1.
National Museum of the United States Air Force
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The National Museum of the United States Air Force is the official museum of the United States Air Force located at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base,6 miles northeast of Dayton, Ohio. The NMUSAF has one of the worlds largest collections with more than 360 aircraft, the museum draws more than 1 million visitors each year, making it one of the most frequently visited tourist attractions in Ohio. The museum dates to 1923, when the Engineering Division at Daytons McCook Field first collected technical artifacts for preservation, in 1927, it moved to then-Wright Field in a laboratory building. In 1932, the collection was named the Army Aeronautical Museum, in 1948, the collection remained private as the Air Force Technical Museum. In 1954, the Air Force Museum became public and was housed in its first permanent facility, Building 89 of the former Patterson Field in Fairborn, many of its aircraft were parked outside and exposed to the weather. It remained there until 1971, when the current facility opened. Not including its annex on Wright Field proper, the museum has more than tripled in square footage since 1971, with the addition of a hangar in 1988, a third in 2003. The museum announced a new name for the facility in October 2004, the former name, United States Air Force Museum, changed to National Museum of the United States Air Force. The museum is a component of the National Aviation Heritage Area. The museums collection contains many rare aircraft of historical or technological importance, in 2010, the museum launched its 360-degree Virtual Tour, allowing most aircraft and exhibits to be viewed online. The museum has several Presidential aircraft, including those used by Franklin D. Roosevelt, Harry Truman and Dwight D. Eisenhower. The centerpiece of the aircraft collection is SAM26000, a modified Boeing 707 known as a VC-137C, used regularly by Presidents John F. Kennedy, Lyndon B. Johnson. This aircraft took President and Mrs. Kennedy to Dallas on November 22, vice President Johnson was sworn in as president aboard it shortly after the assassination, and the aircraft then carried Kennedys body back to Washington. It became the presidential aircraft after Nixons first term. It was temporarily removed from display on December 5,2009, all presidential aircraft are now displayed in the Presidential Gallery, in the new fourth building. A large section of the museum is dedicated to pioneers of flight, especially the Wright Brothers, a replica of the Wrights 1909 Military Flyer is on display, as well as other Wright brothers artifacts. The building also hosts the National Aviation Hall of Fame, which includes educational exhibits. The museum has many pieces of U. S. Army Air Forces and U. S. Air Force clothing, at any time, more than 50 World War II-vintage A-2 leather flying jackets are on display, many of which belonged to famous figures in Air Force history
2.
Dayton, Ohio
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Dayton is the sixth-largest city in the U. S. state of Ohio and is the county seat of Montgomery County. A small portion of the city extends into Greene County, the Dayton-Springfield-Greenville Combined Statistical Area had a population of 1,080,044 in 2010, making it the 43rd-largest in the United States. Dayton is within Ohios Miami Valley region, just north of the Cincinnati–Northern Kentucky metropolitan area, Dayton also hosts significant research and development in fields like industrial, aeronautical, and astronautical engineering that have led to many technological innovations. Much of this innovation is due in part to Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, with the decline of heavy manufacturing, Daytons businesses have diversified into a service economy that includes insurance and legal sectors as well as healthcare and government sectors. Other than defense and aerospace, healthcare accounts for much of the Dayton areas economy, hospitals in the Greater Dayton area have an estimated combined employment of nearly 32,000 and a yearly economic impact of $6.8 billion. It is estimated that Premier Health Partners, a network, contributes more than $2 billion a year to the region through operating, employment. In 2011, Dayton was rated the No.3 city in the out of the top 50 cities in the United States by HealthGrades for excellence in health care. Many hospitals in the Dayton area are consistently ranked by Forbes, U. S. News & World Report, and HealthGrades for clinical excellence. Dayton is also noted for its association with aviation, the city is home to the National Museum of the United States Air Force and is the birthplace of Orville Wright, other well-known individuals born in the city include poet Paul Laurence Dunbar and entrepreneur John H. Patterson. Dayton is also known for its patents, inventions, and inventors that have come from the area. In 2008,2009, and 2010, Site Selection magazine ranked Dayton the No.1 mid-sized metropolitan area in the nation for economic development, also in 2010, Dayton was named one of the best places in the United States for college graduates to find a job. Dayton was founded on April 1,1796, by 12 settlers known as The Thompson Party and they traveled in March from Cincinnati up the Great Miami River by pirogue and landed at what is now St. Clair Street, where they found two small camps of Native Americans. Among them was Benjamin Van Cleve, whose memoirs provide insights into the Ohio Valleys history, two other groups traveling overland arrived several days later. In 1797, Daniel C. Cooper laid out Mad River Road, Ohio was admitted into the Union in 1803, and the city of Dayton was incorporated in 1805. The city was named after Jonathan Dayton, a captain in the American Revolutionary War who signed the U. S, constitution and owned a significant amount of land in the area. Historically, Dayton has been the home for many patents and inventions since the 1870s, according to the National Park Service, citing information from the U. S. Patent Office, Dayton had granted more patents per capita than any other U. S. city in 1890, the Wright brothers, inventors of the airplane, and Charles F. Kettering, world-renowned for his numerous inventions, hailed from Dayton. Paul Laurence Dunbar – a famous African-American poet and novelist – penned his most famous works in the late 19th century, innovation led to business growth in the region
3.
Helicopter
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A helicopter is a type of rotorcraft in which lift and thrust are supplied by rotors. This allows the helicopter to take off and land vertically, to hover, and to fly forward, backward and these attributes allow helicopters to be used in congested or isolated areas where fixed-wing aircraft and many forms of VTOL aircraft cannot perform. English language nicknames for helicopter include chopper, copter, helo, heli, Helicopters were developed and built during the first half-century of flight, with the Focke-Wulf Fw 61 being the first operational helicopter in 1936. Some helicopters reached limited production, but it was not until 1942 that a helicopter designed by Igor Sikorsky reached full-scale production, with 131 aircraft built. Though most earlier designs used more than one rotor, it is the single main rotor with anti-torque tail rotor configuration that has become the most common helicopter configuration. Tandem rotor helicopters are also in use due to their greater payload capacity. Coaxial helicopters, tiltrotor aircraft, and compound helicopters are all flying today, quadcopter helicopters pioneered as early as 1907 in France, and other types of multicopter have been developed for specialized applications such as unmanned drones. The earliest references for vertical flight came from China, since around 400 BC, Chinese children have played with bamboo flying toys. This bamboo-copter is spun by rolling a stick attached to a rotor, the spinning creates lift, and the toy flies when released. The 4th-century AD Daoist book Baopuzi by Ge Hong reportedly describes some of the ideas inherent to rotary wing aircraft, designs similar to the Chinese helicopter toy appeared in Renaissance paintings and other works. In the 18th and early 19th centuries Western scientists developed flying machines based on the Chinese toy. It was not until the early 1480s, when Leonardo da Vinci created a design for a machine that could be described as an aerial screw, that any recorded advancement was made towards vertical flight. His notes suggested that he built flying models, but there were no indications for any provision to stop the rotor from making the craft rotate. As scientific knowledge increased and became accepted, people continued to pursue the idea of vertical flight. In July 1754, Russian Mikhail Lomonosov had developed a small coaxial modeled after the Chinese top but powered by a spring device. It was powered by a spring, and was suggested as a method to lift meteorological instruments. Sir George Cayley, influenced by a fascination with the Chinese flying top, developed a model of feathers, similar to that of Launoy and Bienvenu. By the end of the century, he had progressed to using sheets of tin for rotor blades and his writings on his experiments and models would become influential on future aviation pioneers
4.
Sikorsky Aircraft
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The Sikorsky Aircraft Corporation is an American aircraft manufacturer based in Stratford, Connecticut. It was established by Igor Sikorsky in 1925 and was among the first companies to manufacture helicopters for civilian, previously owned by United Technologies Corporation, in November 2015 Sikorsky was sold to Lockheed Martin. Sikorsky was founded in 1925 by aircraft engineer Igor Sikorsky, an immigrant to the United States who was born in Kiev, the company, named Sikorsky Manufacturing Company, began aircraft production in Roosevelt, New York, that year. In 1929 the company moved to Stratford, Connecticut and it became a part of United Aircraft and Transport Corporation in July of that year. In the United States, Igor Sikorsky originally concentrated on the development of multi-engined landplanes, in the late 1930s, sales declined and United Aircraft merged his division with Vought Aircraft. He took this opportunity to work on developing a practical helicopter. It is a defense contractor. Sikorsky has supplied the Presidential helicopter since 1957, sikorskys VH-3 and VH-60 currently perform this role. The company acquired Helicopter Support Inc. in 1998, HSI handles non-U. S. government after-market support for parts and repair for the Sikorsky product lines. United Technologies Corporation acquired Schweizer Aircraft Corp. in 2004, which now operates as a subsidiary of Sikorsky, the Schweizer deal was signed on August 26,2004, exactly one week after the death of Paul Schweizer, the companys founder and majority owner. In late 2005, Sikorsky completed the purchase of Keystone Helicopter Corporation, located in Coatesville, Keystone had been maintaining and completing Sikorsky S-76 and S-92 helicopters prior to the sale. In 2007, Sikorsky opened the Hawk Works, a Rapid Prototyping and Military Derivatives Completion Center located west of the Elmira-Corning Regional Airport in Big Flats and that same year Sikorsky purchased the PZL Mielec plant in Poland. The plant is assembling the S-70i for international customers, in February 2009, Sikorsky Global Helicopters was created as a business unit of Sikorsky Aircraft to focus on the construction and marketing of commercial helicopters. The business unit combines the main civil helicopters that were produced by Sikorsky Aircraft and it is based at Coatesville, Pennsylvania. The commercial products had already moved to their Coatesville, Pennsylvania facility. Sikorskys main plant and administrative offices are located in Stratford, Connecticut, other Sikorsky facilities are in Trumbull, Shelton, and Bridgeport, Connecticut, Fort Worth, Texas, West Palm Beach, Florida, and Huntsville, and Troy, Alabama. Other Sikorsky-owned subsidiaries are in Coatesville, Pennsylvania, and Grand Prairie, Texas, in 2015, UTC considered Sikorsky to be less profitable than its other subsidiaries, and analyzed a possible spin-off rather than a tax-heavy sale. On July 20,2015, Lockheed Martin announced an agreement to purchase Sikorsky from UTC for $9.0 billion, final approval came in November 2015
5.
United States Air Force
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The United States Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven American uniformed services. Initially part of the United States Army, the USAF was formed as a branch of the military on 18 September 1947 under the National Security Act of 1947. It is the most recent branch of the U. S. military to be formed, the U. S. Air Force is a military service organized within the Department of the Air Force, one of the three military departments of the Department of Defense. The Air Force is headed by the civilian Secretary of the Air Force, who reports to the Secretary of Defense, the U. S. Air Force provides air support for surface forces and aids in the recovery of troops in the field. As of 2015, the service more than 5,137 military aircraft,406 ICBMs and 63 military satellites. It has a $161 billion budget with 313,242 active duty personnel,141,197 civilian employees,69,200 Air Force Reserve personnel, and 105,500 Air National Guard personnel. According to the National Security Act of 1947, which created the USAF and it shall be organized, trained, and equipped primarily for prompt and sustained offensive and defensive air operations. The stated mission of the USAF today is to fly, fight, and win in air, space and we will provide compelling air, space, and cyber capabilities for use by the combatant commanders. We will excel as stewards of all Air Force resources in service to the American people, while providing precise and reliable Global Vigilance, Reach and it should be emphasized that the core functions, by themselves, are not doctrinal constructs. The purpose of Nuclear Deterrence Operations is to operate, maintain, in the event deterrence fails, the US should be able to appropriately respond with nuclear options. Dissuading others from acquiring or proliferating WMD, and the means to deliver them, moreover, different deterrence strategies are required to deter various adversaries, whether they are a nation state, or non-state/transnational actor. Nuclear strike is the ability of forces to rapidly and accurately strike targets which the enemy holds dear in a devastating manner. Should deterrence fail, the President may authorize a precise, tailored response to terminate the conflict at the lowest possible level, post-conflict, regeneration of a credible nuclear deterrent capability will deter further aggression. Finally, the Air Force regularly exercises and evaluates all aspects of operations to ensure high levels of performance. Nuclear surety ensures the safety, security and effectiveness of nuclear operations, the Air Force, in conjunction with other entities within the Departments of Defense or Energy, achieves a high standard of protection through a stringent nuclear surety program. The Air Force continues to pursue safe, secure and effective nuclear weapons consistent with operational requirements, adversaries, allies, and the American people must be highly confident of the Air Forces ability to secure nuclear weapons from accidents, theft, loss, and accidental or unauthorized use. This day-to-day commitment to precise and reliable nuclear operations is the cornerstone of the credibility of the NDO mission, positive nuclear command, control, communications, effective nuclear weapons security, and robust combat support are essential to the overall NDO function. OCA is the method of countering air and missile threats, since it attempts to defeat the enemy closer to its source
6.
United States Navy
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The United States Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The U. S. Navy is the largest, most capable navy in the world, the U. S. Navy has the worlds largest aircraft carrier fleet, with ten in service, two in the reserve fleet, and three new carriers under construction. The service has 323,792 personnel on duty and 108,515 in the Navy Reserve. It has 274 deployable combat vessels and more than 3,700 operational aircraft as of October 2016, the U. S. Navy traces its origins to the Continental Navy, which was established during the American Revolutionary War and was effectively disbanded as a separate entity shortly thereafter. It played a role in the American Civil War by blockading the Confederacy. It played the role in the World War II defeat of Imperial Japan. The 21st century U. S. Navy maintains a global presence, deploying in strength in such areas as the Western Pacific, the Mediterranean. The Navy is administratively managed by the Department of the Navy, the Department of the Navy is itself a division of the Department of Defense, which is headed by the Secretary of Defense. The Chief of Naval Operations is an admiral and the senior naval officer of the Department of the Navy. The CNO may not be the highest ranking officer in the armed forces if the Chairman or the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The mission of the Navy is to maintain, train and equip combat-ready Naval forces capable of winning wars, deterring aggression, the United States Navy is a seaborne branch of the military of the United States. The Navys three primary areas of responsibility, The preparation of naval forces necessary for the prosecution of war. The development of aircraft, weapons, tactics, technique, organization, U. S. Navy training manuals state that the mission of the U. S. Armed Forces is to prepare and conduct prompt and sustained combat operations in support of the national interest, as part of that establishment, the U. S. Navys functions comprise sea control, power projection and nuclear deterrence, in addition to sealift duties. It follows then as certain as that night succeeds the day, that without a decisive naval force we can do nothing definitive, the Navy was rooted in the colonial seafaring tradition, which produced a large community of sailors, captains, and shipbuilders. In the early stages of the American Revolutionary War, Massachusetts had its own Massachusetts Naval Militia, the establishment of a national navy was an issue of debate among the members of the Second Continental Congress. Supporters argued that a navy would protect shipping, defend the coast, detractors countered that challenging the British Royal Navy, then the worlds preeminent naval power, was a foolish undertaking. Commander in Chief George Washington resolved the debate when he commissioned the ocean-going schooner USS Hannah to interdict British merchant ships, and reported the captures to the Congress
7.
United States Marine Corps
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The U. S. Marine Corps is one of the four armed service branches in the U. S. Department of Defense and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The current Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the military officer in the U. S. Armed Forces, is a Marine Corps general, the Marine Corps has been a component of the U. S. Department of the Navy since 30 June 1834, working closely with naval forces for training, transportation, and logistics. The USMC operates posts on land and aboard sea-going amphibious warfare ships around the world, two battalions of Continental Marines were formed on 10 November 1775 in Philadelphia as a service branch of infantry troops capable of fighting for independence both at sea and on shore. The role of the Corps has since grown and evolved, expanding to aerial warfare and earning popular titles such as, Americas third air force, and, second land army. By the mid-20th century, the U. S. Marine Corps had become a major theorist of and its ability to rapidly respond on short notice to expeditionary crises gives it a strong role in the implementation and execution of American foreign policy. As of 2016, the USMC has around 182,000 active duty members and it is the smallest of the U. S. The USMC serves as an expeditionary force-in-readiness and this last clause, while seemingly redundant given the Presidents position as Commander-in-chief, is a codification of the expeditionary responsibilities of the Marine Corps. It derives from similar language in the Congressional acts For the Better Organization of the Marine Corps of 1834, in 1951, the House of Representatives Armed Services Committee called the clause one of the most important statutory – and traditional – functions of the Marine Corps. In addition to its duties, the Marine Corps conducts Visit, Board, Search, and Seizure operations, as well as missions in direct support of the White House. The Marine Band, dubbed the Presidents Own by Thomas Jefferson, Marines from Ceremonial Companies A & B, quartered in Marine Barracks, Washington, D. C. The Executive Flight Detachment also provides transport to Cabinet members. The relationship between the Department of State and the U. S. Marine Corps is nearly as old as the corps itself, for over 200 years, Marines have served at the request of various Secretaries of State. After World War II, an alert, disciplined force was needed to protect American embassies, consulates, in 1947, a proposal was made that the Department of War furnish Marine Corps personnel for Foreign Service guard duty under the provisions of the Foreign Service Act of 1946. A formal Memorandum of Agreement was signed between the Department of State and the Secretary of the Navy on December 15,1948, during the first year of the MSG program,36 detachments were deployed worldwide. Continental Marines manned raiding parties, both at sea and ashore, the Advanced Base Doctrine of the early 20th century codified their combat duties ashore, outlining the use of Marines in the seizure of bases and other duties on land to support naval campaigns. Throughout the late 19th and 20th centuries, Marine detachments served aboard Navy cruisers, battleships, Marine detachments served in their traditional duties as a ships landing force, manning the ships weapons and providing shipboard security. Marines would develop tactics and techniques of amphibious assault on defended coastlines in time for use in World War II, during World War II, Marines continued to serve on capital ships
8.
Sikorsky R-4
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The Sikorsky R-4 was a two-seat helicopter designed by Igor Sikorsky with a single, three-bladed main rotor and powered by a radial engine. In U. S. Navy and U. S. Coast Guard service, in British service, it was known as the Hoverfly. The VS-316 was developed from the famous experimental VS-300 helicopter, invented by Igor Sikorsky, the VS-316 was designated the XR-4, under the United States Army Air Forces series for Rotorcraft. The XR-4 first flew on 14 January 1942, and was accepted by the Army on 30 May 1942, the XR-4 exceeded all the previous helicopter endurance, altitude and airspeed records that had been set before it. The British Admiralty, having learned of the VS-300, made a ship available that had been intended to show the USN their work with autogyros, the Empire Mersey was fitted with an 80 ft ×40 ft landing platform. After her loss in 1942 to a U-boat, she was replaced by the SS Daghestan, the first deck landing trials on Daghestan were carried out in 1944 The British received two of the first eight helicopters built. On 5 January 1943, the United States Army Air Forces ordered 29 prototypes, the first three prototypes were designated as the YR-4A and used for evaluation testing. The YR-4A benefited from a larger,180 hp Warner Super Scarab engine, compared to the 165 hp R-500-3 engine in the prototype, and these and other design changes led to the designation of later prototypes as YR-4B, which were used for service testing and flight training. On 22–23 April 1944, U. S. Army Lieutenant Carter Harman of the 1st Air Commando Group conducted the first combat rescue by using a YR-4B in the China-Burma-India theater. Despite the high altitude, humidity, and capacity for only a passenger, Harman rescued a downed liaison aircraft pilot. The higher-than-normal altitude required a run of 20 ft to get airborne. While the R-4 was being used for rescues in Burma and China, on 23 May 1944, six ships set sail with two R-4s on board each vessel. The ships had been configured as floating repair depots for damaged Army Air Forces aircraft in the South Pacific, when the helicopters were not being used to fly the parts from one location to another, they were enlisted for medical evacuation and other mercy missions. On 24 October, a helicopter rescued several men of the sunken destroyer USS Turner, in Royal Air Force service, the R-4 was called the Hoverfly. The Helicopter Training School, formed January 1945 at RAF Andover, was the first British military unit to be equipped with the helicopter. Many RAF Hoverfly Mark Is were transferred to the Royal Navy for training, some R-4s had the tailwheel located at the extreme aft end of the boom near the tail rotor while others had it positioned at the midpoint of the boom. Additionally, some had short stub exhaust pipes from the engine while others had a longer one which extended vertically. XR-4 One prototype Model VS-316A with a crew of two and dual controls,165 hp R-500-3 engine, became XR-4C YR-4A Version with larger rotor diameter and a 180 hp R-550-1 engine, three built
9.
Westland WS-51 Dragonfly
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The Westland WS-51 Dragonfly helicopter was built by Westland Aircraft and was a license-built version of the American Sikorsky S-51. In December 1946 an agreement was signed between Westland Aircraft and Sikorsky to allow a British version of the S-51 to be manufactured under license in the United Kingdom and these would be powered by the 500 hp Alvis Leonides radial engine. A modified version was developed by Westland as the Westland Widgeon. The Dragonfly entered service with the Royal Navy in 1950 in the rescue role. A number were used by the Royal Air Force for casualty evacuation. It was replaced in British service by the Westland Whirlwind, another derivative of a Sikorsky design, examples were used by Pest Control Ltd for crop spraying and others were flown as executive transports by Silver City Airways, Evening Standard Newspapers and Fairey Aviation. Exported aircraft operated in Japan, Belgian Congo, Mexico and Norway, Dragonfly HR.1 Air-sea search and rescue helicopter for the Royal Navy powered by a 540 hp Alvis 50 radial piston engine. 13 built, some modified later as HR. 5s, Dragonfly HC.2 Casualty evacuation helicopter for the Royal Air Force similar to the commercial Mark 1A,2 built. Dragonfly HR.3 Air-sea search and rescue helicopter for the Royal Navy, similar to the Dragonfly HR.1, but fitted with all-metal rotor blades,71 built some later modified as HR. 5s. Dragonfly HC.4 Casualty evacuation helicopter for the RAF similar to the Dragonfly HR.3 with all-metal rotor blades,12 built, Dragonfly HR.5 Air-sea search and rescue helicopter for the Royal Navy similar to the Dragonfly HR.3. Westland-Sikorsky WS-51 Mk. 1A Civil transport helicopter powered by a 520 hp Alvis Leonides 521/1 radial piston engine, built by Westland in the United Kingdom,36 built. Westland-Sikorsky WS-51 Mk. 1B Civil transport helicopter powered by a 450 hp Pratt & Whitney R-985 Wasp Junior B4 radial piston engine,15 built.1 VZ962 on display at the TaQali Museum, Malta. Dragonfly HR.5 WG724 on display at the North East Aircraft Museum, Tyne and Wear, Dragonfly HR.5 WG751 on display at the Chatham Historic Dockyard, Kent, United Kingdom. Dragonfly HR.5 8-1 on display at the Aviodrome, Lelystad, Dragonfly HR.5 WH991 on display at the Yorkshire Air Museum, North Yorkshire, United Kingdom. Dragonfly HR.5 WN493 on display at the Fleet Air Arm Museum, Somerset, Dragonfly HR.5 WN499 on display at AeroVenture, South Yorkshire, United Kingdom. Dragonfly HR.5 WP495 on display at RAF Museum Cosford, Shropshire, Dragonfly HR.5 on display at the Sri Lanka Air Force Museum, SLAF Ratmalana, Sri Lanka. Westland/Sikorsky S-51 Dragonfly on display at the Museu Eduardo André Matarazzo, Bebedouro, SP, Westland-Sikorsky WS-51 Mk. 1A H1-4/96 at Royal Thai Air Force Museum, Don Muang AFB, Thailand Westland-Sikorsky WS-51 Mk. 1B11503 on display at the Yugoslav Aeronautical Museum, Belgrade, Serbia. Data from General characteristics Crew,1 Capacity,3 Length,57 ft 6½ in Main rotor diameter, howard, Lee, Burrow, Mick, Myall, Eric
10.
United States Army Air Forces
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Each of these forces had a commanding general who reported directly to the Army Chief of Staff. S. Army to control its own installations and support personnel, the peak size of the AAF during the Second World War was over 2.4 million men and women in service and nearly 80,000 aircraft by 1944, and 783 domestic bases in December 1943. By V-E Day, the Army Air Forces had 1.25 million men stationed overseas, in its expansion and conduct of the war, the AAF became more than just an arm of the greater organization. By the end of World War II, the Army Air Forces had become virtually an independent service and this contrast between theory and fact is. fundamental to an understanding of the AAF. Gen. Billy Mitchell that led to his later court-martial, a strategy stressing precision bombing of industrial targets by heavily armed, long-range bombers emerged, formulated by the men who would become its leaders. Since 1920, control of units had resided with commanders of the corps areas. Both were created in 1933 when a conflict with Cuba seemed possible following a coup détat. Activation of GHQ Air Force represented a compromise between strategic airpower advocates and ground force commanders who demanded that the Air Corps mission remain tied to that of the land forces. GHQ Air Force organized combat groups administratively into a force of three wings deployed to the Atlantic, Pacific, and Gulf coasts but was small in comparison to European air forces. Corps area commanders continued to control over airfields and administration of personnel. The expected activation of Army General Headquarters prompted Army Chief of Staff George C. Marshall to request a study from Chief of the Air Corps Maj. Gen. Henry H. Arnold resulting on 5 October 1940 in a proposal for creation of an air staff, unification of the air arm under one commander, and equality with the ground and supply forces. Marshall implemented a compromise that the Air Corps found entirely inadequate, naming Arnold as acting Deputy Chief of Staff for Air but rejecting all organizational points of his proposal. GHQ Air Force instead was assigned to the control of Army General Headquarters, although the latter was a training and not an operational component, when it was activated in November 1940. A division of the GHQ Air Force into four air defense districts on 19 October 1940 was concurrent with the creation of air forces to defend Hawaii. The air districts were converted in March 1941 into numbered air forces with an organization of 54 groups. Marshall had come to the view that the air forces needed a simpler system, Arnold and Marshall agreed that the AAF would enjoy a general autonomy within the War Department until the end of the war, while its commanders would cease lobbying for independence. Marshall, a proponent of airpower, left understood that the Air Force would likely achieve its independence following the war
11.
United States Coast Guard
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The United States Coast Guard is a branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the countrys seven uniformed services. This has happened twice, in 1917, during World War I, created by Congress on 4 August 1790 at the request of Alexander Hamilton as the Revenue Marine, it is the oldest continuous seagoing service of the United States. As Secretary of the Treasury, Hamilton headed the Revenue Marine, by the 1860s, the service was known as the U. S. Revenue Cutter Service and the term Revenue Marine gradually fell into disuse, the modern Coast Guard was formed by a merger of the Revenue Cutter Service and the U. S. Life-Saving Service on 28 January 1915, under the U. S. Department of the Treasury. As one of the five armed services, the Coast Guard has been involved in every U. S. war from 1790 to the Iraq War. As of 2014 the Coast Guard had over 36,000 men and women on duty,7,350 reservists,29,620 auxiliarists. In terms of size, the U. S. Coast Guard by itself is the worlds 12th largest naval force. Because of its authority, the Coast Guard can conduct military operations under the U. S. Department of Defense or directly for the President in accordance with Title 14 USC 1–3. The Coast Guards enduring roles are maritime safety, security, to carry out those roles, it has 11 statutory missions as defined in 6 U. S. C. §468, which include enforcing U. S. law in the worlds largest exclusive economic zone of 3.4 million square miles, the Coast Guards motto is the Latin phrase, Semper Paratus. In a 2005 article in Time magazine following Hurricane Katrina, the author wrote, the Coast Guards most valuable contribution to may be as a model of flexibility, and most of all, spirit. Wil Milam, a swimmer from Alaska told the magazine, In the Navy. Practicing for war, training for war, in the Coast Guard, it was, take care of our people and the mission will take care of itself. The Coast Guard carries out three basic roles, which are subdivided into eleven statutory missions. Both agencies maintain rescue coordination centers to coordinate this effort, and have responsibility for military and civilian search and rescue. The two services jointly provide instructor staff for the National Search and Rescue School that trains SAR mission planners and coordinators, previously located on Governors Island, New York, the school is now located at Coast Guard Training Center Yorktown at Yorktown, Virginia. The NRC also takes Maritime Suspicious Activity and Security Breach Reports, details on the NRC organization and specific responsibilities can be found in the National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan. The Marine Information for Safety and Law Enforcement database system is managed and used by the Coast Guard for tracking pollution, the five uniformed services that make up the U. S
12.
United States Post Office Department
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The Post Office Department was the predecessor of the United States Postal Service, in the form of a Cabinet department officially from 1872 to 1971. It was headed by the Postmaster General, the Postal Service Act signed by President George Washington on February 20,1792, established the Department. Postmaster General John McLean, in office from 1823 to 1829, was the first to call it the Post Office Department rather than just the Post Office. The organization received a boost in prestige when President Andrew Jackson invited his Postmaster General, William T. Barry, the Post Office Act of 1872 elevated the Post Office Department to Cabinet status. The Postal Reorganization Act was signed by President Richard Nixon on August 12,1970 and it replaced the cabinet-level Post Office Department with the independent United States Postal Service on July 1,1971. The regulatory role of the services was then transferred to the Postal Regulatory Commission. Postage stamps and postal history of the United States
13.
Westland Aircraft
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Westland Aircraft was a British aircraft manufacturer located in Yeovil in Somerset. Formed as a company by separation from Petters Ltd just before the start of the World War II. During the war the company produced a number of unsuccessful designs. After the war the company focused on helicopters, and was merged with several other British firms to create Westland Helicopters in 1961. Orders for other aircraft followed during the First World War, including the Sopwith 1½ Strutter, the de Havilland designed Airco DH.4, Airco DH.9 and Airco DH. 9A and the Vickers Vimy. Following the end of war, Westland produced the Limousine and Woodpigeon light aircraft for the civilian market, in 1935 Petters split its aircraft manufacturing from its aircraft engine concerns to form Westland Aircraft Limited, based in Yeovil, Somerset. The Whirlwind was the UKs first cannon-armed fighter and faster than many other British aircraft at the time but was troubled by the inability of Rolls-Royce to produce the engines. The Lysander army co-operation aircraft was displaced for reconnaissance as too vulnerable, Westland tendered designs for new aircraft during the war but only the Welkin was accepted. The Welkin was a high altitude design to intercept attempts by high-flying German bombers to attack Britain. When the threat never appeared production was limited, Westland would then go on to be the major designers of the Supermarine Seafire, a navalised conversion of the Spitfire. The Westland Wyvern was a design of carrier-based strike-fighter for the Fleet Air Arm serving up to 1958. Post-war the company decided to get out of fixed-wing aircraft and concentrate solely on helicopters under an agreement with Sikorsky. Petter, the designer, who left to form a new aircraft division at English Electric that would go on to be very successful. Production started with the Sikorsky S-51 flying for the first time in 1948 and as the Westland-Sikorksy Dragonfly entering service with the Royal Navy, Westland developed an improved version the Widgeon which was not a great success. Success with the Dragonfly was repeated with the Sikorsky S-55 which became the Whirlwind, the W-81, a high speed, streamlined 32-passenger helicopter, with retractable landing gear and a top speed of 150 miles per hour. Similar to many modern helicopters of today it had twin engines mounted on the fuselage. A very large helicopter that could lift 15 tons in the military version and it was so big that jeeps and medium artillery could be parked side by side internally. Loading and unloading was to be accomplished through a clam shell door on the nose, power would be from blade tip system, where at the ends of each of the three massive rotor blades was a streamline pod, with two turbojet engines mounted in each pod
14.
Conventional landing gear
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Conventional landing gear, or tailwheel-type landing gear, is an aircraft undercarriage consisting of two main wheels forward of the center of gravity and a small wheel or skid to support the tail. The term taildragger is also used, although some claim it should apply only to aircraft with a tail skid rather than a wheel. The term conventional persists for historical reasons, but all modern jet aircraft, in early aircraft, a tailskid made of metal or wood was used to support the tail on the ground. In most modern aircraft with landing gear, a small articulated wheel assembly is attached to the rearmost part of the airframe in place of the skid. This wheel may be steered by the pilot through a connection to the pedals, allowing the rudder. Before aircraft commonly used tailwheels, many aircraft were equipped with steerable tailskids and this is also used on some tricycle gear aircraft, with the nose wheel being the freely castering wheel instead. Like the steerable tailwheel/skid, it is integrated with the rudder pedals on the craft to allow an easy transition between wheeled and aerodynamic control. The tailwheel configuration offers several advantages over the landing gear arrangement. Due to its much further from the center of gravity. As a result, the wheel weighs less and causes less parasitic drag. If a tailwheel fails on landing, the damage to the aircraft will be minimal and this is not the case in the event of a nosewheel failure, which usually results in a prop strike. Tailwheel aircraft are suitable for operation on skis. Tailwheel aircraft are easier to fit into and maneuver inside some hangars, the conventional landing gear arrangement has disadvantages compared to nose wheel aircraft. Tailwheel aircraft are subject to nose-over accidents due to injudicious application of brakes by the pilot. Conventional geared aircraft are more susceptible to ground looping. A ground loop occurs when directional control is lost on the ground and this event can result in damage to the aircrafts undercarriage, tires, wingtips, propeller and engine. Avoiding ground loops requires more pilot training and skill, tailwheel aircraft generally suffer from poorer forward visibility on the ground, compared to nose wheel aircraft. Often this requires continuous S turns on the ground to allow the pilot to see where they are taxiing and they also suffer from lower crosswind capability and in some wind conditions may be unable to use crosswind runways or single-runway airports
15.
Pratt & Whitney R-985 Wasp Junior
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The Pratt & Whitney R-985 Wasp Junior is a series of nine-cylinder, air-cooled, radial aircraft engines built by the Pratt & Whitney Aircraft Company from the 1930s to the 1950s. These engines have a displacement of 985 in3, initial versions produced 300 hp, Wasp Juniors have powered numerous smaller civil and military aircraft, including small transports, utility aircraft, trainers, agricultural aircraft, and helicopters. Over 39,000 of these engines were built, and many are still in service today, Pratt & Whitney developed the R-985 Wasp Junior as a smaller version of the R-1340 Wasp to compete in the market for medium-sized aircraft engines. Like its larger brother, the Wasp Junior was an air-cooled, nine-cylinder radial and its cylinders were smaller, however, with a bore and stroke of 5 3⁄16 in, giving a 27% lesser total displacement. The Wasp Junior used many parts from the Wasp and even had the same mounting dimensions, the first run of the Wasp Junior was in 1929, and sales began in 1930. The initial version, the Wasp Junior A, produced 300 hp, the U. S. military designated the Wasp Junior as the R-985, with various suffixes denoting different military engine models. However, Pratt & Whitney never adopted the R-985 designation scheme for its civilian Wasp Juniors, identifying them simply by name, Pratt & Whitney followed the Wasp Junior A with more powerful models in the A series. These had higher compression ratios, greater RPM limits, and more effective supercharging, the first B series model was the Wasp Junior TB, which could maintain 420 hp at sea level and could reach 440 hp for takeoff. A still later model, the Wasp Junior T1B2, had improved performance at low level, the SB and T1B2, and later versions of these with similar performance, were the most popular Wasp Junior models. One later development of the T1B2, the Wasp Junior B4, was designed for vertical mounting in helicopters. During the mid-1930s, Pratt & Whitney developed a greater improvement of the Wasp Junior. The only type produced in series, the Wasp Junior SC-G, could sustain 525 hp at an altitude of 9,500 ft. It also included reduction gearing to allow the engine to drive a propeller at suitable speeds. Aviator Jacqueline Cochran flew a special Model D-17W Beechcraft Staggerwing with this engine in 1937, setting a speed and altitude record, however, the SC-G never got past the experimental stage. Early versions of the Wasp Junior were used in various civilian and military utility aircraft. The type became popular later in the 1930s. It was also used in single-engined civilian utility aircraft like the Beechcraft Staggerwing, the Howard DGA-15, military versions of existing Wasp Junior-powered civilian aircraft were also produced, such as the military derivatives of the Beech 18, Beech Staggerwing, Grumman Goose, and Howard DGA-15. The Wasp Junior also powered some versions of the British Avro Anson, the demands of World War II led to the production of many thousands of Wasp Juniors
16.
Litter
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Litter consists of waste products that have been disposed improperly, without consent, at an inappropriate location. Litter can also be used as a verb and it is a human impact on the environment and remains a serious environmental issue in many countries. Litter can exist in the environment for long periods of time before degrading, litter can affect quality of life. Cigarette butts are the most littered item in the world, with 4.5 trillion discarded annually, estimates on the required time for cigarette butts to break down vary. They range from five years to 400 years for complete degradation, population levels, traffic density and proximity to waste disposal sites are factors known to correlate with higher litter rates. Illegally dumped hazardous waste may be a result of the costs of dropping materials at designated sites, lack of access to nearby facilities that accept hazardous waste may deter use. Additionally, ignorance of the laws that regulate the disposal of hazardous waste may cause improper disposal. According to a study by the Dutch organization VROM, 80% of people claim that everybody leaves a piece of paper, tin or something, on the street behind. Young people from 12 to 24 years cause more litter than the average person, however, a 2010 survey of littering in Maine, New Hampshire and Vermont in the United States, placed litterers aged 55 and over at less than 5%. The same observational study estimated that 78% of litterers are male, in 1999, research by Keep America Beautiful found that 75% of Americans admitted to littering the last five years, yet 99% of the same individuals admitted that they enjoyed a clean environment. Negligent or lenient law enforcement contributes to littering behavior, other causes are inconvenience, entitlement and economic conditions. A survey of dumping in Pennsylvania found that the largest number of illegal dumps were in townships without municipal trash hauling, the same report also cites unavailability of curbside trash and recycling service, shortage of enforcement, and habit as possible causes. The presence of litter invites more littering, the two-stage process model of littering behavior describes the different ways in which people litter. The model was proposed by Chris Sibley and James Liu and differentiates between two types of littering, active and passive, the theory has implications for understanding the different types of litter reduction interventions that will most effectively reduce littering in a given environment. The theory states that, all things being equal, passive littering will be resistant to change because of two psychological processes,1. Diffusion of responsibility that increases as the latency between when an individual places litter in the environment and when they vacate the territory, and 2. Forgetting, which is more likely to occur at longer delays between when an individual places litter in the environment and when they vacate the territory. About 18 percent of litter, usually traveling through stormwater systems, ends up in streams, rivers
17.
Tricycle landing gear
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Tricycle gear is a type of aircraft undercarriage, or landing gear, arranged in a tricycle fashion. The tricycle arrangement has a nose wheel in the front. Tricycle gear aircraft are the easiest to take-off, land and taxi, several early aircraft had primitive tricycle gear, notably very early Antoinette planes and the Curtiss Pushers of the pre-World War I Pioneer Era of aviation. Waldo Watermans 1929 tailless Whatsit was one of the first to have a nose wheel. Tricycle gear is essentially the reverse of conventional landing gear or taildragger, on the ground, tricycle aircraft have a visibility advantage for the pilot as the nose of the aircraft is level, whereas the high nose of the taildragger can block the view ahead. Tricycle gear aircraft are less liable to nose over as can happen if a taildragger hits a bump or has the brakes heavily applied. In a nose-over, the aircrafts tail rises and the propeller strikes the ground, the tricycle layout reduces the possibility of a ground loop, because the main gear lies behind the center of mass. However, tricycle aircraft can be susceptible to wheel-barrowing, the nosewheel equipped aircraft also is easier to handle on the ground in high winds due to its wing negative angle of attack. Student pilots are able to safely master nosewheel equipped aircraft more quickly, tricycle gear aircraft are easier to land because the attitude required to land on the main gear is the same as that required in the flare, and they are less vulnerable to crosswinds. As a result, the majority of aircraft are fitted with tricycle gear. The taildragger configuration has its own advantages, and is more suited to rougher landing strips. The tailwheel makes the plane sit naturally in an attitude when on the ground. The tailwheel also transmits loads to the airframe in a way much less likely to cause damage when operating on rough fields. The small tailwheel is much lighter and much less vulnerable than a nosewheel, also, a fixed-gear taildragger exhibits less interference drag and form drag in flight than a fixed-gear tricycle aircraft whose nosewheel may sit directly in the propellers slipstream. Tailwheels are smaller and cheaper to buy and to maintain, most tailwheel aircraft are lower in overall height and thus may fit in lower hangars. Tailwheel aircraft are more suitable for fitting with skis in wintertime
18.
Alvis Leonides
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The Alvis Leonides was a British air-cooled nine-cylinder radial aero engine first developed by Alvis Car and Engineering Company in 1936. Development of the engine was led by Capt. George Thomas Smith-Clarke. The prototype engine, called 9ARS and which weighed 693 lb, in 1938 Airspeed Ltd lent their test pilot, George Errington, and their much rebuilt Bristol Bulldog, to carry out test flights. The first production use was the Percival Prince, which flew in July 1948, from 1959 the stroke was increased to 4.8 inches for the Series 530 rated at 640 hp. It was Britain’s last high-power production piston aero-engine when manufacture ceased in 1966, the world’s only surviving Gloster Gauntlet, formerly powered by a Bristol Mercury VI engine, is now powered by a Leonides 503. A privately owned, Leonides-powered Percival Pembroke remains airworthy in March 2010. Bore,4.8 inch Stroke,4.41 inch Displacement,718.6 in3 Diameter,41 inch Dry weight,815 lb Valvetrain, supercharger, Single speed, single stage, boost pressure automatically linked to the throttle. Fuel system, Hobson single-point fuel injection unit, fuel type, Petrol,115 Octane Oil system, Dry sump Cooling system, Air-cooled. co. uk warbirdalley. com helicoptermuseum. co. uk virtualpilots. fi Beaver hovercraft-museum. org
19.
Operation Highjump
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Operation Highjump commenced 26 August 1946 and ended in late February 1947. Task Force 68 included 4,700 men,13 ships, Operation Highjumps primary mission was to establish the Antarctic research base Little America IV. Highjump’s objectives, according to the U. S, the Western Group of ships reached the Marquesas Islands on December 12,1946, whereupon the Henderson and Cacapon set up weather monitoring stations. By December 24, the Currituck had begun launching aircraft on reconnaissance missions, the Eastern Group of ships reached Peter I Island in late December 1946. On January 1,1947, Lieutenant Commander Thompson and Chief Petty Officer Dixon utilized Jack Browne masks, paul Allman Siple, Ph. D. was the senior U. S. War Department representative on the expedition, dr. Siple was the same Eagle Scout who accompanied Admiral Byrd on the previous Byrd Antarctic expeditions. On December 30,1946, aviation radiomen Wendell K. Hendersin, Fredrick W. Williams, the surviving six crew members were rescued 13 days later, including aviation radioman James H. Robbins and co-pilot William Kearns. A plaque honoring the three killed crewmen was later erected at the McMurdo Station research base, and Mount Lopez on Thurston Island was named in honor of killed airman Maxwell A. Lopez, in December 2004, an attempt was made to locate the remains of the plane. There are ongoing efforts to repatriate the bodies of the three men killed in the crash, some time after December 30,1946, Vance N. Woodall died during a ship unloading accident. Father William Menster served as chaplain during the expedition, and in a service in 1947 he consecrated Antarctica, Admiral Byrd discussed the lessons learned from the operation in an interview with Lee van Atta of International News Service held aboard the expeditions command ship the USS Mount Olympus. The admiral explained that he was not trying to scare anyone, but the reality is that in case of a new war. This statement was made as part of a recapitulation of his own polar experience, the fantastic speed with which the world is shrinking – recalled the admiral – is one of the most important lessons learned during his recent Antarctic exploration. After the operation ended, a follow-up Operation Windmill returned to the area in order to provide ground-truthing to the photography of Highjump from 1947-1948. Finn Ronne also financed a private operation to the territory until 1948. These souvenir philatelic covers are available at low cost. It is estimated that at least 150,000 such envelopes were produced, Task Force 68 Rear Admiral Richard H. Cruzen, USN, Commanding Eastern Group Capt. George J. Dufek, USN, Commanding Seaplane Tender USS Pine Island. Capt. Henry H. Caldwell, USN, Commanding Destroyer USS Brownson, gimber, USN, Commanding Tanker USS Canisteo. Capt. Edward K. Walker, USN, Commanding Western Group Capt. Charles A. Bond, USN, john E. Clark, USN, Commanding Destroyer USS Henderson
20.
USS Pine Island (AV-12)
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USS Pine Island, a Currituck-class seaplane tender, is the only ship of the United States Navy to hold this name. The ship was named after Pine Island Sound, departing California on 16 June 1945, Pine Island steamed to Okinawa. There she tended seaplanes engaged in rescue operations during the final phases of World War II. At the end of the war, she entered Tokyo Bay, following occupation duty in Japan, she conducted seaplane flight operations in the Whangpoo River near Shanghai, China. She left the Pacific in 1946, and steamed via the Suez Canal to Norfolk, departing Norfolk on 4 December, she crossed the Antarctic Circle on 25 December 1946. In addition a bay in Antarctica, Pine Island Bay, was named in honor of the ship, a glacier on Thurston Island was also named after the ship. Departing the Antarctic in March, she traveled from Rio de Janeiro via the Panama Canal to San Diego, California, leaving California for the Far East in August 1947, she spent the winter at Tsingtao, China and the summer of 1948 in the Northern Pacific Ocean. Stored awaiting an overhaul in 1949, she was decommissioned on 1 May 1950. Recommissioned on 7 October 1950 at Alameda, California, in response to the Korean War and she tended seaplanes that flew missions over enemy-held territory in Korea, before returning to San Diego in September 1951. She was away from California on WestPac deployments January to September 1952, February to September 1953, January to August 1954, deployed to WestPac in June 1956, she visited Brunei, Borneo, in August, before returning to San Diego in December. From April to December 1957 she operated again in WestPac, sailing for WestPac in May 1958, she visited Bangkok, Thailand, and was at Kaohsiung, Taiwan, during the Second Taiwan Strait Crisis. She returned to San Diego in December, and departed for WestPac in June 1959, during 1960 and 1961 she continued her Pacific duties. Deployed to WestPac from January to June 1962, she embarked news media personnel from countries in March in connection with the SEATO exercise Tulungan. In January 1964 she departed San Diego for the Galapagos Islands, deployed to WestPac in June 1964, she served at Da Nang, South Vietnam, in August. It also took place in Operation Market Time, the entry can be found here
21.
USS Leyte (CV-32)
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USS Leyte was one of 24 Essex-class aircraft carriers built during and shortly after World War II for the United States Navy. The ship was the first US Navy ship to bear the name, Leyte was commissioned in April 1946, too late to serve in World War II. She spent most of her career in the Atlantic, Caribbean, and Mediterranean and she was reclassified in the early 1950s as an attack carrier, then as an Antisubmarine Aircraft Carrier, and finally as an aircraft transport. Unlike most of her ships, Leyte received no major modernizations. She was decommissioned in 1959 and sold for scrap in 1970, Leyte was one of the long-hull Essex-class ships. She was laid down as Crown Point on 21 February 1944 at the Newport News Shipbuilding & Dry Dock Co, Newport News, Virginia, and renamed Leyte on 8 May 1945 to commemorate the recent Battle of Leyte Gulf. She was launched on 23 August, sponsored by Mrs. James M. Mead, Leyte joined battleship Wisconsin on a good will cruise down the western seaboard of South America in the fall of 1946 before returning to the Caribbean on 18 November to resume shakedown operations. In 1948, the carrier was equipped with its first helicopter detachment of HO3S-1 utility helicopters, the latter included a demonstration of airpower over Beirut, Lebanon on 13 August, supporting the Middle East against Communist pressure. Leyte returned to Norfolk on 24 August, and after 2 weeks of preparation, Leyte arrived at the Sasebo base for U. S. Fleet Activities in Sasebo, Japan on 8 October 1950 and made preparations for combat operations. From 9 October-19 January 1951, the ship and her aircraft spent 92 days at sea and her pilots accumulated 11,000 hours in the air while inflicting massive damage upon enemy positions, supplies, transportation, and communications. Among the squadrons based on Leyte were the VF-32 Swordsmen, flying the F4U Corsair and this squadron included the first African-American naval aviator, Ensign Jesse LeRoy Brown who was killed in action on 4 December 1950. Leyte returned to Norfolk for overhaul 25 February 1951, after fleet training exercises in the Caribbean terminated on 21 August, the carrier departed for her fifth tour of duty with the United States Sixth Fleet on 3 September. She returned to Norfolk on 21 December for operations out of Hampton Roads, reclassified CVA-32 on 1 October, she returned to Boston on 16 February 1953 for deactivation. On 8 August, however, she was ordered to be retained in the active fleet, at 15,15 on 16 October 1953, while still under conversion to an antisubmarine carrier, Leyte suffered an explosion in her port catapult machinery room. Within minutes, naval base and city fire trucks were on the scene, after a hard and gallant fight, the fire was extinguished at 19,57. As a result of the fire,37 men died and 28 were injured, conversion completed on 4 January 1954, Leyte departed Boston for Quonset Point, Rhode Island, as flagship of Carrier Division 18. She remained there for the five years conducting ASW tactical operations along the eastern seaboard
22.
USCGC Burton Island (WAGB-283)
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USS Burton Island was a United States Navy Wind-class icebreaker that was later re-commissioned in the United States Coast Guard as the USCGC Burton Island. She was named after an island near the coast of Delaware and she was the sixth of seven completed ships of the Wind-class of icebreakers operated by the United States Coast Guard. Diesel electric machinery was chosen for its controllability and resistance to damage, after returning from Antarctica, Burton Island departed 25 July 1947 for the Point Barrow expedition to Alaska. From April 1948 to December 1956, Burton Island participated in 19 Arctic and Alaskan cruises, during Operation Windmill in the Antarctic Burton Island was the flagship of CDR Gerald L. Ketchum, USN commander of Task Force 39. Duties on the cruises varied including, supply activities, helicopter reconnaissance of ice flows, scientific surveys, underwater demolition surveys, in March 1949, Burton Island was redesignated AGB-1. On 15 December 1966, the U. S. Navy transferred the vessel, along all of its icebreakers, to the United States Coast Guard. After its transfer, Burton Island was stationed at Long Beach, California, starting in 1967 through 1978, Burton Island went on eight different Deep Freeze operations to the Antarctic. S. Mail at remote stations and vessels, search and rescue, fisheries patrol, law enforcement, in addition to Deep Freeze operations, Burton Island served as a floating platform for scientific surveys and research around Alaska and other isolated polar areas. Burton Island also conducted search and rescue missions. From October 1967 to April 1968 she participated in Operation Deep Freeze 68, from October 1968 to April 1969 she participated in Operation Deep Freeze 69. From November 1969 to April 1970 she participated in Operation Deep Freeze 70, from November 1970 to April 1971 she participated in Operation Deep Freeze 71 and again her accompanying icebreaker USCGC Staten Island was disabled. From August to September 1971 she conducted a survey along North Slope. From February to March 1972 she conducted a survey in Cook Inlet. From November 1972 to April 1973 she participated in Operation Deep Freeze 73, from June to July 1973 she conducted oceanographic research in Alaskan waters. From November 1974 to April 1975 she participated in Operation Deep Freeze 75, from 13 November 1975 to 26 February 1976 she participated in Operation Deep Freeze 76. From July to September 1976 she deployed to the Arctic, from 9 November 1976 to 7 April 1977 she participated in Operation Deep Freeze 77. During that deployment in December,1976, she carried out numerous search-and-rescue missions at Wellington, New Zealand, from 20 November 1977 to 1 April 1978 she participated in Operation Deep Freeze 78. From mid-1977 to 9 May 1978 she was stationed at Naval Supply Center Oakland Oakland, California and she was decommissioned on 9 May 1978
23.
Des Moines-class cruiser
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The Des Moines-class cruisers were a trio of U. S. Navy heavy cruisers, commissioned in 1948–1949. They were the last of the heavy cruisers, exceeded in size in the American navy only by the Alaska-class cruisers that straddled the line between heavy cruiser and battlecruiser. Two were decommissioned by 1961, but one, Newport News, Salem is a museum ship in Quincy, Massachusetts, the other two ships were scrapped. Derived from the Baltimore-class heavy cruisers, they were larger, had an improved machinery layout, the auto-loading mechanism could function at any elevation, giving even these large-caliber guns some anti-aircraft ability. Twelve ships of the class were programmed, but only three ships were completed, Des Moines, Salem, and Newport News, with the USS Dallas canceled when she was approximately 28 percent complete. She had the distinction of being the last active all-gun cruiser, Salem is a museum ship in Quincy, Massachusetts. Newport News was scrapped in 1993, and Des Moines was scrapped in 2006–2007, Dallas and eight other ships were canceled at the end of World War II. Des Moines class cruiser—NavSource Online Des Moines class cruiser—GlobalSecurity. org Des Moines class cruiser—National Park Service
24.
Cruiser
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A cruiser is a type of warship. The term has been in use for several hundred years, and has had different meanings throughout this period. In the middle of the 19th century, cruiser came to be a classification for the intended for cruising distant waters, commerce raiding. Cruisers came in a variety of sizes, from the medium-sized protected cruiser to large armored cruisers that were nearly as big as a pre-dreadnought battleship. With the advent of the battleship before World War I. The very large battlecruisers of the World War I era that succeeded armored cruisers were now classified, along with dreadnought battleships, in the later 20th century, the obsolescence of the battleship left the cruiser as the largest and most powerful surface combatant after the aircraft carrier. The role of the cruiser varied according to ship and navy, often including air defense, during the Cold War, the Soviet Navys cruisers had heavy anti-ship missile armament designed to sink NATO carrier task forces via saturation attack. The U. S. Adams guided-missile destroyers tasked with the air defense role. Indeed, the newest U. S. Navy destroyers are more heavily-armed than some of the cruisers that they succeeded, currently only three nations operate cruisers, the United States, Russia, and Peru. The term cruiser or cruizer was first commonly used in the 17th century to refer to an independent warship, Cruiser meant the purpose or mission of a ship, rather than a category of vessel. However, the term was used to mean a smaller, faster warship suitable for such a role. The Dutch navy was noted for its cruisers in the 17th century, while the Royal Navy—and later French and Spanish navies—subsequently caught up in terms of their numbers, during the 18th century the frigate became the preeminent type of cruiser. A frigate was a small, fast, long range, lightly armed ship used for scouting, carrying dispatches, the other principal type of cruiser was the sloop, but many other miscellaneous types of ship were used as well. During the 19th century, navies began to use steam power for their fleets, the 1840s saw the construction of experimental steam-powered frigates and sloops. By the middle of the 1850s, the British and U. S. Navies were both building steam frigates with very long hulls and a gun armament, for instance USS Merrimack or Mersey. The 1860s saw the introduction of the ironclad, the first ironclads were frigates, in the sense of having one gun deck, however, they were also clearly the most powerful ships in the navy, and were principally to serve in the line of battle. In spite of their speed, they would have been wasted in a cruising role. The French constructed a number of smaller ironclads for overseas cruising duties, starting with the Belliqueuse and these station ironclads were the beginning of the development of the armored cruisers, a type of ironclad specifically for the traditional cruiser missions of fast, independent raiding and patrol
25.
Iowa-class battleship
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Four were completed, USS Iowa, USS New Jersey, USS Missouri, and USS Wisconsin. Two more were laid down, USS Illinois and USS Kentucky, based on wartime experience, they were to serve as fast escorts for Essex-class aircraft carriers. Between the mid-1940s and the early 1990s, the Iowa-class battleships fought in four major US wars, in World War II, they defended aircraft carriers and shelled Japanese positions. All four were reactivated and modernized at the direction of Congress in 1981, the first reactivated battleship, New Jersey, was commissioned for the third time on 28 December 1982. Then Iowa was recommissioned 28 April 1984, Missouri was recommissioned 10 May 1986, during Operation Desert Storm in 1991, Missouri and Wisconsin fired missiles and 16-inch guns at Iraqi targets. The Navy had spent about $1.7 billion, from 1981 through 1988, to modernize, costly to maintain, the battleships were decommissioned during the post-Cold War draw down in the early 1990s. This resulted in a naval gunfire debate over whether battleships should have a role in the modern navy. Ultimately, all four ships were stricken from the Naval Vessel Register, with the transfer of Iowa in 2012, all four are part of various non-profit maritime museums across the US. Work on what would become the Iowa-class battleship began on the first study in early 1938. Hart, head of the General Board and these studies had no further impact on the design of the Iowa class, but development of this design continued and eventually evolved into the design for the Montana class. Another design, pursued by the Design Division section of the Bureau of Construction, beginning on 17 January 1938, under Captain A. J. Three improved plans—A, B, and C—were designed at the end of January, an increase in draft, vast additions to the armor, and the substitution of twelve 6-inch guns in the secondary battery was common between the three designs. A was the largest, at 59,060 long tons and it required 277,000 shp to make 32.5 knots. B was the smallest at 52,707 long tons, like A it had a top speed of 32.5 knots and it also carried only nine 16-inch guns, in three triple turrets. C was similar but it added 75,000 shp, to make the original requirement of 35 knots, the weight required for this and a longer belt—512 feet, compared with 496 feet for B—meant that the ship was 55,771 long tons. Powell, and the long-retired Admiral and former Chief of the Bureau of Ordnance Joseph Strauss, the board requested an entirely new design study, focusing on increasing the size of the 35,000 long tons South Dakota class. The first plans made for this indicated that 30 knots was possible on a displacement of about 37,600 long tons. 33 knots could be bought with 220,000 shp and a displacement of around 39,230 long tons and these designs were able to convince the General Board that a reasonably well-designed and balanced 33 knot battleship was possible within the terms of the escalator clause
26.
Battleship
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A battleship is a large armored warship with a main battery consisting of large caliber guns. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries the battleship was the most powerful type of warship, the word battleship was coined around 1794 and is a contraction of the phrase line-of-battle ship, the dominant wooden warship during the Age of Sail. The term came into use in the late 1880s to describe a type of ironclad warship. In 1906, the commissioning of HMS Dreadnought heralded a revolution in battleship design, subsequent battleship designs, influenced by HMS Dreadnought, were referred to as dreadnoughts. Battleships were a symbol of naval dominance and national might, the launch of Dreadnought in 1906 commenced a new naval arms race. Jutland was the largest naval battle and the only full-scale clash of battleships in the war, the Naval Treaties of the 1920s and 1930s limited the number of battleships, though technical innovation in battleship design continued. The value of the battleship has been questioned, even during their heyday, there were few of the decisive fleet battles that battleship proponents expected, and used to justify the vast resources spent on building battlefleets. Battleships were retained by the United States Navy into the Cold War for fire support purposes before being stricken from the U. S. Naval Vessel Register in the 2000s. A ship of the line was a large, unarmored wooden sailing ship which mounted a battery of up to 120 smoothbore guns, from 1794, the alternative term line of battle ship was contracted to battle ship or battleship. The sheer number of guns fired broadside meant a sail battleship could wreck any wooden enemy, holing her hull, knocking down masts, wrecking her rigging, and killing her crew. However, the range of the guns was as little as a few hundred yards. The first major change to the ship of the concept was the introduction of steam power as an auxiliary propulsion system. Steam power was introduced to the navy in the first half of the 19th century, initially for small craft. The French Navy introduced steam to the line of battle with the 90-gun Napoléon in 1850—the first true steam battleship, Napoléon was armed as a conventional ship-of-the-line, but her steam engines could give her a speed of 12 knots, regardless of the wind condition. This was a decisive advantage in a naval engagement. The introduction of steam accelerated the growth in size of battleships, the adoption of steam power was only one of a number of technological advances which revolutionized warship design in the 19th century. The ship of the line was overtaken by the ironclad, powered by steam, protected by metal armor, and armed with guns firing high-explosive shells. In the Crimean War, six ships and two frigates of the Russian Black Sea Fleet destroyed seven Turkish frigates and three corvettes with explosive shells at the Battle of Sinop in 1853
27.
Piasecki HRP Rescuer
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The Piasecki HRP Rescuer was a United States tandem-rotor transport or rescue helicopter designed by Frank Piasecki and built by Piasecki Helicopter. The Piasecki PV-3 was adopted as the HRP-1 Rescuer by the United States Navy, United States Marine Corps, an improved PV-17 variant was later produced as the HRP-2. As one of the first transport helicopters in service, the HRP-1 was capable of carrying two crewmen and 8-10 passengers or 2,000 lb. of cargo. The prototype helicopter first flew at Morton, Pennsylvania in March 1945 following a development contract from the United States Navy in February 1944, the Dogship was a novel tandem-rotor helicopter with a fixed tricycle landing gear, powered by a 600 hp Pratt & Whitney R-1340-AN-1 engine. To ensure that the rotors did not hit each other, the end of the fuselage curved upwards so the rear rotor was higher than the forward rotor. This was based on a Drago Jovanovich patented design, the fuselage was constructed of ordinary mild steel tubing, filled out with wooden ribs, and covered with doped fabric. Two prototypes designated XHRP-1 were constructed, one was used as a static test aircraft, as the first U. S. military helicopter in service with a significant transport capability, the HRP-1 was immediately put to use transporting cargo and personnel. Although referred to officially as the HRP-1, or Harp, the distinctive shape, with no protruding nose beyond the forward rotors axis. The first HRP-1 Rescuer flew on 15 August 1947, and a batch of 10 was built later. All were powered by the 600 hp Pratt & Whitney R-1340-AN-1 engine, in all,20 HRP-1s were ordered by the United States Navy, which passed most of their order to the U. S. Marine Corps and the Coast Guard. Three additional helicopters were delivered to the U. S. Coast Guard with the designation HRP-1G. An improved PV-17 version with a skin was developed with five ordered in June 1948 as the HRP-2. Despite these issues, the success of Piaseckis tandem rotor design would lead to the Piasecki H-21 family of helicopters. PV-3 Prototype tandem-rotor helicopter powered by a Wright R-975 piston engine, one built, XHRP-1 Military designation for two further PV-3s, one for static testing and one for flight trials. HRP-1 Production variant,20 built including three HRP-1Gs, HRP-1G Three United States Navy HRP-1s for the United States Coast Guard. HRP-2 Metal skinned variant, five built, United States of America United States Coast Guard United States Marine Corps United States Navy Data from The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Aircraft 1985, p.2716. General characteristics Crew,2 Capacity, eight passengers or 2,000 lb. cargo or six stretchers Length,54 ft 0 in Main rotor diameter, popular Mechanics, November 1945, p.49. Navies Helicopter For Land or Sea Has Twin Rotors, popular Mechanics, November 1945, cover art work
28.
Float (nautical)
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Floats are airtight hollow structures, similar to pressure vessels, designed to provide buoyancy in water. Their principal applications are in watercraft hulls and aircraft floats, floating pier and pontoon bridge construction, floats make up the multipart hulls of catamarans and trimarans and provide buoyancy for floatplanes and seaplanes. They are used in bridges, floating piers, and floats anchored to the seabed for recreation or dockage. They are also used in shipbuilding and marine salvage, often deployed uninflated then pressurized to raise a sunken object, pontoons for marine industrial uses are usually fabricated from steel plate and sheet. Pontoons as parts of watercraft and aircraft are more typically molded in glass-reinforced plastic, in model building, floats can easily be carved out of solid blocks or laminated sheets of foam
29.
Amphibious aircraft
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This article discusses fixed-wing amphibious aircraft. For rotary-wing amphibious aircraft, see Amphibious helicopter, an amphibious aircraft or amphibian is an aircraft that can take off and land on both land and water. Some amphibians are fitted with reinforced keels which act as skis, many amphibian aircraft are of the flying boat type. While these impose weight and drag, amphibious aircraft also face the possibility of getting hit when operating from a runway. A common solution is to make them retractable as those found on the Consolidated Catalina however these are heavier than fixed floats. Some aircraft may have the tip floats removed for extended use from land and these are not built to take the impact of the aircraft landing on them. An occasional problem with amphibians is with ensuring the wheels are in the position for landing. In normal operation, the uses a checklist, verifying each item. Since amphibians can land with them up or down though, the pilot must take care to ensure they are correct for the chosen landing place. Landing wheels up on land may damage the keel, while landing wheels down on water will almost always flip the aircraft upside down, Amphibious aircraft are heavier and slower, more complex and more expensive to purchase and operate than comparable landplanes but are also more versatile. Even if they cannot hover or land vertically, for jobs they compete favorably with helicopters. This makes an amphibious aircraft, such as the Grumman Albatross, the most notable being the Short Sunderland which carried out many anti-submarine patrols over the North Atlantic on sorties of 8 –12 hours duration. The Grumman Corporation, late-comers to the game, introduced a pair of light utility amphibious aircraft - the Goose, however, their military potential could not be ignored, and many were ordered by the US Armed forces and their allies during World War II. Not coincidentally, the Consolidated Catalina was redeveloped from being a flying boat into an amphibian during the war. Development of amphibians continues in Russia with the jet engined Beriev Be-200, italy, bordering the Mediterranean and Adriatic has had a long history of waterborne aircraft going back to the first Italian aircraft to fly. While most were not amphibians, quite a few were, including the Savoia-Marchetti S. 56A, although successful, flying boat amphibians like it ultimately proved less versatile than floatplane amphibians and are no longer as common as they once were. Many today are homebuilts, by necessity as the demand is too small to justify the costs of development, Amphibious helicopter Amphibious vehicle List of seaplanes and amphibious aircraft Floatplane Flying boat Seaplane Tigerfish Aviation Unmanned aerial vehicle
30.
Fairchild Hiller FH-1100
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The Fairchild Hiller FH-1100 is a single-engine, single two-bladed rotor, light helicopter which began as a design entry into the United States Armys Light Observation Helicopter program. The Hiller Model 1100 was not selected but after Hiller Aircraft was purchased by Fairchild Stratos in 1964, the Model 1100 was successfully marketed as a civilian helicopter, the type certificate is now held by the FH1100 Manufacturing Corporation of Century, Florida. In October 1960, the Army submitted a request for proposals for the Light Observation Helicopter, Hiller Aircraft, along with 12 other manufacturers, including Bell Helicopter and Hughes Tool Co. Aircraft Division, entered the competition, submitting their designs to a Navy team for evaluation, Hiller submitted the Model 1100, which was recommended by the Navy team and eventually selected as one of three winners of the design competition by the Army in May 1961. The Army designated the Model 1100 design as the YOH-5, detailed design work began in November 1961, and the Model 1100 prototype made its maiden flight on 21 January 1963. Hiller produced a total of five copies of the Model 1100 to submit to the Army for the Test and Evaluation phase at Camp Rucker, Alabama in 1963. After the test and evaluation, the Bell YOH-4 was eliminated, in 1965, Hiller was underbid by Hughes and the Army selected Hughes YOH-6. Although Hiller formally protested, Hughes was awarded a contract for the OH-6 Cayuse. In 1967, when the Army reopened the LOH competition for bids because Hughes Tool Co, Aircraft Division could not meet the contractual production demands. Fairchild-Hiller decided not to resubmit their bid with the YOH-5A, instead choosing to continue with commercial marketing of their civilian version, the FH-1100 was produced until 1973. In 2000, the Type Certificate was purchased by FH1100 Manufacturing Corporation, FH1100 Manufacturing conducts remanufacturing and training but has not received a production certificate for the FH-1100, which it now calls the FHoenix. Hiller Model 1100 Four-seat prototype powered by an Allison 250-C10 engine, FH-1100 Civil production five-seat model powered by an Allison 250-C18 engine and certified in November 1966. Later production fitted with an Allison 250-C20B engine, 246-built RH-1100A Pegasus Updated civil version, built and marketed by Rogerson Hiller Helicopters. RH-1100M Updated military version, built and marketed by Rogerson Hiller Helicopters, YOH-5A United States Army designations for five Model 1100 for evaluation powered by a 250shp Allison T-63-A-5 engine. 03 April 1968 N512FH at Goliad, TX, crashed due to transmission failure in turbulence, killing both occupants. 25 March 1969 N617 of the Us Dept Of Interior near Sinclair, a/c written off with 2 fatalities. 29 April 1969 XC-DUO of the Procuraduría General de la República near Pachuga, a/c written off with 3 fatalities. 11 June 1969 Okanagan Helicopters, written off with 3 fatalities at Enak Lake, NWT, substantial damage was caused to the tail rotor assembly and ventral fin
31.
Korean War
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The Korean War began when North Korea invaded South Korea. The United Nations, with the United States as the principal force, China came to the aid of North Korea, and the Soviet Union gave some assistance. Korea was ruled by Japan from 1910 until the days of World War II. In August 1945, the Soviet Union declared war on Japan, as a result of an agreement with the United States, U. S. forces subsequently moved into the south. By 1948, as a product of the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States, Korea was split into two regions, with separate governments, both governments claimed to be the legitimate government of all of Korea, and neither side accepted the border as permanent. The conflict escalated into open warfare when North Korean forces—supported by the Soviet Union, on that day, the United Nations Security Council recognized this North Korean act as invasion and called for an immediate ceasefire. On 27 June, the Security Council adopted S/RES/83, Complaint of aggression upon the Republic of Korea and decided the formation, twenty-one countries of the United Nations eventually contributed to the UN force, with the United States providing 88% of the UNs military personnel. After the first two months of war, South Korean forces were on the point of defeat, forced back to the Pusan Perimeter, in September 1950, an amphibious UN counter-offensive was launched at Inchon, and cut off many North Korean troops. Those who escaped envelopment and capture were rapidly forced back north all the way to the border with China at the Yalu River, at this point, in October 1950, Chinese forces crossed the Yalu and entered the war. Chinese intervention triggered a retreat of UN forces which continued until mid-1951, after these reversals of fortune, which saw Seoul change hands four times, the last two years of fighting became a war of attrition, with the front line close to the 38th parallel. The war in the air, however, was never a stalemate, North Korea was subject to a massive bombing campaign. Jet fighters confronted each other in combat for the first time in history. The fighting ended on 27 July 1953, when an armistice was signed, the agreement created the Korean Demilitarized Zone to separate North and South Korea, and allowed the return of prisoners. However, no treaty has been signed, and the two Koreas are technically still at war. Periodic clashes, many of which are deadly, continue to the present, in the U. S. the war was initially described by President Harry S. Truman as a police action as it was an undeclared military action, conducted under the auspices of the United Nations. In South Korea, the war is referred to as 625 or the 6–2–5 Upheaval. In North Korea, the war is referred to as the Fatherland Liberation War or alternatively the Chosǒn War. In China, the war is called the War to Resist U. S
32.
Sikorsky H-19 Chickasaw
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The Sikorsky H-19 Chickasaw, was a multi-purpose helicopter used by the United States Army and United States Air Force. It was also license-built by Westland Aircraft as the Westland Whirlwind in the United Kingdom, United States Navy and United States Coast Guard models were designated HO4S, while those of the U. S. Marine Corps were designated HRS. In 1962, the U. S. Navy, U. S. Coast Guard and U. S. Marine Corps versions were all redesignated as H-19s like their U. S. Army, development of the H-19 was initiated privately by Sikorsky without government sponsorship. The helicopter was designed as a testbed for several novel design concepts intended to provide greater load-carrying ability in combination with easy maintenance. Under the leadership of designer Edward F. Katzenberger, a mockup was designed and fabricated in less one year. The first customer was the United States Air Force, which ordered five YH-19 aircraft for evaluation, the YH-19s first flight was on 10 November 1949, less than a year after the program start date. This was followed by delivery of the first YH-19 to the U. S. Air Force on 16 April 1950 and delivery of the first HO4S-1 helicopter to the U. S. Navy on 31 August 1950. A U. S. Air Force YH-19 was sent to Korea for service trials in March 1951, where it was joined by a second YH-19 in September 1951. On 27 April 1951, the first HRS-1 was delivered to the U. S. Marine Corps, and on 2 May 1951,1,281 of the helicopters were manufactured by Sikorsky in the United States. An additional 447 were manufactured by licensees of the helicopter including Westland Aircraft, the helicopter was widely exported, used by many other nations, including Portugal, Greece, Israel, Chile, South Africa, Denmark and Turkey. Enough fuel was provided for seven minutes of operation, although tests of the system were considered successful, it was never adopted operationally. These features yielded an aircraft that was far more capable in a role than previous Sikorsky designs. The impetus for this choice was the recent rejection of the Sikorsky XHJS by the U. S. The YH-19 prototypes featured a blunt aft fuselage and a single starboard-mounted horizontal tailplane with a vertical fin at its outboard end. Initial production models added a large fillet-like fin behind the fuselage and under the tailboom, the H-19 underwent live service tests in the hands of the 6th Transportation Company, during the Korean War beginning in 1951 as an unarmed transport helicopter. The U. S. Air Force ordered 50 H-19As for rescue duties in 1951 and these aircraft were the primary rescue and medical evacuation helicopters for the USAF during the Korean War. The Air Force continued to use the H-19 through the 1960s, in Indochina, a small number of Hiller H-23s and Sikorsky H-19s were available for casualty evacuation. In 1956, the French Air Force experimented with arming the H-19, then being superseded in service by the more capable Piasecki H-21 and Sikorsky H-34 helicopters
33.
Incheon
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Incheon, officially the Incheon Metropolitan City, is a city located in northwestern South Korea, bordering Seoul and Gyeonggi to the east. Inhabited since the New Stone Age, Incheon was home to just 4,700 people when it became a port in 1883. Today, about 3 million people live in the city, making it Korea’s third most populous city after Seoul and Busan. The citys growth has been assured in modern times with the development of its due to its natural advantages as a coastal city. It is part of the Seoul Capital Area, along with Seoul itself and Gyeonggi Province, Incheon has since led the economic development of Korea by opening its port to the outside world, ushering in the modernization of Korea as a center of industrialization. In 2003, the city was designated as Korea’s first free economic zone, as an international city, Incheon has held numerous large scale international conferences, such as the Incheon Global Fair & Festival in 2009. The 17th Asian Games Incheon 2014 was also held in Incheon on 19 September 2014, Incheon has established itself as a major transportation hub in northeast Asia with the world-renowned Incheon International Airport and Incheon Port. The city is home to the Green Climate Fund, an international organization addressing environmental issues. The first historical record of the Incheon area dates back to 475 AD, during the reign of King Jangsu of Goguryeo, by the name of Michuhol, the area underwent several name changes with successive kingdoms and dynasties. In Goryeo era, Incheon was called Gyeongwon or Inju, the current name was turned to Incheon in 1413. Later, Incheon County became Incheon Metropolitan Prefecture, old Incheon consisted of todays southern Incheon and northern part of Siheung City. The city centre was Gwangyo-dong, where the office and the local academy were located. Another historical name of the city, Jemulpo, was not widely used until the opening of the port in 1883, after the opening of the Incheon port, the city centre moved from Gwangyo to Jemulpo. Today, either Jemulpo or Gwangyo-dong is considered Deep Incheon and it was renamed as Jinsen during Japanese rule in Korean peninsula. In 1914, the Japanese colonial government merged outer parts of old Incheon with Bupyeong County, through 1936 and 1940, some part of Bucheon County was recombined into Incheon City, by which some part of old Bupyeong was annexed into Incheon. Incheon was originally part of Gyeonggi Province, but was granted Directly Governed City status on July 1,1981, Incheon was known as Inchon prior to South Koreas adoption of a new Romanization system in 2000. The city was the site of the Battle of Chemulpo Bay, during the Korean War, Incheon was occupied by North Korean troops on 4 September 1950. Eleven days later, Incheon was the site of the Battle of Inchon, the result was a decisive UN victory and it was recaptured on 19 September 1950
34.
South Korea
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South Korea, officially the Republic of Korea, is a sovereign state in East Asia, constituting the southern part of the Korean Peninsula. The earliest Korean pottery dates to 8000 BC, with three kingdoms flourishing in the 1st century BC and its rich and vibrant culture left 19 UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritages of Humanity, the third largest in the world, along with 12 World Heritage Sites. Annexed into Imperial Japan in 1910, Korea was divided after its surrender in 1945, peace has since mostly continued with the two agreeing to work peacefully for reunification and the South solidifying peace as a regional power with the worlds 10th largest defence budget. South Koreas tiger economy soared at an average of 10% for over 30 years in a period of rapid transformation called the Miracle on the Han River. A long legacy of openness and focus on innovation made it successful, today, it is the worlds fifth largest exporter with the G20s largest budget surplus and highest credit rating of any country in East Asia. It has free trade agreements with 75% of the economy and is the only G20 nation trading freely with China, the US. Since 1988, its constitution guarantees a liberal democracy with high government transparency, high personal freedoms led to the rise of a globally influential pop culture such as K-pop and K-drama, a phenomenon called the Korean Wave, known for its distinctive fashionable and trendy style. Home of the UN Green Climate Fund and GGGI, South Korea is a leader in low carbon growth, committed to helping developing countries as a major DAC. It is the third least ignorant country in the Index of Ignorance, ranking eighth highest for peaceful tolerance. It is the worlds largest spender on R&D per GDP, leading the OECD in graduates in science, the name Korea derives from the name Goryeo. The name Goryeo itself was first used by the ancient kingdom of Goguryeo in the 5th century as a form of its name. The 10th-century kingdom of Goryeo succeeded Goguryeo, and thus inherited its name, the modern spelling of Korea first appeared in the late 17th century in the travel writings of the Dutch East India Companys Hendrick Hamel. After Goryeo was replaced by Joseon in 1392, Joseon became the name for the entire territory. The new official name has its origin in the ancient country of Gojoseon, in 1897, the Joseon dynasty changed the official name of the country from Joseon to Daehan Jeguk. The name Daehan, which means great Han literally, derives from Samhan, however, the name Joseon was still widely used by Koreans to refer to their country, though it was no longer the official name. Under Japanese rule, the two names Han and Joseon coexisted, there were several groups who fought for independence, the most notable being the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea. Following the surrender of Japan, in 1945, the Republic of Korea was adopted as the name for the new country. Since the government only controlled the part of the Korean Peninsula
35.
Los Angeles Airways
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Los Angeles Airways was a helicopter airline based in Westchester, Los Angeles, California. LAA had several firsts, including the first regularly scheduled helicopter service on October 1,1947. Service to Ontario and San Bernardino was initiated on December 17,1953, in April 1957 they scheduled 17 weekday departures from LAX to 11 heliports from North Hollywood to San Bernardino to Santa Ana to Long Beach, they didnt fly to downtown Los Angeles. The OAG doesnt say what helicopter, but the shows a S-55. LAA was the first civil operator of the Sikorsky S-61, introducing it on March 1,1962, Los Angeles Airways ceased operations in 1971 after failure to consummate a contract in which it would have been purchased by Golden West Airlines. Passengers boarded, in thousands, scheduled flights only,30 in 1957,39 in 1960,396 in 1967, and 62 in 1970. Sikorsky S-51 Sikorsky S-55 Sikorsky S-61 On May 22,1968, Los Angeles Airways Flight 841, operated by a Sikorsky S-61L, crashed in Paramount, California resulting in the loss of 23 lives. On August 14,1968, another Sikorsky S-61L, operating Los Angeles Airways Flight 417, crashed in Compton, list of helicopter airlines Los Angeles Airways on Airliners. net Disneyland Heliport Los Angeles Airways timetables 1958 timetable
36.
RAAF Museum
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RAAF Museum is the official museum of the Royal Australian Air Force, the second oldest air force in the world, located at RAAF Williams Point Cook, Victoria, Australia. The museum displays aircraft of significance to the RAAF from its inception as the Australian Flying Corps to the present and it is currently overseen by the forces Air Training Wing. Entry to the museum is free, the operating hours are Tuesday to Friday 10am - 3pm, Weekends and Public Holidays 10am - 5pm. The museum is closed on Mondays, Christmas Day, and Good Friday, RAAF Williams is a working Military facility so adult visitors are required to produce photo identification and sign in to gain entry. Not all of the Museums collection is permanently exhibited, aircraft include the museums own CA-18 Mustang, CAC Winjeel, CT4A Trainer, DH Tiger Moth and Sopwith Pup. The Roulettes perform at least twice annually replacing the normal Sunday interactive display, aviation Heritage Museum RAAF Wagga Heritage Centre List of aerospace museums Official website
37.
Argentina
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Argentina, officially the Argentine Republic, is a federal republic in the southern half of South America. With a mainland area of 2,780,400 km2, Argentina is the eighth-largest country in the world, the second largest in Latin America, and the largest Spanish-speaking one. The country is subdivided into provinces and one autonomous city, Buenos Aires. The provinces and the capital have their own constitutions, but exist under a federal system, Argentina claims sovereignty over part of Antarctica, the Falkland Islands, and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands. The earliest recorded presence in the area of modern-day Argentina dates back to the Paleolithic period. The country has its roots in Spanish colonization of the region during the 16th century, Argentina rose as the successor state of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, a Spanish overseas viceroyalty founded in 1776. The country thereafter enjoyed relative peace and stability, with waves of European immigration radically reshaping its cultural. The almost-unparalleled increase in prosperity led to Argentina becoming the seventh wealthiest developed nation in the world by the early 20th century, Argentina retains its historic status as a middle power in international affairs, and is a prominent regional power in the Southern Cone and Latin America. Argentina has the second largest economy in South America, the third-largest in Latin America and is a member of the G-15 and it is the country with the second highest Human Development Index in Latin America with a rating of very high. Because of its stability, market size and growing high-tech sector, the description of the country by the word Argentina has to be found on a Venice map in 1536. In English the name Argentina probably comes from the Spanish language, however the naming itself is not Spanish, Argentina means in Italian of silver, silver coloured, probably borrowed from the Old French adjective argentine of silver > silver coloured already mentioned in the 12th century. The French word argentine is the form of argentin and derives of argent silver with the suffix -in. The Italian naming Argentina for the country implies Argentina Terra land of silver or Argentina costa coast of silver, in Italian, the adjective or the proper noun is often used in an autonomous way as a substantive and replaces it and it is said lArgentina. The name Argentina was probably first given by the Venitian and Genoese navigators, in Spanish and Portuguese, the words for silver are respectively plata and prata and of silver is said plateado and prateado. Argentina was first associated with the silver mountains legend, widespread among the first European explorers of the La Plata Basin. The first written use of the name in Spanish can be traced to La Argentina, a 1602 poem by Martín del Barco Centenera describing the region, the 1826 constitution included the first use of the name Argentine Republic in legal documents. The name Argentine Confederation was also used and was formalized in the Argentine Constitution of 1853. In 1860 a presidential decree settled the name as Argentine Republic
38.
Argentine Coast Guard
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The Argentine Naval Prefecture is a service of the Argentine Security Ministry charged with protecting the countrys rivers and maritime territory. It therefore fulfills the functions of other countries coast guards, and it maintains a functional relationship with the Ministry of Defense, as part of both the National Defense System and the Interior Security System. It therefore maintains capabilities arising from the demands required by joint military planning with the armed forces, the PNA is a large organization for a coastguard. The Prefectures predecessor is the ports service founded by the first autonomous Argentine government in June 1810, in Argentina this is considered the official founding date of the PNA. The first commander of the force was Colonel Martín Jacobo Thompson, Thompson was given the title of Captain of Ports. The law pertaining to it was enacted in October 1896, the Prefecture had a minor role in the Falklands War. As with other Argentine military services, participation in conflict is given considerable weight in the institutional memory of the service. Two PNA patrol vessels, the Islas Malvinas and the Rio Iguazu, were sent to provide an Argentine coastguard service to the islands, the ship ran aground, but most of its cargo -among them two 105 mm howitzers- was recovered later. The crew of the patrol boat claimed the shooting down of the aircraft, the sortie was actually carried out by two Sea Harriers of 800 Naval Air Squadron, Nº XZ460 and XZ499, which strafed the vessel with 30 mm cannon fire. The patrol vessel Islas Malvinas was captured and operated by the Royal Navy, the Prefecture is constantly battling illegal fishing vessels in the Argentine Exclusive Economic Zone, mostly from eastern countries. The Argentine Naval Aviation also collaborates in detection of ships with their P-3 Orion. The Sinking of the Chian-der 3 was an incident which occurred on 28 May 1986 when the Taiwanese flag naval trawler Chian-der 3 was detected, tracked, shot, set on fire, the sinking was carried out by PNA vessel GC-28 Prefecto Derbes. Two Taiwanese fishermen were killed, four others were injured, the Taiwanese fishermens union called the incident a barbaric act and the British government condemned it as unjustifiable and excessive. The PNA is subordinate to the Ministry of Interior, the Prefectures main facility is located in the Edificio Guardacostas at 235 E. Madero Avenue, Buenos Aires. The PNA headquarters is divided into three departments, each headed by a Director-General with the rank of Prefecto General. These are each divided into a number of directorates, each headed by a Director with the rank of Prefect-General, the Intelligence Service is directly responsible to the National Naval Prefect and is also headed by a Prefect-General. Former 635gt research/survey ship Seismic Surveyor, built 1969 in USA, dF-19 Recalada, former 17, 707gt Shell Argentina oil tanker Estrella Atlantica ex-Humberto Beghin, built 1982 in Argentina and purchased in 2011. Converting in Buenos Aires to a boarding station
39.
Argentine Navy
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The Navy of the Argentine Republic or Argentine Navy is the navy of Argentina. It is one of the three branches of the Armed Forces of the Argentine Republic, together with the Army and the Air Force, each ship of the Argentine Navy is designated with the prefix ARA before its name. The Argentine Navy day is celebrated on May 17, anniversary of the victory achieved in 1814 in the Battle of Montevideo over the Spanish fleet during the war of Independence. The Argentine Navy was created in the aftermath of the May Revolution of May 25,1810, the navy was first created to support Manuel Belgrano in the Paraguay campaign, but it was sunk by ships from Montevideo, and did not take part in that conflict. Renewed conflicts with Montevideo led to the creation of a second fleet, as Buenos Aires had little maritime history, most men in the navy were from other nations, such as the Irish-born admiral William Brown, who directed the operation. As the cost of maintaining a navy was too high, most of the Argentine naval forces were composed of privateers, Brown led the Argentine navy in further naval conflicts at the War with Brazil and the Anglo-French blockade of the Río de la Plata. In the 1870s the Argentine Navy began modernizing itself, the most powerful ships at this time included the Italian-built Garibaldi and her sister ships, General Belgrano, Pueyrredón, and San Martín, each at over 6,000 tons. Three older ironclads, Almirante Brown, Independencia, and Libertad dated from the 1880s, the navys ships were built primarily in Italy, Britain, France, and Spain and were operated by over 600 officers and 7760 seamen. These were supported by a battalion of marines and an artillery battery, Argentina remained neutral in both world wars. In 1940, Argentinas navy was ranked the eighth most powerful in the world, a ten-year building programme costing $60 million had produced a force of 14,500 sailors and over a thousand officers. A naval air force was also in operation, in the postwar period, Naval Aviation and Marine Corps units were put under direct Navy command. With Brazil, Argentina is one of two South American countries to have operated two aircraft carriers, the ARA Independencia and ARA Veinticinco de Mayo, the Navy also took part in all military coups through the 20th century. During the last dictatorship, Navy personnel were involved in the Dirty War of the late 1970s in which thousands of people were kidnapped, tortured and killed by the forces of the Military Junta, the Naval Mechanics School, known as ESMA, was a notorious centre for torture. Among their more well-known victims were the Swedish teenager Dagmar Hagelin and French nuns, Alice Domon and this fleet was supported by several ELMA tankers and transports as well as two ice breakers/polar ships. New German MEKO class destroyers, corvettes and Thyssen-Nordseewerke submarines were still under construction at the time, despite leading the invasion of the Falkland Islands, in both strategic and tactical aspects the Argentine fleet played only a small part in the subsequent conflict with the Royal Navy. The ARA San Luis submarine also played a role, nearly sinking the frigate HMS Arrow on 10 May. The submarine ARA Santa Fe, after a resupply mission, was attacked and disabled off South Georgia. She was later scuttled by the British, also, the submarine force greatly reinforced their assets with the introduction of the Thyssen-Nordseewerke class
40.
Australia
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Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands. It is the worlds sixth-largest country by total area, the neighbouring countries are Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and East Timor to the north, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east, and New Zealand to the south-east. Australias capital is Canberra, and its largest urban area is Sydney, for about 50,000 years before the first British settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who spoke languages classifiable into roughly 250 groups. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades, and by the 1850s most of the continent had been explored, on 1 January 1901, the six colonies federated, forming the Commonwealth of Australia. Australia has since maintained a liberal democratic political system that functions as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy comprising six states. The population of 24 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard, Australia has the worlds 13th-largest economy and ninth-highest per capita income. With the second-highest human development index globally, the country highly in quality of life, health, education, economic freedom. The name Australia is derived from the Latin Terra Australis a name used for putative lands in the southern hemisphere since ancient times, the Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia in 1638, to refer to the newly discovered lands to the south. On 12 December 1817, Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted, in 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia. The first official published use of the term Australia came with the 1830 publication of The Australia Directory and these first inhabitants may have been ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians. The Torres Strait Islanders, ethnically Melanesian, were originally horticulturists, the northern coasts and waters of Australia were visited sporadically by fishermen from Maritime Southeast Asia. The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland, and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent, are attributed to the Dutch. The first ship and crew to chart the Australian coast and meet with Aboriginal people was the Duyfken captained by Dutch navigator, Willem Janszoon. He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula in early 1606, the Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent New Holland during the 17th century, but made no attempt at settlement. William Dampier, an English explorer and privateer, landed on the north-west coast of New Holland in 1688, in 1770, James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain. The first settlement led to the foundation of Sydney, and the exploration, a British settlement was established in Van Diemens Land, now known as Tasmania, in 1803, and it became a separate colony in 1825. The United Kingdom formally claimed the part of Western Australia in 1828. Separate colonies were carved from parts of New South Wales, South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, the Northern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised from South Australia
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Royal Australian Air Force
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The Royal Australian Air Force, formed March 1921, is the aerial warfare branch of the Australian Defence Force. It directly continues the traditions of the Australian Flying Corps, formed on 22 October 1912, the RAAF provides support across a spectrum of operations such as air superiority, precision strikes, intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance, air mobility, and humanitarian support. The RAAF has taken part in many of the 20th centurys major conflicts, thousands of Australians also served with other Commonwealth air forces in Europe. By the time the war ended, a total of 216,900 men and women served in the RAAF, later the RAAF served in the Berlin Airlift, Korean War, Malayan Emergency, Indonesia–Malaysia Confrontation and Vietnam War. More recently, the RAAF has participated in operations in East Timor, the Iraq War, the War in Afghanistan, and the intervention against the Islamic State of Iraq. The RAAF has 259 aircraft, of which 110 are combat aircraft, the RAAF traces its history back to the Imperial Conference held in London in 1911, where it was decided aviation should be developed within the armed forces of the British Empire. By 1914 the corps was known as the Australian Flying Corps, soon after the outbreak of war in 1914, the Australian Flying Corps sent aircraft to assist in capturing German colonies in what is now north-east New Guinea. However, these colonies surrendered quickly, before the planes were even unpacked, the first operational flights did not occur until 27 May 1915, when the Mesopotamian Half Flight was called upon to assist the Indian Army in protecting British oil interests in what is now Iraq. The corps later saw action in Egypt, Palestine and on the Western Front throughout the remainder of the First World War, by the end of the war, four squadrons—Nos. 1,2,3 and 4—had seen operational service, while another four training squadrons—Nos,5,6,7 and 8—had also been established. A total of 460 officers and 2,234 other ranks served in the AFC, casualties included 175 dead,111 wounded,6 gassed and 40 captured. The Australian Flying Corps remained part of the Australian Army until 1919, although the Central Flying School continued to operate at Point Cook, military flying virtually ceased until 1920, when the Australian Air Corps was formed. The Australian Air Force was formed on 31 March 1921, king George V approved the prefix Royal in June 1921 and became effective on 31 August 1921. The RAAF then became the second Royal air arm to be formed in the British Commonwealth, when formed the RAAF had more aircraft than personnel, with 21 officers and 128 other ranks and 153 aircraft. A total of 17 RAAF bomber, fighter, reconnaissance and other squadrons served initially in Britain and with the Desert Air Force located in North Africa, thousands of Australians also served with other Commonwealth air forces in Europe during the Second World War. About nine percent of the personnel who served under British RAF commands in Europe and this statistic is further illustrated by the fact that No.460 Squadron RAAF, mostly flying Avro Lancasters, had an official establishment of about 200 aircrew and yet had 1,018 combat deaths. The squadron was therefore effectively wiped out five times over, total RAAF casualties in Europe were 5,488 killed or missing. The beginning of the Pacific War—and the rapid advance of Japanese forces—threatened the Australian mainland for the first time in its history, the RAAF was quite unprepared for the emergency, and initially had negligible forces available for service in the Pacific
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Canada
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Canada is a country in the northern half of North America. Canadas border with the United States is the worlds longest binational land border, the majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate, but southerly areas are warm in summer. Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of its territory being dominated by forest and tundra. It is highly urbanized with 82 per cent of the 35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized cities, One third of the population lives in the three largest cities, Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Its capital is Ottawa, and other urban areas include Calgary, Edmonton, Quebec City, Winnipeg. Various aboriginal peoples had inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization. Pursuant to the British North America Act, on July 1,1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick and this began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly self-governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming modern Canada. With the Constitution Act 1982, Canada took over authority, removing the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state. The country is officially bilingual at the federal level and it is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources, Canadas long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture. Canada is a country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human Development Index. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, Canada is an influential nation in the world, primarily due to its inclusive values, years of prosperity and stability, stable economy, and efficient military. While a variety of theories have been postulated for the origins of Canada. In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona, from the 16th to the early 18th century Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the St. Lawrence River. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada collectively named The Canadas, until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the name for the new country at the London Conference. The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act, later that year, the name of national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day
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Royal Canadian Air Force
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The Royal Canadian Air Force is the air force of Canada. Its role is to provide the Canadian Forces with relevant, responsive and effective airpower, the RCAF is one of three environmental commands within the unified Canadian Armed Forces. Lieutenant-General Michael J. Hood, CMM CD, is the current Commander of the Royal Canadian Air Force, the RCAF is a partner with the United States Air Force in protecting continental airspace under the North American Aerospace Defense Command. The RCAF also provides all primary air resources to and is responsible for the National Search, the RCAF traces its history to the Canadian Air Force which was formed in 1920. The Canadian Air Force was incorporated in 1923 and granted royal sanction in 1924 by King George V, in 1968 the RCAF was amalgamated with the Royal Canadian Navy, and the Canadian Army, as part of the unification of the Canadian Forces. Air units were split between several different commands, Air Defence Command, Air Transport Command, Mobile Command, Maritime Command, in 1975 some commands were dissolved, and all air units were placed under a new environmental command called simply Air Command. Air Command reverted to its name of the Royal Canadian Air Force in August 2011. The Royal Canadian Air Force has served in the Second World War, the Korean War, as a NATO member, the force maintained a presence in Europe during the second half of the 20th century. The Canadian Air Force was established in 1920 as the successor to a short-lived two-squadron Canadian Air Force formed during the First World War in Europe. John Scott Williams, MC, AFC, was tasked in 1921 with organizing the CAF, the new Canadian Air Force was a branch of the Air Board and was chiefly a training militia that provided refresher training to veteran pilots. Many CAF members also worked with the Air Boards Civil Operations Branch on operations that included forestry, in 1923, the CAF became responsible for all flying operations in Canada, including civil aviation. In 1924, the Canadian Air Force, was granted the royal title, most of its work was civil in nature, however, in the late 1920s the RCAF evolved into more of a military organization. After budget cuts in the early 1930s, the air began to rebuild. By the end of the war, the RCAF had become the fourth largest allied air force, after the war, the RCAF reduced its strength. In 1950, the RCAF became involved with the transport of troops and supplies to the Korean War, however, members of the RCAF served in USAF units as exchange officers and several flew in combat. Both auxiliary and regular air defence squadrons were run by Air Defence Command, at the same time, the Pinetree Line, the Mid-Canada Line and the DEW Line radar stations, largely operated by the RCAF, were built across Canada because of the growing Soviet nuclear threat. In 1957, Canada and the United States created the joint North American Air Defense Command, coastal defence and peacekeeping also became priorities during the 1950s and 1960s. In 1968 the Royal Canadian Navy, Royal Canadian Air Force and this initiative was overseen by then Liberal Defence Minister, Paul Hellyer
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Taiwan
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Taiwan, officially the Republic of China, is a state in East Asia. Neighbours include China to the west, Japan to the northeast, Taiwan is the most populous state that is not a member of the United Nations, and the one with the largest economy. The island of Taiwan, also known as Formosa, was inhabited by Taiwanese aborigines before the 17th century. After a brief rule by the Kingdom of Tungning, the island was annexed by the Qing dynasty, the Qing ceded Taiwan to Japan in 1895 after the Sino-Japanese War. While Taiwan was under Japanese rule, the Republic of China was established on the mainland in 1912 after the fall of the Qing dynasty, following the Japanese surrender to the Allies in 1945, the ROC took control of Taiwan. However, the resumption of the Chinese Civil War led to the ROCs loss of the mainland to the Communists, and the flight of the ROC government to Taiwan in 1949. As a founding member of the United Nations, the ROC continued to represent China at the United Nations until 1971, in the early 1960s, Taiwan entered a period of rapid economic growth and industrialization, creating a stable industrial economy. In the 1980s and early 1990s, it changed from a one-party military dictatorship dominated by the Kuomintang to a multi-party democracy with universal suffrage, Taiwan is the 22nd-largest economy in the world, and its high-tech industry plays a key role in the global economy. It is ranked highly in terms of freedom of the press, health care, public education, economic freedom, the PRC has consistently claimed sovereignty over Taiwan and asserted the ROC is no longer in legitimate existence. Under its One-China Policy the PRC refused diplomatic relations with any country that recognizes the ROC, the PRC has threatened the use of military force in response to any formal declaration of independence by Taiwan or if PRC leaders decide that peaceful unification is no longer possible. There are various names for the island of Taiwan in use today, the former name Formosa dates from 1542, when Portuguese sailors sighted the main island of Taiwan and named it Ilha Formosa, which means beautiful island. The name Formosa eventually replaced all others in European literature and was in use in English in the early 20th century. This name was adopted into the Chinese vernacular as the name of the sandbar. The modern word Taiwan is derived from this usage, which is seen in forms in Chinese historical records. Use of the current Chinese name was formalized as early as 1684 with the establishment of Taiwan Prefecture, through its rapid development, the entire Formosan mainland eventually became known as Taiwan. The official name of the state is the Republic of China and it was a member of the United Nations representing China until 1971, when it lost its seat to the Peoples Republic of China. Over subsequent decades, the Republic of China has become known as Taiwan. In some contexts, especially ones from the ROC government
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Republic of China Air Force
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The Republic of China Air Force is the aviation branch of the Taiwanese military. The ROCAFs primary mission is the defense of the airspace over, as of 2006, all medium and long range SAM units were transferred from ROC Armys Missile Command to ROCAF, while ROCAFs airbase security units were transferred to ROC Army Military Police. Missile Command is now directly under Defense Ministrys GHQ control, on 21 September 2011, it was announced that the US had agreed to a US$5 billion upgrade to the F-16s. In 2012 Rob Nabors wrote that the United States was considering the sale of aircraft to the ROC. Like most of the branches of the ROC armed forces, much of the ROCAFs structure. Like the USAF, the ROCAF used to have a wing → group → squadron structure, Air Force GHQ is subordinate to the Chief of the General Staff, the Minister of National Defense and the President. Internal Units, Personnel, Combat Readiness and Training, Logistics, Planning, Communications, Electronics & Information, General Affairs, Comptroller,1 TK-1/2 Air Defense Missile battalion, 951st Brigade, 611st battalion with 6 companies/batteries. 1 Patriot PAC-2+ GEM/PAC-3 Air Defense/Anti-Ballistic Missile battalion, with 3 mixed companies/batteries that are all upgrading to PAC-3 standard, at least 2 AAA Air Defense Artillery battalions, with 40mm/L60 and 12. 7mm AAA guns. In this period, various airplanes were purchased and deployed by warlords in their struggle for power until nominal Chinese reunification in 1928. During the Second Sino-Japanese War, the ROCAF participated in attacks on Japanese warships on the eastern front, Chinese Boeing P-26/281 fighters engaged Japanese Mitsubishi A5M fighters in what is among the worlds first aerial dogfighting between all-metal monoplane fighter aircraft. A unique mission in April 1938 saw two Chinese B-10 bombers fly a mission over Japan, but dropping only propaganda leaflets over the Japanese cities of Nagasaki and Saga. It was a war of attrition for the Chinese pilots, as many of their most experienced ace fighter pilots, such as Lieutenant Liu Tsui-Kang and Colonel Kao Chih-Hang were lost early in the war. In the latter-half of the Sino-Japanese War, part of World War II, throughout the war, the ROCAF was involved in attacks on Japanese air and ground forces in the Chinese theatre. ROCAF General HQ was established in June 1946, the ROCAF reportedly enjoyed a 31,1 kill ratio against the PLA. GHQ was evacuated to Taiwan along with the rest of the ROC Government in April 1949 following the Communist victory in the Chinese Civil War, the ROCAF assisted in halting the PLA advance at the Battle of Kuningtou on Kinmen the same year. The ROCAF regularly patrolled the Taiwan Straits and fought engagements with its Communist counterpart. The ROCAF received second hand equipment from the US at that time, such as the F-86 Sabrejets, F-100, during the Cold War, the ROCAF was involved in combat air patrols over the Taiwan Strait and engaged the PLAAF and PLAN-AF on several occasions. The ROCAF was also the testbed of American technology at this time, the first successful kill scored by an air-to-air missile was accomplished by an ROCAF F-86 Sabrejet with then experimental AIM-9 Sidewinder
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Republic of China
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