the nickname Fighting Joe. On September 1,1860, he was promoted to the rank of second lieutenant and his resignation from the U. S. Army was accepted on April 22,1861. He was ordered to Huntsville, Alabama, to command of the newly formed 19th Alabama Infantry Regiment and was promoted to colonel on September 4. Wheeler and the 19th Alabama fought well under Bragg at the Battle of Shiloh in April 1862, during the Siege of Corinth in April and May, Wheelers men on picket duty clashed repeatedly with Union patrols. Serving as acting commander, Wheeler burned the bridges over the Tuscumbia River to cover the Confederate withdrawal to Tupelo. Wheeler transferred to the branch and commanded the 2nd Cavalry Brigade of the Left Wing in the Army of Mississippi from September to October. During the Kentucky Campaign, Wheeler aggressively maintained contact with the enemy, Wheeler fought at the Battle of Perryville in October and after the fight performed an excellent rearguard action protecting the armys withdrawal. He was promoted to general on October 30 and led the cavalry belonging to the Second Corps of the Army of Tennessee from November to December. During action at La Vergne, Tennessee, on November 27 and he drove into the rear of the Union army, destroying hundreds of wagons and capturing more than 700 prisoners. Bragg recommended that Wheeler be promoted as a just reward and he became a general on January 20,1863. Wheeler led the armys Cavalry Corps from January to November 24, for his actions on January 12–13,1863, Wheeler and his troopers received the Thanks of the Confederate Congress on May 1,1863. In February, Wheeler and Forrest attacked Fort Donelson at Dover, Tennessee, Forrest angrily told Wheeler Tell that I will be in my coffin before I will fight again under your command
36.
Russell A. Alger
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Russell Alexander Alger was the 20th Governor and U. S. Senator from the state of Michigan and also U. S. Secretary of War during the Presidential administration of William McKinley, Russell Alexander Alger was born on February 27,1836, in Lafayette Township in Medina County, Ohio. His parents were Russell and Caroline Alger and he was orphaned at age 13 and worked on a farm to support himself and two younger siblings. He attended Richfield Academy in Summit County, Ohio, and taught school for two winters. He studied law in Akron, Ohio, and was admitted to the bar in March 1859 and he first began to practice law in Cleveland and moved to Grand Rapids, Michigan, in 1860, where he engaged in the lumber business. On April 2,1861, he married Annette Huldana Squire Henry of Grand Rapids and they had six children, Henrietta Fay Huldana Bailey, Caroline Annette Shelden, Frances Aura Pike, Russell Alexander Alger, Jr. Frederick Charles Moulton Alger and Allan Alger. Frederick graduated from Harvard in 1899, served as a lieutenant colonel with the American Expeditionary Force in France during the First World War and was awarded the French Legion of Honor. Alger was the scion of a prominent family, many of whom became involved in 20th century Michigan politics and active in the Republican Party. His son, Russell A. Alger, Jr. Russell A. Alger had a home in Black River which is in Alcona Township, Michigan and he enlisted as a private soldier in the American Civil War on September 2,1861. He was commissioned and served as a captain and major in the 2nd Michigan Cavalry Regiment, at the Battle of Boonesville, July 11,1862, he was sent by Colonel Philip Sheridan to attack the enemys rear with ninety picked men. The Confederate forces were defeated, and although Alger was wounded and taken prisoner. On October 16, he was lieutenant colonel of the 6th Michigan Cavalry. On February 28,1863, he was promoted to colonel of the 5th Michigan Cavalry and his command was the first to enter Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, on June 28, and he was specially mentioned in the report of General George Armstrong Custer on cavalry operations there. He participated in General Sheridans Valley Campaigns of 1864 in Virginia, on June 11,1864, at Trevillian Station, he captured a large force of Confederates with a brilliant cavalry charge. Alger resigned from the army on September 20,1864, in three years, he served in 66 different battles and skirmishes. He was also a member of the Michigan Commandery of the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States, Algers two sons, Frederick W. Alger and Russell A. Alger, Jr. were hereditary companions of MOLLUS. After the Civil War, Alger settled in Detroit as head of Alger, Smith & Company and his great pine forest on Lake Huron comprised more than 100 square miles and produced annually more than 75,000,000 board feet of lumber. In order to transport the lumber, Alger led his company to create the Detroit, Bay City and Alpena Railroad, of which Alger served as president
37.
George E. Goodfellow
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Dr. George Emory Goodfellow was a physician and naturalist in the American Old West who developed a reputation as the United States foremost expert in treating bullet wounds. As a physician in Tombstone, Arizona Territory, he treated many gunshot wounds to both lawmen and outlaws and he performed the first recorded laparotomy for treating an abdominal gunshot wound and was the first surgeon to perform a perineal prostatectomy to remove an enlarged prostate. He pioneered the use of anesthesia and sterile techniques in treating gunshot wounds and is regarded as the first civilian trauma surgeon. Goodfellow was a pugnacious, brilliant and versatile physician with wide-ranging interests, in 1889, he got into a fight with another man and stabbed him, but was found to have acted in self-defense. Goodfellow treated Virgil Earp and Morgan Earp after they were wounded in the Gunfight at the O. K. Corral and his testimony later helped absolve the Earps and Doc Holliday of murder charges when they shot and killed three outlaw Cowboys and supported their contention that they acted lawfully. He treated Virgil again when he was maimed in an ambush and he left Tombstone in 1889 and established a successful practice in Tucson before moving to San Francisco in 1899 and opened a medical office there. He fell ill during 1910 and died later that year in Los Angeles, Goodfellows father, Milton J. Goodfellow, came to California in 1853 to mine for gold. His mother, Amanda Baskin Goodfellow, followed two years later via boat, mule over the Panama Isthmus, and then on the steamship S. S, Goodfellow was born on December 23,1855 in Downieville, California, then one of the largest cities in the state. His parents also had two daughters, Mary Catherine and Bessie and his father became a mining engineer and maintained an interest in medicine. Goodfellow grew up around California Gold Rush mining camps and developed a deep interest in mining and medicine. When he was 12, his parents sent him across the country to a school in Pennsylvania. He returned to California two years later where he attended the California Military Academy in Oakland and he was then accepted to the University of California at Berkeley where he studied Civil Engineering for one year before he applied to U. S. Naval Academy. In 1870 he was living with his family in Treasure City, Nevada, Goodfellow became the boxing champion at the Academy and was well accepted by his fellow midshipmen. Like many of his cadets, he took exception to the presence of the Academys first black cadet. While marching, Goodfellow and another Cadet began kicking and punching Conyers, Goodfellow later knocked Conyers down some stairs. News of the incidents and the constant hazing experienced by Conyers leaked to the newspapers, Goodfellow denied any wrongdoing and Conyers claimed he could not identify any of his attackers. The board nonetheless concluded that His persecutors are left then without any excuse or palliation except the one of prejudice. The review board believed the Academy needed to give Croyden a fair chance at succeeding on his own merits, in December 1872, Goodfellow and two others were dismissed from the Academy
38.
Whisky
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Whisky or whiskey is a type of distilled alcoholic beverage made from fermented grain mash. Various grains are used for different varieties, including barley, corn, rye, Whisky is typically aged in wooden casks, generally made of charred white oak. Whisky is a strictly regulated spirit worldwide with many classes and types, the typical unifying characteristics of the different classes and types are the fermentation of grains, distillation, and aging in wooden barrels. The word whiskey is an anglicisation of the Classical Gaelic word uisce meaning water, distilled alcohol was known in Latin as aqua vitae. This was translated to Classical Gaelic as uisce beatha, which became uisce beatha in Irish, early forms of the word in English included uskebeaghe, usquebaugh, usquebath, and usquebae. Much is made of the two spellings, whiskey and whisky. There are two schools of thought on the issue, there is general agreement that when quoting the proper name printed on a label, the spelling on the label should not be altered. Some writers refer to whisky or whisky/whiskey to acknowledge the variation, the spelling whiskey is common in Ireland and the United States, while whisky is used in all other whisky producing countries. In the US, the usage has not always been consistent, from the late eighteenth century to the mid twentieth century, American writers used both spellings interchangeably until the introduction of newspaper style guides. Since the 1960s, American writers have increasingly used whiskey as the spelling for aged grain spirits made in the US. Scotch is the internationally recognized term for Scotch whisky, the earliest certain chemical distillations were by Greeks in Alexandria in the 1st century AD, but these were not distillations of alcohol. The medieval Arabs adopted the technique of the Alexandrian Greeks, and written records in Arabic begin in the 9th century. Distilling technology passed from the medieval Arabs to the medieval Latins, the earliest records of the distillation of alcohol are in Italy in the 13th century, where alcohol was distilled from wine. An early description of the technique was given by Ramon Llull and its use spread through medieval monasteries, largely for medicinal purposes, such as the treatment of colic and smallpox. The art of distillation spread to Ireland and Scotland no later than the 15th century, the practice of medicinal distillation eventually passed from a monastic setting to the secular via professional medical practitioners of the time, The Guild of Barber Surgeons. The earliest Irish mention of whisky comes from the seventeenth-century Annals of Clonmacnoise, between 1536 and 1541, King Henry VIII of England dissolved the monasteries, sending their monks out into the general public. Whisky production moved out of a setting and into personal homes. The distillation process was still in its infancy, whisky itself was not allowed to age, renaissance-era whisky was also very potent and not diluted
United States
Republic of Cuba
Kingdom of Spain
William T. Sampson
