1.
India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
2.
Light infantry
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Light infantry are soldiers whose job was to provide a skirmishing screen ahead of the main body of infantry, harassing and delaying the enemy advance. Light infantry was distinct from medium, heavy or line infantry, heavy infantry were dedicated primarily to fighting in tight formations that were the core of large battles. Heavy infantry originally had heavier arms and more armour than light infantry, as with so called light infantry of later periods, the term more adequately describes the role of such infantry rather than the actual weight of their equipment. Peltast equipment, for example, grew steadily heavier at the time as hoplite equipment grew lighter. It was the fact that peltasts fought in order as skirmishers that made them light infantry. Early regular armies of the era frequently relied on irregulars to perform the duties of light infantry skirmishers. In the 18th and 19th centuries most infantry regiments or battalions had a company as an integral part of its composition. Its members were often smaller, more men with high shooting ability and capability of using initiative. They did not usually fight in disciplined ranks as did the infantry but often in widely dispersed groups. They were expected to avoid melee engagements unless necessary, and would fight ahead of the line to harass the enemy before falling back to the main position. Light infantry sometimes carried lighter muskets than ordinary infantrymen while others carried rifles and these became designated as rifle regiments in Britain and Jäger regiments in German speaking Europe. In France, during the Napoleonic Wars, light infantry were called voltigeurs and chasseurs, the Austrian army had Grenzer regiments from the middle of the 18th century, who originally served as irregular militia skirmishers recruited from mountainous frontier areas. Light infantry officers sometimes carried muskets or rifles, rather than pistols, orders were sent by bugle or whistle instead of drum. Some armies, including the British and French, recruited whole regiments of light infantry, by the late 19th century the concept of fighting in formation was on the wane due to advancements in weaponry and the distinctions between light and heavy infantry began to disappear. Essentially, all infantry became light infantry in operational practice, some regiments retained the name and customs, but there was in effect little difference between them and other infantry regiments. On the eve of World War I the British Army included seven light infantry regiments, today the term light denotes, in the United States table of organization and equipment, units lacking heavy weapons and armor or with a reduced vehicle footprint. At its height, this included the 6th Infantry Division, 7th Infantry Division, 10th Mountain Division, 25th Infantry Division, operation Just Cause is often cited as proof of concept. Almost 30,000 U. S. Forces, mostly light, during the 1990s, the concept of purely light forces in the US military came under scrutiny due to their decreased lethality and survivability
3.
Infantry
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Infantry is the general branch of an army that engages in military combat on foot. As the troops who engage with the enemy in close-ranged combat, infantry units bear the largest brunt of warfare, Infantry can enter and maneuver in terrain that is inaccessible to military vehicles and employ crew-served infantry weapons that provide greater and more sustained firepower. In English, the 16th-century term Infantry describes soldiers who walk to the battlefield, and there engage, fight, the term arose in Sixteenth-Century Spain, which boasted one of the first professional standing armies seen in Europe since the days of Rome. It was common to appoint royal princes to military commands, and the men under them became known as Infanteria. in the Canadian Army, the role of the infantry is to close with, and destroy the enemy. In the U. S. Army, the closes with the enemy, by means of fire and maneuver, in order to destroy or capture him, or to repel his assault by fire, close combat. In the U. S. Marine Corps, the role of the infantry is to locate, close with, and destroy the enemy fire and maneuver. Beginning with the Napoleonic Wars of the early 19th century, artillery has become a dominant force on the battlefield. Since World War I, combat aircraft and armoured vehicles have become dominant. In 20th and 21st century warfare, infantry functions most effectively as part of a combined arms team including artillery, armour, Infantry relies on organized formations to be employed in battle. These have evolved over time, but remain a key element to effective infantry development and deployment, until the end of the 19th century, infantry units were for the most part employed in close formations up until contact with the enemy. This allowed commanders to control of the unit, especially while maneuvering. The development of guns and other weapons with increased firepower forced infantry units to disperse in order to make them less vulnerable to such weapons. This decentralization of command was made possible by improved communications equipment, among the various subtypes of infantry is Medium infantry. This refers to infantry which are heavily armed and armored than heavy infantry. In the early period, medium infantry were largely eliminated due to discontinued use of body armour up until the 20th century. In the United States Army, Stryker Infantry is considered Medium Infantry, since they are heavier than light infantry, Infantry doctrine is the concise expression of how infantry forces contribute to campaigns, major operations, battles, and engagements. It is a guide to action, not a set of hard, doctrine provides a very common frame of reference across the military forces, allowing the infantry to function cooperatively in what are now called combined arms operations. Doctrine helps standardise operations, facilitating readiness by establishing common ways of accomplishing infantry tasks, doctrine links theory, history, experimentation, and practice
4.
Ashoka Chakra
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The Ashoka Chakra is a depiction of the dharmachakra, represented with 24 spokes. It is so called because it appears on a number of edicts of Ashoka, indias highest peacetime military decoration awarded for valour, courageous action or self-sacrifice away from the battlefield is also called Ashoka Chakra. When Gautama Buddha achieved nirvana at Bodh Gaya, he came to Sarnath, there, he found his five disciples Assaji, Mahānāma, Kondañña, Bhaddiya and Vappa, who had earlier abandoned him. He introduced his first teachings to them, thereby establishing the dharmachakra and this is the motive taken up by Ashoka and portrayed on top of his pillars. However,12 out of the 24 spokes represent the twelve causal links taught by the Buddha, the first 12 spokes represent 12 stages of suffering. Next 12 spokes represent no cause no effect, so, due to awareness of mind formation of mental conditioning stops. This process stops the process of birth and death i. e. nibbana and these 12 in reverse represent a total 24 spokes representing the dharma
5.
Maha Vir Chakra
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It replaced the British Distinguished Service Order. The medal may be awarded posthumously, the medal is made of standard silver and is circular in shape. Embossed on the obverse is a five pointed star with circular center-piece bearing the gilded state emblem of India in the center. The words Mahavira Chakra are embossed in Devanagari and English on the reverse with two flowers in the middle. The decoration is worn on the left chest with a half-white and half-orange riband about 3.2 cm in width, more than 155 acts of bravery and selfless courage have been recognized since the inception of the medal. The most MVCs awarded in a conflict was in the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971. Provision was made for the award of a bar for an award of the Maha Vir Chakra. To date, there are six awards of a first bar. Award of the decoration carries with it the right to use M. V. C. as a postnominal abbreviation
6.
Kirti Chakra
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The Kirti Chakra is an Indian military decoration awarded for valour, courageous action or self-sacrifice away from the field of battle. It may be awarded to civilians as well as military personnel and it is the peacetime equivalent of the Maha Vir Chakra. It is second in order of precedence of peacetime gallantry awards, it comes after Ashoka Chakra, before 1967, the award was known as the Ashoka Chakra, Class II. Established as the Ashoka Chakra, Class II by the President of India,4 January 1952, the statutes were revised and the decoration renamed on 27 January 1967. Awards, To understand the award better, a sample recipient would be No.18161 Naik Mukhtiar Singh,4 J. & K. Infantry. On the night of 18/19 March 1956, the occupied by our troops on the Bela at Hussainiwala Headworks. Approximately one platoon of attackers managed to secure a foothold on the Bela from the left flank. On being ordered by his commander to take his section to the threatened flank and stem the advance. He inflicted two casualties on the attackers, captured their rifles and led his section up to the right Guide Bund, whilst his section was securing the objective on the Bund, a hand grenade landed near him in the midst of his section. To save his section, he lifted the grenade with his left hand, the grenade exploded in the meantime and his left elbow was blown off. Though seriously wounded he continued to exhort his men to fight on, No.18161 Naik Mukhtiar Singh by his high example of personal leadership, courage and complete disregard for his personal safety averted a disaster to his section and to the Bela Position. Medal, It is circular in shape and is made of silver, one. On the obverse of the medal shall be embossed a replica of Ashoka Chakra in the centre, on its reverse shall be embossed the words KIRTI CHAKRA both in Hindi and in English the versions being separated by two lotus flowers. Reverse, For pre-1967 awards, the medal is blank in the centre, with Ashoka Chakra in Hindi along the edge on the medal. On either side is a lotus design, the centre is blank, perhaps with the intent that details of the award be engraved there. There is no indication of the class on the pre-1967 awards, for the post-1967 awards, the, names are changed to Kirti Chakra in Hindi above and KIRTI CHAKRA below. Ribbon,30 mm, dark green with two 2 mm saffron stripes, dark green 8.5 mm, saffron 2 mm, dark green 9 mm, saffron 2 mm, dark green 8.5 mm. For every Bar awarded, a replica of the Chakra in miniature shall be added to the riband when worn alone, members of the Nursing Services of the Armed Forces
7.
Vir Chakra
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Vir Chakra is an Indian gallantry award presented for acts of bravery in the battlefield. It replaced the British Distinguished Service Cross, Military Cross and Distinguished Flying Cross, award of the decoration carries with it the right to use Vr. C. as a postnominal abbreviation (note the care to distinguish this abbreviation from that for the Victoria Cross. It is third in precedence in the war time gallantry awards and comes after the Param Vir Chakra, established by the President of India on 26 January 1950. The statutes were amended 12 January 1952 to readjust the order of wearing as new decorations were established, the medal is 1-3/8 inch circular silver medal. A five pointed star, with the chakra in the center, and, on this, the decoration is named on the rim and suspended from a swiveling straight-bar suspender. The decoration is almost always named and dated on the edge, around a plain center, two legends separated by lotus flowers, above Vir Chakra in Hindi and in English. The ribbon is 32 mm, half blue and half orange-saffron. Dark blue 16 mm, saffron 16 mm, the award carries with it a cash allowance and, in some cases, a lump sum cash award. This has been a controversial issue throughout the life of the decoration. From 1 February 1999, the government set a monthly stipend of Rs.850 for recipients of the award. In addition, many states have established individual pension rewards for the recipients of the decoration, some of the notable Vir Chakra awardees include, Maj Vickram Anand Vir Chakra awardees, TWDI IAF Vir Chakra awardees, Bharat Rakshak
8.
Shaurya Chakra
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The Shaurya Chakra is an Indian military decoration awarded for valour, courageous action or self-sacrifice while not engaged in direct action with the enemy. It may be awarded to civilians as well as military personnel and it is the peacetime equivalent of the Vir Chakra. It is generally awarded for Counter-Insurgency operations and actions against the enemy during peace-time and it is third in order of precedence of peacetime gallantry awards and comes after the Ashoka Chakra and the Kirti Chakra. Before 1967, the award was known as the Ashoka Chakra, subsequent awards of the Shaurya Chakra are recognized by a bar to the medal ribbon. It is possible for a recipient to be awarded the Ashoka Chakra or Kirti Chakra in addition for separate acts of gallantry. Since July,1999, it also being given to Civilians of either gender in all walks of life, other members of Police Forces. From 1 February 1999, the government set a monthly stipend of Rs.750 for recipients of the award. Jammu and Kashmir awards an award of Rs.700 for recipients of the Shaurya Chakra. Established, Established as the Ashoka Chakra, Class III by the President of India,4 January 1952, the statutes were revised and the decoration renamed on 27 January 1967. Obverse, Circular bronze, 1-3/8 inches in diameter, in the centre, the chakra of Ashoka, surrounded by a lotus wreath and with an ornate edge. Suspended by a straight bar suspender, the medal is named on the edge. Reverse, For pre-1967 awards, the medal is blank in the centre, with Ashoka Chakra in Hindi along the edge on the medal. On either side is a lotus design, the centre is blank, perhaps with the intent that details of the award be engraved there. There is no indication of the class on the pre-1967 awards, for the post-1967 awards, the, names are changed to Shauryua Chakra in Hindi above and SHAURYA CHAKRA below. Ribbon,30 mm, dark green with three 2 mm orange stripes
9.
Sena Medal
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This article is about the Sena Medal, an Indian Military decoration. SM redirects here The Sena Medal is awarded to members of the Indian army, of all ranks, awards may be made posthumously and a bar is authorized for subsequent awards of the Sena Medal. It can be awarded for gallantry or it can also be for distinguished service carried out by any soldier, therefore, the Sena Medal also serves as a sort of general commendation medal for the Indian Army. From 1 February 1999, the government set a monthly stipend of Rs.250 for recipients of the award when it is awarded for bravery. It has since revised to Rs.1000. It is preceded by the Vir Chakra, Shaurya Chakra & Yudh Seva Medal and it in turn precedes the Vishisht Seva Medal. 17 June 1960, by the President of India, a circular silver medal with a bayonet, point upwards. A standing soldier with the legend in Hindi Sena Medal above, the medal is suspended by a straight-bar suspender and is named on the edge. The medal is often dated on the edge as well. 32 mm, red, with a central stripe. Red 15 mm, white 2 mm, red 15 mm
10.
Bikram Singh (general)
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General Bikram Singh, PVSM, UYSM, AVSM, SM, VSM, ADC is a former Chief of Army Staff of the Indian Army. Previously the head of the Eastern Command, he became the 25th COAS succeeding General V. K. Singh on May 31,2012 and he retired on 31 July 2014. He is the second Sikh to be COAS, the first having been General J. J. Singh and he was also the Chairman of the Chiefs of Staff Committee of the Indian armed forces. As a young student, the chief had considered becoming a doctor. He was a student of Zoology and Biology. But the wars of 1962 and 1965 motivated him to join the NDA in 1968, when asked whether he ever regrets the choice made, Bikram said, If I were ever to be born again, I would only join the Indian Army. A graduate of the 40th course at the National Defence Academy and he was adjudged the Best Young Officer at the Young Officers course at the Infantry School and was also awarded both the Commando Dagger for being the best commando and the Best in Tactics trophy. He later was an instructor at the Commando and Weapons Wings of the Infantry School, after completing the Higher Command Course, he served his first tenure as a Director in the Military Operations Directorate. The tenure coincided with the Kargil War and he was the spokesperson of the Army during that period. He was wounded while posted as a Brigadier in Jammu & Kashmir, Bikram Singh retired as Chief of Army Staff on 31 July 2014. He was succeeded by General Dalbir Singh, Bikram Singh is married to Surjeet Kaur and the couple have two children
11.
Indian Army
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The Indian Army is the land-based branch and the largest component of the Indian Armed Forces. The President of India serves as the Supreme Commander of the Indian Army, and it is commanded by the Chief of Army Staff, two officers have been conferred with the rank of field marshal, a five-star rank, which is a ceremonial position of great honour. It conducts humanitarian rescue operations during calamities and other disturbances, like Operation Surya Hope. It is a component of national power alongside the Indian Navy. The army has been involved in four wars with neighbouring Pakistan, other major operations undertaken by the army include Operation Vijay, Operation Meghdoot and Operation Cactus. The Indian Army has a system, but is operationally and geographically divided into seven commands. It is a force and comprises more than 80% of the countrys active defence personnel. It is the 2nd largest standing army in the world, with 1,200,255 active troops and 990,960 reserve troops, a Military Department was created within the Government of the East India Company at Kolkata in the year 1776. Its main function was to sift and record orders relating to the Army that were issued by various Departments of the East India Company for the territories under its control. With the Charter Act of 1833, the Secretariat of the Government of the East India Company was reorganised into four Departments, including a Military Department. The army in the Presidencies of Bengal, Bombay & Madras functioned as respective Presidency Army until April 1895, for administrative convenience, it was divided into four commands at that point of time, namely Punjab, Bengal, Madras and Bombay. The British Indian Army was a force for the primacy of the British Empire both in India and across the world. In the 20th century, the Indian Army was an adjunct to the British forces in both the world wars. 1.3 million Indian soldiers served in World War I for the Allies, in 1915 there was a mutiny by Indian soldiers in Singapore. After the United Kingdom made promises of self-governance to the Indian National Congress in return for its support, Britain reneged on its promises after the war, following which the Indian Independence movement gained strength. Indian officers given a Kings commission after passing out were posted to one of the eight selected for Indianisation. In World War II Indian soldiers fought for the Allies, in 1939, British officials had no plan for expansion and training of Indian forces, which comprised about 130,000 men. Their mission was internal security and defence against a possible Soviet threat through Afghanistan, as the war progressed, the size and role of the Indian Army expanded dramatically, and troops were sent to battle fronts as soon as possible
12.
Sikh
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A Sikh is a follower of Sikhism, a monotheistic religion which originated during the 15th century in the Punjab region of Northwestern Indian subcontinent. The term Sikh has its origin in the Sanskrit words शिष्य or शिक्ष, Sikh properly refers to adherents of Sikhism as a religion, not an ethnic group. However, because Sikhism has seldom sought converts, most Sikhs share strong ethno-religious ties, many countries, such as the United Kingdom, therefore recognize Sikh as a designated ethnicity on their censuses. Male Sikhs have Singh, and female Sikhs have Kaur as their middle or last name, initiated male and female Sikhs must cover their hair with a turban. The greater Punjab region is the homeland of the Sikhs. Guru Nanak, founder of Sikhism, was born to Mehta Kalu and Mata Tripta, in the village of Talwandi, now called Nankana Sahib, Guru Nanak was a religious leader and social reformer. However, Sikh political history may be said to begin with the death of the fifth Sikh guru, Guru Arjan Dev, Religious practices were formalised by Guru Gobind Singh on 30 March 1699. Gobind Singh initiated five people from a variety of backgrounds, known as the Panj Piare to form the Khalsa. During the period of Mughal rule in India several Sikh gurus were killed by the Mughals for opposing their persecution of minority communities including Sikhs. Sikhs subsequently militarized to oppose Mughal rule, after defeating the Afghan, Mughal and Maratha invaders, the Misls were formed, under Sultan-ul-Quam Jassa Singh Ahluwalia. The empire is considered the zenith of political Sikhism, encompassing Kashmir, Ladakh, hari Singh Nalwa, the commander-in-chief of the Sikh Khalsa Army in the North West Frontier, expanded the confederacy to the Khyber Pass. Its secular administration implemented military, economic and governmental reforms, after the annexation of the Sikh kingdom by the British, the latter recognized the martial qualities of the Sikhs and Punjabis in general and started recruiting from that area. During the 1857 Indian mutiny, the Sikhs stayed loyal to the British and this resulted in heavy recruiting from Punjab to the colonial army for the next 90 years of the British Raj. The distinct turban that differentiates a Sikh from other turban wearers is a relic of the rules of the British Indian Army, the British colonial rule saw the emergence of many reform movements in India including Punjab. This included formation in 1873 and 1879 of the First and Second Singh Sabha respectively, the Sikh leaders of the Singh Sabha worked to offer a clear definition of Sikh identity and tried to purify Sikh belief and practice. The later part of British colonial rule saw the emergence of the Akali movement or the Gurdwara Reform Movement to bring reform in the gurdwaras during the early 1920s. The movement led to the introduction of Sikh Gurdwara Bill in 1925, the months leading up to the partition of India in 1947 were marked by conflict in the Punjab between Sikhs and Muslims. This caused the migration of Punjabi Sikhs and Hindus from West Punjab
13.
Mazhabi Sikh
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Mazhabi Sikhs are members of the low-status Hindu Chuhra sweeper caste who have rejected Hinduism in favour of the Sikh faith. The word Mazhabi is derived from the Urdu term mazhab, and they live mainly in Indian Punjab, Rajasthan and Haryana. Mazhabis are best known for service in the Sikh Khalsa Army, British Indian Army. When Guru Tegh Bahadur, the ninth Sikh guru, was killed by the Mughals in Delhi, three Chuhras recovered his body from a Muslim crowd and brought it back to his son. In recognition of their act, he admitted the untouchable Chuhra sweepers into the Khalsa, the definition of Mazhabi today is somewhat blurred because of the influence of Valmikism. Mazhabis are discriminated against by Sikhs whose origins lie with higher-ranked castes, while young Valmikis, who accept Valmiki as their guru, increasingly object to being labelled as Sikh, their elders are less concerned. At least one of their organisations, the Valmiki-Mazhabi Sikh Morcha, Mazhabis who converted from Sikhism to Christianity under the influence of Christian missionaries in the later years of the British Raj are sometimes referred to as Christian Mazhabi Sikhs. Some also profess Hinduism but call themselves Mazhabi, as do a number who follow the tenets of Buddhism. The Mazhabis were recruited to the army of Ranjit Singh but as separate companies attached to regular battalions rather than as part of an integrated force and this situation was forced upon him because high-caste Sikhs refused any closer connection. They served as pioneers, operating mainly as a corps that worked on construction of roads, bridges. They were not, however, mere labourers because it was expected that their skills would enable them to defend themselves in the event of attack. Some eventually found employment as pioneers in the army of Gulab Singh, in 1857, the British turned to them for help during the Indian Rebellion, apparently to counteract the rebellious sepoys of the Bengal Army. The First Pioneer Sikh Regiment soon found itself helping to break the Siege of Delhi, a regiment was raised in 1858. They were deployed at the Siege of Lucknow and Capture of Lucknow during the 1857 Indian Rebellion and it was calculated in 1898 that there were 2,452 Mazhabis in the army, along with 28,146 Jat Sikhs and 9,000 other Sikhs. During World War I the single-battalion regiments of the Mazhabi Sikh Pioneers – the 23rd, 32nd and these units served in Egypt, Europe, Mesopotamia and Palestine and performed well. The 1/34th Sikh Pioneers were awarded the title of Royal, the Sikh Pioneer regiments, which were practically the only military employer of the Mazhabis, were disbanded in December 1932. The cause was mainly advances in road-building techniques and the need to economise, most of their recruits were released from the army, the only means by which they had been able to advance themselves in society. A Mazhabi Sikh platoon did replace Rajputs as the Indian Platoon of the Welch Regiment in 1933, the Mazhabi Sikhs, together with the Ramdasia, were recruited to the Sikh Light Infantry regiment after its formation in 1941
14.
23rd Sikh Pioneers
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The 23rd Sikh Pioneers were a regiment of the British Indian Army. They could trace their origins to 1857, when they were known as the 15th Regiment of Punjab Infantry, the regiment recruited exclusively from the Mazhabi Sikh community of Punjab province. Despite being pioneers by name, the regiment functioned as a Sikh infantry regiment specially trained as assault pioneers, after World War I, the Indian government reformed the army moving from single battalion regiments to multi battalion regiments. In 1922, the 23rd Sikh Pioneers now became the 1st Battalion, 3rd Sikh Pioneers, they were renamed again in 1929, as the Corps of Sikh Pioneers, during the Second World War the regiment was reformed and named the Sikh Light Infantry. This regiment was allocated to the new Indian Army after independence
15.
34th Royal Sikh Pioneers
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The 34th Royal Sikh Pioneers was an infantry regiment of the British Indian Army. They could trace their origins to 1857, when they were raised as the Punjab Sappers, the regiment recruited exclusively from the Mazhabi Sikh community of Punjab province. Despite being pioneers by name, the regiment functioned as a Sikh infantry regiment specially trained as assault pioneers, the regiment took part in the Siege of Delhi, the Siege of Lucknow and the Capture of Lucknow during the Indian Rebellion of 1857. They were next in action during the Second Afghan War in 1878, to honour the visit of the Prince and Princess of Wales to Indian they took part in the Rawalpindi Parade 1905. During World War I they were part of the 3rd Division and served on the Western Front, in the Mesopotamia Campaign and in the Sinai, after World War I the Indian government reformed the army moving from single battalion regiments to multi battalion regiments. In 1922, the 34th Sikh Pioneers now became the 2nd Battalion, the regiment was allocated to the new Indian Army on independence. They were the most highly decorated Sikh Regiment of the First World War and they became a Royal Regiment in 1921
16.
British Raj
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The British Raj was the rule by the British Crown in the Indian subcontinent between 1858 and 1947. The rule is also called Crown rule in India, or direct rule in India, the resulting political union was also called the Indian Empire and after 1876 issued passports under that name. It lasted until 1947, when the British Indian Empire was partitioned into two sovereign states, the Dominion of India and the Dominion of Pakistan. The British Raj extended over almost all present-day India, Pakistan and this area is very diverse, containing the Himalayan mountains, fertile floodplains, the Indo-Gangetic Plain, a long coastline, tropical dry forests, arid uplands, and the Thar desert. In addition, at times, it included Aden, Lower Burma, Upper Burma, British Somaliland. Burma was separated from India and directly administered by the British Crown from 1937 until its independence in 1948, among other countries in the region, Ceylon was ceded to Britain in 1802 under the Treaty of Amiens. Ceylon was part of Madras Presidency between 1793 and 1798, the kingdoms of Nepal and Bhutan, having fought wars with the British, subsequently signed treaties with them and were recognised by the British as independent states. The Kingdom of Sikkim was established as a state after the Anglo-Sikkimese Treaty of 1861, however. The Maldive Islands were a British protectorate from 1887 to 1965, India during the British Raj was made up of two types of territory, British India and the Native States. In general, the term British India had been used to also to the regions under the rule of the British East India Company in India from 1600 to 1858. The term has also used to refer to the British in India. The terms Indian Empire and Empire of India were not used in legislation, the monarch was known as Empress or Emperor of India and the term was often used in Queen Victorias Queens Speeches and Prorogation Speeches. The passports issued by the British Indian government had the words Indian Empire on the cover, in addition, an order of knighthood, the Most Eminent Order of the Indian Empire, was set up in 1878. At the turn of the 20th century, British India consisted of eight provinces that were administered either by a Governor or a Lieutenant-Governor, during the partition of Bengal the new provinces of Assam and East Bengal were created as a Lieutenant-Governorship. In 1911, East Bengal was reunited with Bengal, and the new provinces in the east became, Assam, Bengal, Bihar, there were 565 princely states when India and Pakistan became independent from Britain in August 1947. The princely states did not form a part of British India, the larger ones had treaties with Britain that specified which rights the princes had, in the smaller ones the princes had few rights. Within the princely states external affairs, defence and most communications were under British control, the British also exercised a general influence over the states internal politics, in part through the granting or withholding of recognition of individual rulers. Although there were nearly 600 princely states, the majority were very small
17.
The Crown
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The Crown is the state in all its aspects within the jurisprudence of the Commonwealth realms and their sub-divisions, although the term is not only a metonym for the State. The Crown is a sole that represents the legal embodiment of executive, legislative. These monarchies are united by the union of their monarch. The concept of the Crown developed first in the Kingdom of England as a separation of the crown and property of the nation state from the person. The concept spread through English and later British colonisation and is now rooted in the lexicon of the other 15 independent realms. In this context it should not be confused with any physical crown, the concept of the Crown took form under the feudal system. Though not used this way in all countries that had this system, in England, all rights, land, for instance, was granted by the Crown to lords in exchange for feudal services and they, in turn, granted the land to lesser lords. One exception to this was common socage—owners of land held as socage held it only to the Crown. The Crown as ultimate owner of all property also owns any property which has become bona vacantia, the monarch is the living embodiment of the Crown and, as such, is regarded as the personification of the state. He office cannot exist without the office-holder, the Crown also represents the legal embodiment of executive, legislative, and judicial governance. While the Crowns legal personality is usually regarded as a sole, it can, at least for some purposes. Historically, the Crown was considered to be indivisible, two judgments—Ex parte Indian Association of Alberta and Ex parte Quark —challenged that view. The Crown in each of the Commonwealth realms is a similar, because both Canada and Australia are federations, there are also crowns in right of each Canadian province and each Australian state. The Succession to the Crown Law 2013 defined the Crown, for the purposes of implementing the Perth Agreement in Jersey law, as the Crown in right of the Bailiwick of Jersey. Legislation in the Isle of Man also defines the Crown in right of the Isle of Man as being separate from the Crown in right of the United Kingdom and this constitutional concept is also worded as the Crown in right of the Bailiwick of Guernsey. The reserve powers of the Crown for each territory are no longer considered to be exercisable on the advice of the UK government, often cases are brought by the Crown according to the complaint of a claimant. The title of the case follows the pattern of R v Y. Thus R v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union is R v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union, where Miller is Gina Miller, in Scotland, criminal prosecutions are undertaken by the Lord Advocate in the name of the Crown
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British Empire
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The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states. It originated with the possessions and trading posts established by England between the late 16th and early 18th centuries. At its height, it was the largest empire in history and, for over a century, was the foremost global power. By 1913, the British Empire held sway over 412 million people, 23% of the population at the time. As a result, its political, legal, linguistic and cultural legacy is widespread, during the Age of Discovery in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal and Spain pioneered European exploration of the globe, and in the process established large overseas empires. Envious of the great wealth these empires generated, England, France, the independence of the Thirteen Colonies in North America in 1783 after the American War of Independence caused Britain to lose some of its oldest and most populous colonies. British attention soon turned towards Asia, Africa, and the Pacific, after the defeat of France in the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, Britain emerged as the principal naval and imperial power of the 19th century. In the early 19th century, the Industrial Revolution began to transform Britain, the British Empire expanded to include India, large parts of Africa and many other territories throughout the world. In Britain, political attitudes favoured free trade and laissez-faire policies, during the 19th Century, Britains population increased at a dramatic rate, accompanied by rapid urbanisation, which caused significant social and economic stresses. To seek new markets and sources of raw materials, the Conservative Party under Benjamin Disraeli launched a period of imperialist expansion in Egypt, South Africa, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand became self-governing dominions. By the start of the 20th century, Germany and the United States had begun to challenge Britains economic lead, subsequent military and economic tensions between Britain and Germany were major causes of the First World War, during which Britain relied heavily upon its empire. The conflict placed enormous strain on the military, financial and manpower resources of Britain, although the British Empire achieved its largest territorial extent immediately after World War I, Britain was no longer the worlds pre-eminent industrial or military power. In the Second World War, Britains colonies in Southeast Asia were occupied by Imperial Japan, despite the final victory of Britain and its allies, the damage to British prestige helped to accelerate the decline of the empire. India, Britains most valuable and populous possession, achieved independence as part of a larger movement in which Britain granted independence to most territories of the empire. The transfer of Hong Kong to China in 1997 marked for many the end of the British Empire, fourteen overseas territories remain under British sovereignty. After independence, many former British colonies joined the Commonwealth of Nations, the United Kingdom is now one of 16 Commonwealth nations, a grouping known informally as the Commonwealth realms, that share a monarch, Queen Elizabeth II. The foundations of the British Empire were laid when England and Scotland were separate kingdoms. In 1496, King Henry VII of England, following the successes of Spain and Portugal in overseas exploration, Cabot led another voyage to the Americas the following year but nothing was ever heard of his ships again
19.
Indian subcontinent
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Geologically, the Indian subcontinent is related to the land mass that rifted from Gondwana and merged with the Eurasian plate nearly 55 million years ago. Geographically, it is the region in south-central Asia delineated by the Himalayas in the north, the Hindu Kush in the west. Politically, the Indian subcontinent usually includes Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, sometimes, the term South Asia is used interchangeably with Indian subcontinent. There is no consensus about which countries should be included in each and it is first attested in 1845 to refer to the North and South Americas, before they were regarded as separate continents. Its use to refer to the Indian subcontinent is seen from the twentieth century. It was especially convenient for referring to the region comprising both the British India and the states under British Paramountcy. The term Indian subcontinent also has a geological significance and it was, like the various continents, a part of the supercontinent of Gondwana. A series of tectonic splits caused formation of basins, each drifting in various directions. The geological region called the Greater India once included the Madagascar, Seychelles, Antartica, as a geological term, Indian subcontinent has meant that region formed from the collision of the Indian basin with Eurasia nearly 55 million years ago, towards the end of Paleocene. The Indian subcontinent has been a particularly common in the British Empire. The region, state Mittal and Thursby, has also labelled as India, Greater India. The BBC and some sources refer to the region as the Asian Subcontinent. Some academics refer to it as South Asian Subcontinent, the terms Indian subcontinent and South Asia are sometimes used interchangeably. There is no accepted definition on which countries are a part of South Asia or Indian subcontinent. In dictionary entries, the term subcontinent signifies a large, distinguishable subdivision of a continent, the region experienced high volcanic activity and plate subdivisions, creating Madagascar, Seychelles, Antartica, Austrolasia and the Indian subcontinent basin. The Indian subcontinent drifted northeastwards, colliding with the Eurasian plate nearly 55 million years ago and this geological region largely includes Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. The zone where the Eurasian and Indian subcontinent plates meet remains one of the active areas. The English term mainly continues to refer to the Indian subcontinent, physiographically, it is a peninsular region in south-central Asia delineated by the Himalayas in the north, the Hindu Kush in the west, and the Arakanese in the east
20.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
21.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
22.
Amphibious warfare
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Amphibious warfare is a type of offensive military operation that today uses naval ships to project ground and air power onto a hostile or potentially hostile shore at a designated landing beach. Through history the operations were conducted using ships boats as the method of delivering troops to shore. Amphibious warfare includes operations defined by their type, purpose, scale, all armed forces that employ troops with special training and equipment for conducting landings from naval vessels to shore agree to this definition. Since the 20th century an amphibious landing of troops on a beachhead is acknowledged as the most complex of all military maneuvers, an amphibious operation is both similar and different in many ways to both land, naval and air operations. Historically, within the scope of these phases a vital part of success was based on the military logistics, naval gunfire. Another factor is the variety and quantity of specialised vehicles and equipment used by the force that are designed for the specific needs of this type of operation. The purpose of operations is always offensive, but limited by the plan. Landings on islands less than 5,000 km2 in size are tactical, usually with the objectives of neutralising enemy defenders. Such an operation may be prepared and planned in days or weeks, a strategic landing operation requires a major commitment of forces to invade a national territory in the archipelagic, such as the Battle of Leyte, or continental, such as Operation Neptune. Such an operation may require multiple naval and air fleets to support the landings, although most amphibious operations are thought of primarily as beach landings, they can take exploit available shore infrastructure to land troops directly into an urban environment if unopposed. In this case non-specialised ships can offload troops, vehicles and cargo using organic or facility wharf-side equipment, tactical landings in the past have utilised small boats, small craft, small ships and civilian vessels converted for the mission to deliver troops to the waters edge. Preparation and planning the naval landing operation requires the assembly of vessels with sufficient capacity to lift necessary troops employing combat loading, the military intelligence services produce a briefing on the expected opponent which guides the organisation and equipping of the embarked force. First specially designed landing craft were used for the Gallipoli landings, helicopters were first used to support beach landings during Operation Musketeer. Hovercraft have been in use for naval landings by military forces since the 1960s, recorded amphibious warfare goes back to ancient times. The Sea Peoples menaced the Egyptians from the reign of Akhenaten as captured on the reliefs at Medinet Habu, the Hellenic city states routinely resorted to opposed assaults upon each others shores, which they reflected upon in their plays and other expressions of art. In 1565, the island of Malta was invaded by the Ottoman Turks during the Great Siege of Malta, forcing its defenders to retreat to the fortified cities. A strategic choke point in the Mediterranean Sea, its loss would have been so menacing for the Western European kingdoms that forces were raised in order to relieve the island. But it took four months to train, arm, and move a 5, then, Philip II, King of Spain decided to train and assign amphibious-assault skilled units to the Royal Armada
23.
Royal Marines
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The Corps of Royal Marines is the United Kingdoms amphibious light infantry force, forming part of the Naval Service, along with the Royal Navy. The Royal Marines were formed in 1755 as the Royal Navys infantry troops, as a highly specialised and adaptable light infantry force, the Royal Marines are trained for rapid deployment worldwide and capable of dealing with a wide range of threats. The Royal Marines have close ties with allied marine forces, particularly the United States Marine Corps. Today, the Royal Marines are a fighting force within the British Armed forces. The Royal Marines can trace its origins back as far as 28 October 1664 when at the grounds of the Honourable Artillery Company the Duke of York and Albanys maritime regiment of foot was first formed. On 5 April 1755, His Majestys Marine Forces, fifty Companies in three Divisions, headquartered at Chatham, Portsmouth, and Plymouth, were formed by Order of Council under Admiralty control. Initially all field officers were Royal Navy officers as the Royal Navy felt that the ranks of Marine field officers were largely honorary and this meant that the furthest a Marine officer could advance was to lieutenant colonel. It was not until 1771 that the first Marine was promoted to colonel and this attitude persisted well into the 1800s. During the rest of the 18th century, they served in numerous landings all over the world and they also served in the American War of Independence, being particularly courageous in the Battle of Bunker Hill led by Major John Pitcairn. In 1788 a detachment of four companies of marines, under Major Robert Ross, due to an error the Fleet left Portsmouth without its main supply of ammunition, and were not resupplied until the Fleet docked in Rio de Janeiro midway through the voyage. In 1802, largely at the instigation of Admiral the Earl St. Vincent, the Royal Marines Artillery was formed as a separate unit in 1804 to man the artillery in bomb ketches. These had been manned by the Armys Royal Regiment of Artillery, during the Napoleonic Wars the Royal Marines participated in every notable naval battle on board the Royal Navys ships and also took part in multiple amphibious actions. In the Caribbean theatre volunteers from freed French slaves on Marie-Galante were used to form Sir Alexander Cochranes first Corps of Colonial Marines and these men bolstered the ranks, helping the British to hold the island until reinforcements arrived. This practice was repeated during the War of 1812, where escaped American slaves were formed into Cochranes second Corps of Colonial Marines and these men were commanded by Royal Marines officers and fought alongside their regular Royal Marines counterparts at the Battle of Bladensburg. Throughout the war Royal Marines units raided up and down the east coast of America including up the Penobscot River and they fought in the Battle of New Orleans and later helped capture Fort Bowyer in Mobile Bay in what was the last action of the war. In 1855 the Infantry forces were renamed the Royal Marines Light Infantry, during the Crimean War in 1854 and 1855, three Royal Marines earned the Victoria Cross, two in the Crimea and one in the Baltic. In 1862 the name was altered to Royal Marine Light Infantry. The Royal Navy did not fight any other ships after 1850, in these Naval Brigades, the function of the Royal Marines was to land first and act as skimishers ahead of the sailor Infantry and Artillery
24.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
25.
Siachen conflict
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The Siachen conflict, sometimes referred to as the Siachen War, is a military conflict between India and Pakistan over the disputed Siachen Glacier region in Kashmir. A cease-fire went into effect in 2003, the contentious area is about 900 square miles to nearly 1,000 square miles of territory. The conflict began in 1984 with Indias successful Operation Meghdoot during which it gained control over all of the Siachen Glacier, Pakistan controls the glacial valleys immediately west of the Saltoro Ridge. According to TIME magazine, India gained more than 1,000 square miles of territory because of its operations in Siachen. The Siachen Glacier is the highest battleground on earth, where India, both countries maintain permanent military presence in the region at a height of over 6,000 metres. More than 2000 people have died in this terrain, mostly due to weather extremes. The conflict in Siachen stems from the incompletely demarcated territory on the map beyond the map known as NJ9842. The 1949 Karachi Agreement and 1972 Simla Agreement did not clearly mention who controlled the glacier, UN officials presumed there would be no dispute between India and Pakistan over such a cold and barren region. Following the UN-mediated ceasefire in the 1949, the line between India and Pakistan was demarcated up to point NJ9842 at the foot of the Siachen Glacier. The largely inaccessible terrain beyond this point was not demarcated, the detailed description of its northern end stated that from Chimbatia in the Turtok sector the line of control runs north-eastwards to Thang, thence eastwards joining the glaciers. This vague formulation further sowed the seed for the dispute to follow. N. Title of U. N. document number S/1430/Add, a U. N. map showing CFL alignment superimposed on a satellite image depicts the CFL terminating at NJ9842. The extension of this line north to the glaciers never appeared on any authoritative map associated with either the 1948 or 1972 agreements. In 1949, a Cease-Fire Line Agreement was signed and ratified by India, Pakistan, in 1956-58, a scientific team led by the Geological Survey of India recorded its findings publicly including information about the Siachen and other glaciers. After Pakistan ceded Shaksgam Valley to China in an agreement in 1963. In 1957 Pakistan permitted a British expedition under Eric Shipton to approach the Siachen glacier through the Bilafond La, five years later a Japanese-Pakistani expedition put two Japanese and a Pakistani Army climber on top of Saltoro Kangri. These were early moves in this game of oropolitics. Pakistan granted a number of permits and this in turn reinforced the Pakistani claim on the area, as these expeditions arrived on the glacier with a permit obtained from the Government of Pakistan
26.
Counter-terrorism
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Counter-terrorism strategies include attempts to counter financing of terrorism. If terrorism is part of an insurgency, counter-terrorism may employ counter-insurgency measures. Harcourt envisioned a permanent unit dedicated to the prevention of politically motivated violence through the use of techniques such as undercover infiltration. This pioneering branch was the first to be trained in counter-terrorism techniques and its name was changed to Special Branch as it had its remit gradually expanded to incorporate a general role in counterterrorism, combating foreign subversion and infiltrating organized crime. Law enforcement agencies, in Britain and elsewhere, established similar units, Counterterrorism forces expanded with the perceived growing threat of terrorism in the late 20th century. Most counter-terrorism strategies involve an increase in police and domestic intelligence. The central activities are traditional, interception of communications, and the tracing of persons, new technology has, however, expanded the range of military and law enforcement operations. Domestic intelligence is often directed at specific groups, defined on the basis of origin or religion, mass surveillance of an entire population raises objections on civil liberties grounds. Homegrown terrorists, especially lone wolves are often harder to detect because of their citizenship or legal status, good intelligence is at the heart of such preparation, as well as political and social understanding of any grievances that might be solved. Counterintelligence is a challenge with the security of cell-based systems, since the ideal. Financial tracking can play a role, as can communications intercept, in response to the growing legislation. United Kingdom The United Kingdom has had anti-terrorism legislation in place for more than thirty years, the Prevention of Violence Act 1939 was brought in response to an Irish Republican Army campaign of violence under the S-Plan. This act had allowed to expire in 1953 and was repealed in 1973 to be replaced by the Prevention of Terrorism Acts a response to the Troubles in Northern Ireland. From 1974 to 1989 the temporary provisions of the act were renewed annually, in 2000 the Acts were replaced with the more permanent Terrorism Act 2000, which contained many of their powers, and then the Prevention of Terrorism Act 2005. The Anti-terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001 was formally introduced into the Parliament November 19,2001 two months after the September 11,2001 attacks in the United States and it received royal assent and went into force on December 13,2001. On December 16,2004 the Law Lords ruled that Part 4 was incompatible with the European Convention on Human Rights, but under the terms of the Human Rights Act 1998 it remained in force. The Prevention of Terrorism Act 2005 was drafted to answer the Law Lords ruling and the Terrorism Act 2006 creates new offences related to terrorism, and amends existing ones. The Act was drafted in the aftermath of the 7 July 2005 London bombings, since 1978 the UKs terrorism laws have been regularly reviewed by a security-cleared Independent Reviewer of Terrorism Legislation, whose reports are submitted to Parliament and published in full
27.
United Nations Emergency Force
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The first United Nations Emergency Force was established by United Nations General Assembly to secure an end to the Suez Crisis with resolution 1001 on November 7,1956. The General Assembly had approved a plan submitted by the Secretary-General which envisaged the deployment of UNEF on both sides of the armistice line, the Second United Nations Emergency Force deployed from October 1973 to July 1979. UNEF was the first UN military force of its kind, its mission was to, to cover an area extending roughly from the Suez Canal to the Armistice Demarcation Lines established in the Armistice Agreement between Egypt and Israel. UNEF was formed under the authority of the General Assembly and was subject to the sovereignty clause, Article 2, Paragraph 7. An agreement between the Egyptian government and the Secretary-General, The Good Faith Accords, or Good Faith Aide-Memoire, placed the UNEF force in Egypt with the consent of the Egyptian government. Since the operative UN resolutions were not passed under Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter, support was also provided by United States, Italy, and Switzerland. The first forces arrived in Cairo on November 15, and UNEF was at its full force of 6,000 by February 1957. The force was deployed in designated areas around the canal, in the Sinai. The UN Secretary-General sought to station UNEF forces on the Israeli side of the 1949 armistice lines, in March 1957, the force facilitated the departure of Israeli forces from Gaza and Sharm-el-Sheik. Deployment along the borders for purposes of observation and this phase ended in May 1967. Due to financial constraints and changing needs, the force shrank through the years to 3,378 by the time its mission ended in May 1967, on May 16,1967, the Egyptian government ordered all United Nations forces out of Sinai effective immediately. Then Secretary-General U Thant tried to redeploy UNEF to areas within the Israeli side of the 1949 armistice lines to maintain buffer, in a decision that proved to be controversial, Thant acted to effect the Egyptian order without consulting either the Security Council or the General Assembly. Most of the forces were evacuated by the end of May, the last United Nations soldier left the region on June 17. UNEF II was also to cooperate with the International Committee of the Red Cross in its endeavours in the area. The mandate of UNEF II which was approved for six months. In each case, the Council took note of the Secretary-Generals report, in October 1978, the mandate of UNEF II was extended a last time for nine months, until 24 July 1979. The area of operation of the UNEF II was at Suez Canal sector and later the Sinai peninsula, with the located at Cairo. Contributors of military personnel were, Australia, Austria, Canada, Finland, Ghana, Indonesia, Ireland, India, Nepal, Panama, Peru, Poland, Senegal and Sweden
28.
Chakram
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The chakram is a throwing weapon from India. It is circular in shape with an outer edge and ranges in size from approximately 12–30 centimetres in diameter. It is also known as chalikar meaning circle, and was referred to in English writings as a war-quoit. The chakram is primarily a weapon but can also be used hand-to-hand. A smaller variant called chakri was worn on the wrist, a related weapon is the chakri dang, a bamboo staff with a chakri attached at one end. Chakradhaari is a name for Krishna, the chakram was later used extensively by the Sikhs as recently as the days of Ranjit Singh. It came to be associated with Sikhs because of the Nihang practice of wearing chakram on their arms, around the neck, the Portuguese chronicler Duarte Barbosa writes of the chakram being used in the Delhi Sultanate. The people of the kingdom. And with these they carry on fighting, and are very dexterous with them. From its native India, variations of the spread to other Asian countries. In Tibet, Malaysia, and Indonesia, the chakram was not flat, the Mongol cavalry used a similar throwing weapon with spiked edges. Chakram are traditionally made from steel or brass which is beaten into a circular shape against an anvil with an indentation for the curvature, two ends are connected with a piece of brass and then heated, forming a complete circle before the brass is removed. Some chakram, even used in combat, were ornately engraved, or inlaid with brass. The chakram is half an inch to one wide and is typically between 5-12 inches in diameter. The smaller variations are known as chakri while the ones are called vada chakra which were as large as a shield. The chakrams combat application is dependent on its size. Regular-sized steel chakram could be thrown 40–60 meters, while brass chakram, due to their better airfoil design, if properly constructed, it should be a perfect circle. Warriors trained by throwing chakram at lengths of green bamboo, in single combat, the chakram could be thrown underarm like a modern Aerobie. In battle, it was usually thrown vertically so as to avoid hitting an ally on the left or right side
29.
Kirpan
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The kirpan is a sword or knife carried by Sikhs. It is a religious commandment given by Guru Gobind Singh in 1699, that Sikhs must wear five articles of faith at all times, the kirpan being one of five articles. The word kirpan has two roots, the first root is kirpa, which means mercy, grace, compassion or kindness, the root is aanaa. Kirpans are curved and have a cutting edge that may be either blunt or sharp. They are often between 3.0 inches and 9.0 inches long, and must be made of steel or iron, Sikhism was founded in the 15th century, in present-day Punjab. At the time of its founding, this culturally rich region had been conquered by Mughal Empire from central Asia. During the time of the founder of the Sikh faith and its first guru, Guru Nanak, the Mughal emperor Akbar was relatively tolerant of non-Islamic religions and focused on religious tolerance. His relationship with Nanak was cordial, the relationship between the Sikhs and Akbars successor Jehangir was not friendly. Due to a number of Muslim converts to Sikhism and references to Muslim and Hindu teachings in the Guru Granth Sahib. This incident is seen as a point in Sikh history. Guru Hargobind trained in shashtra vidya, a form of arts that became prevalent among the Sikhs. He first conceptualized the idea of the kirpan through the notion of Sant Sipahi, in modern times there has been debate about allowing Sikhs to carry a kirpan that falls under prohibitions on bladed weapons, with some countries allowing Sikhs a dispensation. Other issues not strictly of legality arise, such as whether to allow carrying of kirpans on commercial aircraft or into areas where security is enforced. On 12 October 2009, the Antwerp Court declared carrying a kirpan a religious symbol, in most public places in Canada a kirpan is allowed, although there have been some court cases regarding carrying on school premises. In the 2006 Supreme Court of Canada decision of Multani v.1 of the Charter, the issue started when a 12-year-old schoolboy dropped a 20 cm long kirpan in school. School staff and parents were concerned, and the student was required to attend school under police supervision until the court decision was reached. A student is allowed to have a kirpan on his person if it is sealed and secured, in September 2008, Montreal police announced that a 13-year-old student was to be charged after he allegedly threatened another student with his kirpan. The court found the student not guilty of assault with the kirpan, but guilty of threatening his schoolmates, on February 9,2011, the National Assembly of Quebec unanimously voted to ban kirpans from the provincial parliament buildings
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Nihang
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The Nihang are an armed Sikh warrior order. They are also referred to as Akali, Nihang are believed to have originated either from Fateh Singh and the attire he wore or from the Akal Sena started by Guru Hargobind. Early Sikh military history was dominated by the Nihang, known for their victories where they were heavily outnumbered. Traditionally known for their bravery and ruthlessness in the battlefield, the Nihang once formed the irregular guerrilla squads of the forces of the Sikh Empire. Nihang may come from the Persian word for a sea creature. The term owes its origin to Mughal historians, who compared the ferocity of the Akali with that of crocodiles, traditional Nihang dress is known as Khalsa Swarupa. When fully armed a Nihang will also bear one or two swords on his hip, a katar on his left hip, a buckler made from buffalo-hide on his back, a large chakram around his neck. In times of war, arms worn on the Nihangs person would generally be reserved until the warrior lost the weapon he held, armour consisted of sanjo or iron chainmail worn under an iron breastplate. Nihang war-shoes were constructed of iron at the toe, making their pointed toes capable of inflicting cuts, the Nihang were particularly famous for their high turbans and their extensive use of the chakram or war-quoit. Their turbans were often pointed at the top and outfitted with a trishula or trident which could be used for stabbing in close-quarters, other times, the turbans would be armed with a bagh naka and one or several chakram to slice at an opponents eyes. These steel-reinforced turbans, it was said, afforded enough protection so that there was no need for any form of headgear. Today, Nihang still wear miniature versions of five weapons in their turbans, namely the chakram, the khanda, the karud, the kirpan, Nihang today are accorded great respect and affection by sections of the Sikh community, but they have separate beliefs and certain practices. Even though meat consumption with the method, is not banned in Sikhism. While the order is primarily ceremonial, they are duty-bound to defend their people, on the festival of Hola Mohalla, Nihang gather in their thousands at Anandpur where they display their martial skills. Their fighting style, although formally called shastara vidiya, is commonly known as gatka. In 2011, Nidar Singh claimed to be the living master of pre-gatka shastara vidiya. This has gained him considerable backlash from the Nihang community, including excommunication from their order, some Nihang groups consume cannabis or bhang to help in meditation. Sukha parsad, peace-giver, is the term Nihang use to refer to it and it was traditionally crushed and taken as a liquid, or pakora and eaten, especially during festivals like Hola Mohalla
31.
Chief of the Army Staff (India)
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The Chief of the Army Staff is the commander and usually the highest-ranking officer of the Indian Army. The position is abbreviated as COAS in Indian Army, and usually held by an officer in the rank of General. The current COAS is General Bipin Rawat, who took office on 31 December 2016 following the retirement of General Dalbir Singh, the office of the Chief of the Army Staff was created through The Commanders-In-Chief Act of the Indian Parliament in 1955. It replaced the office of the Commander-in-Chief, Army. The office is based at South Block of the Central Secretariat at Raisina Hill, appointments to the office are made by the President of India. The COAS reaches superannuation upon three years in the office or at the age of 62, whichever is earlier, the following table chronicles the appointees to the office of the Chief of the Army Staff or its preceding positions since the independence of India. Chief of the General Staff - for those holding the role before 1947 Chief of Air Staff Chief of the Naval Staff Field marshal Khanduri
32.
Param Vishisht Seva Medal
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Param Vishisht Seva Medal is a military award of India. It was constituted in 1960 and since then till date, it is awarded in recognition to peace-time service of the most exceptional order, the medal is round in shape,35 mm in diameter and fitted to a plain horizontal bar with standard fitting. On its obverse is embossed a five-pointed star and on its reverse is the Indian state emblem, the riband is of gold colour with one dark blue stripe down the centre dividing it into two equal parts. If a recipient of the medal is awarded the medal again. For every such bar, an insignia of a pattern approved by the Government shall be added to the riband when worn alone. Ati Vishisht Seva Medal Bharat-rakshak. com, Vishist Seva Medal & Sarvottam Yudh Seva Medal
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Uttam Yudh Seva Medal
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Uttam Yudh Seva Medal is one of Indias military decorations for Wartime Distinguished Service. It is awarded for a degree of distinguished services in an operational context. Operational context includes times of war, conflict, or hostilities, the award is a wartime equivalent of Ati Vishisht Seva Medal, which is a Peacetime Distinguished Service decoration. Uttam Yudh Seva Medal may be awarded posthumously, indian Armys page on Uttam Yudh Seva Medal
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Ati Vishisht Seva Medal
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Ati Vishisht Seva Medal is a military award of India given to recognize distinguished service of an exceptional order to all ranks of the armed forces. The award can also be granted posthumously, subsequent awards are represented by a bar worn on the ribbon. The awardee can use AVSM as post-nominal letters, the Ati Vishisht Seva Medal was originally established as the Vishisht Seva Medal, Class II. It was renamed on January 27,1967 and the badge redesigned, since 1980 the awarding of the medal have been restricted to non-operational service as the Uttam Yudh Seva Medal was created to recognize distinguished services in an operational environment. Uttam Yudh Seva Medal Param Vishisht Seva Medal
35.
Vishisht Seva Medal
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Vishisht Seva Medal is a decoration of the Indian Armed forces. It is awarded to distinguished service of an exceptional order to all ranks of the Indian armed forces. The award may be granted posthumously and subsequent awards are represented by a bar worn on the ribbon, the award carries with it the right to use VSM as post-nominal letters. The medal was established as the Vishisht Seva Medal, Class III. It was renamed to its present name on 27 January 1967, the design of the medal remained unchanged and the change be reflected only in the records. From 1980, the Yudh Seva Medal was introduced to recognize exceptional services in an operational environment, since then the VSM has been restricted to non-operational service
36.
Sikh Regiment
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The Sikh Regiment is a 19 battalion strong, infantry regiment of the Indian Army, drawing a bulk of its recruits from the Sikh community. It is the most decorated regiment in the Indian army and was at one one of the highest decorated regiments in the British Empire. The first battalion of the regiment was raised just before the annexation of the Sikh Empire on August 1,1846. The Sikh Regimental Centre is located in Ramgarh Cantonment,30 km from Ranchi, the Centre was earlier located in Meerut in the state of Uttar Pradesh. The modern Sikh Regiment traces its roots directly from the 11th Sikh Regiment of the British Indian Army, when transferred to the Indian Army like its sister regiments, the numeral prefix was removed and extra battalions were raised, transferred or disbanded to meet army needs. With a humble beginning of two battalions, today the fraternity has grown to a regiment of 19 regular infantry and two battalions strong. Enlisted soldiers are recruited from the Sikh community from Punjab & her surrounding states. They trained internally by the regiment, in which they tend to spend most of their careers, the war cry of regiment, taken from Sikh scriptures is, Jo Bole So Nihal, Sat Sri Akal. In a departure from the class composition, a battalion,13 Sikh was raised with multiple class composition. However these units were reverted to their class composition later. 9th Battalion was disbanded in 1984 The Museum of the Regimental Centre displays a record of the Sikh Regiment in four halls viz, the Religious/motivational Hall, The Hall of Heritage, The Regimental Glory Hall The Peripheral Gallery. During Operation Vijay 1999 during Indo-Pak Kargil War, the units of the regiment displayed sterling performance marked with exceptional valour and grit in the face of the enemy. In all, the Regiment has to its credit 1652 gallantry awards, subedar Joginder Singh during the Sino-Indian War of 1962. 14 Maha Vir Chakras 68 Vir Chakras, the Sikh regiment is the highest decorated regiment of the Indian army as per Defence review annual as on 1995-1996. The Sikh regiment had many supporters including Prince Charles, united Kingdom - The Duke of Lancasters Regiment 1st King George Vs own battalion, The Sikh Regiment A Legacy of Valour - An Illustrated History of the Sikh Regiment. Ramgarh, The Sikh Regiment Officers Association,2011, ISBN 978-81-905619-7-6, globalsecurity. org, The Sikh Regiment Bharat-Rakshak. com, The Sikh Regiment Sikh Light Infantry
37.
New Delhi
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New Delhi is the capital of India and one of Delhi citys 11 districts. The National Capital Region is a larger entity comprising the entire National Capital Territory along with adjoining districts. The foundation stone of the city was laid by George V and it was designed by British architects, Sir Edwin Lutyens and Sir Herbert Baker. The new capital was inaugurated on 13 February 1931, by Viceroy, New Delhi has been selected as one of the hundred Indian cities to be developed as a smart city under Prime Minister of India Narendra Modis flagship Smart Cities Mission. Calcutta was the capital of India during the British Raj until December 1911, Delhi had served as the political and financial centre of several empires of ancient India and the Delhi Sultanate, most notably of the Mughal Empire from 1649 to 1857. During the early 1900s, a proposal was made to the British administration to shift the capital of the British Indian Empire, as India was officially named, from Calcutta on the east coast, to Delhi. The Government of British India felt that it would be easier to administer India from Delhi in the centre of northern India. The land for building the new city of Delhi was acquired under the Land Acquisition Act 1894. The foundation stone of New Delhi was laid by King George V and Queen Mary at the site of Delhi Durbar of 1911 at Kingsway Camp on 15 December 1911, during their imperial visit. Large parts of New Delhi were planned by Edwin Lutyens, who first visited Delhi in 1912, the contract was given to Sobha Singh. The original plan called for its construction in Tughlaqabad, inside the Tughlaqabad fort, construction really began after World War I and was completed by 1931. The city that was later dubbed Lutyens Delhi was inaugurated in ceremonies beginning on 10 February 1931 by Lord Irwin, Lutyens designed the central administrative area of the city as a testament to Britains imperial aspirations. Soon Lutyens started considering other places, however, it was rejected by the Viceroy when the cost of acquiring the necessary properties was found to be too high. The central axis of New Delhi, which faces east at India Gate, was previously meant to be a north-south axis linking the Viceroys House at one end with Paharganj at the other. During the projects early years, many believed it was a gate from Earth to Heaven itself. Eventually, owing to space constraints and the presence of a number of heritage sites in the North side. A site atop the Raisina Hill, formerly Raisina Village, a Meo village, was chosen for the Rashtrapati Bhawan, then known as the Viceroys House. The reason for this choice was that the hill lay directly opposite the Dinapanah citadel, which was considered the site of Indraprastha
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Parachute Regiment (India)
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The Parachute Regiment is the airborne infantry regiment of the Indian Army. The first Indian airborne formation was the 50th Parachute Brigade raised on 29 October 1941, consisting of 151 British,152 Indian, and 153 Gurkha parachute battalions alongside other support units. Lt. AG Rangaraj, MVC, of the Indian Medical Service and RMO of the 152 Indian Para battalion,154 Gurkha Para battalion had not completed its air training, so stayed back to attain the airborne status. The breakout on the night of 26 March 1944 saw the remnants of the parachute brigade fight its way south. It achieved its task of preventing the flanking Japanese forces from surrounding Imphal, the two ad hoc brigades from the Chindit operations, 14th and the 77th, were included to form the division. 14th was later to be converted for the airborne role, the Governor Generals Body Guard joined the airborne fraternity and was named the 44th Airborne Division Reconnaissance Squadron. 9 Field Regiment and other support units too were inducted, 60th Indian Parachute Field Ambulance which till then had been in Burma and performed well, was selected to augment the medical element for the formation. The 44th Indian Airborne Division was finally designated the 2nd Indian Airborne Division in 1945, the plan was to raise an entire airborne corps with the 6th British Airborne Division to be brought to India as the second divisional formation, but the war ended before it could materialize. The battalion performed well earning the respect of all, including the critics of airborne warfare, the Indian Parachute Regiment was formed on 1st March 1945, consisting of four battalions and an equal number of independent companies. Despite the performance in Operation Dracula, the Indian Parachute Regiment was disbanded in late 1945 as part of the reduction, however, they retained their airborne role and formed part of the airborne division. In the post independence restructuring, the Indian government retained only one formation,50 Independent Parachute Brigade. This brigade consisted of three distinguished battalions personally nominated by the then Commander-in-Chief, namely 1 Para,2 Para and 3 Para,1961 saw the raising of the 4th battalion to augment the strength of the regiment. After the debacle of 1962, the regiment, as with the rest of the forces, saw expansion on an unprecedented scale, with the 5th, 6th, 7th. The force had been disbanded and the reverted to their parent units. Major Megh Singh was tasked to raise a battalion for the purpose, the unit was originally raised as part of the Guards, but paratrooping being an integral part of commando/special operations, became the 9th battalion of the Parachute Regiment. One year later, on 1 July 1967, the battalion was split into two and 10 Para was raised. Currently, the regiment has nine special forces battalions,1,2,3,4,9,10,11,12 and 21 Para, the regiment also has two Territorial Army battalions and one Rashtriya Rifles battalion. During their short but eventful existence so far, the battalions of the regiment have had operational experience
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Annexation of Goa
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Depending on the view, this action is referred as the Liberation of Goa or the Invasion of Goa. The armed action was code named Operation Vijay by the Indian Armed Forces. The operation involved air, sea and land strikes for over 36 hours, the engagement lasted two days and twenty-two Indians and thirty Portuguese were killed in the fighting. The brief conflict drew a mixture of praise and condemnation. In India, the action was seen as a liberation of historically Indian territory, while Portugal viewed it as an aggression against national soil, Goa, Daman and Diu covered an area of around 1,540 square miles and held a population of 637,591. The Goan diaspora was estimated at 175,000, religious distribution was 61% Hindu,36. 7% Christian,2. 2% Muslim. Economy was primarily based on agriculture, although the 1940s and 1950s saw a boom in iron ore. Cunha released a booklet called Four hundred years of Foreign Rule, the Goa Congress was also made affiliate to the Indian National Congress and Cunha was selected its first President. Cunha and other leaders were also with him, ram Manohar Lohia advocated the use of non-violent Gandhian techniques to oppose the government. There were intermittent mass demonstrations from June to November, in addition to non-violent protests, armed groups such as the Azad Gomantak Dal and the United Front of Goans conducted violent attacks aimed at weakening Portuguese rule in Goa. The Indian government supported the establishment of armed groups like the Azad Gomantak Dal, giving them full financial, logistic, the armed groups acted from bases situated in Indian territory and under cover of Indian police forces. Commenting on the resistance, Portuguese army officer, Capt. I know what Im talking about, because I also fought in Angola, in 1961 alone, until December, around 80 policemen died. The major part of the terrorists of Azad Gomantak Dal were not Goans, many had fought in the British Army, under General Montgomery, against the Germans. On 27 February 1950, the Government of India asked the Portuguese government to open negotiations about the future of Portuguese colonies in India. When the Portuguese Government refused to respond to subsequent aide-mémoires in this regard, by 1954, the Republic of India instituted visa restrictions on travel from Goa to India which paralysed transport between Goa and other exclaves like Daman, Diu, Dadra and Nagar Haveli. Meanwhile, the Indian Union of Dockers had, in 1954, between 22 July and 2 August 1954, armed activists attacked and forced the surrender of Portuguese forces stationed in Dadra and Nagar Haveli. The news of the massacre built public opinion in India against the presence of the Portuguese in Goa, on 1 September 1955, India shut its consul office in Goa
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Panaji
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Panaji /ˈpʌnədʒiː/ or Panjim is the capital of the Indian state of Goa and the headquarters of North Goa district. It lies on the banks of the Mandovi River estuary in the Ilhas de Goa sub-district, with a population of 114,759 in the metropolitan area, Panjim is Goas largest Urban agglomeration, ahead of Margão and Vasco da Gama. Panaji means land that never floods and it has terraced hills, concrete buildings with balconies and red-tiled roofs, churches, and a riverside promenade. There are avenues lined with gulmohar, acacia and other trees, the Baroque Our Lady of the Immaculate Conception Church is located overlooking the main square known as Praça da Igreja. Colourful villas, cobbled streets and interesting buildings help Panaji retain its Portuguese ambiance, Panaji has been selected as one of the hundred Indian cities to be developed as a smart city under PM Narendra Modis flagship Smart Cities Mission. Panaji is the first city in India to be built on a grid system. The citys present official name is Panjim, the Portuguese current name was Pangim, although officially named Nova Goa. The city is also called Panjim. It has been renamed Panjim since the 1960s after the Indian administration – in an effort to wipe our all Portuguese influence from the State, the city is called Ponnjé in Konkani. The justification of the modern word Panaji is derived from the words panjani and khali, which mean a boat, Panjim was annexed by India with the rest of Goa and the former Portuguese territories after the Indian invasion of Portuguese India in 1961. It became a state-capital on Goas elevation to statehood in 1987, between 1961 and 1987, it was the capital of the Union Territory of Goa, Daman and Diu. A new Legislative Assembly complex was inaugurated in March 2000, across the Mandovi River, Panjim is also the administrative headquarters of North Goa district. Panjim is located at 15°29′56″N 73°49′40″E and it has an average elevation of 7 metres. Panjim has various vāde or sub-divisions, including, São Tomé, Fontainhas, Mala, Portais, Altinho, Cortin, Praça da Igreja, Tar, Bāzār, Japão, some areas outlying it are, Cāmpāl, Santa Inez, Chinchollem, Batulem, and Pātto. Besides lying on the banks of the Mandovi River, Panjim is bounded by two creeks, locally called pői in the singular, namely Ourém creek and Santa Inêz creek, during the 2011 census of India, Panjim had a population of 114,405. Males constituted 52% of the population and females 48% and it had an average literacy rate of 90. 9%, male literacy was 94. 6% and female literacy 86. 9%. In Panjim,9. 6% of the population was under 7 years of age, Panjim features a tropical monsoon climate. The climate in Panjim is hot in summer and equable in winter, during summers the temperature reaches up to 32 °C and in winters it is usually between 31 °C and 23 °C
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Marines
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Marine forces evolved to specialize in the skills and capabilities required for amphibious warfare. In the earliest day of naval warfare, there was little distinction between sailors and soldiers on a warship, in ancient China, the first well-known naval battles took place during the Warring States period, where kings ruling regional states battled against one another. Chinese naval warfare in ancient period featured grapple-and-hook, as well as ramming tactics with ships called stomach strikers. The Roman Navys two fleet legions, I Adiutrix and II Adiutrix, were among the first distinct naval infantry units, Marines of Italy was created as Fanti da Mar in 1550 in the Republic of Venice. The third oldest marine corps in the world was founded as the Terço of the Navy of the Crown of Portugal in 1618, predecessor to the modern Portuguese Marine Corps. The word marine is from the English adjective marine, meaning of the sea, via French marin, of the sea from Latin marinus itself from mare, from Proto-Indo-European *móri. The word marine was used for the forces of England. Typically, foreign equivalents are called naval infantry or coastal infantry, the word marine/marina means navy in many European languages such as Dutch, French, Italian, German, Spanish, Danish and Norwegian. Marine units primarily deploy from warships using boats, landing craft, hovercraft, specialist units are also trained in combat diving/combat swimming and parachuting. As well as operations, marine troops are also used in a variety of other. The Argentine Marine Corps is a part of the Argentine Navy, Argentine marines have the same rank insignia and titles as the rest of the navy. It is composed of a marine force, a southern marine force, a river operations battalion. The Argentine Marine Corps dates from 1827 when an infantry battalion was raised. This was expanded in 1880 but seven years later the corps was merged with the existing coast artillery, a series of reorganizations followed until responsibility for coastal defense was passed to the Argentine Army in 1898. Between 1935 and 1938 the marines reappeared in the form of five battalions of Marine Infantry, in 1968 the Infanteria de Marina was reorganized as a separate corps distinct from both Navy and Army. The 5th Battalion of the Argentine Marines fought in the Falklands War, the Bolivian Naval Force includes about 2,000 naval infantry personnel and marines. These are organised in the Almirante Grau Battalion, located at Tiquina on Lake Titicaca, the Corps of Naval Fusiliers, with about 15,000 men, is subordinate to the Brazilian Navy. The marine corps is composed of a brigade and some guard
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Punjabi culture
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The culture of the Punjab encompasses the spoken language, written literature, cuisine, science, technology, military warfare, architecture, traditions, values and history of the Punjabi people. The term Punjabi can mean both a person who lives in Punjab and also a speaker of the Punjabi language and this name originates from the Persian language panj, and ab. Combined together the word becomes Panjab or Punjab-land of the five rivers, indus River, and the five other rivers to the south that eventually all join it or merge into it later downstream in the Punjab valley. All the rivers start and flow out of the Himalayas and these other five rivers are Jhelum River, Chenab River, Ravi River, Beas River and Sutlej River. The culture of Punjab in the Middle Ages was extremely dependent upon an individuals caste, community, religion. An array of cultures can be found historically, the main cultures that arose in the Punjab during the Medieval Age at the beginning of this era was of strong Indo-Aryan dominance. The Brahmins and Khatris were once a group living in the Punjab who practised Hinduism. They were descended from the Vedic people who brought Indo-European language and their culture was based on their religious beliefs, which could be described as identical to that of Hindus living across North India today. The second strongest emergent cultural identity was Jat-Gujjar culture, based on pastoralism, agriculture and ancestor worship, most of the Western region are descended from Gujjars, whereas the Eastern region is ethnically Jat. Islamic traditions were incorporated into Punjabi Muslims lives, in the 20th century, the majority of the people are Sikhs practicing Sikhism since the 16th century. Due to the number of Punjabi people distributed throughout the world, especially Pakistan and India, many people are increasingly experiencing the culture. Glimpses of traditional Punjabi culture can be seen in the Western world (e. g. the U. S. the UK, the EU, Canada, Australia, Africa, naturally people influence each other wherever they settle and live. These immigrants influenced the people of Punjab and, in turn, were influenced by the prevailing culture of the Punjab. Bhangra is one of the many Punjabi musical art forms that is listened to in the west and is becoming a mainstream favourite. Punjabi music is used by musicians in many ways, such as mixing it with other compositions to produce award-winning music. In addition, Punjabi classical music is becoming popular in the west. Owing to the history of the Punjabi culture and of the Punjabi people there are many dances, normally performed at times of celebration, including harvests, festivals. The particular background of the dances can be non-religious and religious, the overall style can range from the high energy bhangra mens dance to the more reserved jhumar, the gidha womens dance
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Sikhism
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Sikhism, or Sikhi, is a panentheistic religion that originated in the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent during the 15th century. It is one of the youngest of the world religions. Sikhism has 25-28 million adherents worldwide and is the ninth-largest religion in the world, Sikhism is based on the spiritual teachings of Guru Nanak, the first Guru, and the ten successive Sikh gurus. Guru Nanak established Kartarpur around 1520 and gathered the original core of the Sikh Panth there, an Indian religion, Sikhism rejects claims that any particular religious tradition has a monopoly on Absolute Truth. Sikhism emphasizes simran, that can be expressed musically through kirtan or internally through Nam Japo as a means to feel Gods presence, hand in hand, secular life is considered to be intertwined with the spiritual life. He also established the system of the langar, or communal kitchen, Guru Hargobind, the sixth Sikh Guru, established the political/temporal and spiritual realms to be mutually coexistent. The development of Sikhism was influenced by the Bhakti movement, however, Sikhism developed while the region was being ruled by the Mughal Empire. Two of the Sikh gurus – Guru Arjan and Guru Tegh Bahadur, the Islamic era persecution of Sikhs triggered the founding of the Khalsa, as an order for freedom of conscience and religion. A Sikh is expected to embody the qualities of a Sant-Sipāhī – a saint-soldier, the majority of Sikh scriptures were originally written in Gurmukhī alphabet, a script standardised by Guru Angad out of Laṇḍā scripts used in North India. Adherents of Sikhism are known as Sikhs, which means students or disciples of the Guru, the anglicized word Sikhism is derived from the Punjabi verb Sikhi, with roots in Sikhana, and Sikhi connotes the temporal path of learning. Sikhism is a religion and states that there is one supreme entity holding control of the entire universe. This entity is referred to as Ik Onkar, the basis of Sikhism lies in the teachings of Guru Nanak and his successors. The essence of Sikh teaching is summated by Guru Nanaks words, Sikh teaching emphasizes the principle of equality of all humans and rejects discrimination on the basis of caste, creed, and gender. Sikh principles encourage living life as a householder, Sikhism is a monistic form of monotheistic religion. In Sikhism, the concept of God is Vāhigurū—is shapeless, timeless, and invisible, niraṅkār, akaal, the beginning of the first composition of Sikh scripture is the figure 1—signifying the universality of God. It states that God is omnipresent and infinite with power over everything, Sikhs believe that before creation, all that existed was God and Gods hukam. God in Sikhism is known as Ik Onkar, the One Supreme Reality or the all-pervading spirit and this spirit has no gender in Sikhism, though translations may present it as masculine. It is also Akaal Purkh and Nirankar, in addition, Nanak wrote that there are many worlds on which it has created life
44.
Gurdwara
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A gurudwara is a place of worship for Sikhs. People from all faiths, and those who do not profess any faith, are welcomed in Sikh gurdwaras. Each gurdwara has a Darbar Sahib where the current and everlasting guru of the Sikhs, the Raagis recite, sing and explain, the verses from the Guru Granth Sahib, in the presence of the holy congregation. All gurdwaras have a hall, where people can eat free vegetarian food. They may also have a library, nursery, and classroom, a gurdwara can be identified from a distance by tall flagpoles bearing the Nishan Sahib, the Sikh flag. The most well-known gurdwara is the Harmandir Sahib in Amritsar, Punjab, India, the first gurdwara was built in Kartarpur, on the banks of Ravi River in the Punjab region by the first Sikh guru, Guru Nanak Dev in the year 1521. It now lies in the Narowal District of west Punjab, the worship centres were built as a place where Sikhs could gather to hear the guru give spiritual discourse and sing religious hymns in the praise of Waheguru. As the Sikh population continued to grow, Guru Hargobind, the sixth Sikh guru, the etymology of the term gurdwara is from the words gur and dwara, together meaning the gateway through which the guru could be reached. Thereafter, all Sikh places of worship came to be known as gurdwaras, Some of the prominent Sikh shrines established by the Sikh gurus are, Nankana Sahib, established in the 1490s by first Sikh Guru, Guru Nanak Dev, Punjab, Pakistan. Sultanpur Lodhi, established in 1499 became the Sikh centre during Guru Nanak Dev time Kapurthala District, Kartarpur Sahib, established in 1521 by the first Sikh Guru, Guru Nanak Dev, near River Ravi, Narowal, Punjab, Pakistan. Khadur Sahib, established in 1539 by the second Sikh Guru, Guru Angad Dev, near River Beas, Amritsar District, Punjab, goindwal Sahib, established in 1552 by the third Sikh Guru, Guru Amar Das, near River Beas, Amritsar District Punjab, India. Sri Amritsar, established in 1577 By the fourth Sikh Guru, Guru Ram Das, District Amritsar, Tarn Taran Sahib, established in 1590 by the fifth Sikh Guru, Guru Arjan Dev, District Tarn Taran Sahib, Punjab. Kartarpur Sahib, established in 1594 by the fifth Sikh Guru, Guru Arjan Dev, near river Beas, Jalandhar District, sri Hargobindpur, established by the fifth Sikh Guru, Guru Arjan Dev, near river Beas, Gurdaspur District, Punjab. Kiratpur Sahib, established in 1627 by the sixth Sikh Guru, Guru Hargobind, near river Sutlej, Ropar District, Punjab, anandpur Sahib, established in 1665 by the ninth Sikh Guru, Guru Tegh Bahadur, near river Sutlej, Punjab, India. Paonta Sahib, established in 1685 by the tenth Sikh Guru, Guru Gobind Singh, near river Yamuna, by the early 20th century, a number of Sikh gurdwaras in British India were under the control of the Udasi mahants. The Gurdwara Reform Movement of the 1920s resulted in Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee taking control of these gurdwaras, a gurdwara has a main hall called a darbar, a community kitchen called a langar, and other facilities. Strictly speaking only Shabads from Guru Granth Sahib, Dasam Granth, Paath, religious discourse and reading of Gurbani from the Guru Granth Sahib, with its explanations. There are two types of discourse, Akhand Paath and Sadharan Paath, Sangat and Pangat, providing a free community kitchen called a langar for all visitors, regardless of religious, regional, cultural, racial, caste, or class affiliations
India
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