1.
Ami shakushi
–
Ami jakushi is a Skimmer used in the Japanese kitchen. The Skimmer is made from a wire mesh and is used to remove small pieces of unwanted food or foam from a liquid. For example, in deep frying, the ami jakushi is used to remove small drops of batter during the frying of tempura, another example would be the removal of foam from a miso soup to achieve a more pleasing aesthetic. Spider – Chinese utensil List of Japanese cooking utensils
Ami shakushi
–
Ami shakushi
2.
Tempura
–
Tempura is a Japanese dish of seafood or vegetables that have been battered and deep fried. A light batter is made of water and soft wheat flour. Eggs, baking soda or baking powder, starch, oil, the batter is often kept cold by adding ice, or by placing the bowl inside a larger bowl with ice in it. Overmixing the batter will result in activation of wheat gluten, which causes the mixture to become soft. Specially formulated tempura flour is available in worldwide supermarkets and this is generally light flour, and occasionally contains leaveners such as baking powder. Tempura generally does not use breadcrumbs in the coating, generally, fried foods which are coated with breadcrumbs are considered to be furai, Japanese-invented Western-style deep fried foods, such as tonkatsu or ebi furai. Thin slices or strips of vegetables or seafood are dipped in the batter, vegetable oil or canola oil are most common, however, tempura was traditionally cooked using sesame oil. Many specialty shops still use oil or tea seed oil. Oil temperature is kept between 160 and 180 degrees Celsius, depending on the ingredient. To preserve the flavor and texture of the ingredients, care is taken not to overcook tempura. Cooking times range between a few seconds for delicate leaf vegetables, to several minutes for thick items or large kaki-age fritters, the bits of batter are scooped out between batches of tempura, so they do not burn and leave a bad flavor in the oil. A small mesh scoop is used for this purpose, tenkasu are often reserved as ingredients in other dishes or as a topping. Various seafood and vegetables are used as the ingredients in traditional tempura. The most popular seafood tempura is probably ebi tempura, types of seafood used in tempura includes, Vegetables tempura is called yasai tempura. The all vegetable tempura might be served as a vegetarian dish, types of vegetables includes, Cooked bits of tempura are either eaten with dipping sauce, salted without sauce, or used to assemble other dishes. Tempura is commonly served with grated daikon and eaten hot immediately after frying, in Japan, it is often found in bowls of soba or udon soup often in the form of a shrimp, shiso leaf, or fritter. The most common sauce is tentsuyu sauce, alternatively, tempura may be sprinkled with sea salt before eating. Mixtures of powdered green tea and salt or yuzu and salt are also used, kakiage is a type of tempura made with mixed vegetable strips, such as onion, carrot, and burdock, and sometimes including shrimp or squid, which are deep fried as small round fritters
Tempura
–
Tempura shrimp and vegetables
Tempura
–
Tendon
Tempura
–
Tenzaru (Tempura and
Soba)
Tempura
–
Tempura
Udon
3.
Flour
–
Flour is a powder made by grinding raw grains or roots and used to make many different foods. While wheat is the most common base for flour, maize flour has been important in Mesoamerican cuisine since ancient times, rye flour is a constituent of bread in central Europe. The English word flour is originally a variant of the word flower, both derive from the Old French fleur or flour, which had the literal meaning blossom, and a figurative meaning the finest. The phrase fleur de farine meant the finest part of the meal, since flour resulted from the elimination of coarse, the earliest archaeological evidence for wheat seeds crushed between simple millstones to make flour dates to 6000 BC. The Romans were the first to grind seeds on cone mills, in 1879, at the beginning of the Industrial Era, the first steam mill was erected in London. In the 1930s, some began to be enriched with iron, niacin, thiamine. In the 1940s, mills started to enrich flour and folic acid was added to the list in the 1990s, an important problem of the industrial revolution was the preservation of flour. Transportation distances and a relatively slow distribution system collided with natural shelf life, the reason for the limited shelf life is the fatty acids of the germ, which react from the moment they are exposed to oxygen. This occurs when grain is milled, the fatty acids oxidize, depending on climate and grain quality, this process takes six to nine months. In the late 19th century, this process was too short for a production and distribution cycle. As vitamins, micronutrients and amino acids were completely or relatively unknown in the late 19th century, without the germ, flour cannot become rancid. Degermation started in densely populated areas and took approximately one generation to reach the countryside, heat-processed flour is flour where the germ is first separated from the endosperm and bran, then processed with steam, dry heat or microwave and blended into flour again. Milling of flour is accomplished by grinding grain between stones or steel wheels, today, stone-ground usually means that the grain has been ground in a mill in which a revolving stone wheel turns over a stationary stone wheel, vertically or horizontally with the grain in between. These terms are now applied broadly to uses of water. More recently, the Unifine mill, a mill, was developed in the mid-20th century. Home users have begun grinding their own flour from organic wheat berries on a variety of electric flour mills, the grinding process is not much different from grinding coffee but the mills are larger. This provides fresh flour with the benefits of wheat germ and fiber without spoilage, Flour contains a high proportion of starches, which are a subset of complex carbohydrates also known as polysaccharides. The kinds of used in cooking include all-purpose flour, self-rising flour
Flour
–
Three different kinds of wheat and rye flour. From left to right: wheat flour Type 550, wheat flour Type 1050, rye flour Type 1150
Flour
–
A field of wheat prior to harvesting
Flour
–
Flour being stored in large cloth sacks
Flour
–
A variety of types of flour and cereals sold at a bazaar in
Bishkek,
Kyrgyzstan
4.
Triage
–
Triage is the process of determining the priority of patients treatments based on the severity of their condition. This rations patient treatment efficiently when resources are insufficient for all to be treated immediately, the term comes from the French verb trier, meaning to separate, sift or select. Triage may result in determining the order and priority of emergency treatment, Triage may also be used for patients arriving at the emergency department, or telephoning medical advice systems, among others. This article deals with the concept of triage as it occurs in medical emergencies, including the setting, disasters. The term triage may have originated during the Napoleonic Wars from the work of Dominique Jean Larrey, the term was used further during World War I by French doctors treating the battlefield wounded at the aid stations behind the front. For many emergency medical systems, a similar model may sometimes still be applied. In the earliest stages of an incident, such as one or two paramedics exist to twenty or more patients, practicality demands that the above, more primitive model will be used. However once a full response has occurred and many hands are available, paramedics will usually use the model included in their service policy, as medical technology has advanced, so have modern approaches to triage, which are increasingly based on scientific models. The categorizations of the victims are frequently the result of triage scores based on specific physiological assessment findings, some models, such as the START model may be algorithm-based. As triage concepts become more sophisticated, triage guidance is also evolving into both software and hardware decision support products for use by caregivers in both hospitals and the field and this section is for concepts in triage. This step can be started before transportation becomes available, at its most primitive, patients may be simply marked with coloured flagging tape or with marker pens. Pre-printed cards for this purpose are known as a triage tags, a triage tag is a prefabricated label placed on each patient that serves to accomplish several objectives, identify the patient. Identify the priority of the patients need for treatment and transport from the emergency scene. Track the patients progress through the triage process, identify additional hazards such as contamination. Triage tags may take a variety of forms, some countries use a nationally standardized triage tag, while in other countries commercially available triage tags are used, and these will vary by jurisdictional choice. The most commonly used commercial systems include the METTAG, the SMARTTAG, E/T LIGHT tm, some of these tracking systems are beginning to incorporate the use of handheld computers, and in some cases, bar code scanners. For classifications, see the section for that topic. In advanced triage, doctors and specially trained nurses may decide that some seriously injured people should not receive advanced care because they are unlikely to survive
Triage
–
Triage station,
Suippes, France,
World War I
Triage
–
Triage station at the Pentagon after the impact of
American Airlines Flight 77 during the
September 11, 2001 attacks.
Triage
–
Many triage systems use triage tags with specific formats
Triage
–
Emergency Triage (E/T) Lights – particularly useful at night or under adverse conditions
5.
Wicker
–
Wicker is a kind of furniture woven from any one of a variety of cane-like materials, including rattan, willow, reed and bamboo. As such, it is not a material, but a technique. The word wicker is believed to be of Scandinavian origin, wika which means to bend in Swedish, Wicker is traditionally made of material of plant origin, but plastic fibers are now also used. Wicker is light yet sturdy, making it suitable for furniture that will be moved often like porch, a variety of plants are used such as reeds, grasses, creepers, and thin tree branches. Rushwork and wickerwork are terms used in England, Wicker has been documented as far back as ancient Egypt, made from indigenous reed and swamp grasses. Middle-class families could afford a few pieces, such as small tables. However, archaeologists working on the tombs of the wealthy pharaohs have uncovered a variety of wicker items, including chests, baskets, wig boxes. Wicker even found use in the Achaemenid Empire on the battlefield, the popularity of wicker passed from ancient Egypt and Persia to ancient Rome. Wicker baskets were used to carry items in Pompeii, furniture was manufactured out of wicker in the Roman style. It has been proposed that the use of wicker in the Iron Age may have influenced the development of the woven patterns used in Celtic art. By the 16th and 17th centuries, wicker was quite common in European countries like Portugal, Spain, Wicker received a boost during the Age of Exploration, when international sea traders returned from southeast Asia with a species of palm called rattan. Rattan is stronger than traditional European wicker materials, although the stem can be separated so the softer inner core can be used for wicker. The 19th century brought immense popularity for wicker in Europe, England and it was used outdoors as well as indoors. People in the Victorian Era believed it to be more sanitary than upholstered furniture and it was inexpensive, resisted harsh weather and was adaptable to many styles. In the United States, Cyrus Wakefield began constructing rattan furniture in the 1850s and he first used rattan that had been offloaded from ships, where it was used as ballast, but as his designs became well-known, he began importing the material himself. In recent times, its aesthetic was influenced heavily by the Arts and Crafts movement at the turn of the 20th century, Wicker is still a popular material. Antique wicker products are sought after by collectors. Reproductions of furniture and accent pieces are sold for indoor and outdoor use
Wicker
–
A handmade wickerwork
cat tree
Wicker
Wicker
Wicker
6.
Riddle (tool)
–
A riddle is a large sieve used to separate soil or compost particles, or for separating soil from vegetables. A typical circular riddle is approximately 18 in diameter and the mesh may have a spacing of something like 1 1⁄2,1, 5/8, 1/2 or 3/8. A riddle is typically used to improve soil quality by allowing the gardener to sieve through soil and remove stones, twigs, large lumps of clay etc. smaller riddles can be used to separate soil very finely for seeds and early potting. Riddles may also be used to remove soil from harvested vegetables
Riddle (tool)
–
A square riddle
7.
Willow
–
Most species are known as willow, but some narrow-leaved shrub species are called osier, and some broader-leaved species are referred to as sallow. Some willows are low-growing or creeping shrubs, for example, the dwarf willow rarely exceeds 6 cm in height, though it spreads widely across the ground. Willows all have abundant watery bark sap, which is charged with salicylic acid, soft, usually pliant, tough wood, slender branches. The roots are remarkable for their toughness, size, and tenacity to life, the leaves are typically elongated, but may also be round to oval, frequently with serrated edges. Most species are deciduous, semievergreen willows with coriaceous leaves are rare, e. g. Salix micans, all the buds are lateral, no absolutely terminal bud is ever formed. The buds are covered by a single scale, usually, the bud scale is fused into a cap-like shape, but in some species it wraps around and the edges overlap. The leaves are simple, feather-veined, and typically linear-lanceolate, usually they are serrate, rounded at base, acute or acuminate. The leaf petioles are short, the often very conspicuous, resembling tiny, round leaves. On some species, however, they are small, inconspicuous, in color, the leaves show a great variety of greens, ranging from yellowish to bluish. Willows are dioecious, with male and female flowers appearing as catkins on separate plants and this scale is square, entire, and very hairy. The anthers are rose-colored in the bud, but orange or purple after the flower opens, they are two-celled, the filaments are threadlike, usually pale brown, and often bald. The ovary is one-celled, the style two-lobed, and the ovules numerous, almost all willows take root very readily from cuttings or where broken branches lie on the ground. The few exceptions include the willow and peachleaf willow. One famous example of such growth from cuttings involves the poet Alexander Pope and this twig was planted and thrived, and legend has it that all of Englands weeping willows are descended from this first one. Willows are often planted on the borders of streams so their interlacing roots may protect the bank against the action of the water, frequently, the roots are much larger than the stem which grows from them. Willows are very cross-compatible, and numerous hybrids occur, both naturally and in cultivation, a well-known ornamental example is the weeping willow, which is a hybrid of Peking willow from China and white willow from Europe. The hybrid cultivar Boydii has gained the Royal Horticultural Societys Award of Garden Merit, Willows are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species, such as the mourning cloak butterfly. Ants, such as ants, are common on willows inhabited by aphids, coming to collect aphid honeydew
Willow
–
Willow
Willow
–
At the base of the petiole a pair of stipules form. These may fall in spring, or last for much of the summer or even for more than one year (
marcescence).
Willow
–
Young male catkin
Willow
–
Knotted willow and woodpile in the
Bourgoyen-Ossemeersen,
Ghent, Belgium
8.
American elm
–
The American elm is an extremely hardy tree that can withstand winter temperatures as low as −42 °C. Trees in areas unaffected by Dutch elm disease can live for several hundred years, for over 80 years, U. americana has been identified as a tetraploid, i. e. having double the usual number of chromosomes, making it unique within the genus. However, a study published in 2011 by the Agricultural Research Service of the USDA revealed that about 20% of wild American elms are diploid, and may even constitute another species. Moreover, several trees known only in cultivation, such as Jefferson, are possessed of a high degree of resistance to Dutch elm disease which ravaged American elms in the 20th century. This suggests that the parent trees, which have markedly smaller cells than the tetraploid. Ulmus americana was first described and named by Carl Linnaeus in his Species Plantarum, no subspecies or varieties are currently recognized within the species. The leaves are alternate, 7–20 cm long, with double-serrate margins, the perfect flowers are small, purple-brown and, being wind-pollinated, apetalous. The flowers are protogynous, the female parts maturing before the male, thus reducing, but not eliminating, self-fertilization. The fruit is a flat samara 2 cm long by 1.5 cm broad, as in the closely related European White Elm Ulmus laevis, the flowers and seeds are borne on 1–3 cm long stems. American Elm is wholly insensitive to daylight length, and will continue to grow well into autumn until injured by frost, on more elevated terrain, as in the Appalachian Mountains, it is most often found along rivers. The species wind-dispersed seeds enable it to spread rapidly as suitable areas of habitat become available, American elm produces its seed crop in late spring and the seeds usually germinate right away with no cold stratification needed. A sugar maple-ironwood-American elm cover type occurs on some hilltops near Témiscaming, the leaves of the American elm serve as food for the larvae of various lepidopterans. The American elm is susceptible to Dutch elm disease and elm yellows. In north America, there are three species of elm bark beetles, one native, Hylurgopinus rufipes, and two invasive, Scolytus multistriatus and Scolytus schevyrewi, although intensive feeding by elm bark beetles can kill weakened trees, their main impact is as vectors of DED. U. americana is also the most susceptible of all the elms to verticillium wilt, however, the condition is far less serious, and afflicted trees should recover the following year. Dutch elm disease is a disease which has ravaged the American elm. It has been estimated that only approximately 1 in 100,000 American elm trees is DED-tolerant, however, in some areas still not populated by Dutch elm disease, the American elm continues to thrive, notably in Florida, Alberta and British Columbia. Spores introduced outside of this period remain largely static within the xylem and are relatively ineffective
American elm
–
Ulmus americana"
American elm
–
U. americana,
Dufferin Street, Toronto, c.1914
American elm
–
Bark
American elm
–
Leaf
9.
Oak
–
An oak is a tree or shrub in the genus Quercus of the beech family, Fagaceae. There are approximately 600 extant species of oaks, the common name oak also appears in the names of species in related genera, notably Lithocarpus, as well as in those of unrelated species such as Grevillea robusta and the Casuarinaceae. North America contains the largest number of oak species, with approximately 90 occurring in the United States, the second greatest center of oak diversity is China, which contains approximately 100 species. Oaks have spirally arranged leaves, with lobate margins in many species, also, the acorns contain tannic acid, as do the leaves, which helps to guard from fungi and insects. Many deciduous species are marcescent, not dropping dead leaves until spring, in spring, a single oak tree produces both male flowers and small female flowers. The fruit is a nut called an acorn, borne in a structure known as a cupule, each acorn contains one seed and takes 6–18 months to mature. The live oaks are distinguished for being evergreen, but are not actually a distinct group, the oak tree is a flowering plant. Oaks may be divided into two genera and a number of sections, The genus Quercus is divided into the following sections, Quercus, the white oaks of Europe, Asia and North America. Styles are short, acorns mature in 6 months and taste sweet or slightly bitter, the leaves mostly lack a bristle on their lobe tips, which are usually rounded. The type species is Quercus robur, Mesobalanus, Hungarian oak and its relatives of Europe and Asia. Styles long, acorns mature in about 6 months and taste bitter, the section Mesobalanus is closely related to section Quercus and sometimes included in it. Cerris, the Turkey oak and its relatives of Europe and Asia, styles long, acorn mature in 18 months and taste very bitter. The inside of the shell is hairless. Its leaves typically have sharp tips, with bristles at the lobe tip. Protobalanus, the live oak and its relatives, in southwest United States. Styles short, acorns mature in 18 months and taste very bitter, the inside of the acorn shell appears woolly. Leaves typically have sharp tips, with bristles at the lobe tip. Lobatae, the red oaks of North America, Central America, styles long, acorns mature in 18 months and taste very bitter
Oak
–
Oak
Oak
–
Oak at Schönderling
Oak
–
A hybrid white oak, possibly
Quercus stellata ×
Q. muhlenbergii
Oak
–
Heart of oak
beams of the frame of Saint-Girons church in
Monein, France
10.
Beech
–
Beech is a genus of deciduous trees in the family Fagaceae, native to temperate Europe, Asia and North America. Recent classification systems of the genus recognize ten to thirteen species in two subgenera, Engleriana and Fagus. Further differentiating characteristics include the whitish bloom on the underside of the leaves, the visible tertiary leaf veins, Fagus japonica, Fagus engleriana, and the species F. okamotoi, proposed by the botanist Chung-Fu Shen in 1992, comprise this subgenus. The better known Fagus subgenus beeches are high-branching with tall, stout trunks and this group includes Fagus sylvatica, Fagus grandifolia, Fagus crenata, Fagus lucida, Fagus longipetiolata, and Fagus hayatae. The classification of the European beech, Fagus sylvatica is complex, research suggests that beeches in Eurasia differentiated fairly late in evolutionary history, during the Miocene. The populations in this area represent a range of often overlapping morphotypes, within its family, the Fagaceae, recent research has suggested that Fagus is the evolutionarily most basal group. The southern beeches previously thought closely related to beeches, are now treated as members of a separate family and they are found in Australia, New Zealand, New Guinea, New Caledonia, Argentina and Chile. The European beech is the most commonly cultivated, although there are few important differences between species aside from detail elements such as leaf shape, the leaves of beech trees are entire or sparsely toothed, from 5–15 cm long and 4–10 cm broad. Beeches are monoecious, bearing male and female flowers on the same plant. The small flowers are unisexual, the flowers borne in pairs. They are produced in spring shortly after the new leaves appear, the bark is smooth and light grey. The fruit is a small, sharply three–angled nut 10–15 mm long, borne singly or in pairs in soft-spined husks 1. 5–2.5 cm long, known as cupules. The husk can have a variety of spine- to scale-like appendages, the nuts are edible, though bitter with a high tannin content, and are called beechnuts or beechmast. The name of the tree is of Indo-European origin, and played an important role in debates on the geographical origins of the Indo-European people. Greek φηγός is from the root, but the word was transferred to the oak tree as a result of the absence of beech trees in Greece. Beech grows on a range of soil types, acidic or basic. The tree canopy casts dense shade, and carpets the ground thickly with leaf litter, in North America, they often form beech-maple climax forests by partnering with the sugar maple. The beech blight aphid is a common pest of American beech trees, Beeches are also used as food plants by some species of Lepidoptera
Beech
–
Beech
Beech
–
European beech with unusual aerial roots in a wet Scottish
glen.
Beech
–
European beech (Fagus sylvatica).
Beech
–
Beechnuts in
autumn.
11.
Sieve analysis
–
A sieve analysis is a practice or procedure used to assess the particle size distribution of a granular material. The size distribution is often of importance to the way the material performs in use. Being such a technique of particle sizing, it is probably the most common. A gradation test is performed on a sample of aggregate in a laboratory, a typical sieve analysis involves a nested column of sieves with wire mesh cloth. See the separate Mesh page for details of sieve sizing, a representative weighed sample is poured into the top sieve which has the largest screen openings. Each lower sieve in the column has smaller openings than the one above, at the base is a round pan, called the receiver. The column is placed in a mechanical shaker. The shaker shakes the column, usually for some fixed amount of time, after the shaking is complete the material on each sieve is weighed. The weight of the sample of each sieve is then divided by the weight to give a percentage retained on each sieve. The size of the particle on each sieve is then analysed to get a cut-off point or specific size range. The results of this test are provided in form to identify the type of gradation of the aggregate. The entire nest is then agitated, and the material whose diameter is smaller than the opening pass through the sieves. After the aggregate reaches the pan, the amount of material retained in each sieve is then weighed, in order to perform the test, a sufficient sample of the aggregate must be obtained from the source. To prepare the sample, the aggregate should be mixed thoroughly, the total weight of the sample is also required. The results are presented in a graph of percent passing versus the sieve size, on the graph the sieve size scale is logarithmic. To find the percent of aggregate passing through each sieve, first find the percent retained in each sieve, the next step is to find the cumulative percent of aggregate retained in each sieve. To do so, add up the amount of aggregate that is retained in each sieve. The cumulative percent passing of the aggregate is found by subtracting the percent retained from 100%, %Cumulative Passing = 100% - %Cumulative Retained
Sieve analysis
–
Sieves used for gradation test.
Sieve analysis
–
A mechanical shaker used for sieve analysis.
Sieve analysis
–
Tapping sieving
12.
Civil engineering
–
Civil engineering is traditionally broken into a number of sub-disciplines. It is the second-oldest engineering discipline after military engineering, and it is defined to distinguish non-military engineering from military engineering, Civil engineering takes place in the public sector from municipal through to national governments, and in the private sector from individual homeowners through to international companies. Engineering has been an aspect of life since the beginnings of human existence, during this time, transportation became increasingly important leading to the development of the wheel and sailing. The construction of pyramids in Egypt were some of the first instances of large structure constructions, the Romans developed civil structures throughout their empire, including especially aqueducts, insulae, harbors, bridges, dams and roads. In the 18th century, the civil engineering was coined to incorporate all things civilian as opposed to military engineering. The first self-proclaimed civil engineer was John Smeaton, who constructed the Eddystone Lighthouse, in 1771 Smeaton and some of his colleagues formed the Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers, a group of leaders of the profession who met informally over dinner. Though there was evidence of some meetings, it was little more than a social society. In 1818 the Institution of Civil Engineers was founded in London, the institution received a Royal Charter in 1828, formally recognising civil engineering as a profession. The first private college to teach engineering in the United States was Norwich University. The first degree in engineering in the United States was awarded by Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 1835. The first such degree to be awarded to a woman was granted by Cornell University to Nora Stanton Blatch in 1905, throughout ancient and medieval history most architectural design and construction was carried out by artisans, such as stonemasons and carpenters, rising to the role of master builder. Knowledge was retained in guilds and seldom supplanted by advances, structures, roads and infrastructure that existed were repetitive, and increases in scale were incremental. Brahmagupta, an Indian mathematician, used arithmetic in the 7th century AD, based on Hindu-Arabic numerals, Civil engineers typically possess an academic degree in civil engineering. The length of study is three to five years, and the degree is designated as a bachelor of engineering. The curriculum generally includes classes in physics, mathematics, project management, design, after taking basic courses in most sub-disciplines of civil engineering, they move onto specialize in one or more sub-disciplines at advanced levels. In most countries, a degree in engineering represents the first step towards professional certification. After completing a degree program, the engineer must satisfy a range of requirements before being certified. Once certified, the engineer is designated as a engineer, a chartered engineer
Civil engineering
–
A multi-level stack interchange, buildings, houses, and park in
Shanghai, China.
Civil engineering
–
Philadelphia City Hall in the United States is still the world's tallest masonry load bearing structure.
Civil engineering
–
Leonhard Euler developed the theory explaining the
buckling of columns
Civil engineering
–
John Smeaton, the "father of civil engineering"
13.
Sedimentology
–
Sedimentology encompasses the study of modern sediments such as sand, silt, and clay, and the processes that result in their formation, transport, deposition and diagenesis. Sedimentologists apply their understanding of processes to interpret geologic history through observations of sedimentary rocks. Sedimentary rocks cover up to 75% of the Earths surface, record much of the Earths history, sedimentology is closely linked to stratigraphy, the study of the physical and temporal relationships between rock layers or strata. The premise that the processes affecting the earth today are the same as in the past is the basis for determining how sedimentary features in the record were formed. There are four types of sedimentary rocks, clastics, carbonates, evaporites. Clastic rocks are composed of particles derived from the weathering and erosion of precursor rocks, Clastic rocks are classified according to their predominant grain size and their composition. In the past, the term Clastic Sedimentary Rocks were used to describe silica-rich clastic sedimentary rocks, the more appropriate term is siliciclastic sedimentary rocks. Typically, the majority of rocks are composed of reef material. Evaporites are formed through the evaporation of water at the Earths surface, chemical sedimentary rocks, including some carbonates, are deposited by precipitation of minerals from aqueous solution. Sedimentary rocks provide a multitude of products which modern and ancient society has come to utilise, Coal and oil shale are found in sedimentary rocks. A large proportion of the worlds uranium energy resources are hosted within sedimentary successions, groundwater, sedimentary rocks contain a large proportion of the Earths groundwater aquifers. Our understanding of the extent of these aquifers and how water can be withdrawn from them depends critically on our knowledge of the rocks that hold them. Thus, when the direction is known, the rocks can be unfolded and interpreted according to the contained sedimentary information. The principle of continuity states that layers of sediment initially extend laterally in all directions unless obstructed by a physical object or topography. The principle of cross-cutting relationships states that whatever cuts across or intrudes into the layers of strata is younger than the layers of strata, such rocks are widely used to infer past climates, ocean conditions, and orbital variations. Considerable recent research into mudstones has been driven by the recent effort to produce hydrocarbons from them. Important publications in sedimentology Sequence stratigraphy Rock formation Coal Oil shale Ore genesis Clastic rocks Vegetation-induced sedimentary structures Geology
Sedimentology
–
Middle
Triassic marginal marine sequence of siltstones and sandstones, southwestern
Utah.
Sedimentology
–
Mi Vida uranium mine in
redox mudstones near
Moab, Utah
Sedimentology
–
Heavy minerals (dark) deposited in a
quartz beach
sand (
Chennai, India).
Sedimentology
–
Centripetal desiccation cracks (with a
dinosaur footprint in the center) in the Lower
Jurassic Moenave Formation at the St. George Dinosaur Discovery Site at Johnson Farm, southwestern Utah.
14.
Chinois
–
A chinois is a conical sieve with an extremely fine mesh. It is used to strain custards, purees, soups, and sauces and it can also be used to dust food with a fine layer of powdered ingredient. Chinois is a loanword from the French adjective meaning Chinese, a related utensil is the tamis - a flat strainer through which food is pressed with a scraper or pestle. A similarly-shaped utensil is the China cap, a reference to the conical Asian hats common in China and it is a perforated metal conical strainer with much larger holes than a chinois. A China cap is used to remove seeds and other matter from soft foods. Both the chinois and the China cap often are used with a cone-shaped pestle, with the pestle tip placed in the bottom of the strainer, it is rolled against the sides of the device to work liquids and soft food through it. In this way, the chinois functions much like a tamis, a small ladle can also be used instead of a pestle, allowing scooping solids from the sides of the strainer as well as pressing liquid through the mesh
Chinois
–
A medium fine chinois
15.
Food mill
–
A food mill is a food preparation utensil for mashing and sieving soft foods. The bottom plate may be a permanent part of the device, three corrugated feet on the base, or two ears on the rim plus the handle, fit on the rim of a cooking pot and hold the mill in position over it. Food mills are usually made of steel or aluminum. The bowl may be plastic, particularly for smaller sizes marketed for preparing baby food, older heirloom utensils were usually made from tinplate. This piece of equipment, of long-proven efficiency, bridges the gap between a sieve and the electric blender or food processor. Its function is similar to that of a potato ricer or hob type of spätzle maker, uses of a food mill include removing the seeds from cooked tomatoes, removing pulp or larger pieces from foods, and making mashed potatoes or spätzle. A metal sieve used with a spoon or pestle may be found more effective for puréeing fibrous foodstuffs such as marmalade oranges. Blade grinder Grater Weed grinder List of food preparation utensils
Food mill
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Moulin Legumes No.2
Food mill
16.
Cocktail strainer
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A cocktail strainer is a metal bar accessory used to remove ice from a mixed drink as it is poured into the serving glass. A type of sieve, the strainer is placed over the mouth of the glass or shaker in which the beverage was prepared, there are two common types of strainers. The Hawthorne strainer is a disc with a handle and two or more stabilizing prongs, a metal spring fixed around the edge of the rim rolls inward to fit inside the glass. The rim of the strainer does not need to touch the rim of the glass, the Julep strainer is shaped like a bowl with a handle, and will fit tightly into a mixing glass or shaker when inserted at the proper angle. Liquid passes through holes or slits in the bowl, Types and uses of strainers, archived from the original on December 13,2004 Types of strainers
Cocktail strainer
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A typical cocktail strainer - "Hawthorne" type
Cocktail strainer
17.
Colander
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A colander is a bowl-shaped kitchen utensil with holes in it used for draining food such as pasta or rice. A colander is also used to rinse vegetables, the perforated nature of the colander allows liquid to drain through while retaining the solids inside. It is sometimes called a pasta strainer or kitchen sieve. Conventionally, colanders are made of a metal, such as aluminium or thinly rolled stainless steel. Colanders are also made of plastic, silicone, ceramic, the word colander comes from the Latin colum meaning sieve. The colander in the form of pasta strainer was adopted as a religious headgear of the parody religion Pastafarianism in mock obedience to the Flying Spaghetti Monster
Colander
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A typical household colander
Colander
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A plastic colander
Colander
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Pastafarian protester wears a colander while showing an icon of the Flying Spaghetti Monster
18.
Spider (utensil)
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The name is derived from the wire pattern, which looks like a spiders web. Unlike sieves or strainers, which have fine mesh screens for straining away liquids as food is retrieved, however, most often it is used as a skimming tool to add or remove foods from hot liquids such as water or oil. Spiders may be flat and round or small round spoon-like utensils shaped into the form of an open basket. They may also be referred to as sieves, spoon sieves, spoon skimmers, a spider is ideal for lifting and draining foods from hot oil, soups, stocks and boiling water. It is the tool for skimming stocks, blanching vegetables. This kitchen utensil is most often used to retrieve foods that are being cooked in pots or pans of hot water. The spider can be dipped into steaming hot water or oil, skimmers made entirely of stainless steel are the best choice for use in the kitchen, since wooden-handled skimmers have a tendency to soak up liquids as the handle is exposed to hot water or oil. This allows growth of bacteria that could result in a food-borne illness, the size of the mesh makes these utensils suitable for use as improvised aerials for transmissions in the 2.4 GHz frequency range
Spider (utensil)
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Spider
19.
Tamis
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A tamis is a kitchen utensil, shaped somewhat like a snare drum, that acts as a strainer, grater, or food mill. A tamis has an edge, made of metal or wood. To use one, the places the tamis above a bowl. The food is pushed through using a scraper or pestle. Tamises have been in use since the Middle Ages, because the tamis mesh is flat, downward pressure can be applied with little effort simply by scraping with a horizontal motion. In comparison, a chef using a chinois must push down through the tip, a tamis should be used with the inner hoop uppermost, first because it holds more, and second so that the bowl below will rest on the hoop rather than the mesh. Tamises sift and grate ingredients finer than any other utensil, tamises range in size from 6 to 16 inches and the mesh is available in different gauges. The nylon mesh is more resilient than wire and keeps its shape better and it is the best mesh to use for fruit purées, which are liable to become discolored and tainted by wire. A wire mesh is sharper and stronger than nylon, but it will rust if not dried carefully after each use, horsehair mesh tamises were previously common, but are now difficult to find outside of an antique store. List of food preparation utensils Chinoise Food mill
Tamis
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Metal tamises
Tamis
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Man using a tamis, pushing the ingredients through the mesh with a scraper.
20.
Tea strainer
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A tea strainer is a type of strainer that is placed over or in a teacup to catch loose tea leaves. When tea is brewed in the manner in a teapot, the tea leaves are not contained in teabags. As the leaves themselves may be distasteful, it is usual to filter them out with a tea strainer, strainers usually fit into the top of the cup to catch the leaves as the tea is poured. By using a tea strainer in this way, the leaves can be used to brew multiple cups. Many assert that inferior ingredients, namely dust quality tea, are used in tea bags. Tea strainers are usually either sterling silver, stainless steel, or china, strainers often come in a set, with the strainer part and a small saucer for it to sit in between cups. Tea strainers in themselves have often turned into artistic masterpieces of the silver- and goldsmiths craft. Brewing baskets resemble tea strainers, but are typically put in the top of a teapot to contain the tea leaves during brewing. There is no boundary between a brewing basket and a tea strainer, and the same tool might be used for both purposes. Tea strainers may also be used for separating milk solids from ghee, a further use is to separate the liquid from the solid when preparing Béarnaise sauce. Tea strainers or a similar small sieve may also be used by patients trying to pass a kidney stone, the patient urinates through the strainer, thereby ensuring that, if a stone is passed, it will be caught for evaluation and diagnosis. Tea infuser Tea ball Coffee filter Bombilla Cheesecloth
Tea strainer
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A tea strainer with a bamboo handle
Tea strainer
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A tea strainer on a teacup
21.
Zaru
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A zaru is a draining basket made from bamboo used in the preparation and presentation of Japanese cuisine. It can be used in a fashion to a sieve or colander. Additionally, well-designed zaru are used to present food directly, as for example zarusoba, plastic and metal versions of the zaru have also come into use, but are rarely used to present food. Similar to the makisu, zaru are dried, and stored after use to extend the lifespan of the tool, however, drying in harsh sunlight can cause the bamboo of the zaru to crack. Reflecting the zarus capacity to soak up liquid, this term is used as slang for a person who can drink a lot of alcohol without showing signs of inebriation
Zaru
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Zaru, made from
bamboo
Zaru
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Soba served on a zaru
22.
Separation process
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A separation process is a method to achieve any phenomenon that converts a mixture of chemical substance into two or more distinct product mixtures, which may be referred to as mixture. At least one of which is enriched in one or more of the mixtures constituents, in some cases, a separation may fully divide the mixture into its pure constituents. Separations differ in properties or physical properties such as size, shape, mass, density, or chemical affinity. They are often classified according to the differences they use to achieve separation. Usually there is physical movement and no substantial chemical modification. If no single difference can be used to accomplish a desired separation, with a few exceptions, elements or compounds are naturally found in an impure state. Often these impure raw materials must be separated into their purified components before they can be put to productive use, crude oil occurs naturally as a mixture of various hydrocarbons and impurities. In both of these cases, a series of separations is necessary to obtain the end products. In the case of oil refining, crude is subjected to a series of individual distillation steps. Separators are used for the separation of liquid, in fact, they are vertically supported centrifuges and are built with flying bearings. A separator belongs to the continues sedimentation centrifuges, both the purified liquid and the liquid separated from each other are continuously discharged by using a pump or pressure free. The solid material can be discharged discontinuously, pseudo continuously or continuously, the drum is the centerpiece of the separator, in which the separation process takes place. There are two types of drums, the drum and the disc drum. The power transmission on the spindle and thereby on the drum can take place by using one of the three motors, helical gears, a belt drive or direct drive, via a special motor. The sealing of the separators is differentiated into four types, open, semi-closed and this high voltage is used to separate the ionized particles
Separation process
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Processes
23.
Gold panning
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Gold panning, or simply panning, is a form of placer mining and traditional mining that extracts gold from a placer deposit using a pan. The process is one of the simplest ways to extract gold, and is popular with geology enthusiasts especially because of its cheap cost and the relatively simple and easy process. The first recorded instances of mining are from ancient Rome. Gold panning is a simple process, once a suitable placer deposit is located, some alluvial deposit are scooped into a pan, where it is then gently agitated in water and the gold sinks to the bottom of the pan. These dense materials usually consist primarily of a black, magnetite sand with stones or metal dust that may be found in the deposit that is used for source material. Pans remain in use in places there is limited capital or infrastructure. In many situations, gold panning usually turns up only minor gold dust that is collected as a souvenir in small clear tubes by hobbyists. Nuggets and considerable amounts of dust are found, but panning mining is not generally lucrative. Panning for gold can be used to locate the parent gold veins which are the source of most placer deposits, some are intended for use with mercury, include screens, sharp corners for breaking ice, are non-round, or are even designed for use with or without water. Edward Otho Cresap Ord, II, a former Army officer and co-owner of several mines, pans are measured by their diameter in inches or centimeters. Common sizes of gold pans today range between 10–17 inches, with 14 inches being the most used size, the sides are generally angled between 30° to 45°. Pans are manufactured in metal and high-impact plastic. Russia iron or heavy gauge steel pans are traditional, steel pans are heavier and stronger than plastic pans. Some are made of alloys for structural stability. Plastic gold pans resist rust, acid and corrosion, and most are designed with moulded riffles along one side of the pan, the batea is a particular variant of gold pan. Traditionally made of a piece of wood, it may also be made of metal. Bateas are used in areas where there is water available for use than with traditional gold pans, such as Mexico and South America. Bateas are larger than other gold pans, being closer to half a meter in diameter, the yuri-ita, Japanese for rocking plate is a traditional wooden gold pan used in Japan
Gold panning
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Panning for gold in a creek bed
Gold panning
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Gold in the pan, Alaska
Gold panning
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"Panning out" ~
Stereoscopic view of print taken by the U.S. Geological and Geographic Survey of the Territories ~ circa 1874 - 1879
Gold panning
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Various designs of gold pans from around the world
24.
Soil gradation
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Soil gradation is a classification of a coarse-grained soil that ranks the soil based on the different particle sizes contained in the soil. In a design, the gradation of the in situ or on site soil often controls the design, a poorly graded soil will have better drainage than a well graded soil. Soil is graded as either well graded or poorly graded, Soil gradation is determined by analyzing the results of a sieve analysis or a hydrometer analysis. The process for grading a soil is in accordance with either the Unified Soil Classification System or the AASHTO Soil Classification System, gradation of a soil is determined by reading the grain size distribution curve produced from the results of laboratory tests on the soil. Soil gradation is a classification of the size distribution of a soil. Coarse-grained soils, mainly gravels or sands, are graded as either well graded or poorly graded, poorly graded soils are further divided into uniformly-graded or gap-graded soils. Fine-grained soils, mainly silts and clays, are classified according to their Atterberg limits, a well graded soil is a soil that contains particles of a wide range of sizes and has a good representation of all sizes from the No.4 to No.200 sieves. A well graded gravel is classified as GW while a well graded sand is classified as SW, a poorly graded soil is a soil that does not have a good representation of all sizes of particles from the No.4 to No.200 sieve. A poorly graded gravel is classified as GP while a poorly graded sand is classified as SP, poorly graded soils are more susceptible to soil liquefaction than well graded soils. A gap-graded soil is a soil that has an excess or deficiency of certain sizes or a soil that has at least one particle size missing. An example of a soil is one in which sand of the No.10 and No.40 sizes are missing. The process of grading a soil is in accordance with either the Unified Soil Classification System or the AASHTO Soil Classification System. The steps in grading a soil are data collection, calculating coefficients of uniformity and curvature, Soil gradation is determined by analyzing the results of a sieve analysis or a hydrometer analysis. In a sieve analysis, a soil sample is shaken through a series of woven-wire square-mesh sieves. Each sieve has successively smaller openings so particles larger than the size of each sieve are retained on the sieve, the percentage of each soil size is measured by weighing the amount retained on each sieve and comparing the weight to the total weight of the sample. The results of a sieve analysis are plotted as a size distribution curve. In a hydrometer analysis, a soil sample is left to settle in a viscous fluid. This is used to classify fine-grained soils, calculating the coefficients of uniformity and curvature requires grain diameters
Soil gradation
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Soil Gradation Categories
25.
Mechanical screening
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Mechanical screening, often just called screening, is the practice of taking granulated ore material and separating it into multiple grades by particle size. This practice occurs in a variety of such as mining and mineral processing, agriculture, pharmaceutical, food, plastics. Screening fall under two categories, dry screening and wet screening. From these categories, screening separates a flow of material into grades, additionally the machines can be categorised into moving screen and static screen machines, as well as by whether the screens are horizontal or inclined. The mining and mineral processing industry uses screening for a variety of processing applications, for example, after mining the minerals, the material is transported to a primary crusher. Before crushing large boulder are scalped on a shaker with 0.25 in thick shielding screening, further down stream after crushing the material can pass through screens with openings or slots that continue to become smaller. Finally, screening is used to make a final separation to produce saleable products based on a grade or a size range, there are physical factors that makes screening practical. For example, vibration, g force, bed density, as with any industrial process there is a group of terms that identify and define what screening is. In addition, the way a deck is vibrated differentiates screens, different types of motion have their advantages and disadvantages. In addition media types also have their different properties that lead to advantages and disadvantages, finally, there are issues and problems associated with screening. Screen tearing, contamination, blinding, and dampening all affect screening efficiency, Vibration - either sinusoidal vibration or gyratory vibration. Sinusoidal Vibration occurs at an angled plane relative to the horizontal, the vibration is in a wave pattern determined by frequency and amplitude. Gyratory Vibration occurs at near level plane at low angles in a side to side motion. Gravity - This physical interaction is after material is thrown from the screen causing it to fall to a lower level, gravity also pulls the particles through the screen media. Density - The density of the material relates to material stratification, electrostatic Force - This force applies to screening when particles are extremely dry or is wet. Like any mechanical and physical entity there are scientific, industrial, the following is a partial list of terms that are associated with mechanical screening. Amplitude - This is a measurement of the cloth as it vertically peaks to its tallest height. Measured in multiples of the constant g
Mechanical screening
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Model of Screening Process
26.
Water filter
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A water filter removes impurities from water by means of a fine physical barrier, a chemical process or a biological process. Filters cleanse water to different extents for purposes such as providing agricultural irrigation, accessible drinking water, public and private aquaria, filters use sieving, adsorption, ion exchanges, biological metabolite transfer, and other processes to remove unwanted substances from a quantity of water. And unlike a sieve or screen, a filter can potentially remove particles much smaller than the holes through which its water passes. Types of water filters include media filters, screen filters, disk filters, slow sand filter beds, rapid sand filters, cloth filters, some filters use more than one filtration method. An example of this is a multi-barrier system, jug filters can be used for small quantities of drinking water. Some kettles have built-in filters, primarily to reduce limescale buildup, flowmatic cartridge style filters are cylinders 10 inches long by 2.5 inches in diameter. They are made by multiple manufactures and are available in 1-50 micron ratings as well as activated carbon, point-of-use microfiltration devices can be directly installed at water outlets in order to protect users against Legionella spp. Nontuberculous mycobacteria, Escherichia coli and other potentially harmful pathogens by providing a barrier to them and/or minimizing patient exposure. Water filters are used by hikers, aid organizations during humanitarian emergencies, dirty water is pumped via a screen-filtered flexible silicon tube through a specialized filter, ending up in a container. These filters work to remove bacteria, protozoa and microbial cysts that can cause disease, filters may have fine meshes that must be replaced or cleaned, and ceramic water filters must have their outside abraded when they have become clogged with impurities. These water filters should not be confused with devices or tablets that disinfect water which remove or kill viruses such as hepatitis A, each certifies that home water treatment units meet or exceed National Standard Institute/National Science Foundation and Environmental Protection Agency drinking water standards. Certification from these organizations will specify one or both of specific standards. NSF International as it is now known started out as the National Sanitation Foundation in 1944 at the University of Michigan School of Public Health, the NSFs water treatment Device Certification Program requires extensive product testing and unannounced audits of production facilities. As with all filters, follow the instructions for filter use. The term water polishing can refer to any process that removes particulate material. In this sense, water polishing is simply another term for whole house water filtration systems, polishing is also done on a large scale in water reclamation plants. During the 19th and 20th centuries, water filters for domestic water production were divided into slow sand filters. While there were many small-scale water filtration systems prior to 1800, Paisley, the Paisley filter began operation in 1804 and was an early type of slow sand filter
Water filter
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A large-scale
flocculation water filter
Water filter
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A sectional view of a personal water filter
27.
Molecular sieve
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A molecular sieve is a material with pores of uniform size. These pore diameters are similar in size to small molecules, and thus large molecules cannot enter or be absorbed, some molecular sieves are used in chromatography, a separation technique that sorts molecules based on their size. Other molecular sieves are used as desiccants, the diameter of a molecular sieve is measured in ångströms or nanometres. Molecular sieves can be microporous, mesoporous, or macroporous material.7 nm, halloysite naturally occurs as small cylinders which average 30 nm in diameter with lengths between 0.5 and 10 micrometres. Silicon dioxide,24 Å Mesoporous silica, 200–1000 Å Molecular sieves are often utilized in the petroleum industry, for example, in the liquid natural gas industry, the water content of the gas needs to be reduced to less than 1 ppmv to prevent blockages caused by ice. In the laboratory, molecular sieves are used to dry solvent, Sieves have proven to be superior to traditional drying techniques, which often employ aggressive desiccants. Under the term zeolites, molecular sieves are used for a range of catalytic applications. They catalyze isomerisation, alkylation, and epoxidation, and are used in large scale industrial processes, including hydrocracking and they are also used in the filtration of air supplies for breathing apparatus, for example those used by scuba divers and firefighters. Such filtration can remove particulates and compressor exhaust products from the air supply. The U. S. FDA has as of April 1,2012 approved sodium aluminosilicate for direct contact with consumable items under 21 CFR182.2727. Methods for regeneration of molecular sieves include pressure change, heating and purging with a carrier gas, regeneration temperatures range from 175 °C to 315 °C depending on molecular sieve type. In contrast, silica gel can be regenerated by heating it in an oven to 120 °C for two hours. However, some types of silica gel will pop when exposed to enough water and this is caused by breakage of the silica spheres when contacting the water. Approximate chemical formula, 2/3K2O•1/3Na2O•Al2O3•2 SiO2 • 9/2 H2O Silica-alumina ratio, the characteristics of these molecular sieves include fast adsorption speed, frequent regeneration ability, good crushing resistance and pollution resistance. These features can improve both the efficiency and lifetime of the sieve, 3Å molecular sieves are the necessary desiccant in petroleum and chemical industries for refining oil, polymerization, and chemical gas-liquid depth drying. 3Å molecular sieves are used to dry a range of materials, such as ethanol, air, refrigerants, natural gas, the latter include cracking gas, acetylene, ethylene, propylene and butadiene. Once the beads are full of water, temperature or pressure can be manipulated, 3Å molecular sieves are stored at room temperature, with a relative humidity not more than 90%. They are sealed under reduced pressure, being away from water, acids
Molecular sieve
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A sealed canister, commonly filled with
silica gel and other
molecular sieves used as
desiccant in drug containers to keep contents dry. The
US Quarter in the photo is 26.5 millimetres (1.04 in) in diameter.
Molecular sieve
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Vials of
mesoporous silica
Molecular sieve
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Bottle of 4A molecular sieves.
28.
Cheesecloth
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Cheesecloth is a loose-woven gauze-like cotton cloth used primarily in cheese making and cooking. Cheesecloth is available in at least seven different grades, from open to extra-fine weave, grades are distinguished by the number of threads per inch in each direction. The primary use of cheesecloth is in some styles of cheesemaking, where it is used to remove whey from cheese curds, cheesecloth is also used in straining stocks and custards, bundling herbs, making tofu and ghee, and thickening yogurt. Queso blanco and queso fresco are Spanish and Mexican cheeses that are made from whole milk using cheesecloth, quark is a type of German unsalted cheese that is sometimes formed with cheesecloth. Paneer is a kind of Indian fresh cheese that is made with cheesecloth. Fruitcake is wrapped in rum-infused cheesecloth during the process of feeding the fruitcake as it ripens, cheesecloth can also be used for several printmaking processes including lithography for wiping up gum arabic. In intaglio a heavily starched cheesecloth called tarlatan is used for wiping away excess ink from the printing surface, cheesecloth #60 is used in product safety and regulatory testing for potential fire hazards. Cheesecloth is wrapped tightly over the device under test, which is subjected to simulated conditions such as lightning surges conducted through power or telecom cables, power faults. The device may be destroyed but must not ignite the cheesecloth and this is to ensure that the device can fail safely, and not start electrical fires in the vicinity. Cheesecloth made to United States Federal Standard CCC-C-440 is used to test the durability of optical coatings per United States Military Standard MIL-C-48497, the optical surface is examined for streaks or scratches, and then its optical performance is measured to ensure that no deterioration occurred. Cheesecloth is used in India and Pakistan for making summer shirts, cheesecloth material shirts were popular for beachwear during the 1960s and 1970s in the United States. Cheesecloth has been used to create the illusion of ectoplasm during spirit channelings or other ghost related phenomena
Cheesecloth
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Cheese hung in cheesecloth to strain
whey as part of cheesemaking
Cheesecloth
