1.
Silent Movie
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Silent Movie is a 1976 American satirical comedy film co-written, directed by, and starring Mel Brooks, and released by 20th Century Fox on June 17,1976. While indeed silent, the film is a parody of the silent film genre, particularly the slapstick comedies of Charlie Chaplin, Mack Sennett, and Buster Keaton. Among the films most famous gags is the fact that the only word in the film is spoken by Marcel Marceau. They then go into Ill Take Manhattan instead, a play on the current trend of large corporations buying up film studios is parodied by the attempt of the Engulf and Devour Corporation to take control of a studio. The film is set in Hollywood, Los Angeles, Mel Funn, a great film director, is now recovering from a drinking problem and down on his luck. He sets out to Big Picture Studios to pitch a new script to the Chief, aided by his ever-present sidekicks Dom Bell and his big idea, the first silent motion picture in forty years. Funn, Eggs, and Bell proceed to various people for the film. Their first target is Burt Reynolds, whom they first surprise in his shower and this does not go well, but they are able to sign him on by appearing at his house in disguise. They recruit James Caan despite a disastrous lunch in his broken trailer and they then disguise themselves as Flamenco dancers to get close to Anne Bancroft at a nightclub, and sign her on as well after a comical dance sequence. News breaks out that the Chief has taken ill and is in the hospital, while there, Mel phones Marcel Marceau in Paris who apparently declines the offer, delivering the only line of dialogue in the film, in French, Non. When asked by the others what Marceau said, Funn explains he doesnt understand French, paul Newman is seen on the hospital grounds. After leading them on a wild Hollywood-style chase in electric wheelchairs, Funn and company reply with the typical Hollywood-esque Well get back to you. In the next shot, a newspaper ad indicates that they ink Newman to do the movie and their most notable encounter involves a Coca-Cola machine that dispenses cans by launching them like grenades. Engulf and Devour, meanwhile, worry that Funn will save Big Picture Studios and they attempt to stop Funn with sex by sending voluptuous nightclub sensation Vilma Kaplan to seduce Funn and pretend to be in love with him. Funn falls head over heels, but when Eggs and Bell reveal the truth to him on the day filming begins. Ironically, moments after this turn of events, Vilma is seen calling Mr. Engulf with the news that she is quitting, she has fallen for Funn for real. We see Mel stopping by a store and buying what first appears to be an advertising prop in the stores window. After a misadventure involving a Skid Row hotel room and a murphy bed, after a few hours of hitting the local gin mills, Vilma and Funns associates find the would-be King passed out in a pile of his subjects, but several hundred cups of coffee sober him up
2.
A Silent Film
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A Silent Film are an English alternative rock band from Oxford. The band consists of Robert Stevenson and Spencer Walker and their first album, The City That Sleeps, was released on 6 October 2008, with one reviewer describing it as a surefire winner. One critic has said that A Silent Films style distinctly echoes Coldplay, Snow Patrol, three of the five members had been members of another band named Shouting Myke, which formed in early 2000. In 2005 two members left the band and were replaced by Ali Hussain, whose brother is noted classical conductor Leo Hussain. The band released their first recording in 2007, an EP titled The Projectionist and they performed on the BBC Introducing Stage at Glastonbury in 2007. The original UK version of the album, produced by Sam Williams, a reviewer compared the album to the music of Coldplay and described it as catchy and accessible. The single You Will Leave a Mark was number one in the Sunday Times Culture magazines Hottest Downloads chart and it was featured as an iTunes Discovery Download and has been downloaded over 110,000 times. It was also nominated for the XFM New Music Award, after the albums release, the band toured the UK and then Portugal where they quickly became popular. After a matter of weeks, You Will Leave a Mark reached the top of the Portuguese download singles charts, followed by the album soon after. The band have played and toured with OneRepublic, Scouting for Girls, The Smashing Pumpkins, The Temper Trap, Sleigh Bells, Biffy Clyro, Fitz & The Tantrums, Civil Twilight, Athlete and Blue October. In 2010 The City That Sleeps was re-released in the US with two tracks, Driven By Their Beating Hearts and Firefly in My Window. Aurora was featured on Linkin Parks iTunes celebrity playlist podcast, multiple appearances on MTVs The Hills, The Hard Times of R J Berger, Investigation Discovery and an appearance on the Rockband video game all helped to raise awareness of the band in the US. The song also peaked at No.38 on Billboards Hot Modern Rock Tracks, the band successfully performed to a capacity room at SXSW in March 2011. A Silent Film released their album Sand & Snow on 5 June 2012, the self-produced album contains 11 tracks, with three additional songs on the bonus edition. It has been praised for its depth and creativity and has a notably stronger electronic influence than their first album. The album produced two hit singles, “Danny, Dakota & the Wishing Well” and “Harbour Lights. ”The album peaked at No.38 on the Top Heatseekers chart in 2013, on 21 April 2015, A Silent Film released their EP New Year. The EP was self-produced, in collaboration with Matt Wilcox, and was mixed by The City that Sleeps producer Sam Williams. Recorded in a studio on a pecan farm just outside El Paso, Texas, New Year expands on the cinematic alternative rock of 2012s Sand & Snow
3.
Film
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A film, also called a movie, motion picture, theatrical film or photoplay, is a series of still images which, when shown on a screen, creates the illusion of moving images due to the phi phenomenon. This optical illusion causes the audience to perceive continuous motion between separate objects viewed rapidly in succession, the process of filmmaking is both an art and an industry. The word cinema, short for cinematography, is used to refer to the industry of films. Films were originally recorded onto plastic film through a photochemical process, the adoption of CGI-based special effects led to the use of digital intermediates. Most contemporary films are now fully digital through the process of production, distribution. Films recorded in a form traditionally included an analogous optical soundtrack. It runs along a portion of the film exclusively reserved for it and is not projected, Films are cultural artifacts created by specific cultures. They reflect those cultures, and, in turn, affect them, Film is considered to be an important art form, a source of popular entertainment, and a powerful medium for educating—or indoctrinating—citizens. The visual basis of film gives it a power of communication. Some films have become popular worldwide attractions by using dubbing or subtitles to translate the dialog into the language of the viewer, some have criticized the film industrys glorification of violence and its potentially negative treatment of women. The individual images that make up a film are called frames, the perception of motion is due to a psychological effect called phi phenomenon. The name film originates from the fact that film has historically been the medium for recording and displaying motion pictures. Many other terms exist for a motion picture, including picture, picture show, moving picture, photoplay. The most common term in the United States is movie, while in Europe film is preferred. Terms for the field, in general, include the big screen, the screen, the movies, and cinema. In early years, the sheet was sometimes used instead of screen. Preceding film in origin by thousands of years, early plays and dances had elements common to film, scripts, sets, costumes, production, direction, actors, audiences, storyboards, much terminology later used in film theory and criticism apply, such as mise en scène. Owing to the lack of any technology for doing so, the moving images, the magic lantern, probably created by Christiaan Huygens in the 1650s, could be used to project animation, which was achieved by various types of mechanical slides
4.
Sound recording and reproduction
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Sound recording and reproduction is an electrical, mechanical, electronic, or digital inscription and re-creation of sound waves, such as spoken voice, singing, instrumental music, or sound effects. The two main classes of sound recording technology are analog recording and digital recording, prior to the development of analog recording, there were mechanical systems for reproducing instrumental music, such as wind-up music boxes and later, in the late 19th century, player pianos. Analog sound reproduction is the process, with a bigger loudspeaker diaphragm causing changes to atmospheric pressure to form acoustic sound waves. Digital recording and reproduction converts the sound signal picked up by the microphone to a digital form by the process of digitization. This lets the audio data be stored and transmitted by a variety of media. Whereas successive copies of an analog recording tend to degrade in quality, as noise is added. A digital audio signal must be reconverted to analog form during playback before it is amplified and connected to a loudspeaker to produce sound, long before sound was first recorded on cylinders or records, music was recorded—first by written music notation, then also by mechanical devices. Fowler, this. cylinder with raised pins on the surface remained the device to produce and reproduce music mechanically until the second half of the nineteenth century. The Banu Musa brothers also invented an automatic flute player, which appears to have been the first programmable machine, according to Fowler, the automata were a robot band that performed. more than fifty facial and body actions during each musical selection. In the 14th century, Flanders introduced a mechanical bell-ringer controlled by a rotating cylinder, similar designs appeared in barrel organs, musical clocks, barrel pianos, and musical boxes. A music box is a musical instrument that produces sounds by the use of a set of pins placed on a revolving cylinder or disc so as to pluck the tuned teeth of a steel comb. They were developed from musical snuff boxes of the 18th century, some of the more complex boxes also have a tiny drum and/or bells, in addition to the metal comb. The fairground organ, developed in 1892, used a system of accordion-folded punched cardboard books, the player piano, first demonstrated in 1876, used a punched paper scroll that could store an long piece of music. The most sophisticated of the rolls were hand-played, meaning that the roll represented the actual performance of an individual. This technology to record a live performance onto a piano roll was not developed until 1904, piano rolls were in continuous mass production from 1896 to 2008. A1908 U. S. Supreme Court copyright case noted that, in 1902 alone, the use of piano rolls began to decline in the 1920s although one type is still being made today. The first device that could record actual sounds as they passed through the air was the phonautograph, the earliest known recordings of the human voice are phonautograph recordings, called phonautograms, made in 1857. They consist of sheets of paper with sound-wave-modulated white lines created by a stylus that cut through a coating of soot as the paper was passed under it
5.
Dialogue
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Dialogue is a written or spoken conversational exchange between two or more people, and a literary and theatrical form that depicts such an exchange. In the 20th century, philosophical treatments of dialogue emerged from thinkers including Mikhail Bakhtin, Paulo Freire, Martin Buber, although diverging in many details, these thinkers have articulated a holistic concept of dialogue as a multi-dimensional, dynamic and context-dependent process of creating meaning. Educators such as Freire and Ramón Flecha have also developed a body of theory, the term dialogue stems from the Greek διάλογος, its roots are διά and λόγος. The first extant author who uses the term is Plato, in whose works it is associated with the art of dialectic. Latin took over the word as dialogus, in the West, Plato has commonly been credited with the systematic use of dialogue as an independent literary form. Ancient sources indicate, however, that the Platonic dialogue had its foundations in the mime and these works, admired and imitated by Plato, have not survived and we have only the vaguest idea of how they may have been performed. The Mimes of Herodas, which were found in a papyrus in 1891, Plato further simplified the form and reduced it to pure argumentative conversation, while leaving intact the amusing element of character-drawing. By about 400 BC he had perfected the Socratic dialogue, all his extant writings, except the Apology and Epistles, use this form. Following Plato, the became a major literary genre in antiquity. Soon after Plato, Xenophon wrote his own Symposium, also, Two French writers of eminence borrowed the title of Lucian’s most famous collection, both Fontenelle and Fénelon prepared Dialogues des morts. Contemporaneously, in 1688, the French philosopher Nicolas Malebranche published his Dialogues on Metaphysics and Religion, in English non-dramatic literature the dialogue did not see extensive use until Berkeley employed it, in 1713, for his treatise, Three Dialogues between Hylas and Philonous. His contemporary, the Scottish philosopher David Hume wrote Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion, a prominent 19th-century example of literary dialogue was Landor’s Imaginary Conversations. In Germany, Wieland adopted this form for several important satirical works published between 1780 and 1799, in Spanish literature, the Dialogues of Valdés and those on Painting by Vincenzo Carducci are celebrated. Italian writers of collections of dialogues, following Platos model, include Torquato Tasso, Galileo, Galiani, Leopardi, in the 19th century, the French returned to the original application of dialogue. English writers including Anstey Guthrie also adopted the form, but these seem to have found less of a popular following among the English than their counterparts written by French authors. Authors who have employed it include George Santayana, in his eminent Dialogues in Limbo. Also Edith Stein and Iris Murdoch used the dialogue form, Stein imagined a dialogue between Edmund Husserl and Thomas Aquinas. Murdoch included not only Socrates and Alcibiades as interlocutors in her work Acastos, Two Platonic Dialogues, more recently Timothy Williamson wrote Tetralogue, a philosophical exchange on a train between four people with radically different epistemological views
6.
Mime artist
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A mime or mime artist is a person who uses mime as a theatrical medium or as a performance art, involving miming, or the acting out a story through body motions, without use of speech. In earlier times, in English, such a performer would typically be referred to as a mummer, miming is to be distinguished from silent comedy, in which the artist is a seamless character in a film or sketch. The performance of mime originates at its earliest in Ancient Greece, in Medieval Europe, early forms of mime such as mummer plays and later dumbshows evolved. In early nineteenth century Paris, Jean-Gaspard Deburau solidified the many attributes that we have come to know in modern times—the silent figure in whiteface, Jacques Copeau, strongly influenced by Commedia dellarte and Japanese Noh theatre, used masks in the training of his actors. Jacques Lecoq contributed significantly to the development of mime and physical theatre with his training methods, however, the twentieth century also brought a new medium into widespread usage, the motion picture. The restrictions of early motion picture technology meant that stories had to be told with minimal dialogue and this often demanded a highly stylized form of physical acting largely derived from the stage. Thus, mime played an important role in films prior to advent of talkies, the mimetic style of film acting was used to great effect in German Expressionist film. Indeed, Chaplin may be the best-documented mime in history, tati, like Chaplin before him, would mime out the movements of every single character in his films and ask his actors to repeat them. Mime has been performed on stage, with Marcel Marceau and his character Bip being the most famous, Mime is also a popular art form in street theatre and busking. Traditionally, these sorts of performances involve the actor/actress wearing tight black, however, contemporary mimes often perform without whiteface. Similarly, while traditional mimes have been silent, contemporary mimes, while refraining from speaking. Mime acts are often comical, but some can be very serious, canadian author Michael Jacots first novel, The Last Butterfly, tells the story of a mime artist in Nazi-occupied Europe who is forced by his oppressors to perform for a team of Red Cross observers. Nobel laureate Heinrich Bölls The Clown relates the downfall of a mime artist, Hans Schneir, jacob Appels Pushcart short-listed story, Coulrophobia, depicts the tragedy of a landlord whose marriage slowly collapses after he rents a spare apartment to an intrusive mime artist. The first recorded mime was Telestēs in the play Seven Against Thebes by Aeschylus, tragic mime was developed by Puladēs of Kilikia, comic mime was developed by Bathullos of Alexandria. The Roman emperor Trajan banished mime artists, Caligula favored them, nero himself acted as a mime. Recitation, music, and even percussive footwork sometimes accompany the performance, the Natya Shastra, an ancient treatise on theatre by Bharata Muni, mentions silent performance, or mukabhinaya. In Kathakali, stories from Indian epics are told with facial expressions, hand signals, performances are accompanied by songs narrating the story while the actors act out the scene, followed by actor detailing without background support of narrative song. Butoh, though referred to as a dance form, has been adopted by various theatre practitioners as well
7.
Intertitle
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In motion pictures, an intertitle is a piece of filmed, printed text edited into the midst of the photographed action at various points. Intertitles used to convey character dialogue are referred to as dialogue intertitles, film scholar Kamilla Elliott identifies one of the earliest uses of intertitles in the 1901 British film Scrooge, or, Marleys Ghost. The first Academy Awards presentation in 1929 included an award for Best Title Writing that went to Joseph W. Farnham for no specific film, the award was never given again, as intertitles went out of common use due to the introduction of talkies. In modern film, intertitles are used to supply an epigraph, such as a poem, however, they are most commonly used as part of a historical dramas epilogue to explain what happened to the depicted characters and events after the conclusion of the story proper. The development of the soundtrack slowly eliminated their utility as a narrative device, for instance, intertitles were used as a gimmick in Frasier. The BBCs drama Threads uses them to location, date. Law & Order used them to not only the location. Guy Maddin is a filmmaker known for recreating the style of older films. Some locally produced shows, such as quiz bowl game shows, intertitles have had a long history in the area of amateur film as well. The efforts of home movie aficionados to intertitle their works post-production have led to the development of a number of approaches to the challenge. Frequently lacking access to high quality film dubbing and splicing equipment, intertitles may be printed neatly on a piece of paper, a card, or a piece of cardboard and filmed, or they may be formed from adhesive strips and affixed to glass. In the early 1980s, digital recording technology improved to the point where intertitles could be created in born-digital format, several specialty accessories from this period such as Sonys HVT-2100 Titler and cameras such as Matsushitas Quasar VK-743 and Zenith VC-1800 could be used to generate intertitles for home movies. Early 1980s video game consoles and applications catering to the scene were also adapted for the generation. Among these were included the ColecoVision, the Magnavox Odyssey², the Bally Astrocade, acknowledgment Billing Character generator Closing credits Credit Digital on-screen graphic Lower third Opening credits Subtitle Supertitle Title sequence WGA screenwriting credit system
8.
Audion
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The Audion was an electronic amplifying vacuum tube invented by American electrical engineer Lee De Forest in 1906. It was the first triode, consisting of an evacuated glass tube containing three electrodes, a heated filament, a grid, and a plate. These were the first modern hard vacuum triodes, when wireless signals were applied to the wire wrapped around the outside of the glass, they caused disturbances in the current which produced sounds in the headphones. This was a significant development as existing commercial systems were heavily protected by patents. De Forest and everybody else at the time greatly underestimated the potential of his original device, De Forest was granted a patent for his early two-electrode version of the Audion on November 13,1906, but the triode version was patented in 1908. De Forest was famous for saying that he didnt know why it worked and he always referred to the vacuum triodes developed by other researchers as Oscillaudions, although there is no evidence that he had any significant input to their development. It is true that after the invention of the vacuum triode in 1913. However, although he described these devices as using Audions, they actually used high-vacuum triodes. In 1914, Columbia University student Edwin Howard Armstrong worked with professor John Harold Morecroft to document the electrical principles of the Audion, Armstrong published his explanation of the Audion in Electrical World in December 1914, complete with circuit diagrams and oscilloscope graphs. A combination of the two papers was reprinted in other such as the Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. When Armstrong and De Forest later faced each other in a dispute over the regeneration patent, the Audions sometimes worked extremely well, at other times they would barely work at all. As well as De Forest himself, numerous researchers had tried to find ways to improve the reliability of the device by stabilizing the partial vacuum. Much of the research led to the development of true vacuum tubes was carried out by Irving Langmuir in the General Electric research laboratories. However, this only worked if the gas used was meticulously scrubbed of all traces of oxygen and he then applied the same approach to producing a rectifier for the newly developed Coolidge X-ray tubes. His rectifiers were called Kenotrons from the Greek keno and tron and he then turned his attention to the Audion tube, again suspecting that its notoriously unpredictable behaviour might be tamed with more care in the manufacturing process. However he took an unorthodox approach. Instead of trying to stabilize the partial vacuum, he wondered if it was possible to make the Audion function with the vacuum of a Kenotron. To distinguish his device from the Audion he named it the Pliotron, essentially, he referred to all his vacuum tube designs as Kenotrons, the Pliotron basically being a specialized type of Kenotron
9.
Vitaphone
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Vitaphone was a sound film system used for feature films and nearly 1,000 short subjects made by Warner Bros. and its sister studio First National from 1926 to 1931. Vitaphone was the last major analog sound-on-disc system and the one which was widely used. The soundtrack was not printed on the film itself, but issued separately on phonograph records, the discs, recorded at 33 1⁄3 rpm and typically 16 inches in diameter, would be played on a turntable physically coupled to the projector motor while the film was being projected. Many early talkies, such as The Jazz Singer, used the Vitaphone system, the name Vitaphone derived from the Latin and Greek words, respectively, for living and sound. The Vitaphone trademark was later associated with cartoons and other subjects that had optical soundtracks. Wente had created in 1916 and greatly improved in 1922, the business was established at Western Electrics Bell Laboratories in New York City and acquired by Warner Bros. in April 1925. Warner Bros. introduced Vitaphone on August 6,1926 with the release of their silent feature Don Juan, the feature was preceded by a program of short subjects with live-recorded sound, nearly all featuring classical instrumentalists and opera stars. Don Juan was able to draw huge sums of money at the box office, after its financial failure, Paramount head Adolph Zukor offered Sam Warner a deal as an executive producer for Paramount if he brought Vitaphone with him. Harry eventually agreed to accept Sams demands, dance band leader Henry Halstead is given credit for starring in the first Vitaphone short subject filmed in Hollywood instead of New York. Carnival Night in Paris featured the Henry Halstead Orchestra and a cast of hundreds of costumed dancers in a Carnival atmosphere, from the perspective of the cast and crew on the sound stage, there was little difference between filming with Vitaphone and a sound-on-film system. In the early years of sound, the cameras and their operators were enclosed in soundproofed booths with small windows made of thick glass. Cables suspended the microphones in fixed positions just above camera range, the recording machines were usually located in a separate building to completely isolate them from sound stage floor vibrations and other undesirable influences. The audio signal was sent from a monitoring and control booth to the recording room over a heavy shielded cable. Synchronization was maintained by driving all the cameras and recorders with synchronous electric motors powered from a common source, except for the unusual disc size and speed, the physical record-making process was the same one employed by contemporary record companies to make smaller discs for home use. The recording lathe cut an audio-signal-modulated spiral groove into the surface of a thick round slab of wax-like material rotating on a turntable. If problems were found, the scene could then be re-shot while everything was still in place, a Vitaphone-equipped theater had normal projectors which had been furnished with special phonograph turntables and pickups, a fader, an amplifier, and a loudspeaker system. The projectors operated just as motorized silent projectors did, but at a speed of 24 frames per second. When the projector was started, it rotated the linked turntable, the Vitaphone process made several improvements over previous systems, Amplification – The Vitaphone system used electronic amplification based on Lee De Forests Audion tube
10.
Piano
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The piano is an acoustic, stringed musical instrument invented around the year 1700, in which the strings are struck by hammers. It is played using a keyboard, which is a row of keys that the performer presses down or strikes with the fingers and thumbs of both hands to cause the hammers to strike the strings. The word piano is a form of pianoforte, the Italian term for the early 1700s versions of the instrument. The first fortepianos in the 1700s had a sound and smaller dynamic range. An acoustic piano usually has a wooden case surrounding the soundboard and metal strings. Pressing one or more keys on the keyboard causes a padded hammer to strike the strings. The hammer rebounds from the strings, and the continue to vibrate at their resonant frequency. These vibrations are transmitted through a bridge to a soundboard that amplifies by more efficiently coupling the acoustic energy to the air, when the key is released, a damper stops the strings vibration, ending the sound. Notes can be sustained, even when the keys are released by the fingers and thumbs and this means that the piano can play 88 different pitches, going from the deepest bass range to the highest treble. The black keys are for the accidentals, which are needed to play in all twelve keys, more rarely, some pianos have additional keys. Most notes have three strings, except for the bass that graduates from one to two, the strings are sounded when keys are pressed or struck, and silenced by dampers when the hands are lifted from the keyboard. There are two types of piano, the grand piano and the upright piano. The grand piano is used for Classical solos, chamber music and art song and it is used in jazz. The upright piano, which is compact, is the most popular type, as they are a better size for use in private homes for domestic music-making. During the nineteenth century, music publishers produced many works in arrangements for piano, so that music lovers could play. The piano is widely employed in classical, jazz, traditional and popular music for solo and ensemble performances, accompaniment, with technological advances, amplified electric pianos, electronic pianos, and digital pianos have also been developed. The electric piano became an instrument in the 1960s and 1970s genres of jazz fusion, funk music. The piano was founded on earlier technological innovations in keyboard instruments, pipe organs have been used since Antiquity, and as such, the development of pipe organs enabled instrument builders to learn about creating keyboard mechanisms for sounding pitches
11.
Theatre organ
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A theatre organ is a distinct type of pipe organ originally developed to provide music and sound effects to accompany silent films during the first 3 decades of the 20th century. Theatre organs are usually identified by the distinctive horseshoe-shaped arrangement of stop tabs above, in organs installed in the UK, a common feature was large translucent surrounds extending from both sides of the console, with internal colored lighting. A spectacular original example is the so-called Rhinestone Barton, installed in 1928 in the former RKO Iowa Theatre, another original example is the 3/13 Barton from Ann Arbors historic Michigan Theatre. The organ was installed in 1927 and is currently played five nights during a week before most film screenings. As the concept of the organ was embraced, theatre organs began to be installed in other types of venues, such as civic auditoriums, sports arenas, private residences. One of the largest theatre ever built was the 6 manual 52 rank Barton installed in the massive Chicago Stadium. There were over 7,000 such organs installed in America and elsewhere from 1915 to 1933, many organ builders supplied instruments to theatres. Many of the elements of the theatre organ simply allowed it to do its job better than anything else could. Although not all of these originated with Robert Hope-Jones, he was the first to successfully employ. Earlier church instruments used a linkage of rods and wires to connect the keys to the pipes. Unification Previously, each rank of pipes could be played on one manual at one pitch level. In other words, there was one pipe for each key on the keyboard, with the advent of unification, ranks were extended by adding more pipes and made playable at different pitch levels, and on different manuals. Thus, fewer ranks could be used in a variety of combinations and pitches. Horseshoe console To turn the pipe ranks on and off, the organ console used drawknobs placed on panels on both sides of the manuals. Using electricity, Robert Hope-Jones substituted tongue-shaped tabs arranged on a curved panel around and these stop tabs could be quickly and easily flipped up or down to select or deactivate any ranks of pipes. Traps, toy counter, and effects Real musical instruments, not previously associated with the organ, were installed in the pipe chambers to be pneumatically operated at will by the organist. Such instruments as piano, drums, cymbals, xylophone, marimba, orchestra bells, chimes, castanets, woodblock, and even tuned sleigh bells could be played from the organ keyboards. Sound effects such as train and boat whistles, car horns, sirens, bird whistles, the fronts of these chambers were covered with a set of swell shades which opened and closed like venetian blinds
12.
Orchestra
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The term orchestra derives from the Greek ὀρχήστρα, the name for the area in front of a stage in ancient Greek theatre reserved for the Greek chorus. A full-size orchestra may sometimes be called an orchestra or philharmonic orchestra. The actual number of employed in a given performance may vary from seventy to over one hundred musicians, depending on the work being played. The term chamber orchestra usually refers to smaller-sized ensembles of about fifty musicians or fewer, the typical orchestra grew in size throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, reaching a peak with the large orchestras called for in the works of Richard Wagner, and later, Gustav Mahler. Orchestras are usually led by a conductor who directs the performance with movements of the hands and arms, the conductor unifies the orchestra, sets the tempo and shapes the sound of the ensemble. The first violin, commonly called the concertmaster, also plays an important role in leading the musicians, the typical symphony orchestra consists of four groups of related musical instruments called the woodwinds, brass, percussion, and strings. The orchestra, depending on the size, contains almost all of the instruments in each group. Chamber orchestra usually refers to smaller-sized ensembles, a chamber orchestra might employ as many as fifty musicians. The term concert orchestra may also be used, as in the BBC Concert Orchestra, the so-called standard complement of doubled winds and brass in the orchestra from the first half of the 19th century is generally attributed to the forces called for by Beethoven. The composers instrumentation almost always included paired flutes, oboes, clarinets, bassoons, horns, the exceptions to this are his Symphony No. 4, Violin Concerto, and Piano Concerto No,4, which each specify a single flute. Beethoven carefully calculated the expansion of this particular timbral palette in Symphonies 3,5,6, the third horn in the Eroica Symphony arrives to provide not only some harmonic flexibility, but also the effect of choral brass in the Trio movement. Piccolo, contrabassoon, and trombones add to the finale of his Symphony No.5. A piccolo and a pair of trombones help deliver the effect of storm and sunshine in the Sixth, for several decades after his death, symphonic instrumentation was faithful to Beethovens well-established model, with few exceptions. Apart from the core orchestral complement, various instruments are called for occasionally. These include the guitar, heckelphone, flugelhorn, cornet, harpsichord. Saxophones, for example, appear in some 19th- through 21st-century scores.6 and 9 and William Waltons Belshazzars Feast, and many other works as a member of the orchestral ensemble. The euphonium is featured in a few late Romantic and 20th-century works, usually playing parts marked tenor tuba, including Gustav Holsts The Planets, cornets appear in Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovskys ballet Swan Lake, Claude Debussys La Mer, and several orchestral works by Hector Berlioz
13.
Sheet music
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Sheet music is a handwritten or printed form of music notation that uses modern musical symbols to indicate the pitches, rhythms and/or chords of a song or instrumental musical piece. The first printed sheet music made with a press was made in 1473. Sheet music is the form in which Western classical music is notated so that it can be learned and performed by solo singers or instrumentalists or musical ensembles. Many forms of traditional and popular Western music are commonly learned by singers and musicians by ear, Score is a common alternative term for sheet music, and there are several types of scores, as discussed below. Sheet music from the 20th and 21st century typically indicates the title of the song or composition on a page or cover, or on the top of the first page. If the song or piece is from a movie, Broadway musical, or opera, if the songwriter or composer is known, her or his name is typically indicated along with the title. Black market sheet music, such as illegal jazz fake books may or may not indicate the songwriter or composer, the type of musical notation varies a great deal by genre or style of music. In most classical music, the melody and accompaniment parts are notated on the lines of a staff using round note heads, the lyrics, if present, are written near the melody notes. However, music from the Baroque music era or earlier eras may have neither a tempo marking nor a dynamic indication. The singers and musicians of that era were expected to know what tempo and loudness to play or sing a song or piece due to their musical experience. In the contemporary music era, and in some cases before, composers often used their native language for tempo indications. These conventions of music notation, and in particular the use of English tempo instructions, are also used for sheet music versions of 20th. Popular music songs often indicate both the tempo and genre, slow blues or uptempo rock, pop songs often contain chord names above the staff using letter names, so that an acoustic guitarist or piano player can improvise a chordal accompaniment. In other styles of music, different musical notation methods may be used, in jazz, while most professional performers can read classical-style notation, many jazz tunes are notated using chord charts, which indicate the chord progression of a song and its form. Like popular music songs, jazz tunes often indicate both the tempo and genre, slow blues or fast bop, professional country music session musicians typically use music notated in the Nashville Number System, which indicates the chord progression using numbers. Chord charts using letter names, numbers, or Roman numerals are widely used for notating music by blues, R&B, rock music. Many guitar players and electric bass players learn songs and note tunes using tablature, tab is widely used rock music and heavy metal guitarists. Singers in many music styles learn a song using only a lyrics sheet
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Musical improvisation
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Sometimes musical ideas in improvisation are spontaneous, but may be based on chord changes in classical music, and many other kinds of music. One definition is a performance given extempore without planning or preparation, another definition is to play or sing extemporaneously, by inventing variations on a melody or creating new melodies, rhythms and harmonies. Improvisation is often done within a harmonic framework or chord progression. Improvisation is a part of some types of 20th-century music, such as blues, jazz. Throughout the eras of the Western art music tradition, including the Medieval, Renaissance, Baroque, Classical, Bach, Handel, Mozart, Beethoven, Chopin, Liszt, and many other famous composers and musicians were known especially for their improvisational skills. Improvisation might have played an important role in the monophonic period, the earliest treatises on polyphony, such as the Musica enchiriadis, indicate that added parts were improvised for centuries before the first notated examples. However, it was only in the century that theorists began making a hard distinction between improvised and written music. Handel, Scarlatti, and Bach all belonged to a tradition of solo keyboard improvisation, in the Baroque era, performers improvised ornaments and basso continuo keyboard players improvised chord voicings based on figured bass notation. At the same time, some contemporary composers from the 20th, in Indian classical music, improvisation is a core component and an essential criterion of performances. In Indian, Afghani, Pakistani, and Bangladeshi classical music, the Encyclopædia Britannica defines a raga as a melodic framework for improvisation and composition. Keyboard players likewise performed extempore, freely formed pieces, the pattern of chords in many baroque preludes, for example, can be played on keyboard and guitar over a pedal tone or repeated bass notes. Such progressions can be used in other structures and contexts, and are still found in Mozart. Bach, for example, was fond of the sound produced by the dominant seventh harmony played over, i. e. suspended against. This shift of roles between treble and bass is another definitive characteristic, finally, in keeping with this polarity, the kind of question and answer which appears in baroque music has the appearance of fugue or canon. This method was a favorite in compositions by Scarlatti and Handel especially at the beginning of a piece, improvised accompaniment over a figured bass was a common practice during the Baroque era, and to some extent the following periods. Improvisation remains a feature of playing in some church services and are regularly also performed at concerts. Dietrich Buxtehude and Johann Sebastian Bach were regarded in the Baroque period as highly skilled organ improvisers, maurice Duruflé, a great improviser himself, transcribed improvisations by Louis Vierne and Charles Tournemire. Olivier Latry later wrote his improvisations as a compositions, for example Salve Regina, Classical music departs from baroque style in that sometimes several voices may move together as chords involving both hands, to form brief phrases without any passing tones
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Retronym
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A retronym is a neologism for a word created to differentiate between two words, where previously no clarification was required. Advances in technology are responsible for the coinage of retronyms. For example, the acoustic guitar was coined at the advent of electric guitars. Since the end of the 19th century, most bicycles have been expected to have two equal sized wheels, and the type has been renamed penny-farthing or high-wheeler bicycle. Similarly, the term cisgender was coined to describe persons who identify with the gender they were assigned at birth, the term retronym was coined by Frank Mankiewicz in 1980 and popularized by William Safire in The New York Times Magazine. In 2000 The American Heritage Dictionary became the first major dictionary to include the word retronym, back-formation Backronym Contrastive focus reduplication -onym Protologism
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The Jazz Singer
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The Jazz Singer is a 1927 American musical film. Directed by Alan Crosland and produced by Warner Bros, the film depicts the fictional story of Jakie Rabinowitz, a young man who defies the traditions of his devout Jewish family. After singing popular tunes in a garden he is punished by his father. Some years later, now calling himself Jack Robin, he has become a jazz singer. He attempts to build a career as an entertainer but his professional ambitions ultimately come into conflict with the demands of his home and heritage. Darryl F. Zanuck won an Honorary Academy Award for producing the film, in 1996, The Jazz Singer was selected for preservation in the National Film Registry of culturally, historically or aesthetically significant motion pictures. In 1998, the film was chosen in voting conducted by the American Film Institute as one of the best American films of all time, ranking at number ninety. Cantor Rabinowitz wants his son to carry on the family tradition. But down at the garden, thirteen-year-old Jakie Rabinowitz is performing so-called jazz tunes. Moisha Yudelson spots the boy and tells Jakies father, who drags him home, Jakie clings to his mother, Sara, as his father declares, Ill teach him better than to debase the voice God gave him. Jakie threatens, If you whip me again, Ill run away —, after the whipping, Jakie kisses his mother goodbye and, true to his word, runs away. At the Yom Kippur service, Rabinowitz mournfully tells a fellow celebrant, My son was to stand at my side and sing tonight –, as the sacred Kol Nidre is sung, Jakie sneaks back home to retrieve a picture of his loving mother. About 10 years later, Jakie has changed his name to the more assimilated Jack Robin, Jack is called up from his table at a cabaret to perform on stage. Jack wows the crowd with his energized rendition, afterward, he is introduced to the beautiful Mary Dale, a musical theater dancer. There are lots of singers, but you have a tear in your voice, she says. With her help, Jack eventually gets his big break, a part in the new musical April Follies. Back at the family home Jack left long ago, the elder Rabinowitz instructs a young student in the traditional cantorial art. Jack appears and tries to explain his point of view, and his love of modern music, as he leaves, Jack makes a prediction, I came home with a heart full of love, but you dont want to understand
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Sound film
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A sound film is a motion picture with synchronized sound, or sound technologically coupled to image, as opposed to a silent film. The first known exhibition of projected sound films took place in Paris in 1900. Reliable synchronization was difficult to achieve with the early sound-on-disc systems, innovations in sound-on-film led to the first commercial screening of short motion pictures using the technology, which took place in 1923. The primary steps in the commercialization of sound cinema were taken in the mid- to late 1920s, at first, the sound films which included synchronized dialogue, known as talking pictures, or talkies, were exclusively shorts. The earliest feature-length movies with recorded sound included only music and effects, the first feature film originally presented as a talkie was The Jazz Singer, released in October 1927. A major hit, it was made with Vitaphone, which was at the time the brand of sound-on-disc technology. Sound-on-film, however, would become the standard for talking pictures. By the early 1930s, the talkies were a global phenomenon, in the United States, they helped secure Hollywoods position as one of the worlds most powerful cultural/commercial centers of influence. In Europe, the new development was treated with suspicion by many filmmakers and critics, in Japan, where the popular film tradition integrated silent movie and live vocal performance, talking pictures were slow to take root. In India, sound was the element that led to the rapid expansion of the nations film industry. The idea of combining motion pictures with recorded sound is nearly as old as the concept of cinema itself. On February 27,1888, a couple of days after photographic pioneer Eadweard Muybridge gave a lecture not far from the laboratory of Thomas Edison, the two inventors privately met. No agreement was reached, but within a year Edison commissioned the development of the Kinetoscope, essentially a peep-show system, as a visual complement to his cylinder phonograph. The two devices were brought together as the Kinetophone in 1895, but individual, cabinet viewing of motion pictures was soon to be outmoded by successes in film projection and these appear to be the first publicly exhibited films with projection of both image and recorded sound. Phonorama and yet another sound-film system—Théâtroscope—were also presented at the Exposition, three major problems persisted, leading to motion pictures and sound recording largely taking separate paths for a generation. The primary issue was synchronization, pictures and sound were recorded and played back by separate devices, sufficient playback volume was also hard to achieve. Finally, there was the challenge of recording fidelity, cinematic innovators attempted to cope with the fundamental synchronization problem in a variety of ways. In 1902, Léon Gaumont demonstrated his sound-on-disc Chronophone, involving an electrical connection he had recently patented, four years later, Gaumont introduced the Elgéphone, a compressed-air amplification system based on the Auxetophone, developed by British inventors Horace Short and Charles Parsons
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Sound effect
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In motion picture and television production, a sound effect is a sound recorded and presented to make a specific storytelling or creative point without the use of dialogue or music. The term often refers to a process applied to a recording, in professional motion picture and television production, dialogue, music, and sound effects recordings are treated as separate elements. Dialogue and music recordings are never referred to as sound effects, even though the processes applied to such as reverberation or flanging effects, the term sound effect ranges back to the early days of radio. In its Year Book 1931 the BBC published an article about The Use of Sound Effects. It considers sounds effect deeply linked with broadcasting and states, It would be a mistake to think of them as anologous to punctuation marks. They should never be inserted into an already existing. The author of a broadcast play or broadcast construction ought to have used Sound Effects as bricks with which to build, treating them as of value with speech. If it fails to do so its presence could not be justified, the sound of people talking in the background is also considered a BG, but only if the speaker is unintelligible and the language is unrecognizable. These background noises are also called ambience or atmos, Foley sound effects are sounds that synchronize on screen, and require the expertise of a foley artist to record properly. Footsteps, the movement of hand props, and the rustling of cloth are common foley units, design sound effects are sounds that do not normally occur in nature, or are impossible to record in nature. These sounds are used to suggest futuristic technology in a fiction film. Each of these sound effect categories is specialized, with sound editors known as specialists in an area of sound effects, Foley is another method of adding sound effects. With this technique the action onscreen is essentially recreated to try to match it as closely as possible, if done correctly it is very hard for audiences to tell what sounds were added and what sounds were originally recorded. In the early days of film and radio, foley artists would add sounds in realtime or pre-recorded sound effects would be played back from analogue discs in realtime. Today, with effects held in digital format, it is easy to any required sequence to be played in any desired timeline. In the days of silent film, sound effects were added by the operator of an organ or photoplayer. Theater organ sound effects are usually electric or electro-pneumatic, and activated by a button pressed with the hand or foot, photoplayer operators activate sound effects either by flipping switches on the machine or pulling cow-tail pull-strings, which hang above. Sounds like bells and drums are made mechanically, sirens and horns electronically, due to its smaller size, a photoplayer usually has less special effects than a theater organ, or less complex ones
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Library of Congress
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The Library of Congress is the research library that officially serves the United States Congress and is the de facto national library of the United States. It is the oldest federal cultural institution in the United States, the Library is housed in three buildings on Capitol Hill in Washington, D. C. it also maintains the Packard Campus in Culpeper, Virginia, which houses the National Audio-Visual Conservation Center. The Library of Congress claims to be the largest library in the world and its collections are universal, not limited by subject, format, or national boundary, and include research materials from all parts of the world and in more than 450 languages. Two-thirds of the books it acquires each year are in other than English. The Library of Congress moved to Washington in 1800, after sitting for years in the temporary national capitals of New York. John J. Beckley, who became the first Librarian of Congress, was two dollars per day and was required to also serve as the Clerk of the House of Representatives. The small Congressional Library was housed in the United States Capitol for most of the 19th century until the early 1890s, most of the original collection had been destroyed by the British in 1814, during the War of 1812. To restore its collection in 1815, the bought from former president Thomas Jefferson his entire personal collection of 6,487 books. After a period of growth, another fire struck the Library in its Capitol chambers in 1851, again destroying a large amount of the collection. The Library received the right of transference of all copyrighted works to have two copies deposited of books, maps, illustrations and diagrams printed in the United States. It also began to build its collections of British and other European works and it included several stories built underground of steel and cast iron stacks. Although the Library is open to the public, only high-ranking government officials may check out books, the Library promotes literacy and American literature through projects such as the American Folklife Center, American Memory, Center for the Book, and Poet Laureate. James Madison is credited with the idea for creating a congressional library, part of the legislation appropriated $5,000 for the purchase of such books as may be necessary for the use of Congress. And for fitting up an apartment for containing them. Books were ordered from London and the collection, consisting of 740 books and 3 maps, was housed in the new Capitol, as president, Thomas Jefferson played an important role in establishing the structure of the Library of Congress. The new law also extended to the president and vice president the ability to borrow books and these volumes had been left in the Senate wing of the Capitol. One of the only congressional volumes to have survived was a government account book of receipts and it was taken as a souvenir by a British Commander whose family later returned it to the United States government in 1940. Within a month, former president Jefferson offered to sell his library as a replacement
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Nitrocellulose
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Nitrocellulose is a highly flammable compound formed by nitrating cellulose through exposure to nitric acid or another powerful nitrating agent. When used as a propellant or low-order explosive, it was known as guncotton. Partially nitrated cellulose has found uses as a film and in inks. In 1862 the first man-made plastic, nitrocellulose, was created by Alexander Parkes from cellulose treated with nitric acid and a solvent. Celluloid was used by Kodak, and other suppliers, from the late 1880s as a base in photography, X-ray films, and motion picture films. After numerous fires caused by unstable nitrate films, safety film started to be used from the 1930s in the case of X-ray stock and from 1948 for motion picture film. Henri Braconnot discovered in 1832 that nitric acid, when combined with starch or wood fibers, would produce a lightweight combustible explosive material, a few years later in 1838, another French chemist, Théophile-Jules Pelouze, treated paper and cardboard in the same way. Jean-Baptiste Dumas obtained a material, which he called nitramidine. These substances were highly unstable and were not practical explosives, however, around 1846 Christian Friedrich Schönbein, a German-Swiss chemist, discovered a more practical solution. As he was working in the kitchen of his home in Basel and he reached for the nearest cloth, a cotton apron, and wiped it up. He hung the apron on the door to dry, and, as soon as it was dry. His preparation method was the first to be widely imitated—one part of cotton wool to be immersed in 15 parts of an equal blend of sulfuric and nitric acids. After two minutes, the cotton was removed and washed in water to set the esterification level. It was then dried at a temperature below 40 °C. Schönbein collaborated with the Frankfurt professor Rudolf Christian Böttger, who had discovered the process independently in the same year. By coincidence, a third chemist, the Brunswick professor F. J. Otto had also produced guncotton in 1846 and was the first to publish the process, much to the disappointment of Schönbein and Böttger. The process uses nitric acid to convert cellulose into cellulose nitrate and water, 3HNO3+ C6H10O5 → C6H73O5 + 3H2O The sulfuric acid is present as a catalyst to produce the nitronium ion, the reaction is first order and proceeds by electrophilic substitution at the C-OH centers of the cellulose. The power of guncotton made it suitable for blasting, as a projectile driver, it had around six times the gas generation of an equal volume of black powder and produced less smoke and less heating
21.
London After Midnight (film)
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London After Midnight, also known as The Hypnotist, was a 1927 American silent mystery film with horror overtones, distributed by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. The film was based on the short story The Hypnotist by Tod Browning, London After Midnight starred Lon Chaney, Marceline Day, Conrad Nagel, Henry B. The movie is now lost and remains one of the most famous, the last known copy was destroyed in the 1967 MGM Vault fire. In 2002, Turner Classic Movies aired a version, using the original script and film stills. In 2014, the poster known to exist for the film was sold in Dallas, Texas for $478,000 making it the most valuable movie poster ever sold at public auction. 1932s The Mummy held the record for a posters sale at public auction selling for more than $453,000 in 1997. In a cultured and peaceful home on the outskirts of London, the head of the household, Roger Balfour, is dead from what appears to be a self-inflicted bullet wound, but is in fact. Other characters include Roger Balfours friend and neighbour, Sir James Hamlin, Sir James Hamlins nephew, Arthur Hibbs, and Williams, Lucille Balfour, Roger Balfours daughter, is the only person beyond suspicion. Lon Chaney - Professor/ Edward C, burke/The Hypnotist/The Man in the Beaver Hat Marceline Day - Lucille Balfour Henry B. Based on surviving accounts, he gave the vampire character an absurd quality, because it was the films Scotland Yard detective character, also played by Chaney. Surviving stills show this was the only time Chaney used his famous makeup case as an on-screen prop, the story was an original work by Tod Browning, with Waldemar Young, who had previously worked with Browning on The Unholy Three and The Unknown, as the scenario writer. When London After Midnight premiered at the Miller Theater in Missouri, set musicians Sam Feinburg, the musicians used Ases Todd and Eritoken by Greig, Dramatic Andante by Rappe, the Fire Music from Wagners The Valkyrie along with other unlisted aspects of Savino, Zimonek and Puccini. However, contemporary accounts by filmgoers and critics suggest it was not one of Chaney, the storyline, called somewhat incoherent by the New York Times and nonsensical by Harrisons Reports, was a common point of criticism. A positive review ran in Film Daily, calling it a certain to disturb the nervous system of the more sensitive picture patrons. If they dont get the creeps from flashes of grimy bats swooping around, cobweb-bedecked mystery chambers, the Warren Tribune noted that Lon Chaney is present in nearly every scene, in a dual role that tests his skill to no small degree. The review highlighted that this subdues Chaneys prominence and allows the plot to be better communicated, but it also causes the film to not rank among his best productions. A review by The Brooklyn Daily Eagle noted, t is pleasant to report also that there is none of the usual stupid comedy relief in London After Midnight to mar its sinister and creepy scheme. It however found fault in Tod Brownings direction because the atmosphere did not recapture the intensely weird effect found in The Cat
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History of film
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The history of film began in the 1890s, when motion picture cameras were invented and film production companies started to be established. Because of the limits of technology, films of the 1890s were under a minute long, the first decade of motion picture saw film moving from a novelty to an established large-scale entertainment industry. The films became several minutes long consisting of several shots, the first rotating camera for taking panning shots was built in 1898. The first film studios were built in 1897, special effects were introduced and film continuity, involving action moving from one sequence into another, began to be used. In the 1900s, continuity of action across successive shots was achieved, most films of this period were what came to be called chase films. The first use of animation in movies was in 1899, the first feature length multi-reel film was a 1906 Australian production. The first successful permanent theatre showing only films was The Nickelodeon in Pittsburgh in 1905, by 1910, actors began to receive screen credit for their roles, and the way to the creation of film stars was opened. Regular newsreels were exhibited from 1910 and soon became a way for finding out the news. Overall, from about 1910, American films had the largest share of the market in Australia, New film techniques were introduced in this period including the use of artificial lighting, fire effects and low-key lighting for enhanced atmosphere during sinister scenes. Genres began to be used as categories, the division was into comedy and drama. During the First World War there was a transition for the film industry. The exhibition of films changed from short programs to feature films. Exhibition venues became larger and began charging higher prices, by 1914, continuity cinema was the established mode of commercial cinema. One of the advanced continuity techniques involved an accurate and smooth transition from one shot to another, D. W. Griffith had the highest standing among American directors in the industry, because of the dramatic excitement he conveyed to the audience through his films. By the 1920s, the United States reached what is still its era of greatest-ever output, producing an average of 800 feature films annually, during late 1927, Warners released The Jazz Singer, with the first synchronized dialogue in a feature film. By the end of 1929, Hollywood was almost all-talkie, with several competing sound systems, Sound saved the Hollywood studio system in the face of the Great Depression. The desire for wartime propaganda created a renaissance in the industry in Britain. The onset of American involvement in World War II also brought a proliferation of films as both patriotism and propaganda, the House Un-American Activities Committee investigated Hollywood in the early 1950s
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Louis Le Prince
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Louis Aimé Augustin Le Prince was a French inventor who shot the first moving pictures on paper film using a single lens camera. He has been heralded as the Father of Cinematography since 1930, a Frenchman who also worked in the United Kingdom and the United States, Le Prince conducted his ground-breaking work in 1888 in the city of Leeds in the West Riding of Yorkshire, England. In October 1888, Le Prince filmed moving picture sequences Roundhay Garden Scene and these were several years before the work of competing inventors such as William Friese-Greene, Auguste and Louis Lumière and Thomas Edison. He was never able to perform a public demonstration in the US because he mysteriously vanished from a train on 16 September 1890. His body and luggage were never found, but, over a century later, not long after Le Princes disappearance, Thomas Edison tried to take credit for the invention. But Le Prince’s widow and son, Adolphe, were keen to advance his cause as the inventor of cinematography, in 1898 Adolphe appeared as a witness for the defence in a court case brought by Edison against the American Mutoscope Company. Adolphe Le Prince was not allowed to present his fathers two cameras as evidence and eventually the court ruled in favour of Edison, however, a year later that ruling was overturned. The early history of motion pictures in the United States and Europe is marked by battles over patents of cameras, in 1888 Le Prince was granted an American dual-patent on a 16-lens device that combined a motion picture camera with a projector. A patent for a type was refused in America because of an interfering patent. On October 14,1888, Le Prince used a version of his single-lens camera to film Roundhay Garden Scene. He exhibited his first films in the Whitley factory in Hunslet, Leeds and in Oakwood Grange, the Whitley family home in Roundhay, Leeds, but they were not distributed to the general public. The following year, he took French-American dual citizenship in order to establish himself with his family in New York City, however, he was never able to perform his planned public exhibition at Morris–Jumel Mansion in Manhattan, in September 1890, due to his mysterious disappearance. Consequently, Le Princes contribution to the birth of the cinema has often been overlooked, Le Prince was born on Saint-Georges street in Metz, France, on 28 August 1841. His father was a major of artillery in the French Army and his education went on to include the study of painting in Paris and post-graduate chemistry at Leipzig University, which provided him with the academic knowledge he was to utilise in the future. He moved to Leeds, West Yorkshire, UK in 1866, after being invited to join John Whitley, a friend from college, in Whitley Partners of Hunslet, in 1869 he married Elizabeth Whitley, Johns sister and a talented artist. In 1881 Le Prince went to the United States as an agent for Whitley Partners and he became the manager for a small group of French artists who produced large panoramas, usually of famous battles, that were exhibited in New York City, Washington DC and Chicago. During this time he continued the experiments he had begun, relating to the production of moving photographs, during his time in the US, Le Prince built a camera that utilised sixteen lenses, which was the first invention he patented. After his return to Leeds with his family in May 1887, Le Prince built and it was first used on 14 October 1888 to shoot what would become known as Roundhay Garden Scene, the worlds first motion picture
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Magic lantern
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The magic lantern or laterna magica is an early type of image projector employing painted pictures or photographs on sheets of glass, a lens, and a bright light source. It was mostly developed in the 17th century and commonly used for entertainment purposes, some lanterns, including those of Christiaan Huygens and Jan van Musschenbroek, used 3 lenses. Originally the pictures were painted on glass slides. Initially figures were rendered with black paint but soon transparent colors were also used, sometimes the painting was done on oiled paper. Usually black paint was used as a background to block superfluous light, many slides were finished with a layer of transparent lacquer, but in a later period cover glasses were also used to protect the painted layer. Most hand-made slides were mounted in frames with a round or square opening for the picture. After 1820 the manufacturing of hand colored printed slides started, often making use of decalcomania transfers, many manufactured slides were produced on strips of glass with several pictures on them and rimmed with a strip of glued paper. The first photographic lantern slides, called Hyalotypes, were invented by the German-born brothers Ernst Wilhelm and Friedrich Langenheim in 1848 in Philadelphia and patented in 1850. Apart from sunlight, the light sources available at the time of invention in the 17th century were candles and oil lamps. The invention of the Argand lamp in the 1790s helped to make the images brighter, the invention of limelight in the 1820s made them very much brighter. Several types of projection systems existed before the invention of the magic lantern, for these precursors, The magic lantern can be seen as a further development of the Camera Obscura. It was known at least since the 5th century BCE and experimented with in darkened rooms at least since circa 1000 CE, the use of a lens in the hole has been traced back to circa 1550. The portable camera obscura box with a lens was developed in the 17th century, in the 17th century there was an immense interest in optics. The telescope and microscope were invented and apart from being useful to some scientists, the magic lantern would prove to be a perfect successor. Prominent Dutch scientist Christiaan Huygens, is widely accepted as the true inventor of the magic lantern. Christiaans father Constantijn had been acquainted with Cornelis Drebbel who used some unidentified optical techniques to transform himself, Constantijn Huygens wrote very enthusiastically about a camera obscura device that he got from Drebbel in 1622. As this page was found between documents dated in 1659, it is believed to also have made in 1659. Huygens probably only constructed the lantern to amuse young family members and soon seemed to regret it, Christiaan initially referred to the magic lantern as la lampe and la lanterne, but in the last years of his life he used the then common term laterna magica in some notes
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Lens (optics)
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A lens is a transmissive optical device that focuses or disperses a light beam by means of refraction. A simple lens consists of a piece of transparent material, while a compound lens consists of several simple lenses. Lenses are made from such as glass or plastic, and are ground. A lens can focus light to form an image, unlike a prism, devices that similarly focus or disperse waves and radiation other than visible light are also called lenses, such as microwave lenses, electron lenses, acoustic lenses, or explosive lenses. The word lens comes from the Latin name of the lentil, the genus of the lentil plant is Lens, and the most commonly eaten species is Lens culinaris. The lentil plant also gives its name to a geometric figure, the variant spelling lense is sometimes seen. While it is listed as a spelling in some dictionaries. The oldest lens artifact is the Nimrud lens, dating back 2700 years to ancient Assyria, david Brewster proposed that it may have been used as a magnifying glass, or as a burning-glass to start fires by concentrating sunlight. Another early reference to magnification dates back to ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs in the 8th century BC, the earliest written records of lenses date to Ancient Greece, with Aristophanes play The Clouds mentioning a burning-glass. Some scholars argue that the evidence indicates that there was widespread use of lenses in antiquity. Such lenses were used by artisans for fine work, and for authenticating seal impressions, both Pliny and Seneca the Younger described the magnifying effect of a glass globe filled with water. The Viking lenses were capable of concentrating enough sunlight to ignite fires, between the 11th and 13th century reading stones were invented. Often used by monks to assist in illuminating manuscripts, these were primitive plano-convex lenses initially made by cutting a sphere in half. As the stones were experimented with, it was understood that shallower lenses magnified more effectively. Lenses came into use in Europe with the invention of spectacles. Spectacle makers created improved types of lenses for the correction of vision based more on knowledge gained from observing the effects of the lenses. With the invention of the telescope and microscope there was a deal of experimentation with lens shapes in the 17th. Opticians tried to construct lenses of varying forms of curvature, wrongly assuming errors arose from defects in the figure of their surfaces
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Lantern
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Lanterns were usually made from a metal frame, commonly with a hook or hoop of metal on top. Though primarily used to prevent the light from being extinguished, their equally important function was to reduce the risk of fire should a spark leap from the flame or the light be dropped. Note that the term used was lanthorn, which perhaps has its etymology in the above mentioned use of thinned animal horn as the material in the lantern. Lanterns may also be used for signaling, as torches, or as light sources outdoors. Low light level varieties are used for decoration, the term lantern is also used more generically to mean a light source, or the enclosure for a light source. Examples are glass pane enclosed street lights, or the housing for the top lamp, the term is commonly associated with Chinese paper lanterns. Decorative lanterns exist in a range of designs. Some hang from buildings, while others are placed on or just above the ground, paper lanterns occur in societies around the world. Modern varieties often place a light in a decorative glass case. The ancient Chinese sometimes captured fireflies in transparent or semi-transparent containers, raise the Red Lantern, a Chinese film, prominently features lanterns as a motif. Lanterns are used in many Asian festivals, during the Ghost Festival, lotus shaped lanterns are set afloat in rivers and seas to symbolic guide the lost souls of forgotten ancestors to the afterlife. During the Lantern Festival, the displaying of lanterns is still a common sight on the 15th day of the first lunar month throughout China. In other Chinese festivities, the kongming lanterns can be floating high into the sky during Chinese festivities. Lanterns are the theme of the Seoul Lantern Festival, too. Use of fireflies in transparent containers was also a practice in ancient India. But since these were short term solutions, the use of fire torches was more prevalent, in the Eastern Orthodox Church, lanterns are used in religious processions and liturgical entrances, usually coming before the processional cross. Lanterns are also used to transport the Holy Fire from the Church of the Holy Sepulchre on Great Saturday during Holy Week and they are cheap and durable, but provide little light and are unsuitable for reading. They require periodic trimming of the wick and regular cleaning of soot from the inside of the glass chimney, mantle lanterns use a woven ceramic impregnated gas mantle to accept and re-radiate heat as visible light from a flame
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Photograph
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A photograph or photo is an image created by light falling on a light-sensitive surface, usually photographic film or an electronic medium such as a CCD or a CMOS chip. Most photographs are created using a camera, which uses a lens to focus the scenes visible wavelengths of light into a reproduction of what the eye would see. The process and practice of creating photographs is called photography, the word photograph was coined in 1839 by Sir John Herschel and is based on the Greek φῶς, meaning light, and γραφή, meaning drawing, writing, together meaning drawing with light. The first permanent photograph, a copy of an engraving, was made in 1822 using the bitumen-based heliography process developed by Nicéphore Niépce. In 1829 Niépce entered into a partnership with Louis Daguerre and the two collaborated to work out a similar but more sensitive and otherwise improved process, after Niépces death in 1833, Daguerre concentrated on silver halide-based alternatives. He named this first practical process for making photographs with a camera the daguerreotype and its existence was announced to the world on 7 January 1839 but working details were not made public until 19 August. Other inventors soon made improvements which reduced the exposure time from a few minutes to a few seconds, making portrait photography truly practical. The daguerreotype had shortcomings, notably the fragility of the image surface. Each was a unique opaque positive that could only be duplicated by copying it with a camera, inventors set about working out improved processes that would be more practical. By the end of the 1850s the daguerreotype had been replaced by the expensive and more easily viewed ambrotype and tintype. The mid-1930s saw the introduction of Kodachrome and Agfacolor Neu, the first easy-to-use color films of the modern multi-layer chromogenic type, the needs of the motion picture industry generated a number of special processes and systems, perhaps the best-known being the now-obsolete three-strip Technicolor process. Non-digital photographs are produced with a chemical process. In the two-step process the film captures a negative image. To produce an image, the negative is most commonly transferred onto photographic paper. Printing the negative onto transparent film stock is used to motion picture films. Alternatively, the film is processed to invert the negative image, such positive images are usually mounted in frames, called slides. Before recent advances in photography, transparencies were widely used by professionals because of their sharpness. Most photographs published in magazines were taken on color transparency film, originally, all photographs were monochromatic or hand-painted in color
28.
Persistence of vision
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The illusion has also been described as retinal persistence, persistence of impressions or simply persistence and other variations. This has been believed to be the explanation for motion perception in cinema and animated films and it is assumed that the illusion that film historians often refer to as persistence of vision is the same as what is known as positive afterimages by psychologists. Early descriptions of the illusion often attributed the effect purely to imperfections of the eye, nerves and parts of the brain later became part of explanations. Sensory memory has been cited as a cause, the fact that a glowing coal appears as a line of light when it is moved around quickly has been used to illustrate the idea of persistence of vision. It is known as the sparklers trail effect, named after the trail that appears when a sparkler is moved around quickly, the effect has been applied in the arts by writing or drawing with a light source recorded by a camera with a long exposure time. A pencil or another rigid straight line can appear as bending and becoming rubbery when it is wiggled fast enough between fingers, or otherwise undergoing rigid motion, Persistence of vision has been discarded as sole cause of the illusion. It is thought that the eye movements of the observer fail to track the motions of features of the object, the effect is known as a magic trick for children. In April 1825 the first Thaumatrope was published by W. Phillips, in 1824 the theory was used to explain the illusion of still spokes seen in a rotating wheel. Further research into this phenomenon resulted in the invention of animated moving images in 1832, the optical illusion of motion appearing as a still image led to an optical illusion of still images appearing as motion. Aristotle noted that the image of the sun remained in his vision after he stopped looking at it, the discovery of persistence of vision is sometimes attributed to the Roman poet Lucretius, although he only mentions it in connection with images seen in a dream. Leonardo da Vinci and Isaac Newton were also curious about the phenomenon, in 1820 a letter to Quarterly Journal of Science noted that the spokes of a rotating wheel seen through fence slats appeared with peculiar curvatures. Writer J. M. asked readers for an explanation, four years later Peter Mark Roget addressed this observation in a paper, “However rapidly the wheel revolves, each individual spoke, during the moment it is viewed, appears to be at rest. Roget claimed that the illusion is due to the fact “that an impression made by a pencil of rays on the retina, if sufficiently vivid and he later read Peter Mark Rogets 1824 article and decided to investigate the phenomenon further. He published his findings in Correspondance Mathématique et Physique in 1828 and 1830 and he referred to Rogets paper and described his associated new findings. Much was similar to what Plateau had published and Faraday later acknowledged this, Faradays experiments of turning wheels in front of the mirror inspired Plateau with the idea for new illusions. In July 1832 Plateau sent a letter to Faraday and added a circle that produced a “completely immobile image of a little. After several attempts and many difficulties Plateau constructed a model of the phénakisticope in November or December 1832. Plateau published his invention in a January 21,1833 letter to Correspondance Mathématique et Physique, simon Stampfer simultaneously and independently invented his very similar Stroboscopischen Scheiben oder optischen Zauberscheiben soon after he read about Faradays findings in December 1832
29.
Optical illusion
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An optical illusion is an illusion caused by the visual system and characterized by visually perceived images that differ from objective reality. The information gathered by the eye is processed in the brain to give a percept that does not tally with a measurement of the stimulus source. Pathological visual illusions arise from a pathological exaggeration in physiological visual perception mechanisms causing the aforementioned types of illusions, optical illusions are often classified into categories including the physical and the cognitive or perceptual, and contrasted with optical hallucinations. The Hermann grid illusion and Mach bands are two illusions that are best explained using a biological approach, once a receptor is active, it inhibits adjacent receptors. This inhibition creates contrast, highlighting edges, in the Hermann grid illusion the gray spots appear at the intersection because of the inhibitory response which occurs as a result of the increased dark surround. Lateral inhibition has also used to explain the Hermann grid illusion. More recent empirical approaches to optical illusions have had success in explaining optical phenomena with which theories based on lateral inhibition have struggled. A pathological visual illusion is a distortion of an external stimulus and are often diffuse. Pathological visual illusions usually occur throughout the field, suggesting global excitability or sensitivity alterations. Alternatively visual hallucination is the perception of a visual stimulus where none exists. Visual hallucinations are often from focal dysfunction and are usually transient and these symptoms may indicate an underlying disease state and necessitate seeing a medical practitioner. Etiologies associated with visual illusions include multiple types of ocular disease, migraines, hallucinogen persisting perception disorder, head trauma. If the visual illusions are diffuse and persistent, they affect the patients quality of life. These symptoms are refractory to treatment and may be caused by any of the aforementioned etiologes. There is no treatment for these visual disturbances. Cognitive illusions are commonly divided into ambiguous illusions, distorting illusions, paradox illusions, ambiguous illusions are pictures or objects that elicit a perceptual switch between the alternative interpretations. The Necker cube is an example, another instance is the Rubin vase. Distorting or geometrical-optical illusions are characterized by distortions of size, length, a striking example is the Café wall illusion
30.
Sallie Gardner at a Gallop
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Sometimes cited as an early silent film, the series and later experiments like it were precursors to the development of motion pictures. The series consists of 24 photographs shot in succession that were shown on a zoopraxiscope. Muybridge was commissioned by Leland Stanford, the industrialist and horseman, the purpose of the shoot was to determine whether a galloping horse ever lifts all four feet completely off the ground during the gait, at this speed, the human eye cannot break down the action. He was interested in improving the performance of his horses of both types and in the questions of their gait action. He captured the horse in a photograph with all four feet off the ground, one of the prints was sent to the local California press, but because they found that the film negative was retouched, the press dismissed it. As negative retouching was an acceptable and common practice at the time, lantern slides of the trotting horse photographs survive. Muybridge photographed the businessmans Kentucky-bred mare named Sallie Gardner running and he had arranged the cameras along a track parallel to the horses path. Muybridge used 24 cameras which were 27 inches apart, the shutters were controlled by trip wires triggered by the horses legs. The photographs were taken in succession one twenty-fifth of a second apart, the jockey Domm set the mare to travel at a speed of 1,40, which meant that she was galloping at a mile per 1 minute and 40 seconds, equivalent to 36 miles per hour. The stop-action photographs showed the mare lifted all four legs off the ground at certain points during the gallop, run together, the photographs produced the effect of the horse in motion, or a film. Muybridge produced his prints onsite, when the noticed the broken straps on Sallies saddle in the prints. Scientific American was among the publications that carried reports of Muybridges groundbreaking 1878 work. While there have been rumors that Stanford had a large bet riding on the outcome of the study, there are really no primary accounts of this bet ever having taken place. Everything is hearsay and secondhand information, in 1880, Muybridge first projected moving images on a screen when he gave a presentation at the California School of Fine Arts, this was the earliest known motion picture exhibition. He later met with Thomas Edison, who had invented the phonograph. Edison went on to invent the kinetoscope, the precursor of the movie camera, the relationship between Muybridge and Stanford became turbulent in 1882. Stanford commissioned the book The Horse in Motion, as Shown by Instantaneous Photography, written by his friend, stillman, it was published by Osgood and Company. The book claimed to feature instantaneous photography, but showed 100 illustrations based on Muybridges photographs taken of Stanfords mare Sallie, Muybridge was not credited in the book except noted as a Stanford employee and in a technical appendix based on an account he had written
31.
Eadweard Muybridge
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Eadweard Muybridge was an English photographer important for his pioneering work in photographic studies of motion, and early work in motion-picture projection. He adopted the name Eadweard Muybridge, believing it to be the original Anglo-Saxon form of his name, at age 20, he emigrated to America, first to New York, as a bookseller, and then to San Francisco. He returned to England in 1861, and took up photography, learning the wet-plate collodion process. He went back to San Francisco in 1867, and in 1868 his large photographs of Yosemite Valley made him world-famous, in 1874 he shot and killed Major Harry Larkyns, his wifes lover, but was acquitted in a jury trial on the grounds of justifiable homicide. He travelled for more than a year in Central America on an expedition in 1875. He spent much of his later years giving lectures and demonstrations of his photography and early motion picture sequences, travelling back to England. He also edited and published compilations of his work, which greatly influenced visual artists and he returned to his native England permanently in 1894, and in 1904, the Kingston Museum, containing a collection of his equipment, was opened in his hometown. Edward James Muggeridge was born and raised in England, Muggeridge changed his name several times, starting with Muggridge. In 1855, in the United States, he used the surname Muygridge, after he returned from Britain to the United States in 1867, he used the surname Muybridge. In addition, he used the pseudonym Helios to sign many of his photographs and he also used this as the name of his studio and made it the middle name for his only son, Florado Helios Muybridge, born in 1874. While travelling on an expedition in the Spanish-speaking nations of Central America in 1875. After an 1882 trip to England, he changed the spelling of his first name to Eadweard and he used Eadweard Muybridge for the rest of his career, but his gravestone carries his name as Eadweard Maybridge. Muybridge was born in Kingston upon Thames, in the county of Surrey in England, on 9 April 1830 to John and Susanna Muggeridge, he had three brothers. His father was a grain and coal merchant, with spaces on the ground floor of their house adjacent to the River Thames at No.30 High Street. After his father died in 1843, his mother carried on the business and his cousin Norman Selfe who also grew up in Kingston upon Thames moved to Australia and, following a family tradition, became a renowned engineer. Edwards younger brother George born in 1833 is found living with his Uncle Samuel in 1851 after the death of his Father in 1843 which establishes the lineage of Edward James Muggeridge. He started a career as a agent for the London Printing and Publishing Company. At the time, the city was booming, with 40 bookstores, nearly 60 hotels, later in his life, he wrote about also having spent time in New Orleans and New York City during his early years in the United States
32.
Camera
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Thumb|A2016 Nikon D810 A camera is an optical instrument for recording or capturing images, which may be stored locally, transmitted to another location, or both. The images may be individual still photographs or sequences of images constituting videos or movies, the camera is a remote sensing device as it senses subjects without physical contact. The word camera comes from camera obscura, which means dark chamber and is the Latin name of the device for projecting an image of external reality onto a flat surface. The modern photographic camera evolved from the camera obscura, the functioning of the camera is very similar to the functioning of the human eye. A camera may work with the light of the spectrum or with other portions of the electromagnetic spectrum. A still camera is a device which creates a single image of an object or scene. All cameras use the basic design, light enters an enclosed box through a converging lens/convex lens. A shutter mechanism controls the length of time that light can enter the camera, a display, often a liquid crystal display, permits the user to view scene to be recorded and settings such as ISO speed, exposure, and shutter speed. A movie camera or a video camera operates similarly to a camera, except it records a series of static images in rapid succession. When the images are combined and displayed in order, the illusion of motion is achieved, the forerunner to the photographic camera was the camera obscura. The oldest known record of this principle is a description by Han Chinese philosopher Mozi, Mozi correctly asserted that the camera obscura image is inverted because light travels in straight lines from its source. In the 11th century Arab physicist Ibn al-Haytham s wrote very influential essays about experiments with light through an opening in a darkened room. The use of a lens in the opening of a wall or closed window shutter of a room to project images used as a drawing aid has been traced back to circa 1550. Since the late 17th century portable camera obscura devices in tents, before the development of the photographic camera, it had been known for hundreds of years that some substances, such as silver salts, darkened when exposed to sunlight. The first person to use this chemistry to create images was Thomas Wedgwood, to create images, Wedgwood placed items, such as leaves and insect wings, on ceramic pots coated with silver nitrate, and exposed the set-up to light. These images werent permanent, however, as Wedgwood didnt employ a fixing mechanism and he ultimately failed at his goal of using the process to create fixed images created by a camera obscura. The first permanent photograph of an image was made in 1826 by Joseph Nicéphore Niépce using a sliding wooden box camera made by Charles. Niépce had been experimenting with ways to fix the images of a camera obscura since 1816, the photograph Niépce succeeded in creating shows the view from his window
33.
Thomas Edison
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Thomas Alva Edison was an American inventor and businessman, who has been described as Americas greatest inventor. He developed many devices that greatly influenced life around the world, including the phonograph, the motion picture camera, and the long-lasting, practical electric light bulb. Edison was an inventor, holding 1,093 US patents in his name, as well as many patents in the United Kingdom, France. Edisons inventions contributed to mass communication and, in particular, telecommunications and these included a stock ticker, a mechanical vote recorder, a battery for an electric car, electrical power, recorded music and motion pictures. His advanced work in these fields was an outgrowth of his career as a telegraph operator. Edison developed a system of generation and distribution to homes, businesses. His first power station was on Pearl Street in Manhattan, New York, Thomas Edison was born in Milan, Ohio, and grew up in Port Huron, Michigan. He was the seventh and last child of Samuel Ogden Edison, Jr. and Nancy Matthews Elliott. His father, the son of a Loyalist refugee, had moved as a boy with the family from Nova Scotia, settling in southwestern Ontario, in a known as Shewsbury, later Vienna. Samuel Jr. eventually fled Ontario because he took part in the unsuccessful Mackenzie Rebellion of 1837 and his father, Samuel Sr. had earlier fought in the War of 1812 as captain of the First Middlesex Regiment. By contrast, Samuel Jr. s struggle found him on the losing side, once across the border, he found his way to Milan, Ohio. His patrilineal family line was Dutch by way of New Jersey and his mother taught him at home. Much of his education came from reading R. G, parkers School of Natural Philosophy and The Cooper Union for the Advancement of Science and Art. Edison developed hearing problems at an early age, the cause of his deafness has been attributed to a bout of scarlet fever during childhood and recurring untreated middle-ear infections. In his later years, he modified the story to say the injury occurred when the conductor, in helping him onto a moving train, Edisons family moved to Port Huron, Michigan, after the railroad bypassed Milan in 1854 and business declined. Edison sold candy and newspapers on trains running from Port Huron to Detroit and he briefly worked as a telegraph operator in 1863 for the Grand Trunk Railway at Stratford, Ontario railway at age 16. He was held responsible for a near collision and he also studied qualitative analysis and conducted chemical experiments on the train until he left the job. Edison obtained the right to sell newspapers on the road, and, with the aid of four assistants, he set in type and printed the Grand Trunk Herald
34.
Kinetoscope
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The Kinetoscope is an early motion picture exhibition device. The Kinetoscope was designed for films to be viewed by one individual at a time through a peephole viewer window at the top of the device, a prototype for the Kinetoscope was shown to a convention of the National Federation of Womens Clubs on May 20,1891. The first public demonstration of the Kinetoscope was held at the Brooklyn Institute of Arts, in 1895, Edison introduced the Kinetophone, which joined the Kinetoscope with a cylinder phonograph. Film projection, which Edison initially disdained as financially nonviable, soon superseded the Kinetoscopes individual exhibition model, many of the projection systems developed by Edisons firm in later years would use the Kinetoscope name. An encounter with the work and ideas of photographic pioneer Eadweard Muybridge appears to have spurred Edison to pursue the development of a motion picture system. The Edison facility was very close by, and the lecture was attended by both Edison and his companys official photographer, William Dickson. No such collaboration was undertaken, but in October 1888, Edison filed a claim, known as a caveat. Patent Office announcing his plans to create a device that would do for the Eye what the phonograph does for the Ear. It is clear that it was intended as part of a complete audiovisual system, in March 1889, a second caveat was filed, in which the proposed motion picture device was given a name, Kinetoscope, derived from the Greek roots kineto- and scopos. Edison assigned Dickson, one of his most talented employees, to the job of making the Kinetoscope a reality, the Edison laboratory, though, worked as a collaborative organization. Laboratory assistants were assigned to work on many projects while Edison supervised and involved himself, Dickson and his then lead assistant, Charles Brown, made halting progress at first. An audio cylinder would provide synchronized sound, while the rotating images, when tests were made with images expanded to a mere 1/8 of an inch in width, the coarseness of the silver bromide emulsion used on the cylinder became unacceptably apparent. The first film made for the Kinetoscope, and apparently the first motion picture ever produced on film in the United States, may have been shot at this time, known as Monkeyshines. 1, it shows an employee of the lab in an apparently tongue-in-cheek display of physical dexterity, attempts at synchronizing sound were soon left behind, while Dickson would also experiment with disc-based exhibition designs. The project would soon head off in more directions, largely impelled by a trip of Edisons to Europe. The first motion system to employ a perforated image band was apparently the Théâtre Optique. Reynauds system did not use film, but images painted on gelatine frames. At the Exposition Universelle, Edison would have both the Théâtre Optique and the electrical tachyscope of German inventor Ottamar Anschütz
35.
Patent
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A patent is a set of exclusive rights granted by a sovereign state to an inventor or assignee for a limited period of time in exchange for detailed public disclosure of an invention. An invention is a solution to a technological problem and is a product or a process. Patents are a form of intellectual property, the procedure for granting patents, requirements placed on the patentee, and the extent of the exclusive rights vary widely between countries according to national laws and international agreements. Typically, however, a patent application must include one or more claims that define the invention. A patent may include many claims, each of which defines a specific property right and these claims must meet relevant patentability requirements, such as novelty, usefulness, and non-obviousness. Nevertheless, there are variations on what is patentable subject matter from country to country, the word patent originates from the Latin patere, which means to lay open. More directly, it is a version of the term letters patent. Similar grants included land patents, which were land grants by early state governments in the USA, and printing patents, a precursor of modern copyright. In modern usage, the term patent usually refers to the granted to anyone who invents any new, useful. The additional qualification utility patent is used to distinguish the primary meaning from these other types of patents. Particular species of patents for inventions include biological patents, business method patents, chemical patents, the period of protection was 10 years. These were mostly in the field of glass making, as Venetians emigrated, they sought similar patent protection in their new homes. This led to the diffusion of patent systems to other countries, by the 16th century, the English Crown would habitually abuse the granting of letters patent for monopolies. After public outcry, King James I of England was forced to revoke all existing monopolies, the Statute became the foundation for later developments in patent law in England and elsewhere. Important developments in patent law emerged during the 18th century through a process of judicial interpretation of the law. During the reign of Queen Anne, patent applications were required to supply a complete specification of the principles of operation of the invention for public access. Influenced by the philosophy of John Locke, the granting of patents began to be viewed as a form of property right. The English legal system became the foundation for patent law in countries with a common law heritage, including the United States, New Zealand, in the Thirteen Colonies, inventors could obtain patents through petition to a given colonys legislature
36.
Cinematograph
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A cinematograph is a motion picture film camera, which also serves as a film projector and printer. It was invented in the 1890s, the device was first invented and patented as the Cinématographe Léon Bouly by French inventor Léon Bouly on February 12,1892. Bouly coined the term “cinematograph”, from the Greek for “writing in movement”, due to a lack of money, Bouly was unable to develop his ideas properly and maintain his patent fees, so he sold his rights to the device and its name to the Lumière Brothers. In 1895, they applied the name to a device that was largely their own creation and they made their first film, Sortie de lusine Lumière de Lyon, that same year. The film was screened at LEden, the worlds first and oldest cinéma, located in La Ciotat in southeastern France. The first commercial, public screening of cinematographic films happened in Paris on 28 December 1895 and was organised by the Lumière brothers, the cinematograph was also exhibited at the Paris Exposition of 1900. At the Exposition, films made by the Lumière Brothers were projected onto a screen measuring 16 by 21 meters. Louis Lumière worked with his brother Auguste to create a motion-picture camera superior to Thomas Edisons kinetograph, the Lumières endeavored to correct the flaws they perceived in the kinetograph and the kinetoscope, to develop a machine with both sharper images and better illumination. The Cinématographe weighed only 16 lbs. which allowed for ease of transportation, as well, the Cinématographe was manually operated by a hand-crank, as opposed to Edisons electrically powered camera, which was not readily portable. In 1897, the Lumières further added to their invention by using a flask of water as the condenser to concentrate the light onto the film frame. The flask also acted as a safety feature, as the light would no longer focus on the film if the glass were to break due to overheating or accident. The cinematograph became an attraction for people all over the world. The Lumière Brothers took their machine as far as China and India and it was enjoyed by people of all classes, the cinematograph was used to show films in nickelodeons, where even the poorest classes could pay the entry fee. It was exhibited at fairs and used as entertainment in vaudeville houses in both Europe and the United States, while vaudeville is typically associated with the middle class, the machine also found its way into more sophisticated venues, where it appealed to the artistic tastes of high society. The Lumières held their first private screening of projected motion pictures on March 22,1895 and their first public screening of films at which admission was charged was held on December 28,1895, at Salon Indien du Grand Café in Paris. This history-making presentation featured ten short films, including their first film, each film is 17 meters long, which, when hand cranked through a projector, runs approximately 50 seconds. Bioscop Biograph Electrotachyscope Film Image Kinetoscope List of film formats Panoptikon Pleograph Praxinoscope Vitascope Zoopraxiscope Adventures in Cybersound Cinematograph
37.
Peepshow
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A peep show or peepshow is an exhibition of pictures, objects or people viewed through a small hole or magnifying glass. Peep shows, also known as peep box or raree show can be traced back to modern times and are known in various cultures. A peep show could be a box with a hole or several holes. The boxes were decorated inside to resemble theatrical scenes. The show was accompanied by spoken recitation that explained or dramatized what was happening inside, 19th-century Chinese peep shows were known by many names including la yang pien. Sometimes the showman would perform for a crowd with puppets or pictures outside the box, in Ottoman Syria a form of peep show called sanduk al-ajayib existed, which the storyteller carried on his back. The box had six holes through which people could see scenes backlit by a central candle, sanduk al-ajayib stories were about contemporary figures and events, or showed scenes of heaven and hell. Raree shows were precursors of toy theatres, with scenes and paper figurines. Peep shows have used for erotic and pornographic pictures, such as What the Butler Saw. In contemporary use, a show is a piecewise presentation of pornographic films or a live sex show which is viewed through a viewing slot. The viewing slots can be operated by a box device. For live peep shows, booths can surround a stage upon which usually a female performer performs a striptease, in Barcelona female performers at times also perform sexual intercourse with male performers on stage. In some cases, booths include paper towel dispensers, for customers who engage in masturbation. A customer and performer can mutually agree on a fee for a private dance, the researchers compared 911 calls in peep show and control neighborhoods in San Diego. Although peep show neighborhoods had approximately 16 percent more calls, the researchers concluded that the difference was not statistically significant, other researchers reanalyzed the data and concluded that the difference was significant. Regal Show World was an entertainment business on lower Market Street in San Francisco. The companys slogan was Where you are king, the business had a peep show and an adult video arcade. The peep show had performers working in a round room with viewing booths surrounding it
38.
Celluloid
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Celluloids are a class of compounds created from nitrocellulose and camphor, with added dyes and other agents. Generally considered the first thermoplastic, it was first created as Parkesine in 1856 and as Xylonite in 1869, Celluloid is easily molded and shaped, and it was first widely used as an ivory replacement. The main use was in movie and photography industries, which used only celluloid films prior to acetate films that were introduced in the 1950s. Celluloid is highly flammable, difficult and expensive to produce and no longer used, although its most common uses today are in table tennis balls, musical instruments. Collodion, invented in 1848 and used as a wound dressing, Parkes patented his discovery after realising a solid residue remained after evaporation of the solvent from photographic collodion. Parkes patented it as a clothing waterproofer for woven fabrics in the same year, later Parkes showcased Parkesine at the 1862 International Exhibition in London, where he was awarded a bronze medal for his efforts. The introduction of Parkesine is generally regarded as the birth of the plastics industry and he used cloth, ivory dust, and shellac, and on April 6,1869, patented a method of covering billiard balls with the addition of collodion. With assistance from Peter Kinnear and other investors, Hyatt formed the Albany Billiard Ball Company in Albany, New York, in 1870, John and his brother Isaiah patented a process of making a horn-like material with the inclusion of cellulose nitrate and camphor. Isaiah Hyatt dubbed his material celluloid in 1872, english inventor Daniel Spill had worked with Parkes and formed the Xylonite Co. to take over Parkes patents, describing the new plastic products as Xylonite. He took exception to the Hyatts claims and pursued the brothers in a number of cases between 1877 and 1884. The judge ruled all manufacturing of celluloid could continue both in Spills British Xylonite Company and Hyatts Celluloid Manufacturing Company, Hyatt used heat and pressure to simplify the manufacture of these compounds. Over the years, celluloid has become the term used for this type of plastic. English photographer John Carbutt founded the Keystone Dry Plate Works in 1879 with the intention of producing gelatin dry plates, the Celluloid Manufacturing Company was contracted for this work by means of thinly slicing layers out of celluloid blocks and then removing the slice marks with heated pressure plates. After this, the strips were coated with a photosensitive gelatin emulsion. It is not certain exactly how long it took for Carbutt to standardize his process, a 15-inch-wide sheet of Carbutts film was used by William Dickson for the early Edison motion picture experiments on a cylinder drum Kinetograph. However, the film base produced by this means was still considered too stiff for the needs of motion picture photography. By 1889, more flexible celluloids for photographic film were developed and this ability to produce photographic images on a flexible material was a crucial step toward the advent of motion pictures. Most movie and photography films prior to the move to acetate films in the fifties were made of celluloid
39.
35 mm film
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35 mm film is the film gauge most commonly used for motion pictures and chemical still photography. The name of the gauge refers to the width of the photographic film, the standard negative pulldown for movies is four perforations per frame along both edges, which results in 16 frames per foot of film. For still photography, the frame has eight perforations on each side. This resulted in cameras, projectors, and other equipment having to be calibrated to each gauge, the 35 mm width, originally specified as 1.375 inches, was introduced in 1892 by William Dickson and Thomas Edison, using film stock supplied by George Eastman. The gauge has been versatile in application, Eastman Kodak, Fujifilm and Agfa-Gevaert are some companies which offered 35 mm films. Today Kodak is the last remaining manufacturer of motion picture film and it is difficult to compare the quality of film to digital media but a good estimate would be about 20.8 million total pixels would equal one 35 millimeter high quality color frame of film. In 1880, George Eastman began to manufacture gelatin dry plates in Rochester. Along with W. H. Walker, Eastman invented a holder for a roll of picture-carrying gelatin layer coated paper, hannibal Goodwins invention of nitrocellulose film base in 1887 was the first transparent, flexible film. With the advent of film, Thomas Alva Edison quickly set out on his invention, the Kinetoscope. The Kinetoscope was a loop system intended for one-person viewing. Edison, along with assistant W. K. L. Dickson, followed that up with the Kinetophone, beginning in March 1892, Eastman and then, from April 1893 into 1896, New Yorks Blair Camera Co. supplied Edison with film stock. Edisons aperture defined a single frame of film at 4 perforations high, a court judgment in March 1902 invalidated Edisons claim, allowing any producer or distributor to use the Edison 35 mm film design without license. Filmmakers were already doing so in Britain and Europe, where Edison had failed to file patents, at the time, film stock was usually supplied unperforated and punched by the filmmaker to their standards with perforation equipment. A variation developed by the Lumière Brothers used a circular perforation on each side of the frame towards the middle of the horizontal axis.33 aspect ratio. Spehr describes the importance of these developments, The early acceptance of 35 mm as a standard had momentous impact on the development and spread of cinema. The film format was introduced into still photography as early as 1913 but first became popular with the launch of the Leica camera, created by Oskar Barnack in 1925. The costly image-forming silver compounds in a film stocks emulsion meant from the start that 35 mm filmmaking was to be a hobby with a high barrier to entry for the public at large. Furthermore, the film base of all early film stock was highly flammable
40.
Edison Studios
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Edison Studios was an American film production organization, owned by companies controlled by inventor and entrepreneur, Thomas Edison. The studio made close to 1,200 films, as part of the Edison Manufacturing Company and then the Thomas A. Edison, of that number,54 were feature length, and the remainder were shorts. The first production facility was Edisons Black Maria studio, in West Orange, New Jersey, the second facility, a glass-enclosed rooftop studio built at 41 East 21st Street in Manhattans entertainment district, opened in 1901. In 1907, Edison had new facilities built, on Decatur Avenue and Oliver Place, Thomas Edison himself played no direct part in the making of his studios films, beyond being the owner and appointing William Gilmore as vice-president and general manager. Edisons assistant William Kennedy Dickson, who supervised the development of Edisons motion picture system, produced the first Edison films intended for public exhibition, 1893–95. After Dicksons departure for the American Mutoscope and Biograph Company in 1895, he was replaced as director of production by cameraman William Heise, then from 1896-1903, by James H. White. When White left to supervise Edisons European interests in 1903, he was replaced by William Markgraf, then Alex T. Moore, and Horace G. Plimpton. The first commercially exhibited motion pictures in the United States were from Edison, the program consisted of ten short films, each less than a minute long, of athletes, dancers, and other performers. After competitors began exhibiting films on screens, Edison introduced its own, Projecting Kinetoscope, the earliest productions were brief actualities, showing everything, from acrobats, to parades, to fire calls. But, competition from French and British story films, in the early 1900s, by 1904, 85% of Edisons sales were from story films. In December 1908, Edison led the formation of the Motion Picture Patents Company in an attempt to control the industry, the Motion Picture Patents Co. and the General Film Co. were found guilty of antitrust violation in October 1915, and were dissolved. The breakup of the Trust by federal courts, under monopoly laws, Edison sold its film business, including the Bronx studio, on 30 March 1918, to the Lincoln & Parker Film Company, of Massachusetts. Everson described as the screens first genuinely lyrical film, the company also produced a number of short Kinetophone sound films in 1913–1914 using a sophisticated acoustical recording system capable of picking up sound from 30 feet away. The studio also released a number of Raoul Barré cartoon films in 1915, nor did the Edison films show the sense of dynamic progress, that one gets, from studying the Biograph films, on a year-by-year basis. On the contrary, there is a sense of stagnation, shaw, who later went on to a successful career directing in England, South Africa, and Lithuania before returning to the US in 1922. Other important directors who started at Edison included Oscar Apfel, Charles Brabin, Alan Crosland, J. Searle Dawley, and Edward H. Griffith. net
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Battle of Chemulpo Bay
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The Battle of Chemulpo Bay was an early naval battle in the Russo-Japanese War, which took place on 9 February 1904, off the coast of present-day Incheon, Korea. The opening stage of the Russo-Japanese War began with a strike by the Imperial Japanese Navy against the Russian Pacific Fleet spread among Port Arthur, Vladivostok. Command of the Chemulpo operation was given to Rear Admiral Uryū Sotokichi, with six cruisers, however, Chemulpo, with its wide tidal bore, extensive mudflats, and narrow, winding channels, posed a number of tactical challenges for both attackers and defenders. In the early morning of 8 February, Korietz spotted Chiyoda outside the Chemulpo roadstead, on closing in, the crew of Korietz realized their mistake and in the ensuing confusion the guns were discharged. Chiyoda responded by launching a torpedo, both sides missed, but this was the first actual exchange of fire in the Russo-Japanese War, and it is highly unclear which side actually opened fire first. Korietz retreated back to Chemulpo harbor, an American warship—the gunboat USS Vicksburg—was also present, but she was further up the harbor. On the other hand, it was against international law to attack the Russians while they were anchored in a neutral port. Uryū sent a message requesting that the captains of HMS Talbot, Pascal and Elba to shift their anchorage, three torpedo-boats took refuge near Niitaka far board. To the amazement of the tense Japanese, the Russians aboard Varyag and Korietz took no action, the troop disembarkation was complete by 03,00 on 9 February, and all Japanese warships and transports withdrew from the harbor except for the Chiyoda. HIS IMPERIAL JAPANESE MAJESTYS SHIP NANIWA Chemulpo Roadstead, February 8, the above-mentioned attack will not take place before 4 oclock p. m. of the 9th of February,1904, to give time to put into practice the above-mentioned request. If there are any transports or merchant vessels of your nationality in the port of Chemulpo at present, I request you to communicate to them the above notification. Outgunned and outnumbered, and refusing advice from the captains to surrender, at 11,00 on 9 February. From the Varyag logbook,11,10 All hands on deck on Varyag,11,20 Cruiser goes to open sea, Korietz in 1 cable length behind. English and Italian crews cheer Russians, on the Italian cruiser Elba the Russian anthem is played, Japanese cruisers Asama, Naniwa, Takachiho, Chiyoda, Akashi and Niitaka in bearing line from Richy island to Northern passage. 11,45 Varyag opens fire with port guns,11,47 Asama opens fire with 8-inch gun, all Japanese squadron then open fire. One of the first Japanese shells that hit cruiser, destroyed the wing of front bridge, set fire in chart house. Junior navigating officer midshipman Count Alexey Nirod was killed, all personnel on range finding station #1 were killed or wounded, damaged 10.2 gun #3, all personnel killed or wounded, battery commander midshipman Gubonin was wounded, but refused to go away until he fall. With the same shell, that fire was damaged guns,10.2 #8 and #9, 75mm #21 47mm #27
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Incheon
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Incheon, officially the Incheon Metropolitan City, is a city located in northwestern South Korea, bordering Seoul and Gyeonggi to the east. Inhabited since the New Stone Age, Incheon was home to just 4,700 people when it became a port in 1883. Today, about 3 million people live in the city, making it Korea’s third most populous city after Seoul and Busan. The citys growth has been assured in modern times with the development of its due to its natural advantages as a coastal city. It is part of the Seoul Capital Area, along with Seoul itself and Gyeonggi Province, Incheon has since led the economic development of Korea by opening its port to the outside world, ushering in the modernization of Korea as a center of industrialization. In 2003, the city was designated as Korea’s first free economic zone, as an international city, Incheon has held numerous large scale international conferences, such as the Incheon Global Fair & Festival in 2009. The 17th Asian Games Incheon 2014 was also held in Incheon on 19 September 2014, Incheon has established itself as a major transportation hub in northeast Asia with the world-renowned Incheon International Airport and Incheon Port. The city is home to the Green Climate Fund, an international organization addressing environmental issues. The first historical record of the Incheon area dates back to 475 AD, during the reign of King Jangsu of Goguryeo, by the name of Michuhol, the area underwent several name changes with successive kingdoms and dynasties. In Goryeo era, Incheon was called Gyeongwon or Inju, the current name was turned to Incheon in 1413. Later, Incheon County became Incheon Metropolitan Prefecture, old Incheon consisted of todays southern Incheon and northern part of Siheung City. The city centre was Gwangyo-dong, where the office and the local academy were located. Another historical name of the city, Jemulpo, was not widely used until the opening of the port in 1883, after the opening of the Incheon port, the city centre moved from Gwangyo to Jemulpo. Today, either Jemulpo or Gwangyo-dong is considered Deep Incheon and it was renamed as Jinsen during Japanese rule in Korean peninsula. In 1914, the Japanese colonial government merged outer parts of old Incheon with Bupyeong County, through 1936 and 1940, some part of Bucheon County was recombined into Incheon City, by which some part of old Bupyeong was annexed into Incheon. Incheon was originally part of Gyeonggi Province, but was granted Directly Governed City status on July 1,1981, Incheon was known as Inchon prior to South Koreas adoption of a new Romanization system in 2000. The city was the site of the Battle of Chemulpo Bay, during the Korean War, Incheon was occupied by North Korean troops on 4 September 1950. Eleven days later, Incheon was the site of the Battle of Inchon, the result was a decisive UN victory and it was recaptured on 19 September 1950
43.
Korea
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Korea is a historical state in East Asia, since 1945 divided into two distinct sovereign states, North Korea and South Korea. Located on the Korean Peninsula, Korea is bordered by China to the northwest and it is separated from Japan to the east by the Korea Strait and the Sea of Japan. Korea emerged as a political entity after centuries of conflict among the Three Kingdoms of Korea. Later Silla divided into three states during the Later Three Kingdoms period. Goryeo, which had succeeded Goguryeo, defeated the two states and united the Korean Peninsula. Around the same time, Balhae collapsed and its last crown prince fled south to Goryeo, Goryeo, whose name developed into the modern exonym Korea, was a highly cultured state that created the worlds first metal movable type in 1234. However, multiple invasions by the Mongol Yuan Dynasty during the 13th century greatly weakened the nation, following the Yuan Dynastys collapse, severe political strife followed, and Goryeo eventually fell to a coup led by General Yi Seong-gye, who established Joseon in 1388. The first 200 years of Joseon were marked by peace and saw the creation of the Korean alphabet by Sejong the Great in the 14th century. During the later part of the dynasty, however, Koreas isolationist policy earned it the Western nickname of the Hermit Kingdom, by the late 19th century, the country became the object of imperial design by the Empire of Japan. Despite attempts at modernization by the Korean Empire, in 1910 Korea was annexed by Japan and these circumstances soon became the basis for the division of Korea by the two superpowers, exacerbated by their incapability to agree on the terms of Korean independence. To date, both continue to compete with each other as the sole legitimate government of all of Korea. Korea is the spelling of Corea, a name attested in English as early as 1614. It is a derived from Cauli, Marco Polos transcription of the Chinese 高麗. This was the Hanja for the Korean kingdom of Goryeo or Koryŏ, Goryeos name was a continuation of the earlier Goguryeo or Koguryŏ, the northernmost of the Samguk, which was officially known by the shortened form Goryeo after the 5th-century reign of King Jangsu. The original name was a combination of the go with the name of a local Yemaek tribe. The name Korea is now used in English contexts by both North and South Korea. In South Korea, Korea as a whole is referred to as Hanguk, the name references the Samhan—Ma, Jin, and Byeon—who preceded the Three Kingdoms in the southern and central end of the peninsula during the 1st centuries BC and AD. It has been linked with the title khan used by the nomads of Manchuria
. The New York Times. p. A35. Retrieved September 11, 2013.