1.
RAF Menwith Hill
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The site contains an extensive satellite ground station and is a communications intercept and missile warning site and has been described as the largest electronic monitoring station in the world. In 2014, the number of American personnel stationed at Menwith Hill was reduced as part of a streamlining of operations due to improvements in computer, Menwith Hill Station was opened on 545 acres of land acquired by the British War Office in 1954 and leased to the United States. The United States Army Security Agency established a high frequency radio monitoring capability, monitoring communications emanating from the Soviet Union, the site was then one of the earliest to receive sophisticated early IBM computers, with which NSA automated the labour-intensive watch-list scrutiny of intercepted but unenciphered telex messages. This connection was replaced in 1992 by a new high capacity fibre-optic cable, later, two additional cables were added over which telephone and other communications could go to and from the base. These cables were capable of transmitting over 100,000 phone calls simultaneously, according to an article in a 2003 issue of an internal NSA newsletter, Menwith is a large site. In March 2012 researcher Dr. Menwith Hills primary mission is to provide support for UK, US. The bases multimillion-pound expansion, Project Phoenix, is one of the largest and most sophisticated high technology programs carried out anywhere in the UK over the last 10 years. Of the 1,800 employees in 2012,400 were British and 1,200 were American employees of the NSA, during an interview with Russia Today in April 2012, Schofield alleged that Menwith Hill was involved in drone attacks. And yet these are acts of war, and normally when we have war, parliament should normally inform people that we’re involved in those. We’re kept entirely in the dark about them, during the 2009 G-20 London Summit NSA intercept specialists based at Menwith Hill attempted to target and decode the encrypted telephone calls of the Russian president Dmitry Medvedev. He also detailed how the eavesdropping operations worked and that its name is in fact ECHELON. The Committee raised concerns about the incompatibility of the interception of private and they were also concerned that interception of commercial communications could be used for competitive intelligence-gathering rather than combating corruption. During the early 1970s, the first of what more than eight large satellite communications dishes were installed at Menwith Hill. In 1999 he wrote a report on COMINT entitled Interception Capabilities 2000 for the European Parliament and they confirmed that Menwith Hill was linked directly to the headquarters of the US National Security Agency at Fort Meade in Maryland. Between 1984 and 1995 a number of camps were established in close proximity to the station. A number of individual protests have also taken place, predominantly related to nuclear proliferation. Protests also occurred at other US military locations in the UK such as Greenham Common, objections to the Strategic Defense Initiative have led to demonstrators storming the perimeter fence. And to demands in 2007 from Labour MPs for a debate about missile defence
2.
ECHELON
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The U. S. intelligence community uses many code names. At that time, according to Newsham, the code name ECHELON was NSAs term for the network itself. The software programs were called SILKWORTH and SIRE, a satellite named VORTEX intercepted communications. An image available on the internet of a fragment apparently torn from a job description shows Echelon listed along with other code names. Newsham told a member of the U. S. Congress that the calls of Strom Thurmond. Congressional investigators determined that targeting of U. S. political figures would not occur by accident, in 1996, a detailed description of ECHELON was provided by New Zealand journalist Nicky Hager in his 1996 book Secret Power – New Zealands Role in the International Spy Network. Two years later, Hagers book was cited by the European Parliament in a report titled An Appraisal of the Technology of Political Control, in March 1999, for the first time in history, the Australian government admitted that news reports about the top secret UKUSA Agreement were true. In 2000, James Woolsey, the former Director of the U. S, Central Intelligence Agency, confirmed that U. S. intelligence uses interception systems and keyword searches to monitor European businesses. Lawmakers in the United States feared that the ECHELON system could be used to monitor U. S. citizens, according to The New York Times, the ECHELON system has been shrouded in such secrecy that its very existence has been difficult to prove. Critics said the ECHELON system emerged from the Cold War as a Big Brother without a cause, the programs capabilities and political implications were investigated by a committee of the European Parliament during 2000 and 2001 with a report published in 2001. In July 2000, the Temporary Committee on the ECHELON Interception System was established by the European parliament to investigate the surveillance network and it was chaired by the Portuguese politician Carlos Coelho, who was in charge of supervising investigations throughout 2000 and 2001. Central Intelligence Agency U. S. Department of Commerce U. S. National Security Agency All meetings were cancelled by the U. S. government, according to a BBC correspondent in May 2001, The US Government still refuses to admit that Echelon even exists. In July 2001, the Temporary Committee on the ECHELON Interception System released its final report, on 5 September 2001, the European Parliament voted to accept the committees report. FROSTING had two sub-programs, TRANSIENT, for intercepting Soviet satellite transmissions, and ECHELON, for intercepting Intelsat satellite transmissions, the EP report concluded that it seemed likely that ECHELON is a method of sorting captured signal traffic, rather than a comprehensive analysis tool. During World War II and through the 1950s, high-frequency radio was used for military and diplomatic communication. The rise of communications satellites in the 1960s presented new possibilities for intercepting international communications. In 1966, the first Intelsat satellite was launched into orbit, from 1970 to 1971, the Government Communications Headquarters of Britain began to operate a secret signal station at Morwenstow, near Bude in Cornwall, England. The station intercepted satellite communications over the Atlantic and Indian Oceans, soon afterwards, the U. S. National Security Agency built a second signal station at Yakima, near Seattle, for the interception of satellite communications over the Pacific Ocean
3.
UKUSA Agreement
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The alliance of intelligence operations is also known as the Five Eyes. In classification markings this is abbreviated as FVEY, with the countries being abbreviated as AUS, CAN, NZL, GBR. In the following years, it was extended to encompass Canada, Australia, other countries, known as third parties, such as West Germany, the Philippines, and several Nordic countries also joined the UKUSA community. Much of the sharing of information is performed via the ultra-sensitive STONEGHOST network, besides laying down rules for intelligence sharing, the agreement formalized and cemented the Special Relationship between the UK and the USA. Due to its status as a treaty, its existence was not known to the Prime Minister of Australia until 1973. On 25 June 2010, for the first time in history, the text of the agreement was publicly released by the United Kingdom and the United States. Shortly after its release, the seven-page UKUSA Agreement was recognized by Time magazine as one of the Cold Wars most important documents, the agreement originated from a ten-page 1943 British–U. S. Communication Intelligence Agreement, BRUSA, that connected the signal intercept networks of the U. K, Government Communications Headquarters and the U. S. National Security Agency at the beginning of the Cold War. Although the original agreement states that the exchange would not be prejudicial to national interests, the full text of the agreement was released to the public on 25 June 2010. The Five Eyes term has its origins as a shorthand for a AUS/CAN/NZ/UK/US EYES ONLY classification level, under the agreement, the GCHQ and the NSA shared intelligence on the Soviet Union, the Peoples Republic of China, and several eastern European countries. The network was expanded in the 1960s into the Echelon collection, in 1948, the treaty was extended to include Canada, followed by Norway, Denmark, West Germany, Australia, and New Zealand. These countries participated as third parties, in 1955, the agreement was updated with Canada, Australia, and New Zealand regarded as UKUSA-collaborating Commonwealth countries. After learning about the agreement, Whitlam discovered that Pine Gap,1975 In the United States, the Church Committee of the Senate revealed the existence of the National Security Agency. 1976 In Britain, an article in Time Out magazine revealed the existence of the Government Communications Headquarters. 1977 In Australia, the Hope Commission revealed the existence of Australian Secret Intelligence Service,1980 In New Zealand, the existence of the Government Communications Security Bureau was officially disclosed on a limited basis. In 1999, the Australian government acknowledged that it does co-operate with counterpart signals intelligence organisations overseas under the UKUSA relationship, the existence of the UKUSA Agreement, however, was not publicly revealed until 2005. The contents of the agreement were officially disclosed to the public on 25 June 2010, four days later, the agreement was described by Time magazine as one of the most important documents in the history of the Cold War. In July 2013, as part of the 2013 Edward Snowden revelations, it emerged that the NSA is paying GCHQ for its services, with at least £100 million of payments made between 2010 and 2013
4.
Subset
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In mathematics, especially in set theory, a set A is a subset of a set B, or equivalently B is a superset of A, if A is contained inside B, that is, all elements of A are also elements of B. The relationship of one set being a subset of another is called inclusion or sometimes containment, the subset relation defines a partial order on sets. The algebra of subsets forms a Boolean algebra in which the relation is called inclusion. For any set S, the inclusion relation ⊆ is an order on the set P of all subsets of S defined by A ≤ B ⟺ A ⊆ B. We may also partially order P by reverse set inclusion by defining A ≤ B ⟺ B ⊆ A, when quantified, A ⊆ B is represented as, ∀x. So for example, for authors, it is true of every set A that A ⊂ A. Other authors prefer to use the symbols ⊂ and ⊃ to indicate proper subset and superset, respectively and this usage makes ⊆ and ⊂ analogous to the inequality symbols ≤ and <. For example, if x ≤ y then x may or may not equal y, but if x < y, then x definitely does not equal y, and is less than y. Similarly, using the convention that ⊂ is proper subset, if A ⊆ B, then A may or may not equal B, the set A = is a proper subset of B =, thus both expressions A ⊆ B and A ⊊ B are true. The set D = is a subset of E =, thus D ⊆ E is true, any set is a subset of itself, but not a proper subset. The empty set, denoted by ∅, is also a subset of any given set X and it is also always a proper subset of any set except itself. These are two examples in both the subset and the whole set are infinite, and the subset has the same cardinality as the whole. The set of numbers is a proper subset of the set of real numbers. In this example, both sets are infinite but the set has a larger cardinality than the former set. Another example in an Euler diagram, Inclusion is the partial order in the sense that every partially ordered set is isomorphic to some collection of sets ordered by inclusion. The ordinal numbers are a simple example—if each ordinal n is identified with the set of all ordinals less than or equal to n, then a ≤ b if and only if ⊆. For the power set P of a set S, the partial order is the Cartesian product of k = |S| copies of the partial order on for which 0 <1. This can be illustrated by enumerating S = and associating with each subset T ⊆ S the k-tuple from k of which the ith coordinate is 1 if and only if si is a member of T
5.
Intelligence collection management
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Intelligence collection management is the process of managing and organizing the collection of intelligence from various sources. The collection department of an organization may attempt basic validation of what it collects. This may be an auction for resources, and there is joint UK-US research on applying more formal methods, one method is semantic matchmaking based on ontology, originally a field of philosophy but finding applications in intelligent searching. Researchers match missions to the capabilities of available resources, defining ontology as a set of logical axioms designed to account for the meaning of a vocabulary. The requester is asked, What are the requirements of a mission and these include the type of data to be collected, the priority of the request and the need for secrecy in collection. Collection system managers are asked to specify the capabilities of their assets, preeces ontology focuses on ISTAR sensors, but also considers HUMINT, OSINT and possible methodologies. In NATO, the questions driving collection management are Priority Intelligence Requirements, PIRs are a component of Collection Coordination and Intelligence Requirements Management focused on the collection process, uniting the intelligence effort to maneuver through Decision Points. These questions, refined into Information Requirements, enable the Collection Manager to focus assets on a problem, without this synchronization, it would be impossible to ensure that the intelligence focus meets the commanders requirements and priorities. Weather, terrain, technical capabilities and opponents countermeasures determine the potential for successful collection, despite the desirability of a given method, the information required may not be collectible due to interfering circumstances. The most desirable platform may not be available, weather and enemy air-defense might limit the practicality of UAVs, if air defense is the limitation, planners might request support from a national-level IMINT satellite. If a satellite will do the job, the orbits of satellites may not be suitable for the requirement. If weather is the issue, it might be necessary to substitute MASINT sensors which can penetrate the weather, the collection manager must take these effects into consideration and advise the commander on the situational awareness available for planning and execution. Other sources may take time to collect the necessary information. MASINT depends on a library of signatures of normal sensor readings, cryptanalytic COMINT can take considerable time to enter into a cryptosystem, with no guarantee of success. An available, appropriate collection platform does not mean it will be if the facilities needed to receive. Two factors affect this process, the capabilities of the intelligence systems. Collection platforms able to collect tens of thousands of pieces of information per hour need receivers which can accept that volume, the collection capability, even with self-generating reports, can quickly overwhelm inexperienced or understaffed analysts. While the CM is primarily concerned with collection, they must also know if analysis for the system has the resources to reduce
6.
Encryption
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In cryptography, encryption is the process of encoding a message or information in such a way that only authorized parties can access it. Encryption does not of itself prevent interference, but denies the intelligible content to a would-be interceptor, in an encryption scheme, the intended information or message, referred to as plaintext, is encrypted using an encryption algorithm, generating ciphertext that can only be read if decrypted. For technical reasons, an encryption scheme usually uses an encryption key generated by an algorithm. It is in possible to decrypt the message without possessing the key. An authorized recipient can decrypt the message with the key provided by the originator to recipients. In symmetric-key schemes, the encryption and decryption keys are the same, communicating parties must have the same key before they can achieve secure communication. In public-key encryption schemes, the key is published for anyone to use. However, only the party has access to the decryption key that enables messages to be read. Public-key encryption was first described in a document in 1973. Encryption has long used by militaries and governments to facilitate secret communication. It is now used in protecting information within many kinds of civilian systems. Encryption can be used to protect data at rest, such as stored on computers. In recent years, there have been reports of confidential data, such as customers personal records. Encrypting such files at rest helps protect them should physical security measures fail, in response to encryption of data at rest, cyber-adversaries have developed new types of attacks. There have been reports of data in transit being intercepted in recent years. Data should also be encrypted when transmitted across networks in order to protect against eavesdropping of network traffic by unauthorized users, standards for cryptographic software and hardware to perform encryption are widely available, but successfully using encryption to ensure security may be a challenging problem. A single error in design or execution can allow successful attacks. Sometimes an adversary can obtain unencrypted information without directly undoing the encryption, see, e. g. traffic analysis, TEMPEST, or Trojan horse
7.
Cryptanalysis
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Cryptanalysis is the study of analyzing information systems in order to study the hidden aspects of the systems. Cryptanalysis is used to breach cryptographic security systems and gain access to the contents of encrypted messages, methods for breaking modern cryptosystems often involve solving carefully constructed problems in pure mathematics, the best-known being integer factorization. Given some encrypted data, the goal of the cryptanalyst is to gain as much information as possible about the original, attacks can be classified based on what type of information the attacker has available. Ciphertext-only, the cryptanalyst has access only to a collection of ciphertexts or codetexts, known-plaintext, the attacker has a set of ciphertexts to which he knows the corresponding plaintext. Chosen-plaintext, the attacker can obtain the corresponding to an arbitrary set of plaintexts of his own choosing. Adaptive chosen-plaintext, like an attack, except the attacker can choose subsequent plaintexts based on information learned from previous encryptions. Related-key attack, Like a chosen-plaintext attack, except the attacker can obtain ciphertexts encrypted under two different keys, the keys are unknown, but the relationship between them is known, for example, two keys that differ in the one bit. Attacks can also be characterised by the resources they require and those resources include, Time — the number of computation steps which must be performed. Memory — the amount of required to perform the attack. Data — the quantity and type of plaintexts and ciphertexts required for a particular approach and its sometimes difficult to predict these quantities precisely, especially when the attack isnt practical to actually implement for testing. But academic cryptanalysts tend to provide at least the estimated order of magnitude of their attacks difficulty, saying, for example, the results of cryptanalysis can also vary in usefulness. Global deduction — the attacker discovers a functionally equivalent algorithm for encryption and decryption, instance deduction — the attacker discovers additional plaintexts not previously known. Information deduction — the attacker gains some Shannon information about plaintexts not previously known, distinguishing algorithm — the attacker can distinguish the cipher from a random permutation. Academic attacks are often against weakened versions of a cryptosystem, such as a cipher or hash function with some rounds removed. In academic cryptography, a weakness or a break in a scheme is defined quite conservatively, it might require impractical amounts of time, memory. Furthermore, it might reveal a small amount of information, enough to prove the cryptosystem imperfect. Finally, an attack might only apply to a version of cryptographic tools, like a reduced-round block cipher. In practice, they are viewed as two sides of the coin, secure cryptography requires design against possible cryptanalysis
8.
Signals intelligence in modern history
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SIGINT is a contraction of SIGnals INTelligence. Before the development of radar and other techniques, signals intelligence. Flag signals were intercepted, and efforts to impede them made the occupation of the signaller one of the most dangerous on the battlefield. The middle 19th century rise of the telegraph allowed more scope for interception and spoofing of signals, even Measurement and Signature Intelligence preceded electronic intelligence, with sound ranging techniques for artillery location. Electronic interception appeared as early as 1900, during the Boer Wars, the Royal Navy had installed wireless sets produced by Marconi on board their ships in the late 1890s and some limited wireless signalling was used by the British Army. Some wireless sets were captured by the Boers, and were used to make vital transmissions, since the British were the only people transmitting at the time, no special interpretation of the signals was necessary. The Imperial Russian Navy also experimented with wireless communications under the guidance of Alexander Popov, the birth of signals intelligence in a modern sense dates to the Russo-Japanese War. The Japanese also developed a wireless interception capability and succeeded in listening in to the then primitive Russian communications, in France, Deuxième Bureau of the Military General Staff was tasked with radio interception. It was over the course of the War that the new method of intelligence collection - signals intelligence - reached maturity, the British in particular built up great expertise in the newly emerging field of signals intelligence and codebreaking. France had significant signals intelligence in World War I, commandant Cartier developed a system of wireless masts, including one on the Eiffel Tower to intercept German communications. The first such station was built as early as 1908, although was destroyed by flooding a few years afterward, in 1918, French intercept personnel captured a message written in the new ADFGVX cipher, which was cryptanalyzed by Georges Painvin. This gave the Allies advance warning of the German 1918 Spring offensive, US communications monitoring of naval signals started in 1918, but was used first as an aid to naval and merchant navigation. These stations, after the end of World War I, were not used immediately for intelligence, while there were 52 Navy medium wave DF stations in 1924, most of them had deteriorated. Techniques for intercepting these messages through ground returns were developed, so all cables running through hostile territory could in theory be intercepted, on the declaration of war, one of Britains first acts was to cut all German undersea cables. On the night of 3 August 1914, the cable ship Alert located and cut Germanys five trans-Atlantic cables, soon after, the six cables running between Britain and Germany were cut. This forced the Germans to use either a line that connected through the British network and could be tapped. The destruction of more secure wired communications, to improve the intelligence take, has been a practice since then. Although Britain could now intercept German communications, codes and ciphers were used to hide the meaning of the messages, however, installations belonging to the Post Office and the Marconi Company, as well as private individuals who had access to radio equipment, began recording messages from Germany
9.
Second Boer War
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The Second Boer War, usually known as the Boer War and also at the time as the South African War, started on 11 October 1899 and ended on 31 May 1902. Great Britain defeated two Boer states in South Africa, the South African Republic and the Orange Free State, Britain was aided by its Cape Colony, Colony of Natal and some native African allies. The British war effort was supported by volunteers from the British Empire, including Southern Africa, the Australian colonies, Canada, India. All other nations were neutral, but public opinion in them was largely hostile to Britain, inside Britain and its Empire there also was significant opposition to the Second Boer War. The British were overconfident and under-prepared, the Boers were very well armed and struck first, besieging Ladysmith, Kimberley, and Mafeking in early 1900, and winning important battles at Colenso, Magersfontein and Stormberg. Staggered, the British brought in numbers of soldiers and fought back. General Redvers Buller was replaced by Lord Roberts and Lord Kitchener and they relieved the three besieged cities, and invaded the two Boer republics in late 1900. The onward marches of the British Army were so overwhelming that the Boers did not fight staged battles in defense of their homeland, the British quickly seized control of all of the Orange Free State and Transvaal, as the civilian leadership went into hiding or exile. In conventional terms, the war was over, Britain officially annexed the two countries in 1900, and called a khaki election to give the government another six years of power in London. However, the Boers refused to surrender and they reverted to guerrilla warfare under new generals Louis Botha, Jan Smuts, Christiaan de Wet and Koos de la Rey. Two more years of attacks and quick escapes followed. As guerrillas without uniforms, the Boer fighters easily blended into the farmlands, which provided hiding places, supplies, the British solution was to set up complex nets of block houses, strong points, and barbed wire fences, partitioning off the entire conquered territory. The civilian farmers were relocated into concentration camps, where very large proportions died of disease, especially the children, then the British mounted infantry units systematically tracked down the highly mobile Boer guerrilla units. The battles at this stage were small operations with few combat casualties The war ended in surrender, the British successfully won over the Boer leaders, who now gave full support to the new political system. Both former republics were incorporated into the Union of South Africa in 1910, the conflict is commonly referred to as simply the Boer War, since the First Boer War is much less well known. Boer was the term for Afrikaans-speaking white South Africans descended from the Dutch East India Companys original settlers at the Cape of Good Hope. It is officially called the South African War and it is known as the Anglo-Boer War among some South Africans. In Afrikaans it may be called the Anglo-Boereoorlog, Tweede Boereoorlog, in South Africa it is officially called the South African War
10.
Royal Navy
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The Royal Navy is the United Kingdoms naval warfare force. Although warships were used by the English kings from the medieval period. The modern Royal Navy traces its origins to the early 16th century, from the middle decades of the 17th century and through the 18th century, the Royal Navy vied with the Dutch Navy and later with the French Navy for maritime supremacy. From the mid 18th century it was the worlds most powerful navy until surpassed by the United States Navy during the Second World War. The Royal Navy played a key part in establishing the British Empire as the world power during the 19th. Due to this historical prominence, it is common, even among non-Britons, following World War I, the Royal Navy was significantly reduced in size, although at the onset of the Second World War it was still the worlds largest. By the end of the war, however, the United States Navy had emerged as the worlds largest, during the Cold War, the Royal Navy transformed into a primarily anti-submarine force, hunting for Soviet submarines, mostly active in the GIUK gap. The Royal Navy is part of Her Majestys Naval Service, which includes the Royal Marines. The professional head of the Naval Service is the First Sea Lord, the Defence Council delegates management of the Naval Service to the Admiralty Board, chaired by the Secretary of State for Defence. The strength of the fleet of the Kingdom of England was an important element in the power in the 10th century. English naval power declined as a result of the Norman conquest. Medieval fleets, in England as elsewhere, were almost entirely composed of merchant ships enlisted into service in time of war. Englands naval organisation was haphazard and the mobilisation of fleets when war broke out was slow, early in the war French plans for an invasion of England failed when Edward III of England destroyed the French fleet in the Battle of Sluys in 1340. Major fighting was confined to French soil and Englands naval capabilities sufficed to transport armies and supplies safely to their continental destinations. Such raids halted finally only with the occupation of northern France by Henry V. Henry VII deserves a large share of credit in the establishment of a standing navy and he embarked on a program of building ships larger than heretofore. He also invested in dockyards, and commissioned the oldest surviving dry dock in 1495 at Portsmouth, a standing Navy Royal, with its own secretariat, dockyards and a permanent core of purpose-built warships, emerged during the reign of Henry VIII. Under Elizabeth I England became involved in a war with Spain, the new regimes introduction of Navigation Acts, providing that all merchant shipping to and from England or her colonies should be carried out by English ships, led to war with the Dutch Republic. In the early stages of this First Anglo-Dutch War, the superiority of the large, heavily armed English ships was offset by superior Dutch tactical organisation and the fighting was inconclusive
11.
Guglielmo Marconi
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He is often credited as the inventor of radio, and he shared the 1909 Nobel Prize in Physics with Karl Ferdinand Braun in recognition of their contributions to the development of wireless telegraphy. Marconi was an entrepreneur, businessman, and founder of The Wireless Telegraph & Signal Company in the United Kingdom in 1897 and he succeeded in making a commercial success of radio by innovating and building on the work of previous experimenters and physicists. In 1929, the King of Italy ennobled Marconi as a Marchese, Marconi was born into the Italian nobility as Guglielmo Giovanni Maria Marconi in Bologna on 25 April 1874, the second son of Giuseppe Marconi and his Irish/Scots wife Annie Jameson. Between the ages of two and six, Marconi and his elder brother Alfonso were brought up by his mother in the English town of Bedford, Marconi received further education in Florence at the Istituto Cavallero and, later, in Livorno. Marconi did not do well in school, according to Robert McHenry and he was baptized as a Catholic but had been brought up as a member of the Anglican Church, being married into it. Marconi was confirmed in the Catholic faith and became a member of the Church before his marriage to Maria Christina in 1927. During his early years, Marconi had an interest in science and electricity, the transmission of telegraph messages without connecting wires as used by the electric telegraph. There was a deal of interest in radio waves in the physics community. Righis article renewed Marconis interest in developing a wireless telegraphy based on radio waves. In the summer of 1894, he built a storm alarm made up of a battery, a coherer, and an electric bell, soon after he was able to make a bell ring on the other side of the room by pushing a telegraphic button on a bench. One night in December 1894, Guglielmo woke his mother and invited her into his secret workshop and showed her the experiment that he had created. The next day, he showed his work to his father. In the summer of 1895, Marconi moved his experimentation outdoors, with these improvements the system was capable of transmitting signals up to 2 miles and over hills. The monopole antenna reduced the frequency of the waves compared to the dipole antennas used by Hertz, by this point, he concluded that a device could become capable of spanning greater distances, with additional funding and research, and would prove valuable both commercially and militarily. Marconis experimental apparatus proved to be the first engineering-complete, commercially successful radio transmission system, Marconi wrote to the Ministry of Post and Telegraphs, then under the direction of the honorable Pietro Lacava, explaining his wireless telegraph machine and asking for funding. He never received a response to his letter which was dismissed by the Minister who wrote to the Longara on the document. In 1896, Marconi spoke with his family friend Carlo Gardini, Honorary Consul at the United States Consulate in Bologna, Gardini wrote a letter of introduction to the Ambassador of Italy in London, Annibale Ferrero, explaining who Marconi was and about these extraordinary discoveries. In his response, Ambassador Ferrero advised them not to reveal the results until after they had obtained the copyrights
12.
British Army
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The British Army is the principal land warfare force of the United Kingdom. As of 2017 the British Army comprises just over 80,000 trained Regular, or full-time, personnel and just over 26,500 trained Reserve, or part-time personnel. Therefore, the UK Parliament approves the continued existence of the Army by passing an Armed Forces Act at least once every five years, day to day the Army comes under administration of the Ministry of Defence and is commanded by the Chief of the General Staff. Repeatedly emerging victorious from these decisive wars allowed Britain to influence world events with its policies and establish itself as one of the leading military. In 1660 the English, Scottish and Irish monarchies were restored under Charles II, Charles favoured the foundation of a new army under royal control and began work towards its establishment by August 1660. The Royal Scots Army and the Irish Army were financed by the Parliament of Scotland, the order of seniority of the most senior line regiments in the British Army is based on the order of seniority in the English army. At that time there was only one English regiment of dragoons, after William and Marys accession to the throne, England involved itself in the War of the Grand Alliance, primarily to prevent a French invasion restoring Marys father, James II. Spain, in the two centuries, had been the dominant global power, and the chief threat to Englands early transatlantic ambitions. The territorial ambitions of the French, however, led to the War of the Spanish Succession and the Napoleonic Wars. From the time of the end of the Seven Years War in 1763, Great Britain was the naval power. As had its predecessor, the English Army, the British Army fought the Kingdoms of Spain, France, and the Netherlands for supremacy in North America and the West Indies. With native and provincial assistance, the Army conquered New France in the North American theatre of the Seven Years War, the British Army suffered defeat in the American War of Independence, losing the Thirteen Colonies but holding on to Canada. The British Army was heavily involved in the Napoleonic Wars and served in campaigns across Europe. The war between the British and the First French Empire of Napoleon Bonaparte stretched around the world and at its peak, in 1813, the regular army contained over 250,000 men. A Coalition of Anglo-Dutch and Prussian Armies under the Duke of Wellington, the English had been involved, both politically and militarily, in Ireland since being given the Lordship of Ireland by the Pope in 1171. The campaign of the English republican Protector, Oliver Cromwell, involved uncompromising treatment of the Irish towns that had supported the Royalists during the English Civil War, the English Army stayed in Ireland primarily to suppress numerous Irish revolts and campaigns for independence. Having learnt from their experience in America, the British government sought a political solution, the British Army found itself fighting Irish rebels, both Protestant and Catholic, primarily in Ulster and Leinster in the 1798 rebellion. The Haldane Reforms of 1907 formally created the Territorial Force as the Armys volunteer reserve component by merging and reorganising the Volunteer Force, Militia, Great Britains dominance of the world had been challenged by numerous other powers, in the 20th century, most notably Germany
13.
Boer
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Boer is the Dutch and Afrikaans word for farmer. As used in South Africa, it was used to denote the descendants of the Dutch-speaking settlers of the eastern Cape frontier in Southern Africa during the 18th century. For a long time the Dutch East India Company controlled this area, in addition the term was applied to those who left the Cape Colony during the 19th century to settle in the Orange Free State, Transvaal, and to a lesser extent Natal. They left the Cape primarily to escape British rule and get away from the constant border wars between the British imperial government and the tribes on the eastern frontier. The Dutch East India Company had been formed in the Dutch Republic in 1602, in 1648 one of their ships was stranded in Table Bay, and the shipwrecked crew had to forage for themselves on shore for several months. The result was that in 1652, a Dutch expedition led by surgeon Jan van Riebeek constructed a fort, landing at Table Bay, Van Riebeek took control over Cape Town, the settlement developed during the previous 10 years. In 1671 the Dutch first purchased land from the native Khoikhoi beyond the limits of the built by Van Riebeek. They formed a class of a class of vrijlieden, also known as vrijburgers, a large number of vrijburgers became independent farmers and applied for grants of land, as well as loans of seed and tools, from the Company administration. Political refugees from the wars in France, following the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, they were settled at Stellenbosch, Drakenstein, Franschhoek. The influence of small body of immigrants on the character of the Dutch settlers was marked. The Company in 1701 directed that only Dutch should be taught in the schools and this resulted in the Huguenots assimilating by the middle of the 18th century, with a loss to the community in the use and knowledge of French. The little settlement gradually spread eastwards, and in 1754 the country as far as Algoa Bay was included in the colony, at this time the European colonists numbered eight to ten thousand. They possessed numerous slaves, grew wheat in sufficient quantity to make it a commodity crop for export, but their chief wealth was in cattle. Through the latter half of the 17th and the whole of the 18th century, the administration of the Dutch East India Company was extremely despotic. Its policies were not directed at development of the colony, the effect of this tyranny was inevitable, it drove men to desperation. They fled from oppression, and even before 1700 trekking began, in 1789, so strong had feeling amongst the burghers become that delegates were sent from the Cape to interview the authorities at Amsterdam. After this deputation, some reforms were granted. It was largely to escape oppression that the farmers trekked farther and farther from the seat of government, the company, to control the emigrants, established a magistracy at Swellendam in 1745 and another at Graaff Reinet in 1786
14.
Russo-Japanese War
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The Russo-Japanese War was fought between the Russian Empire and the Empire of Japan over rival imperial ambitions in Manchuria and Korea. The major theatres of operations were the Liaodong Peninsula and Mukden in Southern Manchuria and the seas around Korea, Japan, Russia sought a warm-water port on the Pacific Ocean for their navy and for maritime trade. Vladivostok was operational only during the summer, whereas Port Arthur, since the end of the First Sino-Japanese War in 1895, Japan feared Russian encroachment on its sphere of influence. Russia had demonstrated an expansionist policy in the Siberian Far East from the reign of Ivan the Terrible in the 16th century, through threat of Russian expansion, Japan offered to recognize Russian dominance in Manchuria in exchange for recognition of Korea as being within the Japanese sphere of influence. Russia refused and demanded Korea north of the 39th parallel to be a buffer zone between Russia and Japan. The Japanese government perceived a Russian threat to its strategic interests, after negotiations broke down in 1904, the Japanese Navy opened hostilities by attacking the Russian Eastern Fleet at Port Arthur, China, in a surprise attack. The war concluded with the Treaty of Portsmouth, mediated by US President Theodore Roosevelt, the complete victory of the Japanese military surprised world observers. The consequences transformed the balance of power in East Asia, resulting in a reassessment of Japans recent entry onto the world stage and it was the first major military victory in the modern era of an Asian power over a European one. Scholars continue to debate the historical significance of the war, after the Meiji Restoration in 1868, the Meiji government endeavored to assimilate Western ideas, technological advances and ways of warfare. By the late 19th century, Japan had transformed itself into an industrial state. The Japanese wanted to be recognized as equal with the Western powers, the Meiji restoration had always been intended to make Japan a modernized state, not a Westernized one, and Japan was always an imperialist power, looking towards overseas expansionism. By the 1890s it had extended its realm across Central Asia to Afghanistan, the Russian Empire stretched from Poland in the west to the Kamchatka Peninsula in the east. With its construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway to the port of Vladivostok, in the Tsushima incident of 1861 Russia had directly assaulted Japanese territory. Between the Meiji Restoration and its participation in World War I, the first war Japan fought was the First Sino-Japanese War, fought in 1894 and 1895. The war revolved around the issue of control and influence over Korea under the rule of the Joseon dynasty, from the 1880s onward, there had been vigorous competition for influence in Korea between China and Japan. The Korean court was prone to factionalism, and was divided by a reformist faction that was pro-Japanese. In 1884, a coup attempt was put down by Chinese troops. A peasant rebellion led by the Tonghak religious movement led to a request by the Korean government for the Qing dynasty to send in troops to stabilize the country
15.
HMS Diana (1895)
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HMS Diana was an Eclipse-class protected cruiser built for the Royal Navy in the mid-1890s. She was commissioned at Chatham on 16 February 1900 by Captain Henry Baynes, to take out reliefs for the HMS Ringarooma, HMS Boomerang and HMS Torch serving on the Australia Station. She arrived in Australia in April, when Baynes took command of the HMS Mildura, stationed there, Captain Edmond Slade was appointed in command in April 1902, but Farquhar did not leave the ship until early June. In May 1902 she visited Palermo to attend festivities in connection with the opening of an Agricultural Exhibition by King Victor Emmanuel, chesneau, Roger, Kolesnik, Eugene M. eds. Conways All the Worlds Fighting Ships 1860–1905, conways All the Worlds Fighting Ships, 1906–1921
16.
Suez Canal
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The Suez Canal is an artificial sea-level waterway in Egypt, connecting the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea through the Isthmus of Suez. It was constructed by the Suez Canal Company between 1859 and 1869, after 10 years of construction, it was officially opened on November 17,1869. It extends from the terminus of Port Said to the southern terminus of Port Tewfik at the city of Suez. Its length is 193.30 km, including its northern and southern access channels, in 2012,17,225 vessels traversed the canal. The original canal was a waterway with passing locations in the Ballah Bypass. It contains no locks system, with seawater flowing freely through it, in general, the canal north of the Bitter Lakes flows north in winter and south in summer. South of the lakes, the current changes with the tide at Suez, the canal is owned and maintained by the Suez Canal Authority of Egypt. Under the Convention of Constantinople, it may be used in time of war as in time of peace, by every vessel of commerce or of war, without distinction of flag. In August 2014, construction was launched to expand and widen the Ballah Bypass for 35 km to speed the canals transit time, the expansion was planned to double the capacity of the Suez Canal from 49 to 97 ships a day. At a cost of $8.4 billion, this project was funded with interest-bearing investment certificates issued exclusively to Egyptian entities, the New Suez Canal, as the expansion was dubbed, was opened with great fanfare in a ceremony on 6 August 2015. On 24 February 2016, the Suez Canal Authority officially opened the new side channel and this side channel, located at the northern side of the east extension of the Suez Canal, serves the East Terminal for berthing and unberthing vessels from the terminal anytime of day and night. Ancient west–east canals were built to travel from the Nile River to the Red Sea. One smaller canal is believed to have been constructed under the auspices of Senusret II or Ramesses II. Another canal, probably incorporating a portion of the first, was constructed under the reign of Necho II, the legendary Sesostris may have started work on an ancient canal joining the Nile with the Red Sea. In his Meteorology, Aristotle wrote, One of their kings tried to make a canal to it, so he first, and Darius afterwards, stopped making the canal, lest the sea should mix with the river water and spoil it. Strabo wrote that Sesostris started to build a canal, and Pliny the Elder wrote,165. Later the Persian king Darius had the idea, and yet again Ptolemy II. This proved to be the canal made by the Persian king Darius I
17.
Zimmermann Telegram
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Mexico would be given Texas, Arizona and New Mexico. The proposal was intercepted and decoded by British intelligence, the message came in the form of a coded telegram dispatched by the Foreign Secretary of the German Empire, Arthur Zimmermann, on 19 January 1917. The message was sent to the German ambassador to Mexico, Heinrich von Eckardt, the decoded telegram is as follows, We intend to begin on the first of February unrestricted submarine warfare. We shall endeavor in spite of this to keep the United States of America neutral, the settlement in detail is left to you. Please call the Presidents attention to the fact that the employment of our submarines now offers the prospect of compelling England in a few months to make peace. The main purpose of the telegram was to make the Mexican government declare war on the United States in hopes of tying down American forces and slowing the export of American arms. The Germans were encouraged by their successes on the Eastern Front into believing that they would be able to large numbers of troops to the Western Front in support of their goals. Mexican President Venustiano Carranza assigned a commission to assess the feasibility of the Mexican takeover of their former territories contemplated by Germany. The general concluded that it would be neither possible nor desirable to attempt such an enterprise for the following reasons. No serious scenarios existed under which Mexico could win a war against the United States, germanys promises of generous financial support were very unreliable. The German government had already informed Carranza in June 1916 that they were unable to provide the gold needed to stock a completely independent Mexican national bank. Other foreign relations were at stake, the ABC nations organized the Niagara Falls peace conference in 1914 to avoid a full-scale war between the United States and Mexico over the United States occupation of Veracruz. If Mexico were to enter war against the United States, it would strain relations with those nations, the telegram was sent to the German embassy in the United States for re-transmission to Eckardt in Mexico. But it has established that only one method was used. Direct telegraph transmission of the telegram was not possible because the British had cut the German international cables at the outbreak of war, however, the United States allowed limited use of its diplomatic cables for Germany to communicate with its ambassador in Washington. The facility was supposed to be used for cables connected with President Woodrow Wilsons peace proposals, the Swedish cable ran from Sweden, and the United States cable from the United States embassy in Denmark. However, neither cable ran directly to the United States, both cables passed through a relay station at Porthcurno, near Lands End, the westernmost tip of England. Here the signals were boosted for the long trans-oceanic jump, all traffic through the Porthcurno relay was copied to British intelligence, in particular to the codebreakers and analysts in Room 40 at the Admiralty
18.
Room 40
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In the history of cryptanalysis, Room 40, also known as 40 O. B. Room 40 was a group formed in October 1914, shortly after the start of the war, Ewing recruited civilians such as William Montgomery, a translator of theological works from German, and Nigel de Grey, a publisher. The basis of Room 40 operations evolved around a German naval codebook, the Signalbuch der Kaiserlichen Marine, and around maps, the Russians had seized this material from the German cruiser SMS Magdeburg when it ran aground off the Estonian coast on 26 August 1914. The Russians recovered two of the four copies that the warship had carried, they retained one and passed the other to the British, the function of the Room 40 program was compromised by the Admiraltys insistence upon interpreting Room 40 information in its own way. Room 40 operators were permitted to decrypt but not to interpret the information they acquired, the section retained Room 40 as its informal name even though it expanded during the war and moved into other offices. Alfred Ewing directed Room 40 until May 1917, when control passed to Captain Reginald Blinker Hall. In 1911, a sub-committee of the Committee of Imperial Defence on cable communications concluded that in the event of war with Germany, in the early hours of 5 August 1914, the cable ship Alert located and cut Germanys five trans-Atlantic cables, which ran down the English Channel. Soon after, the six cables running between Britain and Germany were cut, as an immediate consequence, there was a significant increase in cable messages sent via cables belonging to other countries, and cables sent by wireless. At the start of the war, the navy had only one station for intercepting messages. However, installations belonging to the Post Office and the Marconi Company, as well as individuals who had access to radio equipment. Intercepted messages began to arrive at the Admiralty intelligence division, rear-Admiral Henry Oliver had been appointed Director of the Intelligence division in 1913. In August,1914, his department was occupied with the war. It was not felt that education would be a priority during the few months duration of the war. Ewing initially turned to staff of the naval colleges Osborne and Dartmouth, Alastair Denniston had been teaching German but later became second in charge of Room 40, then becoming Chief of its successor after the First World War, the Government Code and Cypher School. Others from the schools worked temporarily for Room 40 until the start of the new term at the end of September and these included Charles Godfrey, the Headmaster of Osborne, two Naval instructors, Parish and Curtiss, and scientist and mathematician Professor Henderson from Greenwich Naval College. Two other early recruits were R. D. Norton, who had worked for the Foreign Office, and Richard Herschell, who was a linguist, an expert on Persia and an Oxford graduate. None of the recruits knew anything about code breaking but were chosen for knowledge of German, a similar organisation had begun in the Military Intelligence department of the War Office, which become known as MI1b, and Colonel Macdonagh proposed that the two organisations should work together. Little success was achieved except to organise a system for collecting and filing messages until the French obtained copies of German military ciphers, the two organisations operated in parallel, decoding messages concerning the Western Front
19.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
20.
Russian Ground Forces
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The Ground Forces of the Russian Federation are the land forces of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation, formed from parts of the collapsing Soviet Army in 1992. The formation of these forces posed economic challenges after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the primary responsibilities of the Ground Forces are the protection of the state borders, combat on land, the security of occupied territories, and the defeat of enemy troops. The Ground Forces must be able to achieve goals both in nuclear war and non-nuclear war, especially without the use of weapons of mass destruction. Furthermore, they must be capable of protecting the interests of Russia within the framework of its international obligations. The Main Command of the Ground Forces is officially tasked with the objectives, The training of troops for combat. The improvement of troops structure and composition, and the optimization of their numbers, the development of military theory and practice. The development and introduction of training manuals, tactics. The improvement of operational and combat training of the Ground Forces, the newly re-emergent Russia retained most of the ranks of the Soviet Army, with some minor changes. The principal difference from the usual Western style is some variation in generals rank titles—in at least one case, Colonel General, the gallery below shows a selection of insignia, common to the Ground Forces – LF. As the Soviet Union dissolved, efforts were made to keep the Soviet Armed Forces as a military structure for the new Commonwealth of Independent States. The last Minister of Defence of the Soviet Union, Marshal Yevgeny Shaposhnikov, was appointed commander of the CIS Armed Forces in December 1991. Among the numerous treaties signed by the republics, in order to direct the transition period, was a temporary agreement on general purpose forces. Thirty-seven divisions had to be withdrawn from the four groups of forces and the Baltic States, some idea of the scale of the withdrawal can be gained from the division list. For the dissolving Soviet Ground Forces, the withdrawal from the former Warsaw Pact states and the Baltic states was a demanding, expensive. However, the facilities in those districts were inadequate to house the flood of personnel and equipment returning from abroad, the need for destruction and transfer of large amounts of weaponry under the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe also necessitated great adjustments. The Ministry of Defence newspaper Krasnaya Zvezda published a plan on 21 July 1992. Later one commentator said it was put together by the General Staff to satisfy the public demand for radical changes. The General Staff, from that point, became a bastion of conservatism, the reform plan advocated a change from an Army-Division-Regiment structure to a Corps-Brigade arrangement
21.
Russian invasion of East Prussia (1914)
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The Russian invasion of East Prussia occurred during the First World War, lasting from August to September 1914. Despite having an overwhelming superiority over the Germans in numbers, the invading Russian armies remained separated and were defeated in the battles of Tannenberg and the Masurian Lakes. French political pressure blocked the first option, while the option was militarily unsound. In 1894 Alfred von Schlieffen, then Chief of the General Staff, as a result, every German general staff officer in East Prussia in 1914 knew how to respond to the Russian offensive. They were confronted by the German Eighth Army, commanded by General Maximilian von Prittwitz, the planning of the invasion was rushed in order to help France as quickly as possible and not well-thought out. However, quite quickly, Russia was able to mobilize an invasion into East Prussia, any invasion of Prussia was an important blow to German morale as well as her general strategic situation, due to Prussia being the historical heart of the German Reich. They entered East Prussia on 7–9 August, the Battle of Stallupönen, fought between Russian and German armies on 17 August 1914, was the opening battle of World War I on the Eastern Front. It was a minor German success, but did little to upset the Russian timetables, the Battle of Gumbinnen, started by the Germans on 20 August 1914 was the first major offensive on the Eastern Front during the First World War. Due to the hastiness of the German attack the Russian army emerged victorious, regardless of whatever preparations had been made, however, it still remained that the Germans could not let the Prussian capital, Königsberg fall into Russian hands. The moral, symbolic and military value of the city meant to lose it was to invite disaster on the home front, also, it was very likely that the Russians would have used the upper hand thus gained to use their superior forces to overwhelm the static German defenses. In short, the Germans had to fight back immediately and force the Russians from East Prussia, helmuth von Moltke the Younger, Chief of the German General Staff from 1906 to 1914 replaced Prittwitz with Paul von Hindenburg on 22 August. In contrast to Prittwitz, Hindenburg and Ludendorff decided to take the offensive, the Second Army was destroyed and Samsonov shot himself. In the Battle of the Masurian Lakes, the Germans forced the First Army to retreat out of East Prussia. The invasion was a failure for the Russians, a setback which was followed by considerable German advances in the following year. In the head of French Intelligence Colonel Duponts words, their debacle was one of the elements of our victory
22.
Erich Ludendorff
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Erich Friedrich Wilhelm Ludendorff was a German general, the victor of the Battle of Liège and the Battle of Tannenberg. From August 1916, his appointment as Quartermaster general made him the leader of the German war efforts during World War I until his resignation in October 1918, from 1924 to 1928 he represented the German Völkisch Freedom Party in the German Parliament. Consistently pursuing a military line of thought, Ludendorff developed, after the war. In this work, he argued that the physical and moral forces of the nation should be mobilized, because, according to him. Ludendorff was a recipient of the Grand Cross of the Iron Cross, Ludendorff was born on 9 April 1865 in Kruszewnia near Posen, Province of Posen, Kingdom of Prussia, the third of six children of August Wilhelm Ludendorff. His father was descended from Pomeranian merchants who had achieved the status of Junker, the Prussian epiphet of lower nobility, and he held a commission in the reserve cavalry. Through Dziembowskis wife Johanna Wilhelmine von Unruh, Erich was a descendant of the Counts of Dönhoff, the Dukes of Legnica and Brzeg. He had a stable and comfortable childhood, growing up on their family farm. Erich received his schooling from his maternal aunt and had a gift for mathematics. He passed the exam for the Cadet School at Plön with distinction. Ludendorffs education continued at the Hauptkadettenschule at Groß-Lichterfelde near Berlin through 1882, the old sinner, as he liked to hear himself called. Married the daughter of a factory owner, Margarethe née Schmidt. They met in a rainstorm when he offered his umbrella and she divorced to marry him, bringing three stepsons and a stepdaughter. Their marriage pleased both families and he was devoted to his stepchildren, in 1885, Ludendorff was commissioned as a subaltern into the 57th Infantry Regiment, then at Wesel. His service reports reveal the highest praise, with frequent commendations, in 1893, he entered the War Academy, where the commandant, General Meckel, recommended him to the General Staff, to which he was appointed in 1894. He rose rapidly and was a staff officer at the headquarters of V Corps from 1902 to 1904. Next he joined the Great General Staff in Berlin, which was commanded by Alfred von Schlieffen, Ludendorff directed the Second or Mobilization Section from 1904–13. Soon he was joined by Max Bauer, a brilliant artillery officer, by 1911, Ludendorff was a full colonel
23.
Paul von Hindenburg
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Hindenburg retired from the army for the first time in 1911, but was recalled shortly after the outbreak of World War I in 1914. He first came to attention at the age of 66 as the victor of the decisive Battle of Tannenberg in August 1914. As Germanys Chief of the General Staff from August 1916, Hindenburgs reputation rose greatly in German public esteem. He and his deputy Erich Ludendorff then led Germany in a de facto military dictatorship throughout the remainder of the war, in line with Lebensraum ideology, he advocated sweeping annexations of territories in Poland, Ukraine, and Russia in order to resettle Germans there. Hindenburg retired again in 1919, but returned to life in 1925 to be elected the second President of Germany. In 1932, Hindenburg was persuaded to run for re-election as German president, although 84 years old and in poor health, Hindenburg was re-elected in a runoff. He was opposed to Hitler and was a player in the increasing political instability in the Weimar Republic that ended with Hitlers rise to power. He dissolved the Reichstag twice in 1932 and finally, under pressure, in February, he signed off on the Reichstag Fire Decree, which suspended various civil liberties, and in March he signed the Enabling Act of 1933, which gave Hitlers regime arbitrary powers. Hindenburg died the year, after which Hitler declared the office of President vacant. Hindenburg was embarrassed by his mothers non-aristocratic background and hardly mentioned her at all in his memoirs and his paternal lineage was considered highly distinguished, in fact, he was descended from one of the most respected ancient noble families in Prussia. His paternal grandfather was Otto Ludwig von Beneckendorff und von Hindenburg, Hindenburg was also a descendant of Martin Luther and his wife Katharina von Bora through their daughter Margareta Luther. Hindenburgs younger brothers and sister were Otto, Ida and Bernhard, Hindenburg was proud that one of his ancestors, Colonel Otto Frederich von Hindenburg had lost a leg at the Battle of Torgau in 1760 and had been awarded an estate at Neudeck by Frederich the Great. Hindenburg received a typical Junker upbringing, being taught the virtues of duty, discipline, obedience to authority and loyalty to Prussia, Hindenburgs governess was known to shout Quiet in the ranks. Before entering the Prussian Cadet Corps in 1859, the 12-year old Hindenburg soberly wrote up his last will and testament in case he should die, Hindenburgs favorite reading materials were war and adventure stories with The Pathfinder by James Fenimore Cooper being his favorite. As a cadet, Hindenburg was admired for his commitment to duty, obsession with details, however, he was considered of mediocre intelligence and utterly lacking in a sense of humor, a dedicated if somewhat dull cadet. After his education at schools in Berlin and Wahlstatt, Hindenburg was commissioned as a lieutenant in 1866. He fought in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 and the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871, during the Seven Weeks War of 1866, Hindenburg wrote his parents, I rejoice in this bright-colored future. For the soldier war is the state of things…If I fall, it is the most honorable
24.
Battle of Tannenberg
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The Battle of Tannenberg was fought between Russia and Germany from 26–30 August 1914, during the first month of World War I. The battle resulted in the almost complete destruction of the Russian Second Army, a series of follow-up battles destroyed most of the First Army as well and kept the Russians off balance until the spring of 1915. It brought high prestige to Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg and his rising staff-officer Erich Ludendorff, the French armys Plan XVII at the outbreak of World War I involved swift mobilization followed by an immediate attack to drive the Germans from Alsace and Lorraine. If the British Expeditionary Force joined in accordance with their Allied treaty and their Russian allies in the East would have a massive army, more than 95 divisions, but their mobilization would inevitably be slower. Getting their men to the front would itself take time because of their relatively sparse and unreliable railway network (for example, three-quarters of the Russian railways were still single-tracked. Russia intended to have 27 divisions at the front by day 15 and 52 by day 23, despite their difficulties, the Russians promised the French that they would promptly engage the armies of Austria-Hungary in the south and on day 15 would invade German East Prussia. East Prussia was a vulnerable salient thrust into Russian territory, extending from the Vistula River in the west to the border with Lithuania in the east, on the north was the Baltic and on the south was the border with Poland, it was about 130 km wide. Somewhat east of the center of the province was the heavily fortified peninsula on which its capital Königsberg was located, the Russians would rely on two of their three railways that ran up to the border, each would provision an army. The railways ended at the border, as Russian trains operated on a different rail gauge than Western Europe, consequently, its armies could be transported by rail only as far as the German border and could use Prussian railways only with captured locomotives and rolling stock. The First Army would use the line ran from Vilnus, Lithuania. The Second Army railway ran from Warsaw, Poland, to the border 165 km southwest of Königsberg, the two armies would take the Germans in a pincers. The Russian supply chains would be ungainly because—for defense—on their side of the border there were only a few sandy tracks rather than proper macadamized roads. Adding to their problems, the Russians deployed large numbers of cavalry and Cossacks. The First Army commander was Gen. Pavel Karlovitch Rennenkampf, who in the Russo-Japanese War had earned a reputation for exceptional energy, determination, courage, and military capability. The Second Army, coming north from Warsaw, was under Gen. Alekesander Vasilevich Samsonov, since commanding a division in the war with Japan he had been governor of Turkestan. The two armies were directed by the governor of Warsaw, who in wartime commanded the Northwest Military District. His duties in Manchuria had been more diplomatic than military, before moving to Warsaw he had been Chief of the Russian General Staff for two years. He set up his headquarters in Volkovysk, communications would be a daunting challenge
25.
Georges Painvin
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Georges Jean Painvin was a French cryptanalyst during the First World War. His most notable achievement was the breaking of the ADFGVX cipher in June 1918, before the First World War, Painvin taught paleontology and geology as well as playing the cello as a hobby. He performed cryptanalytic work for the French army after an encounter with a member of the French Bureau de Chiffre. In June 1918, the German army was preparing for a push to cover the 100 kilometres that separated it from Paris. The Allies needed to know where the German attack would come, Painvin managed to break an ADFGVX enciphered message, which read, Rush munitions. This message indicated where the German offensive was to place. In attempting to break the ADFGVX cipher Painvin lost 15 kg in weight, after the war, he returned to teaching and became president of several companies, as well as of the Paris Chamber of Commerce. He was made a chevalier of the Légion dhonneur, but was unable to speak about it for years because of the secrecy that surrounded his work. The Code Book, Fourth Estate,1999
26.
Spring Offensive
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The Germans had realised that their only remaining chance of victory was to defeat the Allies before the overwhelming human and matériel resources of the United States could be fully deployed. They also had the advantage in numbers afforded by the nearly 50 divisions freed by the Russian surrender. There were four German offensives, codenamed Michael, Georgette, Gneisenau, once this was achieved, it was hoped that the French would seek armistice terms. The other offensives were subsidiary to Michael and were designed to divert Allied forces from the offensive on the Somme. No clear objective was established before the start of the offensives and once the operations were underway, the Allies concentrated their main forces in the essential areas, while leaving strategically worthless ground, devastated by years of combat, lightly defended. The Germans were unable to move supplies and reinforcements fast enough to maintain their advance, the fast-moving stormtroopers leading the attack could not carry enough food and ammunition to sustain themselves for long and all the German offensives petered out, in part through lack of supplies. By late April 1918, the danger of a German breakthrough had passed, the German Army had suffered heavy casualties and now occupied ground of dubious value which would prove impossible to hold with such depleted units. In August 1918, the Allies began a counter-offensive with the support of 1–2 million fresh American troops and using new artillery techniques, the German government and Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg, nominally the Chief of the General Staff, were not party to the planning process. Eventually it was decided to launch Operation Michael near Saint-Quentin, at the hinge between the French and British armies, and strike north to Arras, the main reason for the choice was tactical expediency. The ground on this sector of the front would dry out much sooner after the winter and spring rains and it was also a line of least resistance as the British and French armies were weak in the sector. However, these remained only secondary and weaker operations, subordinate to Michael, the constant changing of operational targets once the offensive was underway gave the impression the German command had no coherent strategic goal. Any capture of an important strategic objective, such as the Channel ports, the success of Operation Michael led German infantry to advance too far from its supply bases and railheads. The stormtrooper units leading the advance carried supplies for only a few days, the advance was slowed by supply shortages, which gave Allied commanders more time to reinforce the threatened areas and to slow the advance still more. The stormtrooper tactic was to attack and disrupt enemy headquarters, artillery units, each major formation creamed off its best and fittest soldiers into storm units, several complete divisions were formed from these elite units. The Germans also failed to arm their forces with a mobile force, such as cavalry. This tactical error meant the infantry had to keep up a tempo of advance. Notwithstanding the effectiveness of the stormtroopers, the following German infantry often made attacks in large traditional waves, to enable the initial breakthrough, Lieutenant Colonel Georg Bruchmüller, a German artillery officer, developed the Feuerwalze, an effective and economical creeping barrage scheme. There were three phases, first, a bombardment on the enemys command and communications, then, destruction of their artillery
27.
Henry Oliver
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Admiral of the Fleet Sir Henry Francis Oliver, GCB, KCMG, MVO was a Royal Navy officer. He went to be commanding officer first of the armoured cruiser HMS Achilles, during the First World War, Oliver was sent to Antwerp where, with Belgian support, he blew up the engine rooms of 38 stranded German merchant vessels. He served as Commander of the 1st Battlecruiser Squadron in the Grand Fleet in the last year of the War, after the war Oliver became Commander of the 2nd Battle Squadron, Commander-in-Chief of the Home Fleet and then Commander-in-Chief of the Reserve Fleet. His last appointment was as Commander-in-Chief of the Atlantic Fleet, born the fifth son of Robert Oliver and Margaret Oliver at Lochside near Kelso, Oliver joined the Royal Navy as a cadet in the training ship HMS Britannia on 15 July 1878. Promoted to sub-lieutenant on 21 January 1885, he joined the battleship HMS Triumph, flagship of the Pacific Station, promoted to lieutenant on 30 June 1888, he joined the survey ship HMS Stork and then qualified as a navigator. Promoted to commander on 31 December 1899, he became navigating officer on the battleship HMS Majestic, flagship of the Commander-in-Chief of the Channel Squadron, in September 1900. He proposed a number of ideas for improving the organisation and training of the Navys navigation branch, promoted to captain on 30 June 1903, Oliver became the first commanding officer of his proposed new navigation school HMS Mercury in late 1903. He was appointed fleet navigator, demonstrating his skills on one occasion by leading the entire Channel Fleet into a southern Irish anchorage in thick fog with the ships anchoring by signal and they were revealed to be perfectly positioned when the fog lifted. After that he became commanding officer of the new battleship HMS Thunderer in 1912 and was appointed a naval aide-de-camp to the King on 2 March 1913. Appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath on 3 June 1913, he was promoted to rear-admiral on 7 December 1913 and he gained the somewhat unflattering nickname of Dummy from his unsmiling countenance and reluctance to speak unless he had to. In August 1914, just after the outbreak of the First World War, Oliver was sent to Antwerp where, with Belgian support, he blew up the engine rooms of 38 stranded German merchant vessels. He became Naval Secretary to Winston Churchill, First Lord of the Admiralty, in October 1914 and he was advanced to Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath on 1 January 1916. Promoted to the rank of vice-admiral on 1 January 1919, Oliver became Commander of the 2nd Battle Squadron in March 1919. When the Grand Fleet was disbanded in April 1919, the ships were reformed as the Home Fleet. Then in Autumn 1919 the Home Fleet was re-designated the Reserve Fleet, promoted to full admiral on 1 November 1923, he became Commander-in-Chief of the Atlantic Fleet in August 1924. He was promoted to Admiral of the Fleet on 21 January 1928 and he attended the funeral of King George V in January 1936. In retirement Oliver became Deputy Chairman of the Royal National Lifeboat Institution, when he reached the age of 100 in January 1965 it was estimated that during his thirty-year period of retirement he had received £76,000 in retired pay. He died at his home in London on 15 October 1965, however, he was not highly regarded as an inspiring leader of those who served under him
28.
James Alfred Ewing
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He was regarded as brilliant and successful, but was conscious of his dignity and position. His first wife, Annie, was an American, a great niece of George Washington. Born in Dundee, Scotland, Ewing was the son of the Reverend James Ewing a minister of the Free Church of Scotland. He was educated at West End Academy and the High School of Dundee, Ewing showed an early interest in science, Ewing won a scholarship to the University of Edinburgh where he studied physics under Peter Guthrie Tait before graduating in engineering. During his summer vacations, he worked on telegraph cable laying expeditions, including one to Brazil, under William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin, in 1878, on Fleeming Jenkins recommendation, Ewing was recruited to help the modernisation of Meiji Era Japan as one of the o-yatoi gaikokujin. Serving as professor of engineering at the Tokyo Imperial University. Ewing made two friends at Tokyo University soon after arriving, Basil Hall Chamberlain and Lieutenant Thomas Henry James R. N. who taught navigation. He was also in contact with Henry Dyer and William Edward Ayrton at the Imperial College of Engineering. In Tokyo, Ewing taught courses on mechanics and on heat engines to engineering students and he carried out many research projects on magnetism and coined the word hysteresis. His investigations into earthquakes led him to help T. Lomar Gray and John Milne of the Imperial College of Engineering to develop the first modern seismograph, from 1880–1895. All three men worked as a team on the invention and use of seismographs, though Milne is generally credited with the invention of the first modern horizontal-pendulum seismograph, Ewing joined Gray and Milne in founding the Seismological Society of Japan in 1880. In 1883, Ewing returned to his native Dundee to work at the recently established University College Dundee as its first Professor of Engineering. He was appalled by the conditions he found in many of the poorer areas of the town which he felt compared unfavourably with those in Japan. He worked fervently with local government and industry to improve amenities, in particular sewer systems, some of the letters Ewing wrote at this time are now held by Archive Services, University of Dundee along with some of his other papers. A reminder of Ewings connection with both University College and the city of Dundee is the University of Dundees Ewing Building which was built in 1954, the Ewing Building is currently used by the Universitys School of Engineering, Physics and Mathematics. In 1890, Ewing took up the post of Professor of Mechanism and Applied Mechanics at the University of Cambridge, initially at Trinity College, at Cambridge, Ewings research into the magnetisation of metals led him to criticise the conventional account of Wilhelm Weber. In 1890, he observed that magnetisation lagged behind an applied alternating current and he described the characteristic hysteresis curve and speculated that individual molecules act as magnets, resisting changes in magnetising potential. Ewing also researched into the structure of metals and, in 1903, was the first to propose that fatigue failures originated in microscopic defects or slip bands in materials
29.
Admiralty
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The new Admiralty Board meets only twice a year, and the day-to-day running of the Royal Navy is controlled by a Navy Board. It is common for the authorities now in charge of the Royal Navy to be referred to as simply The Admiralty. The title of Lord High Admiral of the United Kingdom was vested in the monarch from 1964 to 2011, the title was awarded to Philip, Duke of Edinburgh by Queen Elizabeth II on his 90th birthday. There also continues to be a Vice-Admiral of the United Kingdom, the office of Admiral of England was created around 1400 although there had already been Admirals of the Northern and Western Seas. In 1546, King Henry VIII established the Council of the Marine, later to become the Navy Board, operational control of the Royal Navy remained the responsibility of the Lord High Admiral, who was one of the nine Great Officers of State. In 1628, Charles I put the office of Lord High Admiral into commission, the office of Lord High Admiral passed a number of times in and out of commission until 1709 after which the office was almost permanently in commission. In 1831, the first Navy Board was abolished as a separate entity, in 1964, the Admiralty along with the War Office and the Air Ministry as separate departments of state were abolished, and re-emerged under one single new Ministry of Defence. Within the expanded Ministry of Defence are the new Admiralty Board which has a separate Navy Board responsible for the running of the Royal Navy. The Army Board and the Air Force Board, each headed by the Secretary of State for Defence, the Board of Admiralty consisted of a number of Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty. The Lords Commissioners were always a mixture of admirals, known as Naval Lords or Sea Lords and Civil Lords, the quorum of the Board was two commissioners and a secretary. The president of the Board was known as the First Lord of the Admiralty, after 1806, the First Lord of the Admiralty was always a civilian while the professional head of the navy came to be known as the First Sea Lord. The first real concerted effort to organise the Admiralty was started by Henry VIII. Between 1860 and 1908 there was no study of strategy and of staff work conducted within the naval service. All the navys talent flowed to the great technical universitys and it was perceived by officials within the Admiralty at this time that the running of war was quite a simple matter for any flag officer who required no formal training. The new War Staff had hardly found its feet and it struggled with the opposition to its existence by senior officers they were categorically opposed to a staff. The deficiencies of the system within this department of state could be seen in the conduct of the Dardanelles campaign, there was no mechanisms in place to answer the big strategic questions in 1914 a Trade Division was created. In 1916, Sir John Jellicoe came to the Admiralty, he organized the staff as following, Chief of War Staff, Operations, Intelligence, Signal Section, Mobilization, Trade. This for the first time gave the naval staff direct representation on the Board, the would direct all operations and movements of the fleet, while the would be responsible for mercantile movements and anti-submarine operations
30.
Y-stations
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Y-stations were British signals intelligence collection sites established during the First World War and used again during the Second World War. The sites were operated by a range of agencies including the Army, Navy and RAF plus the Foreign Office, General Post Office and Marconi Company receiving stations ashore and afloat. The Y stations tended to be of two types, for intercepting of the signals and for identifying where they were coming from. Sometimes both functions were operated at the site, with the direction finding hut being a few hundred metres from the main interception building. Many amateur radio operators supported the work of the Y stations, much of the traffic intercepted by the Y stations was recorded by hand and sent to Bletchley by motorcycle couriers and later by teleprinter, over post office land lines. The name derived from Wireless Interception, the term was also used for similar stations attached to the India outpost of the Intelligence Corps, the Wireless Experimental Centre outside Delhi. Specially constructed Y stations undertook direction finding on wireless transmissions and this became particularly important in the Battle of the Atlantic where locating U-boats was vital. In the UK some operators were located in a metal tank. These stations were usually in places, often in the middle of farmers fields. Traces of World War II D/F stations can be seen as circles in the surrounding the village of Goonhavern in Cornwall. P. O. The Searchers — Radio Intercept in Two World Wars, garats HaY - Y Services Beaumanor Park - Leicestershire Bletchley Park - Official Website Chicksands in WW2 - BBC 3CR Bomber Command Y - AWM
31.
General Post Office
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The General Post Office was officially established in England in 1660 by Charles II and it eventually grew to combine the functions of state postal system and telecommunications carrier. Similar General Post Offices were established across the British Empire, in 1969 the GPO was abolished and the assets transferred to The Post Office, changing it from a Department of State to a statutory corporation. For the more recent history of the system in the United Kingdom, see the article Royal Mail. Originally, the GPO was a monopoly covering the despatch of items from a sender to a specific receiver. The postal service was known as the Royal Mail because it was built on the system for royal. In 1661 the office of Postmaster General was created to oversee the GPO, the GPO created a network of post offices where senders could submit items. All post was transferred from the post office of origination to distribution points called sorting stations, initially it was the recipient of the post who paid the fee, and he had the right to refuse to accept the item if he did not wish to pay. The charge was based on the distance the item had been carried so the GPO had to keep an account for each item. The first general post office in London opened in 1643, just 8 years after King Charles I legalised use of the posts for private correspondence. It was probably on Cloak Lane near Dowgate Hill, coffee houses in the City such as Lloyds and Garraways organised private transport of mail among their patrons. The Royal Mail moved its headquarters to Lombard Street in the City in 1678 to better curtail such practices, when the Central London Railway was built in 1900 its nearby station was named Post Office. Smirkes building was felt to be too small by this time, however, in 1912, the former GPO East was demolished, the current headquarters of BT, a post World War II building, occupies the site of the old Telegraph Office. The theory was used to state control of the mail service into every form of electronic communication possible on the basis that every sender used some form of distribution service. These distribution services were considered in law as forms of electronic post offices and this applied to telegraph and telephone switching stations. In the mid 19th century several private companies were established in the UK. The responsibility for the electric telegraphs was officially transferred to the GPO on Friday,4 February 1870, overseas telegraphs did not fall within the monopoly. The private telegraph companies that existed were bought out. The new combined telegraph service had 1,058 telegraph offices in towns,6,830,812 telegrams were transmitted in 1869 producing revenue of £550,000
32.
High Seas Fleet
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The High Seas Fleet was the battle fleet of the German Imperial Navy and saw action during the First World War. The formation was created in February 1907, when the Home Fleet was renamed as the High Seas Fleet, Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz was the architect of the fleet, he envisioned a force powerful enough to challenge the Royal Navys predominance. Kaiser Wilhelm II, the German Emperor, championed the fleet as the instrument by which he would seize overseas possessions and this was the heart of Tirpitzs Risk Theory, which held that Britain would not challenge Germany if the latters fleet posed such a significant threat to its own. The primary component of the Fleet was its battleships, typically organized in squadrons, though it also contained various other formations. At its creation in 1907, the High Seas Fleet consisted of two squadrons of battleships, and by 1914, a third squadron had been added. The dreadnought revolution in 1906 greatly affected the composition of the fleet, enough dreadnoughts for two full squadrons were completed by the outbreak of war in mid 1914, the eight most modern pre-dreadnoughts were used to constitute a third squadron. Two additional squadrons of vessels were mobilized at the onset of hostilities, though by the end of the conflict. The fleet conducted a series of sorties into the North Sea during the war designed to lure out a portion of the numerically superior British Grand Fleet. These operations frequently used the fast battlecruisers of the I Scouting Group to raid the British coast as the bait for the Royal Navy. These operations culminated in the Battle of Jutland, on 31 May–1 June 1916, Scheer and other leading admirals therefore advised the Kaiser to order a resumption of the unrestricted submarine warfare campaign. The primary responsibility of the High Seas Fleet in 1917 and 1918 was to secure the German naval bases in the North Sea for U-boat operations. Nevertheless, the continued to conduct sorties into the North Sea. In 1898, Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz became the State Secretary for the Imperial Navy Office, during a speech in support of the First Naval Law on 6 December 1897, Tirpitz stated that the navy was a question of survival for Germany. He also viewed Great Britain, with its powerful Royal Navy, in a discussion with the Kaiser during his first month in his post as State Secretary, he stated that for Germany the most dangerous naval enemy at present is England. Tirpitz theorized that a fleet would require a 33 percent advantage in strength to achieve victory. For a final total of 60 German battleships, Britain would be required to build 90 to meet the 2,3 ratio envisioned by Tirpitz. In his first program, Tirpitz envisioned a fleet of nineteen battleships, the squadrons were further divided into four-ship divisions. This fleet was secured by the First Naval Law, which passed in the Reichstag on 28 March 1898, construction of the fleet was to be completed by 1 April 1904
33.
H. J. Round
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Captain Henry Joseph Round was an English engineer and one of the early pioneers of radio. He was the first to report observation of electroluminescence from a solid state diode and he was a personal assistant to Guglielmo Marconi. Round was the eldest child of Joseph and Gertrude Round and he spent his early years in the small town of Kingswinford in Staffordshire and received his early education at Cheltenham Grammar School. He later attended the Royal College of Science, a constituent college of Imperial College London where he gained a first class honours degree, Round joined the Marconi Company in 1902, not long after Marconi had made his transatlantic wireless transmission. He was sent to the USA where he experimented with a variety of different aspects of radio technology and he also performed some experiments with transmission paths over land and sea at different times of the day and investigated direction finding, for which he used a frame antenna. Round made important contributions to development of the first vacuum tubes and he headed Marconis research program into thermionic tubes, and developed a three-element amplifying tube at roughly the same time as Lee De Forest was developing the Audion in the US. He discovered feedback in vacuum tubes independently along with Alexander Meissner and Edwin Armstrong and he patented the first design for an indirectly heated cathode, the type of cathode widely used in vacuum tubes today. Using his experience in finding, he set up a chain of direction finding stations along the Western Front. These stations proved so successful that another set was installed in England, in May 1916, the stations were monitoring transmissions from the German Navy at anchor at Wilhelmshaven. On 30 May the stations reported a 1. 5-degree change in the direction of the signals – suggesting that the ships were on the move, consequently, the British Admiralty ordered the British fleet to set sail and engage the German fleet. The Battle of Jutland, the largest sea battle of all time, for his service during the war, Round was awarded the Military Cross. After the war, Round returned to life and became involved in radio transmitters and was heavily involved in the first broadcasts made in the United Kingdom. Round became Chief Engineer at Marconis Wireless Telegraph Company in 1921, when the Second World War broke out in 1939, the British Government again called on his services. This time he was involved in ASDIC which is today as sonar. Round died in August 1966 in a home in Bognor Regis after a short illness. HJ Round – the unknown genius, electronics World, May 2003, p.21 Morse, A. H. Radio, Beam and Broadcast, Ernest Benn Limited. Marconi Calling The Life of Captain H J Round
34.
British Expeditionary Force (World War I)
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The British Expeditionary Force or BEF was the British Army sent to the Western Front during the First World War. Planning for a British Expeditionary Force began with the Haldane reforms of the British Army carried out by the Secretary of State for War Richard Haldane following the Second Boer War. The term British Expeditionary Force is often used to only to the forces present in France prior to the end of the First Battle of Ypres on 22 November 1914. By the end of 1914—after the battles of Mons, Le Cateau, an alternative endpoint of the BEF was 26 December 1914, when it was divided into the First and Second Armies. B. E. F. remained the name of the British armies in France. Emperor Wilhelm II of Germany, who was dismissive of the BEF. The treacherous English and walk over General Frenchs contemptible little army, hence, in later years, the survivors of the regular army dubbed themselves The Old Contemptibles. No evidence of any such order being issued by the Kaiser has ever been found, in October 1914, 7th Division arrived in France, forming the basis of III Corps and the cavalry had grown to form the Cavalry Corps of three divisions. By December 1914, the BEF had expanded to such an extent that the First Army, the force was commanded by Field Marshal Sir John French until December 1915, when he was replaced by General Sir Douglas Haig. The BEFs Chief of Staff on mobilization was General Archibald Murray and he was replaced in January 1915 by General William Robertson. Lieutenant-General Launcelot Kiggell then served as Chief of Staff from December 1915 to January 1917 when he was succeeded by Lieutenant-General Herbert Lawrence, the two initial Army Corps were commanded by Douglas Haig and Horace Smith-Dorrien. As the Regular Armys strength declined, the numbers were made up, first by the Territorial Force, by the end of August 1914, he had raised six new divisions and by March 1915, the number of divisions had increased to 29. The Territorial Force was also expanded, raising second and third battalions and forming eight new divisions. The Third Army was formed in July 1915 and with the influx of troops from Kitcheners volunteers and further reorganisation, the Fourth Army and the Reserve Army, became the Fifth Army in 1916. The BEF grew from six divisions of British regular army and reserves in 1914, to encompass the British Empires war effort on the Western front in 1918 and some of its allies. Over the course of the war 5,399,563 men served with the BEF, the First Army was formed on 26 December 1914. Its first commander was Douglas Haig promoted from command of the I Corps, when Haig took over command of the BEF in 1915, the new commander was General Henry Horne. First Army remained in France until the end of the war, the Second Army was formed at the same time as the First Army on 26 December 1914
35.
North Sea
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The North Sea is a marginal sea of the Atlantic Ocean located between Great Britain, Scandinavia, Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium, and France. An epeiric sea on the European continental shelf, it connects to the ocean through the English Channel in the south and it is more than 970 kilometres long and 580 kilometres wide, with an area of around 570,000 square kilometres. The North Sea has long been the site of important European shipping lanes as well as a major fishery, the North Sea was the centre of the Vikings rise. Subsequently, the Hanseatic League, the Netherlands, and the British each sought to dominate the North Sea and thus the access to the markets, as Germanys only outlet to the ocean, the North Sea continued to be strategically important through both World Wars. The coast of the North Sea presents a diversity of geological and geographical features, in the north, deep fjords and sheer cliffs mark the Norwegian and Scottish coastlines, whereas in the south it consists primarily of sandy beaches and wide mudflats. Due to the population, heavy industrialization, and intense use of the sea and area surrounding it. In the southwest, beyond the Straits of Dover, the North Sea becomes the English Channel connecting to the Atlantic Ocean, in the east, it connects to the Baltic Sea via the Skagerrak and Kattegat, narrow straits that separate Denmark from Norway and Sweden respectively. In the north it is bordered by the Shetland Islands, and connects with the Norwegian Sea, the North Sea is more than 970 kilometres long and 580 kilometres wide, with an area of 570,000 square kilometres and a volume of 54,000 cubic kilometres. Around the edges of the North Sea are sizeable islands and archipelagos, including Shetland, Orkney, the North Sea receives freshwater from a number of European continental watersheds, as well as the British Isles. A large part of the European drainage basin empties into the North Sea including water from the Baltic Sea, the largest and most important rivers flowing into the North Sea are the Elbe and the Rhine – Meuse watershed. Around 185 million people live in the catchment area of the rivers discharging into the North Sea encompassing some highly industrialized areas, for the most part, the sea lies on the European continental shelf with a mean depth of 90 metres. The only exception is the Norwegian trench, which extends parallel to the Norwegian shoreline from Oslo to a north of Bergen. It is between 20 and 30 kilometres wide and has a depth of 725 metres. The Dogger Bank, a vast moraine, or accumulation of unconsolidated glacial debris and this feature has produced the finest fishing location of the North Sea. The Long Forties and the Broad Fourteens are large areas with uniform depth in fathoms. These great banks and others make the North Sea particularly hazardous to navigate, the Devils Hole lies 200 miles east of Dundee, Scotland. The feature is a series of trenches between 20 and 30 kilometres long,1 and 2 kilometres wide and up to 230 metres deep. Other areas which are less deep are Cleaver Bank, Fisher Bank, the International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the North Sea as follows, On the Southwest
36.
Battle of Dogger Bank (1915)
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The British surprised the smaller and slower German squadron, which fled for home. During a stern chase lasting several hours, the British caught up with the Germans, the British disabled Blücher, the rearmost German ship and the Germans put the British flagship HMS Lion out of action. Due to inadequate signalling, the remaining British ships stopped the pursuit to sink Blücher and when the ship had been sunk, the squadron returned to harbour, with some ships so badly damaged as to require extensive repairs. Lion made it back to port but was out of action for several months. The British had lost no ships and suffered few casualties, the Germans had lost Blücher and most of its crew, both navies replaced commanders who were thought to have shown poor judgement and made changes to equipment and procedures, to remedy failings observed during the battle. Before 1914, international communication was conducted via undersea cables, most under British control, hours after the British ultimatum to Germany in August 1914, The British cut German cables and messages could only be passed by wireless, using ciphers to disguise their content. The Signalbuch der Kaiserlichen Marine was captured from the German Light cruiser SMS Magdeburg, during the Battle off Texel, the commander of the German destroyer SMS S119 threw overboard all secret papers in a lead lined chest as the ship was sinking. The transfer of a naval officer, Commander W. W. The intelligence meant that the British did not need wasteful defensive standing patrols, the British could economise on fuel and use the time for training and maintenance. The Admiralty also uncovered the German order of battle and tracked the deployment of ships, the lack of a proper war staff at the Admiralty and poor liaison between Room 40, Oliver and the operations staff, meant that the advantage was poorly exploited in 1915. When German ships sailed, information from Room 40 needed to be passed on quickly but Oliver found it hard to delegate, when Jellicoe asked for a decryption section to take to sea, it was refused on security grounds. Hipper opened fire at 08,00 on 16 December 1914, eventually killing 108, the British fleet had sailed but the German ships escaped in stormy seas and low visibility, assisted by British communication failures. The British had let the raid occur and appeared to the public to have been surprised, the British had escaped a potential disaster, because the British 1st Battlecruiser Squadron was unsupported by the 2nd Battle Squadron, when it failed to make contact with the raiding force. The worst British failure was in the exploitation of the intelligence provided by the breakers at Room 40. Some intercepts decoded during the action had taken two hours to reach British commanders at sea, by when they were out of date or misleading. News of the sailing of the HSF was delivered so late that the British commanders thought that the Germans were on the way, at sea, Beatty had sent ambiguous signals and some commanders had not used their initiative. Hipper ordered German ships vigorously to enforce search and seizure rules, buoyed by the success of the raid on the English coast, Admiral Hipper planned an attack for next month on the British fishing fleet on the Dogger Bank. Hipper intended to clear the bank of British fishing vessels and dubious neutrals and to any small British warships in the area
37.
Battle of Jutland
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The battle unfolded in extensive maneuvering and three main engagements, from 31 May to 1 June 1916, off the North Sea coast of Denmarks Jutland Peninsula. It was the largest naval battle in that war and the only full-scale clash of battleships, Jutland was the third fleet action between steel battleships, following the smaller but more decisive battles of the Yellow Sea and Tsushima during the Russo-Japanese War. Jutland was the last major battle fought primarily by battleships in world history, germanys High Seas Fleet intended to lure out, trap, and destroy a portion of the Grand Fleet, as the German naval force was insufficient to openly engage the entire British fleet. This formed part of a strategy to break the British blockade of Germany. Meanwhile, Great Britains Royal Navy pursued a strategy of engaging and destroying the High Seas Fleet, thereby keeping German naval forces contained and away from Britain and they stationed submarines in advance across the likely routes of the British ships. The German plan had been delayed, causing problems for their submarines. On the afternoon of 31 May, Beatty encountered Hippers battlecruiser force long before the Germans had expected, in a running battle, Hipper successfully drew the British vanguard into the path of the High Seas Fleet. Fourteen British and eleven German ships sank, with loss of life. The British lost more ships and twice as many sailors but succeeded in containing the German fleet, however, the British press criticised the Grand Fleets failure to force a decisive outcome, while Scheers plan of destroying a substantial portion of the British fleet also failed. Finally, the British strategy of denying Germany access to both the United Kingdom and the Atlantic did succeed, which was the British long-term goal, subsequent reviews commissioned by the Royal Navy generated strong disagreement between supporters of Jellicoe and Beatty concerning the two admirals performance in the battle. Debate over their performance and the significance of the battle continues to this day, with 16 dreadnought-type battleships, compared with the Royal Navys 28, the German High Seas Fleet stood little chance of winning a head-to-head clash. The Germans therefore adopted a divide-and-conquer strategy, in January 1916, Admiral von Pohl, commander of the German fleet, fell ill. He was replaced by Scheer, who believed that the fleet had used too defensively, had better ships and men than the British. On 25 April 1916, a decision was made by the German admiralty to halt indiscriminate attacks by submarine on merchant shipping and this followed protests from neutral countries, notably the United States, that their nationals had been the victims of attacks. Instead, he set about deploying the submarine fleet against military vessels and it was hoped that, following a successful German submarine attack, fast British escorts, such as destroyers, would be tied down by anti-submarine operations. If the Germans could catch the British in the expected locations, the hope was that Scheer would thus be able to ambush a section of the British fleet and destroy it. A plan was devised to station submarines offshore from British naval bases, the battlecruiser SMS Seydlitz had been damaged in a previous engagement, but was due to be repaired by mid May, so an operation was scheduled for 17 May 1916. At the start of May, difficulties with condensers were discovered on ships of the battleship squadron
38.
Zeppelin
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A Zeppelin was a type of rigid airship named after the German Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin who pioneered rigid airship development at the beginning of the 20th century. Zeppelins notions were first formulated in 1874 and developed in detail in 1893 and they were patented in Germany in 1895 and in the United States in 1899. After the outstanding success of the Zeppelin design, the word came to be commonly used to refer to all rigid airships. Zeppelins were first flown commercially in 1910 by Deutsche Luftschiffahrts-AG, the worlds first airline in revenue service, by mid-1914, DELAG had carried over 10,000 fare-paying passengers on over 1,500 flights. During World War I the German military made use of Zeppelins as bombers and scouts. The defeat of Germany in 1918 temporarily slowed down the airship business, an exception was made allowing the construction of one airship for the US Navy, which saved the company from extinction. In 1926 the restrictions on airship construction were lifted and with the aid of donations from the public and this revived the companys fortunes, and during the 1930s the airships Graf Zeppelin and the larger LZ129 Hindenburg operated regular transatlantic flights from Germany to North America and Brazil. The Hindenburg disaster in 1937, along political and economic issues. The principal feature of Zeppelins design was a rigid metal framework made up from transverse rings. The advantage of design was that the aircraft could be much larger than non-rigid airships. The framework of most Zeppelins was made of duralumin, early Zeppelins used rubberised cotton for the gasbags, but most later craft used goldbeaters skin, made from the intestines of cattle. The first Zeppelins had long cylindrical hulls with tapered ends and complex multi-plane fins and they were propelled by several engines, mounted in gondolas or engine cars, which were attached to the outside of the structural framework. Some of these could provide reverse thrust for manoeuvring while mooring, early models had a comparatively small externally mounted gondola for passengers and crew which was attached to the bottom of the frame. This space was never heated so passengers during trips across the North Atlantic or Siberia were forced to bundle themselves in blankets, the flight ceiling was so low that no pressurization of the cabins was necessary, though the Hindenburg did maintain a pressurized air-locked smoking room. Access to the Zeppelin was achieved in a number of ways, the Graf Zeppelins gondola was accessed while the vessel was on the ground, via gangways. This describes a large rigidly framed outer envelope containing several separate gasbags and he had previously encountered Union Army balloons in 1863 when he visited the United States as a military observer during the American Civil War. Count Zeppelin began to pursue his project after his early retirement from the military in 1890 at the age of 52. Convinced of the importance of aviation, he started working on various designs in 1891
39.
Telegraphy
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Telegraphy is the long-distance transmission of textual or symbolic messages without the physical exchange of an object bearing the message. Thus semaphore is a method of telegraphy, whereas pigeon post is not, telegraphy requires that the method used for encoding the message be known to both sender and receiver. Such methods are designed according to the limits of the medium used. The use of signals, beacons, reflected light signals. In the 19th century, the harnessing of electricity led to the invention of electrical telegraphy, the advent of radio in the early 20th century brought about radiotelegraphy and other forms of wireless telegraphy. The word telegraph was first coined by the French inventor of the Semaphore line, Claude Chappe, a telegraph is a device for transmitting and receiving messages over long distances, i. e. for telegraphy. The word telegraph alone now generally refers to an electrical telegraph, Wireless telegraphy is also known as CW, for continuous wave, as opposed to the earlier radio technique of using a spark gap. Contrary to the definition used by Chappe, Morse argued that the term telegraph can strictly be applied only to systems that transmit. This is to be distinguished from semaphore, which transmits messages. Smoke signals, for instance, are to be considered semaphore, according to Morse, telegraph dates only from 1832 when Pavel Schilling invented one of the earliest electrical telegraphs. A telegraph message sent by a telegraph operator or telegrapher using Morse code was known as a telegram. A cablegram was a sent by a submarine telegraph cable. Later, a Telex was a sent by a Telex network. A wire picture or wire photo was a picture that was sent from a remote location by a facsimile telegraph. A diplomatic telegram, also known as a cable, is the term given to a confidential communication between a diplomatic mission and the foreign ministry of its parent country. These continue to be called telegrams or cables regardless of the used for transmission. Commercial electrical telegraphs were introduced from 1837, the first telegraphs came in the form of optical telegraph, including the use of smoke signals, beacons, or reflected light, which have existed since ancient times. Early proposals for a telegraph system were made to the Royal Society by Robert Hooke in 1684 and were first implemented on an experimental level by Sir Richard Lovell Edgeworth in 1767
40.
Ambassador
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The word is also often used more liberally for persons who are known, without national appointment, to represent certain professions, activities and fields of endeavor such as sales. An ambassador is the government representative stationed in a foreign capital. The host country typically allows the control of specific territory called an embassy, whose territory, staff. Under the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, an ambassador has the highest diplomatic rank, countries may choose to maintain diplomatic relations at a lower level by appointing a chargé daffaires in place of an ambassador. The equivalent to an Ambassador exchanged among members of the Commonwealth of Nations are known as High Commissioners, the ambassadors of the Holy See are known as Papal or Apostolic Nuncios. The first known usage of the term is known to be in the 14th century, the foreign government to which an ambassador is assigned must first approve the person. In some cases, the government might reverse its approval by declaring the diplomat a persona non grata. This kind of declaration usually results in recalling the ambassador to his/her home nation, due to the advent of modern travel, todays world is a much smaller place in relative terms. As an officer of the service, an ambassador is expected to protect the citizens of his home country in the host country. Another result of the increase in travel is the growth of trade between nations. For most countries, the economy is now part of the global economy. This means increased opportunities to sell and trade with other nations, one of the cornerstones of foreign diplomatic missions is to work for peace. This task can grow into a fight against international terrorism, the trade, international bribery. Ambassadors help stop these acts, helping people across the globe and these activities are important and sensitive and are usually carried out in coordination with the Defense Ministry of the state and the head of the nation. The rise of the diplomatic system was a product of the Italian Renaissance. The use of ambassadors became a strategy in Italy during the 17th century. The political changes in Italy altered the role of ambassadors in diplomatic affairs, because many of the states in Italy were small in size, they were particularly vulnerable to larger states. The ambassador system was used to disperse information and to protect the vulnerable states
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Mexico
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Mexico, officially the United Mexican States, is a federal republic in the southern half of North America. It is bordered to the north by the United States, to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean, to the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea, and to the east by the Gulf of Mexico. Covering almost two million square kilometers, Mexico is the sixth largest country in the Americas by total area, Mexico is a federation comprising 31 states and a federal district that is also its capital and most populous city. Other metropolises include Guadalajara, Monterrey, Puebla, Toluca, Tijuana, pre-Columbian Mexico was home to many advanced Mesoamerican civilizations, such as the Olmec, Toltec, Teotihuacan, Zapotec, Maya and Aztec before first contact with Europeans. In 1521, the Spanish Empire conquered and colonized the territory from its base in Mexico-Tenochtitlan, Three centuries later, this territory became Mexico following recognition in 1821 after the colonys Mexican War of Independence. The tumultuous post-independence period was characterized by instability and many political changes. The Mexican–American War led to the cession of the extensive northern borderlands, one-third of its territory. The Pastry War, the Franco-Mexican War, a civil war, the dictatorship was overthrown in the Mexican Revolution of 1910, which culminated with the promulgation of the 1917 Constitution and the emergence of the countrys current political system. Mexico has the fifteenth largest nominal GDP and the eleventh largest by purchasing power parity, the Mexican economy is strongly linked to those of its North American Free Trade Agreement partners, especially the United States. Mexico was the first Latin American member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and it is classified as an upper-middle income country by the World Bank and a newly industrialized country by several analysts. By 2050, Mexico could become the fifth or seventh largest economy. The country is considered both a power and middle power, and is often identified as an emerging global power. Due to its culture and history, Mexico ranks first in the Americas. Mexico is a country, ranking fourth in the world by biodiversity. In 2015 it was the 9th most visited country in the world, Mexico is a member of the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G8+5, the G20, the Uniting for Consensus and the Pacific Alliance. Mēxihco is the Nahuatl term for the heartland of the Aztec Empire, namely, the Valley of Mexico, and its people, the Mexica and this became the future State of Mexico as a division of New Spain prior to independence. It is generally considered to be a toponym for the valley became the primary ethnonym for the Aztec Triple Alliance as a result. After New Spain won independence from Spain, representatives decided to name the new country after its capital and this was founded in 1524 on top of the ancient Mexica capital of Mexico-Tenochtitlan
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George Curzon, 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston
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As Viceroy of India, he is noted for the creation of Eastern Bengal and Assam. As Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, he drew the Curzon Line as the eastern frontier of Poland. He was passed over as Prime Minister in 1923 in favour of Stanley Baldwin and his character polarised opinion amongst his contemporaries, sow gratitude and resentment along his path with equally lavish hands. He quarrelled endlessly and his arrogance and inflexibility made even more enemies, critics have been negative in contrasting his enormous talents and energy on behalf of British imperialism with his mixed results and unrealized ambitions. He was born at Kedleston Hall, built on the site where his family and his mother, worn out by childbirth, died when George was 16, her husband survived her by 41 years. Neither parent exerted an influence on Curzons life. Lord Scarsdale was an austere and unindulgent father who believed in the family tradition that landowners should stay on their land. He thus had little sympathy for those journeys across Asia between 1887 and 1895 which made his son one of the most travelled men who sat in a British cabinet. Paraman periodically forced him to parade through the wearing a conical hat bearing the words liar, sneak. Curzon later noted, No children well born and well-placed ever cried so much and he was educated at Wixenford School, Eton College and Balliol College, Oxford. At Eton he was a favourite of Oscar Browning, a relationship that led to his tutors dismissal. While at Eton, he was a figure who was liked and disliked with equal intensity by large numbers of masters. This strange talent for both attraction and repulsion stayed with him all his life, few people ever felt neutral about him, at Oxford he was President of the Union and Secretary of the Oxford Canning Club. Although he failed to achieve a first class degree in Greats, he won the Lothian and Arnold Prizes and he was elected a prize fellow of All Souls College in 1883. Whilst at Oxford, he was a contemporary and close friend of Cecil Spring Rice and Edward Grey. While at Oxford, Curzon was the inspiration for the following Balliol rhyme and my cheeks are pink, my hair is sleek, I dine at Blenheim once a week. Curzon became Assistant Private Secretary to Lord Salisbury in 1885, subsequent performances in the Commons, often dealing with Ireland or reform of the House of Lords, received similar verdicts. He was Under-Secretary of State for India in 1891–92 and Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs in 1895–98
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Government Communications Headquarters
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GCHQ was originally established after the First World War as the Government Code and Cypher School and was known under that name until 1946. During the Second World War it was located at Bletchley Park and it is co-located with GCHQ for administrative purposes. Snowdens revelations began a spate of ongoing disclosures of global surveillance, GCHQ is led by the Director of GCHQ, currently Robert Hannigan, and a Corporate Board, made up of Executive and Non-Executive Directors. Sinclair merged staff from NID25 and MI1b into the new organisation, which consisted of around 25–30 officers. It was titled the Government Code and Cypher School, a chosen by Victor Forbes of the Foreign Office. Alastair Denniston, who had been a member of NID25, was appointed as its operational head and it was initially under the control of the Admiralty and located in Watergate House, Adelphi, London. GC&CS officially formed on 1 November 1919, and produced its first decrypt on 19 October, before the Second World War, GC&CS was a relatively small department. GC&CS came under the supervision of Hugh Sinclair, who by 1923 was both the Chief of SIS and Director of GC&CS, in 1925, both organisations were co-located on different floors of Broadway Buildings, opposite St. Jamess Park. Messages decrypted by GC&CS were distributed in blue-jacketed files that became known as BJs, in the 1920s, GC&CS was successfully reading Soviet Union diplomatic ciphers. In 1940, GC&CS was working on the codes and ciphers of 26 countries. J. Good, Peter Calvocoressi and Hugh Foss, an outstation in the Far East, the Far East Combined Bureau was set up in Hong Kong in 1935, and moved to Singapore in 1939. Subsequently, with the Japanese advance down the Malay Peninsula, the Army and RAF codebreakers went to the Wireless Experimental Centre in Delhi, the Navy codebreakers in FECB went to Colombo, Ceylon, then to Kilindini, near Mombasa, Kenya. GC&CS was renamed the Government Communications Headquarters in June 1946, GCHQ was at first based in Eastcote, but in 1951 moved to the outskirts of Cheltenham, setting up two sites there – Oakley and Benhall. Duncan Campbell and Mark Hosenball revealed the existence of GCHQ in 1976 in an article for Time Out, GCHQ had a very low profile in the media until 1983 when the trial of Geoffrey Prime, a KGB mole within GCHQ, created considerable media interest. Since the days of the Second World War, US and British intelligence have shared information, for the GCHQ this means that it shares information with, and gets information from, the National Security Agency in the United States. Subsequently, a feasible implementation scheme via an asymmetric key algorithm was invented by another staff member Clifford Cocks and this fact was kept secret until 1997. In 1984, GCHQ was the centre of a row when the Conservative government of Margaret Thatcher prohibited its employees from belonging to a trade union. It was claimed that joining a union would be in conflict with national security, a number of mass national one-day strikes were held to protest this decision, seen as a first step to wider bans on trade unions
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Black Chamber
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The Black Chamber, also known as The Cipher Bureau, was the United States first peacetime cryptanalytic organization, and a forerunner of the National Security Agency. The only prior codes and cypher organizations maintained by the US government had been some intermittent, headed by Herbert O. Yardley, the Black Chamber was founded in May 1919 following World War I. Yardley had commanded the Army cryptographic section of Military Intelligence during World War I, mI-8 was disbanded after the war. Jointly funded by the Army and the State Department, the Cipher Bureau was disguised as a New York City commercial code company, it actually produced and its true mission, however, was to break the communications of other nations. Eventually, almost the entire American cable industry was part of this effort, however, these companies eventually withdrew their support—possibly spurred by the Radio Act of 1927, which broadened criminal offenses related to breaching the confidentiality of telegraph messages. In 1929, the State Department withdrew its share of the funding, the Army declined to bear the load. New Secretary of State Henry L. Stimson made this decision, stimsons ethical reservations about cryptanalysis focused on the targeting of diplomats from Americas close allies, not on spying in general. Once he became Secretary of War during World War II, he, in 1931, and in need of money, Yardley wrote a book about the Cipher Bureau, titled The American Black Chamber. The term Black Chamber predates Yardleys use of it in the title of his book, codes and code breakers have been used throughout history, notably by Sir Francis Walsingham in Elizabethan England. A so-called cabinet noir was established by King Henry IV of France in 1590 as part of the Poste aux Lettres and its mission was to open, read and reseal letters, and great expertise was developed in the restoration of broken seals. In the knowledge that mail was being opened, correspondents began to develop systems to encrypt and decrypt their letters, the breaking of these codes gave birth to modern systematic scientific code breaking. It was also used at about time in Poland
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Washington Naval Conference
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Soviet Russia was not invited to the conference. Held at Memorial Continental Hall in downtown Washington DC, it resulted in three major treaties, Four-Power Treaty, Five-Power Treaty, the Nine-Power Treaty, and a number of smaller agreements. These treaties preserved peace during the 1920s but Were not renewed in the hostile world of the Great Depression. The worlds popular mood was peace and disarmament throughout the 1920s, women had just won the right to vote in many countries, and they helped convince politicians that money could be saved, votes won, and future wars avoided by stopping the arms race. At the end of the Great War, Britain still had the largest navy afloat but its big ships were becoming obsolete, Britain and Japan were allies in a treaty that was due to expire in 1922. Although there were no immediate dangers, observers increasingly pointed to the American-Japanese rivalry for control of the Pacific Ocean as a threat to world peace. By this time, the British realized they had best cast their lot with Washington rather than Tokyo, to stop a needless, expensive and possibly dangerous arms race, the major countries signed a series of naval disarmament agreements. The American delegation, led by Secretary of State Charles Evans Hughes, included Elihu Root, Henry Cabot Lodge and Oscar Underwood, the Democratic minority leader in the Senate. The primary objective of the conference was to restrain Japanese naval expansion in the waters of the west Pacific and their secondary objectives were intended to ultimately limit Japanese expansion, but also to alleviate concerns over possible antagonism with the British. The British, however, took a cautious and tempered approach. The American hand was strengthened by the interception and decryption of secret instructions from the Japanese government to its delegation, the message revealed the lowest naval ratio that would be acceptable to Tokyo, U. S. negotiators used this knowledge to push the Japanese to it. This success, one of the first in the U. S. governments budding eavesdropping and cryptology efforts, the Washington Conference was called by President Warren G. Harding and run by Secretary of State Charles Evans Hughes. Harding demanded action in order to domestic political credit. Hughes—helped by the cryptographers who were reading the Japanese diplomatic secrets—brilliantly engineered a deal that everyone thought best for themselves, smaller limits with a ratio of 1.7 applied to France and Italy. Battleships, the dominant weapons systems of the era, could be no larger than 35,000 tons, the major powers allowed themselves 135,000,135,000,81,000 tons for the newfangled aircraft carriers. The agreements forced the US to scrap 15 old battleships and 2 new ones, the naval treaty was concluded on February 6,1922. Ratifications of that treaty were exchanged in Washington on August 17,1923, Japan agreed to revert Shandong to Chinese control by an agreement concluded on February 4,1922. Ratifications of that agreement were exchanged in Beijing on June 2,1922, the Washington Naval Treaty led to an effective end to building new battleship fleets and those few ships that were built were limited in size and armament
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