Silver certificate (United States)

$5 Series 1899 silver certificate depicting Running Antelope of the Sioux.

The $1 silver certificate from the Hawaii overprint series.

Silver certificates are a type of representative money issued between 1878 and 1964 in the United States as part of its circulation of paper currency.^[1] They were produced in response to silver agitation by citizens who were angered by the Fourth Coinage Act, which had effectively placed the United States on a gold standard.^[2] The certificates were initially redeemable for their face value of silver dollar coins and later (for one year – June 24, 1967 to June 24, 1968) in raw silver bullion.^[1] Since 1968 they have been redeemable only in Federal Reserve Notes and are thus obsolete, but still valid legal tender and thus are still an accepted form of currency.^[1]

Large-size silver certificates (1878 to 1923)^{[nb 1]} were issued initially in denominations from $10 to $1,000 (in 1878 and 1880)^[4][5] and in 1886 the $1, $2, and $5 were authorized.^[5][6] In 1928, all United States bank notes were re-designed and the size reduced.^[7] The small-size silver certificate (1928–1964) was only regularly issued in denominations of $1, $5, and $10.^[8] The complete type set below is part of the National Numismatic Collection at the Smithsonian's National Museum of American History.

History[edit]

The Coinage Act of 1873 intentionally^[9][10] omitted language authorizing the coinage of “standard”^[2] silver dollars^[11] and ended the bimetallic standard^[12] that had been created by Alexander Hamilton.^{[13][nb 2]} While the Coinage Act of 1873 stopped production of silver dollars, it was the 1874 adoption of Section 3568 of the Revised Statutes that actually removed legal tender status from silver certificates in the payment of debts exceeding five dollars.^[15] By 1875 business interests invested in silver (e.g., Western banks, mining companies) wanted the bimetallic standard restored. People began to refer to the passage of the Act as the Crime of '73. Prompted by a sharp decline in the value of silver in 1876, Congressional representatives from Nevada and Colorado, states responsible for over 40% of the world’s silver yield in the 1870s and 1880s,^[16] began lobbying for change. Further public agitation for silver use was driven by fear that there was not enough money in the community.^[17] Members of Congress claimed ignorance that the 1873 law would lead to the demonetization of silver,^[18] despite having had three years to review the bill prior to enacting it to law.^[19] Some blamed the passage of the Act on a number of external factors including a conspiracy involving foreign investors and government conspirators.^[11] In response, the Bland–Allison Act, as it came to be known, was passed by Congress (over a Presidential veto)^[20] on 28 February 1878. It did not provide for the "free and unlimited coinage of silver" demanded by Western miners, but it did require the United States Treasury to purchase between $2 million and $4 million of silver bullion per month^[21][22] from mining companies in the West, to be minted into coins.^{[nb 3]}

Large-size silver certificates[edit]

The first silver certificates (Series 1878) were issued in denominations of $10 through $1,000. ^{[nb 4]} Reception by financial institutions was cautious.^[25] While more convenient and less bulky than dollar coins, the silver certificate was not accepted for all transactions.^[26] The Bland–Allison Act established that they were “receivable for customs, taxes, and all public dues,”^[20] and could be included in bank reserves,^[22] but silver certificates were not explicitly considered legal tender for private interactions (i.e., between individuals).^[22] Congress used the National Banking Act of July 12, 1882 to clarify the legal tender status of silver certificates^[27] by clearly authorizing them to be included in the lawful reserves of national banks.^[28] A general appropriations act of 4 August 1886 authorized the issue of $1, $2, and $5 silver certificates.^[6][29] The introduction of low-denomination currency (as denominations of U.S. Notes under $5 were put on hold) greatly increased circulation.^[30] Over the 12-year lifespan of the Bland–Allison Act, the United States government would receive a seigniorage amounting to roughly $68 million (between $3 and $9 million per year),^[31] while absorbing over 60% of U.S. silver production.^[31]

Small-size silver certificates[edit]

Treasury Secretary Franklin MacVeagh (1909–13) appointed a committee to investigate possible advantages (e.g., reduced cost, increased production speed) to issuing smaller sized United States banknotes.^[32] Due in part to the outbreak of World War I and the end of his appointed term, any recommendations may have stalled. On August 20, 1925, Treasury Secretary Andrew W. Mellon appointed a similar committee and in May 1927 accepted their recommendations for the size reduction and redesign of U.S. banknotes.^[32] On July 10, 1929 the new small-size currency was issued.^[33]

In keeping with the verbiage on large-size silver certificates, all the small-size Series 1928 certificates carried the obligation "This certifies that there has (or have) been deposited in the Treasury of the United States of America X silver dollar(s) payable to the bearer on demand" or "X dollars in silver coin payable to the bearer on demand". This required that the Treasury maintain stocks of silver dollars to back and redeem the silver certificates in circulation. Beginning with the Series 1934 silver certificates the wording was changed to "This certifies that there is on deposit in the Treasury of the United States of America X dollars in silver payable to the bearer on demand." This freed the Treasury from storing bags of silver dollars in its vaults, and allowed it to redeem silver certificates with bullion or silver granules, rather than silver dollars. Years after the government stopped the redemption of silver certificates for silver, large quantities of silver dollars intended specifically to satisfy the earlier obligation for redemption in silver dollars were found in Treasury vaults.

As was usual with currency during this period, the year date on the bill did not reflect when it was printed, but rather a major design change. Additional changes, particularly when either of the two signatures was altered, led to a letter being added below the date. One notable exception was the Series 1935G $1 silver certificate, which included notes both with and without the motto "In God We Trust" on the reverse. 1935 dated one dollar certificates lasted through the letter "H", after which new printing processes began the 1957 series.^[34] In some cases printing plates were used until they wore out, even though newer ones were also producing notes, so the sequencing of signatures may not always be chronological. Thus some of the 1935 dated one dollar certificates were issued as late as 1963.^[35]

World War II Issues[edit]

In response to the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, the Hawaii overprint note was ordered from the Bureau of Engraving and Printing on June 8, 1942 (all were made-over 1934-1935 bills).^[33] Issued in denominations of $1, $5, $10, and $20, only the $1 was a silver certificate, the others were Federal Reserve Notes.^[36] Stamped “HAWAII” (in small solid letters on the obverse and large letters on the reverse), with the Treasury seal and serial numbers in brown instead of the usual blue, these notes could be demonetized in the event of a Japanese invasion.^[37] Additional World War II emergency currency was issued in November 1942 for circulation in Europe and Northern Africa.^[33] Printed with a bright yellow seal, these notes ($1, $5, and $10) could be demonetized should the United States lose its position in the European or North African campaigns.^[36]

"Star notes"[edit]

When a bill is damaged in printing it is normally replaced by another one (the star replaces a letter at the edge of the note) . To keep the amounts issued consistent, these replacement banknotes are normally indicated by a star in the separately sequenced serial number. For silver certificates this asterisk appears at the beginning of the serial number.^[38]

End of the silver certificates[edit]

In the nearly three decades since passage of the Silver Purchase Act of 1934, the annual demand for silver bullion rose steadily from roughly 11 million ounces (1933) to 110 million ounces (1962).^[39] The Acts of 1939 and 1946 established floor prices for silver of 71 cents and 90.5 cents (respectively) per ounce.^[39] Predicated on an anticipated shortage of silver bullion,^[40][41] Public Law 88-36 (PL88-36) was enacted on 4 June 1963 which repealed the Silver Purchase Act of 1934, and the Acts of July 6, 1939 and July 31, 1946,^[42] while providing specific instruction regarding the disposition of silver held as reserves against issued certificates and the price at which silver may be sold.^{[nb 5]} It also amended the Federal Reserve Act to authorize the issue of lower denomination notes (i.e., $1 and $2),^[42] allowing for the gradual retirement (or swapping out process) of $1 silver certificates and releasing silver bullion from reserve.^[41] In repealing the earlier laws, PL88-36 also repealed the authority of the Secretary of the Treasury to control the issue of silver certificates. By issuing Executive Order 11110, President John F. Kennedy was able to continue the Secretary’s authority.^[43] While retaining their status as legal tender, the silver certificate had effectively been retired from use.^[33]

In March 1964, Secretary of the Treasury C. Douglas Dillon halted redemption of silver certificates for silver dollar coins; during the following four years, silver certificates were redeemable in uncoined silver "granules".^[40] All redemption in silver ceased on 24 June 1968.^[1] While there are some exceptions (particularly for some of the very early issues as well as the experimental bills) the vast majority of small sized silver certificates, especially non-star or worn bills of the 1935 and 1957 series, are worth little to nothing above their face values.

Issue[edit]

Series and varieties[edit]

Large-size United States silver certificates (1878-1923)[edit]

Complete typeset of large-size United States silver certificates (1878-1923)^[50]

Value	Series	Fr.[nb 7]	Image	Portrait	Signature & seal varieties[nb 8]
$1	1886	Fr.217		Martha Washington	215 – Rosecrans and Jordan – small red, plain 216 – Rosecrans and Hyatt – small red, plain 217 – Rosecrans and Hyatt – large red 218 – Rosecrans and Huston – large red 219 – Rosecrans and Huston – large brown 220 – Rosecrans and Nebecker – large brown 221 – Rosecrans and Nebecker – small red, scalloped
$1	1891	Fr.223		Martha Washington	222 – Rosecrans and Nebecker – small red, scalloped 223 – Tillman and Morgan – small red, scalloped
$1	1896	Fr.224		Allegory History Instructing Youth (obv); George Washington & Martha Washington (rev)	224 – Tillman and Morgan – small red, rays 225 – Bruce and Roberts – small red, rays
$1	1899	Fr.226		Abraham Lincoln & Ulysses Grant	226 – Lyons and Roberts – blue 227 – Lyons and Treat – blue 228 – Vernon and Treat – blue 229 – Vernon and McClung – blue 230 – Napier and McClung – blue 231 – Napier and Thompson – blue 232 – Parker and Burke – blue 233 – Teehee and Burke – blue 234 – Elliott and Burke – blue 235 – Elliott and White – blue 236 – Speelman and White – blue
$1	1923	Fr.239		George Washington	237 – Speelman and White – blue 238 – Woods and White – blue 239 – Woods and Tate – blue
$2	1886	Fr.242		Winfield Scott Hancock	240 – Rosecrans and Jordan – small red 241 – Rosecrans and Hyatt – small red 242 – Rosecrans and Hyatt – large red 243 – Rosecrans and Huston – large red 244 – Rosecrans and Huston – large brown
$2	1891	Fr.246		William Windom	245 – Rosecrans and Nebecker – small red 246 – Tillman and Morgan – small red
$2	1896	Fr.247		Allegory of Science Presenting Steam and Electricity to Commerce and Manufacture (obv); Robert Fulton & Samuel F.B. Morse (rev)	247 – Tillman and Morgan – small red 248 – Bruce and Roberts – small red
$2	1899	Fr.249		George Washington	249 – Lyons and Roberts – blue 250 – Lyons and Treat – blue 251 – Vernon and Treat – blue 252 – Vernon and McClung – blue 253 – Napier and McClung – blue 254 – Napier and Thompson – blue 255 – Parker and Burke – blue 256 – Teehee and Burke – blue 257 – Elliott and Burke – blue 258 – Speelman and White – blue
$5	1886	Fr.264		Ulysses Grant	259 – Rosecrans and Jordan – small red, plain 260 – Rosecrans and Hyatt – small red, plain 261 – Rosecrans and Hyatt – large red 262 – Rosecrans and Huston – large red 263 – Rosecrans and Huston – large brown 264 – Rosecrans and Nebecker – large brown 265 – Rosecrans and Nebecker – small red, scalloped
$5	1891	Fr.267		Ulysses Grant	266 – Rosecrans and Nebecker – small red, scalloped 267 – Tillman and Morgan – small red
$5	1896	Fr.270		Allegory of Electricity Presenting Light to the World (obv); Ulysses Grant & Philip Sheridan (rev)	268 – Tillman and Morgan – small red 269 – Bruce and Roberts – small red 270 – Lyons and Roberts – small red
$5	1899	Fr.271		Running Antelope	271 – Lyons and Roberts – blue 272 – Lyons and Treat – blue 273 – Vernon and Treat – blue 274 – Vernon and McClung – blue 275 – Napier and McClung – blue 276 – Napier and Thompson – blue 277 – Parker and Burke – blue 278 – Teehee and Burke – blue 279 – Elliott and Burke – blue 280 – Elliott and White – blue 281 – Speelman and White – blue
$5	1923	Fr.282		Abraham Lincoln	282 – Speelman and White – blue
$10	1878	Fr.285a*		Robert Morris	283 – Scofield and Gilfillan, CS by W.G. White – large red 284 – Scofield and Gilfillan, CS by J.C. Hopper – large red 284a – Scofield and Gilfillan, CS by T. Hillhouse* – large red 284b – Scofield and Gilfillan, CS by T. Hillhouse – large red 284c – Scofield and Gilfillan, CS by R.M. Anthony* – large red 285 – Scofield and Gilfillan, CS by A.U. Wyman* – large red 285a – Scofield and Gilfillan, CS by A.U. Wyman – large red
$10	1880	Fr.287		Robert Morris	286 – Scofield and Gilfillan, CS by T. Hillhouse – large brown with X 286a – Scofield and Gilfillan, CS by A.U. Wyman – large brown with X 287 – Scofield and Gilfillan – large brown with X 288 – Bruce and Gilfillan – large brown with X 289 – Bruce and Wyman – large brown with X 290 – Bruce and Wyman – large red without X
$10	1886	Fr.291		Thomas Hendricks	291 – Rosecrans and Jordan – small red, plain 292 – Rosecrans and Hyatt – small red, plain 293 – Rosecrans and Hyatt – large red 294 – Rosecrans and Huston – large red 295 – Rosecrans and Huston – large brown 296 – Rosecrans and Nebecker – large brown 297 – Rosecrans and Nebecker – small red, scalloped
$10	1891	Fr.298		Thomas Hendricks	298 – Rosecrans and Nebecker – small red 299 – Tillman and Morgan – small red 300 – Bruce and Roberts – small red 301 – Lyons and Roberts – small red
$10	1908	Fr.302		Thomas Hendricks	302 – Vernon and Treat – blue 303 – Vernon and McClung – blue 304 – Parker and Burke – blue
$20	1878	Fr.307		Stephen Decatur	305 – Scofield and Gilfillan, CS by J.C. Hopper – large red 306 – Scofield and Gilfillan, CS by T. Hillhouse – large red 306a – Scofield and Gilfillan, CS by R.M. Anthony – large red 306b – Scofield and Gilfillan, CS by A.U. Wyman* – large red 307 – Scofield and Gilfillan, CS by A.U. Wyman – large red
$20	1880	Fr.311		Stephen Decatur	308 – Scofield and Gilfillan, CS by T. Hillhouse – large brown 309 – Scofield and Gilfillan – large brown 310 – Bruce and Gilfillan – large brown 311 – Bruce and Wyman – large brown 312 – Bruce and Wyman – small red
$20	1886	Fr.316		Daniel Manning	313 – Rosecrans and Hyatt – large red 314 – Rosecrans and Huston – large brown 315 – Rosecrans and Nebecker – large brown 316 – Rosecrans and Nebecker – small red
$20	1891	Fr.317		Daniel Manning	317 – Rosecrans and Nebecker – small red 318 – Tillman and Morgan – small red 319 – Bruce and Roberts – small red 320 – Lyons and Roberts – small red 321 – Parker and Burke – blue 322 – Teehee and Burke – blue
$50	1878	Fr.324		Edward Everett	323 – Scofield and Gilfillan, CS by W.C. White* or J.C. Hopper* – large red 324 – Scofield and Gilfillan, CS by T. Hillhouse – large red 324a – Scofield and Gilfillan, CS by R.M. Anthony – large red 324b – Scofield and Gilfillan, CS by A.U. Wyman* – large red 324c – Scofield and Gilfillan, CS by A.U. Wyman – large red
$50	1880	Fr.327		Edward Everett	325 – Scofield and Gilfillan – large brown, rays 326 – Bruce and Gilfillan – large brown, rays 327 – Bruce and Wyman – large brown, rays 328 – Rosecrans and Huston – large brown, spikes 329 – Rosecrans and Nebecker – small red
$50	1891	Fr.331		Edward Everett	330 – Rosecrans and Nebecker – small red 331 – Tillman and Morgan – small red 332 – Bruce and Roberts – small red 333 – Lyons and Roberts – small red 334 – Vernon and Treat – small red 335 – Parker and Burke – blue
$100	1878	Fr.337b		James Monroe	336 – Scofield and Gilfillan, CS by W.G. White – large red 336a – Scofield and Gilfillan, CS by J.C. Hopper or T. Hillhouse – large red 337 – Scofield and Gilfillan, CS by R.M. Anthony* – large red 337a – Scofield and Gilfillan, CS by A.U. Wyman* – large red 337b – Scofield and Gilfillan, CS by A.U. Wyman – large red
$100	1880	Fr.340		James Monroe	338– Scofield and Gilfillan – large brown, rays 339 – Bruce and Gilfillan – large brown, rays 340 – Bruce and Wyman – large brown, rays 341 – Rosecrans and Huston – large brown, spikes 342 – Rosecrans and Nebecker – small red
$100	1891	Fr.344		James Monroe	343 – Rosecrans and Nebecker – small red 344 – Tillman and Morgan – small red
$500	1878	Fr.345a		Charles Sumner	345a – Scofield and Gilfillan, CS by A.U. Wyman* – large red, rays
$500	1880	Fr.345c		Charles Sumner	345b – Scofield and Gilfillan – large brown 345c – Bruce and Gilfillan – large brown 345d – Bruce and Wyman – large brown
$1,000	1878	Fr.346a		William Marcy	346a – Scofield and Gilfillan, CS unknown – large red, rays
$1,000	1880	Fr.346d		William Marcy	346b – Scofield and Gilfillan – large brown 346c – Bruce and Gilfillan – large brown 346d – Bruce and Wyman – large brown
$1,000	1891	Fr.346e		William Marcy	346e – Tillman and Morgan – small red

Small-size United States silver certificates (1928-1957)[edit]

Complete typeset of small-size United States silver certificates (1928-1957)^[51]

Value	Series	Fr.[nb 9]	Image	Portrait	Signature & seal varieties
$1	19281928 to 1928-E	Fr.1600		George Washington	1600 – Tate and Mellon (1928) – blue 1601 – Woods and Mellon (1928A) – blue[nb 10] 1602 – Woods and Mills (1928B) – blue 1603 – Woods and Woodin (1928C) – blue 1604 – Julian and Woodin (1928D) – blue 1605 – Julian and Morgenthau (1928E) – blue
$1	19341934	Fr.1606		George Washington	1606 – Julian and Morgenthau (1934) – blue
$1	19351935 to 1935-G	Fr.1607		George Washington	1607 – Julian and Morgenthau (1935) – blue 1608 – Julian and Morgenthau (1935A)– blue 1609 – Julian and Morgenthau (1935A) R-Exp – blue.[nb 11] 1610 – Julian and Morgenthau (1935A) S-Exp – blue 1611 – Julian and Vinson (1935B) – blue 1612 – Julian and Snyder (1935C) – blue 1613W – Clark and Snyder (1935D) Wide – blue[nb 12] 1613N – Clark and Snyder (1935D) Narrow – blue 1614 – Priest and Humphrey (1935E) – blue 1615 – Priest and Anderson (1935F) – blue 1616 – Smith and Dillon (1935G) – blue
$1	19571935-G to 1957-B	Fr.1619		George Washington	1617 – Smith and Dillon (1935G) – blue[nb 13] 1618 – Granahan and Dillon (1935H) – blue 1619 – Priest and Anderson (1957) – blue 1620 – Smith and Dillon (1957A) – blue 1621 – Granahan and Dillon (1957B) – blue
$5	19341934 to 1934-D	Fr.1650		Abraham Lincoln	1650 – Julian and Morgenthau (1934) – blue 1651 – Julian and Morgenthau (1934A) – blue 1652 – Julian and Vinson (1934B) – blue 1653 – Julian and Snyder (1934C) – blue 1654 – Clark and Snyder (1934D) – blue
$5	19531953 to 1953-C	Fr.1655		Abraham Lincoln	1655 – Priest and Humphrey (1953) – blue 1656 – Priest and Anderson (1953A) – blue 1657 – Smith and Dillon (1953B) – blue 1658 – Granahan and Dillon (1953C) – blue[nb 14]
$10	19331933 to 1933-A	Fr.1700		Alexander Hamilton	1700 – Julian and Woodin (1933) – blue[nb 15] 1700a – Julian and Morgenthau (1933A) – blue[nb 14]
$10	19341934 to 1934-D	Fr.1701		Alexander Hamilton	1701 – Julian and Morgenthau (1934) – blue 1702 – Julian and Morgenthau (1934A) – blue 1703 – Julian and Vinson (1934B) – blue 1704 – Julian and Snyder (1934C) – blue 1705 – Clark and Snyder (1934D) – blue
$10	19531953 to 1953-B	Fr.1706		Alexander Hamilton	1706 – Priest and Humphrey (1953) – blue 1707 – Priest and Anderson (1953A) – blue 1708 – Smith and Dillon (1953B) – blue
$1	1935-A1935-A	Fr.2300		George Washington	2300 – Julian and Morgenthau – brown
$1	1935-A1935-A	Fr.2306		George Washington	2306 – Julian and Morgenthau (1935A) – yellow
$5	1934-A1934-A	Fr.2307		Abraham Lincoln	2307 – Julian and Morgenthau (1934A) – yellow
$10	1934-A1934 to 1934-A	Fr.2309		Alexander Hamilton	2308 – Julian and Morgenthau (1934) – yellow 2309 – Julian and Morgenthau (1934A) – yellow

See also[edit]

• Gold certificate
• Silver standard
• Silver as an investment
• Representative money
• Silver certificate (Cuba)

Footnotes[edit]

Notes[edit]

References[edit]

• Agger, Eugene E. (1918). "The Denominations of the Currency". The Quarterly Journal of Economics. 32 (2): 257–277. doi:10.2307/1885428. JSTOR 1885428.
• Ascher, Leonard W. (1964). "The Coming Chaos in Our Coinage". Financial Analysts Journal. 20 (3): 99–102. doi:10.2469/faj.v20.n3.99. JSTOR 4469657.
• Barnett, Paul (1964). "The Crime of 1873 Re-examined". Agricultural History. 38 (3): 178–181. JSTOR 3740438.
• Blake, George Herbert (1908). United States paper money. George H. Blake. Retrieved 13 March 2014.
• Carothers, Neil (1932). "A Senate Racket". The North American Review. 233 (1): 4–15. JSTOR 25113955.
• Cuhaj, George S. (2012). Standard Catalog of United States Paper Money. Krause Publications. ISBN 978-1-4402-3087-5. Retrieved 14 February 2014.
• Dillon, C. Douglas (1963). Annual Report of the Secretary of the Treasury on the State of the Finances (Report). United States Government Printing Office. pp. 400–403.
• Friedberg, Arthur L.; Friedberg, Ira S. (2013). Paper Money of the United States: A Complete Illustrated Guide With Valuations (20th ed.). Coin & Currency Institute. ISBN 978-0-87184-520-7. Retrieved 14 February 2014.
• Friedman, Milton (1990). "The Crime of 1873". Journal of Political Economy. 98 (6): 1159–1194. doi:10.1086/261730. JSTOR 2937754.
• Grey, George B. (2002). Federal Reserve System: Background, Analyses and Bibliography. Nova Science Publishers, Inc. ISBN 978-1-59033-053-1. Retrieved 14 February 2014.
• Knox, John Jay (1888). United States Notes: A history of the various issues of paper money by the government of the United States (3rd ed.). Charles Scribner’s Sons.
• Leavens, Dickson H. (1939). Silver Money. Principia Press, Inc. Retrieved 13 February 2014.
• Lee, Alfred E. (1886). "Bimetalism in the United States". Political Science Quarterly. 1 (3): 386–399. JSTOR 2139359.
• McVey, Frank L. (1902). "The Reclassification of the Paper Currency". Journal of Political Economy. 10 (3): 437–442. doi:10.1086/250857. JSTOR 1819565.
• O’Leary, Paul M. (1960). "The Scene of the Crime of 1873 Revisited: A Note". Journal of Political Economy. 68 (4): 388–392. doi:10.1086/258345. JSTOR 1830011.
• Schwartz, John; Lindquist, Scott (2011). Standard Guide to Small-Size U.S. Paper Money – 1928 to Date. Krause Publications. ISBN 978-1-4402-1703-6. Retrieved 14 February 2014.
• Taussig, F.W. (1890). "The Silver Situation in the United States". The Quarterly Journal of Economics. 4 (3): 291–315. doi:10.2307/1881888. hdl:2027/uc1.$b245353. JSTOR 1881888.
• Taussig, F.W. (1892). "The Silver Situation in the United States". Publication of the American Economic Association. 7 (1): 7–118. JSTOR 2485709.

Further reading[edit]

• Hessler, Gene; Chambliss, Carlson (2006). The Comprehensive Catalog of U.S. Paper Money: All United States Federal Paper Money Since 1812 (7 ed.). BNR Press. ISBN 9780931960666.
• National Monetary Commission (1910). Laws of the United States concerning money, banking, and loans, 1778-1909. Government Printing Office. Retrieved 14 February 2014.

External links[edit]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to U.S. silver certificates.

• Bureau of Engraving and Printing
• U.S. Department of the Treasury
• USPaperMoney.Info