1.
Devanagari
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Devanagari, also called Nagari, is an abugida alphabet of India and Nepal. It is written left to right, has a strong preference for symmetrical rounded shapes within squared outlines. The Nagari script has roots in the ancient Brāhmī script family, the Nagari script was in regular use by the 7th century CE and it was fully developed by about the end of first millennium. Nagari has been the primus inter pares of the Indic scripts, the Devanagari script is also used for classical Sanskrit texts. The Devanagari script is closely related to the Nandinagari script commonly found in ancient manuscripts of South India. Devanagari script has forty-seven primary characters, of which fourteen are vowels, the ancient Nagari script for Sanskrit had two additional consonantal characters. The script has no distinction similar to the capital and small letters of the Latin alphabet, generally the orthography of the script reflects the pronunciation of the language. Devanagari is part of the Brahmic family of scripts of India, Nepal, Tibet and it is a descendant of the Gupta script, along with Siddham and Sharada. Medieval inscriptions suggest widespread diffusion of the Nagari-related scripts, with biscripts presenting local script along with the adoption of Nagari scripts, the 7th-century Tibetan king Srong-tsan-gambo ordered that all foreign books be transcribed into the Tibetan language. Other closely related scripts such as Siddham Matrka was in use in Indonesia, Vietnam, Japan, Sharada remained in parallel use in Kashmir. Nāgarī is the Sanskrit feminine of Nāgara relating or belonging to a town or city and it is a phrasing with lipi as nāgarī lipi script relating to a city, or spoken in city. The use of the name devanāgarī is relatively recent, and the older term nāgarī is still common, the rapid spread of the term devanāgarī may be related to the almost exclusive use of this script to publish Sanskrit texts in print since the 1870s. As a Brahmic abugida, the principle of Devanagari is that each letter represents a consonant. This is usually written in Latin as a, though it is represented as in the International Phonetic Alphabet, the letter क is read ka, the two letters कन are kana, the three कनय are kanaya, etc. This cancels the inherent vowel, so that from क्नय knaya is derived क्नय् knay, the halant is often used for consonant clusters when typesetting conjunct ligatures is not feasible. Consonant clusters are written with ligatures, for example, the three consonants क्, न्, and य्, when written consecutively without virāma form कनय, as shown above. Alternatively, they may be joined as clusters to form क्नय knaya, कन्य kanya and this system was originally created for use with the Middle Indo-Aryan languages, which have a very limited number of clusters. When applied to Sanskrit, however, it added a deal of complexity to the script
2.
Sanskrit
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Sanskrit is the primary liturgical language of Hinduism, a philosophical language of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, and a literary language and lingua franca of ancient and medieval South Asia. As a result of transmission of Hindu and Buddhist culture to Southeast Asia and parts of Central Asia, as one of the oldest Indo-European languages for which substantial written documentation exists, Sanskrit holds a prominent position in Indo-European studies. The body of Sanskrit literature encompasses a rich tradition of poetry and drama as well as scientific, technical, philosophical, the compositions of Sanskrit were orally transmitted for much of its early history by methods of memorization of exceptional complexity, rigor, and fidelity. Thereafter, variants and derivatives of the Brahmi script came to be used, Sanskrit is today one of the 22 languages listed in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India, which mandates the Indian government to develop the language. It continues to be used as a ceremonial language in Hindu religious rituals and Buddhist practice in the form of hymns. The Sanskrit verbal adjective sáṃskṛta- may be translated as refined, elaborated, as a term for refined or elaborated speech, the adjective appears only in Epic and Classical Sanskrit in the Manusmṛti and the Mahabharata. The pre-Classical form of Sanskrit is known as Vedic Sanskrit, with the language of the Rigveda being the oldest and most archaic stage preserved, Classical Sanskrit is the standard register as laid out in the grammar of Pāṇini, around the fourth century BCE. Sanskrit, as defined by Pāṇini, evolved out of the earlier Vedic form, the present form of Vedic Sanskrit can be traced back to as early as the second millennium BCE. Scholars often distinguish Vedic Sanskrit and Classical or Pāṇinian Sanskrit as separate dialects, although they are quite similar, they differ in a number of essential points of phonology, vocabulary, grammar and syntax. Vedic Sanskrit is the language of the Vedas, a collection of hymns, incantations and theological and religio-philosophical discussions in the Brahmanas. Modern linguists consider the metrical hymns of the Rigveda Samhita to be the earliest, for nearly 2000 years, Sanskrit was the language of a cultural order that exerted influence across South Asia, Inner Asia, Southeast Asia, and to a certain extent East Asia. A significant form of post-Vedic Sanskrit is found in the Sanskrit of Indian epic poetry—the Ramayana, the deviations from Pāṇini in the epics are generally considered to be on account of interference from Prakrits, or innovations, and not because they are pre-Paninian. Traditional Sanskrit scholars call such deviations ārṣa, meaning of the ṛṣis, in some contexts, there are also more prakritisms than in Classical Sanskrit proper. There were four principal dialects of classical Sanskrit, paścimottarī, madhyadeśī, pūrvi, the predecessors of the first three dialects are attested in Vedic Brāhmaṇas, of which the first one was regarded as the purest. In the 2001 Census of India,14,035 Indians reported Sanskrit to be their first language, in India, Sanskrit is among the 14 original languages of the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution. The state of Uttarakhand in India has ruled Sanskrit as its official language. In October 2012 social activist Hemant Goswami filed a petition in the Punjab. More than 3,000 Sanskrit works have been composed since Indias independence in 1947, much of this work has been judged of high quality, in comparison to both classical Sanskrit literature and modern literature in other Indian languages
3.
Lakshmi
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Lakshmi is the Hindu goddess of wealth, fortune and prosperity. She is the wife and shakti of Vishnu, a god in Hinduism. Lakshmi is also an important deity in Jainism and found in Jain temples, Lakshmi was also a goddess of abundance and fortune for Buddhists, and was represented on the oldest surviving stupas and cave temples of Buddhism. In Buddhist sects of Tibet, Nepal and southeast Asia, goddess Vasudhara mirrors the characteristics, Lakshmi is also called Sri or Thirumagal because she is endowed with six auspicious and divine qualities, or gunas, and is the divine strength of Vishnu. In Hindu religion, she was born from the churning of the primordial ocean, when Vishnu descended on the Earth as the avatars Rama and Krishna, Lakshmi descended as his respective consort Sita and Rukmini. In the ancient scriptures of India, all women are declared to be embodiments of Lakshmi, the marriage and relationship between Lakshmi and Vishnu as wife and husband is the paradigm for rituals and ceremonies for the bride and groom in Hindu weddings. Lakshmi is considered another aspect of the supreme goddess principle in the Shaktism tradition of Hinduism. She typically stands or sits like a yogin on a pedestal and holds lotus in her hand. Her iconography shows her with four hands, which represent the four goals of life considered important to the Hindu way of life, dharma, kāma, artha. Archaeological discoveries and ancient coins suggest the recognition and reverence for Lakshmi by the 1st millennium BCE, Lakshmis iconography and statues have also been found in Hindu temples throughout southeast Asia, estimated to be from the second half of the 1st millennium CE. The festivals of Diwali and Sharad Purnima are celebrated in her honor, Lakshmi is one of many Hindu deities whose meaning and significance evolved in ancient Sanskrit texts. Lakshmi is mentioned once in Rigveda, but the context suggests that the word does not mean goddess of wealth and fortune, the good are welcomed, while the bad urged to leave. In some chapters of Atharva Veda, Lakshmi connotes the good, later, Lakshmi is referred to as the goddess of fortune, identified with Sri and regarded as wife of Viṣṇu. For example, in Shatapatha Brahmana, variously estimated to be composed between 800 BCE and 300 BCE, Sri is part of one of many theories, in ancient India, about the creation of universe. In Book 9 of Shatapatha Brahmana, Sri emerges from Prajapati, after his meditation on creation of life. Sri is described as beautiful, resplendent and trembling woman at her birth with immense energy, the gods were bewitched, desire her and immediately become covetous of her. The gods approach Prajapati and request permission to kill her and then take her powers, Prajapati refuses, tells the gods that males should not kill females and that they can seek her gifts without violence. The hymns of Shatapatha Brahmana thus describe Sri as a goddess born with and personifying a diverse range of talents, in the Epics of Hinduism, such as in Mahabharata, Lakshmi personifies wealth, riches, beauty, happiness, loveliness, grace, charm and splendour
4.
Hindu texts
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Hindu texts are manuscripts and historic literature related to any of the diverse traditions within Hinduism. A few texts are shared resources across these traditions and broadly considered as Hindu scriptures and these include the Vedas and the Upanishads. There are two classifications of Hindu texts, Shruti – that which is heard, and Smriti – that which is remembered. The Śruti refers to the body of most authoritative, ancient religious texts, without any author and it includes the four Vedas including its four types of embedded texts - the Samhitas, the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas and the early Upanishads. The Smriti texts are a body of Hindu texts attributed to an author. Many ancient and medieval Hindu texts were composed in Sanskrit, many others in regional Indian languages, in modern times, most ancient texts have been translated into other Indian languages and some in Western languages. This verbal tradition of preserving and transmitting Hindu texts, from one generation to next, the Vedas are a large body of Hindu texts originating in ancient India, before about 300 BCE. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature, hindus consider the Vedas to be apauruṣeya, which means not of a man, superhuman and impersonal, authorless. Vedas are also called śruti literature, distinguishing them from religious texts. The Veda, for orthodox Indian theologians, are considered revelations, in the Hindu Epic the Mahabharata, the creation of Vedas is credited to Brahma. There are four Vedas, the Rigveda, the Yajurveda, the Samaveda, each Veda has been subclassified into four major text types – the Samhitas, the Aranyakas, the Brahmanas, and the Upanishads. The Upanishads are a collection of Hindu texts which contain some of the philosophical concepts of Hinduism. The Upanishads are commonly referred to as Vedānta, variously interpreted to either the last chapters, parts of the Veda or the object. The concepts of Brahman and Ātman are central ideas in all the Upanishads, the Upanishads are the foundation of Hindu philosophical thought and its diverse traditions. Of the Vedic corpus, they alone are known. More than 200 Upanishads are known, of which the first dozen or so are the oldest and most important and are referred to as the principal or main Upanishads. The mukhya Upanishads are found mostly in the part of the Brahmanas and Aranyakas and were, for centuries, memorized by each generation. The early Upanishads all predate the Common Era, some in all likelihood pre-Buddhist, of the remainder, some 95 Upanishads are part of the Muktika canon, composed from about the start of common era through medieval Hinduism
5.
Ramayana
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The Ramayana is an ancient Indian epic poem which narrates the struggle of the divine prince Rama to rescue his wife Sita from the demon king Ravana. Along with the Mahabharata, it forms the Sanskrit Itihasa, the Ramayana is one of the largest ancient epics in world literature. It consists of nearly 24,000 verses, divided into seven Kandas, in Hindu tradition, it is considered to be the adi-kavya. It depicts the duties of relationships, portraying characters like the ideal father, the ideal servant, the ideal brother, the ideal wife. The Ramayana was an important influence on later Sanskrit poetry and Hindu life, like the Mahabharata, the Ramayana is not just a story, it presents the teachings of ancient Hindu sages in narrative allegory, interspersing philosophical and ethical elements. The name Ramayana is a compound of the name Rāma and ayana. According to Hindu tradition—and according to the Ramayana itself—the epic belongs to the genre of itihasa like Mahabharata, the definition of itihāsa is a narrative of past events which includes teachings on the goals of human life. According to Hindu tradition, Ramayana takes place during a period of known as Treta Yuga. In its extant form, Valmikis Ramayana is a poem of some 24,000 verses. The text survives in several thousand partial and complete manuscripts, the oldest of which is a manuscript found in Nepal. A Times of India report dated 18 December 2015 informs about discovery of a 6th-century manuscript of the Ramayana at the Asiatic Society library, the Ramayana text has several regional renderings, recensions and subrecensions. Goldman differentiates two major regional recensions, the northern and the southern, scholar Romesh Chunder Dutt writes that the Ramayana, like the Mahabharata, is a growth of centuries, but the main story is more distinctly the creation of one mind. There has been discussion as to whether the first and the last chapters of Valmikis Ramayana were composed by the original author. Most Hindus still believe they are parts of the book, in spite of some style differences. Some cultural evidence, such as the presence of sati in Mahabharata but not in the body of Ramayana. By tradition, the text belongs to the Treta Yuga, second of the four eons of Hindu chronology, Rama is said to have been born in the Treta yuga to king Dasharatha in the Ikshvaku dynasty. The names of the characters are all known in late Vedic literature, however, nowhere in the surviving Vedic poetry is there a story similar to the Ramayana of Valmiki. Also, in the epic Mahabharata, there is a version of Ramayana known as Ramopakhyana and this version is depicted as a narration to Yudhishthira
6.
Maithil
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The Maithil homeland forms an important part of Hindu mythology as it is said to be the birthplace of Sita, the wife of Ram. Pure Maithil culture is said to be found in the villages of Madhubani district in Bihar, Mithila first gained prominence after being settled by Indo-Aryan peoples who established the Videha kingdom. During the late Vedic period, Videha became one of the political and cultural centers of South Asia, along with Kuru. The Kings of the Videha Kingdom where called Janakas, the Videha Kingdom later became incorporated into the Vajji confederacy which was based in Mithila. From the 11th century to the 20th century, Mithila was ruled by various indigenous dynasties, the first of these where the Karnatas who where of Parmar Rajput origin, the Oinwar dynasty who where Maithil Brahmins and the Khandavalas of Raj Darbhanga who where also Maithil Brahmins. It was during this period that the capital of Mithila was shifted to Darbhanga, Maithils are those who reside of North of the Ganges, based around Darbhanga and the rest of North Bihar. Maithili speaking districts that are inhabited by Maithils in India are Muzzafarpur, Sitamarhi, Darbhanga, Saharsa, Purnea, Madhepura, Supaul, Madhubani, Darbhanga in particular played an important role in the history of Mithila and is considered one of its core centers. It was the center of Raj Darbhanga who ruled most of the region, Madhubani was also where Madhubani paintings originated from which is a major part of Maithil culture. Sitamarhi is claimed by many to be the birthplace of Goddess Sita with Sitakund being a pilgrimage site. Most of the region from Jhapa to Parsa in Nepal form Nepalese Mithila and this area was part of the kingdom of Videha, with its capital at Janakpur. The kingdom appears in the Ramayana, according to it and other ancient texts, it is the birthplace of Janaka, many people claim Janakpur to be the birthplace of Goddess Sita also but this is disputed as many consider Sitamarhi as Her birthplace. Maithils in Nepal have been working towards a Free Maithil state, many ethnic groups and castes inhabit the Mithila region, these include Maithil Brahmins, Rajputs, Bhumihars, Karan Kayasthas, Ahirs, Kurmis, Koeris, Baniyas and many more. Maithil Brahmins are the Hindu Brahmin community of the Mithila region and they are one of the five Pancha-Gauda Brahmin communities. They are also noted for panjis, the genealogical records maintained for the last twenty-four generations. Rajputs are scattered throughout the region and are divided into various sub-clans with the most prominent being the Gandhawarias who ruled estates mainly in Saharsa, the Rajputs of Mithila maintain social and marital relations with Rajputs in other states. It is an ancient language, from which Nepali, Bengali, the script of the inscription is little different from modern Maithili script. However, during the 20th century most Maithili writers gradually adopted Devanagari script for Maithili, some traditional pandits still use Tirhutā or Mithilākshara script for pātā. Fonts for this script were developed in 2003, historically most Maithils never left their homeland – a life that kept them isolated in their own localities
7.
Indo-Aryan people
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Indo-Aryan peoples are a diverse Indo-European ethnolinguistic group of speakers of Indo-Aryan languages. There are over one billion native speakers of Indo-Aryan languages, most of them native to South Asia and these migrations started approximately 1,800 BCE, after the invention of the war chariot, and also brought Indo-Aryan languages into the Levant and possibly Inner Asia. 1800–1400 BCE in the steppes around the Aral sea, present-day Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan, the proto-Indo-Iranians were influenced by the Bactria-Margiana Culture, south of the Andronovo culture, from which they borrowed their distinctive religious beliefs and practices. The Indo-Aryans split off around 1800-1600 BCE from the Iranians, whereafter the Indo-Aryans migrated into the Levant, horseplay at Harappa - People Fas Harvard - Harvard University A tale of two horses - Frontline
8.
Diwali
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Diwali or Deepavali is the Hindu festival of lights celebrated every year in autumn in the northern hemisphere. It is a holiday in Fiji, Guyana, India, Malaysia, Mauritius, Myanmar, Nepal, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago. One of the most popular festivals of Hinduism, it signifies the victory of light over darkness, good over evil, knowledge over ignorance. Its celebration includes millions of lights shining on housetops, outside doors and windows, around temples, in the Gregorian calendar, Diwali night falls between mid-October and mid-November. Before Diwali night, people clean, renovate, and decorate their homes and offices, after puja, fireworks follow, then a family feast including mithai, and an exchange of gifts between family members and close friends. Deepavali also marks a major shopping period in nations where it is celebrated, the name of festive days as well as the rituals of Diwali vary significantly among Hindus, based on the region of India. Dhanteras usually falls eighteen days after Dussehra, Diwali or Sanskrit dīpāvali means series of lights, and is derived from dīpam light, lamp and oli glow of light. Diwali is also known as festival of lights. Diwali dates back to ancient times in India, as a festival after the summer harvest in the Hindu calendar month of Kartika. The diyas are mentioned in Skanda Purana to symbolically represent parts of sun, the giver of light and energy to all life. Hindus in some regions of India associate Diwali with the legend of Yama, the Nachiketa story about right versus wrong, true wealth versus transient wealth, knowledge versus ignorance is recorded in Katha Upanishad composed in 1st millennium BC. King Harsha in the 7th century Sanskrit play Nagananda mentions Deepavali as Deepapratipadutsava, the Persian traveller and historian Al Biruni, in his 11th century memoir on India, wrote of Deepavali being celebrated by Hindus on New Moon day of the month of Kartika. Diwali is one of the happiest holidays in India and Nepal with significant preparations, people clean their homes and decorate them for the festivities. People also buy gifts for family members and friends which typically include sweets, dry fruits and it is also the period when children hear ancient stories, legends about battles between good and evil or light and darkness from their parents and elders. Girls and women go shopping and create rangoli and other creative patterns on floors, near doors, youth and adults alike help with lighting and preparing for patakhe. There is significant variation in practices and rituals. Depending on the region, prayers are offered one or more deities, with most common being Lakshmi – the goddess of wealth. On Diwali night, fireworks light up the neighborhood skies, later, family members and invited friends celebrate the night over food and sweets
9.
Dussehra
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Vijayadasami, also known as Dussehra, is a major Hindu festival celebrated at the end of Navratri every year. It is observed on the full day in the Hindu calendar month of Ashvin. Vijayadasami is observed for different reasons and celebrated differently in various parts of the Indian subcontinent, in the eastern and northeastern states of India, Vijayadashami marks the end of Durga Puja, remembering goddess Durgas victory over the buffalo demon to help restore Dharma. In the northern, southern and western states, the festival is synonymously called Dussehra, elsewhere, on Dussehra, the towering effigies of Ravana symbolizing the evil is burnt with fireworks marking evils destruction. The festival also starts the preparation for one of the most important and widely celebrated Diwali, the festival of lights, which is celebrated twenty days after the Vijayadashami. Vijayadashami is a composite of two words Vijaya and Dashami, which respectively mean victory and tenth, connoting the festival on the day celebrating the victory of good over evil. The same Hindu festival-related term, however, takes different forms in different regions of India and Nepal, according to James Lochtefeld, the word Dussehra is a variant of Dashahara which a compound Sanskrit word meaning ten days. According to Monier Williams, Dus meaning bad, evil, sinful and Hara means removing, destroying, connoting removing the bad, destroying the evil, in most of northern and western India, Dasha-Hara is celebrated in honour of Rama. The effigies are burnt on bonfires in the evening of Vijayadashami-Dussehra, while Dussehra is observed on the same day across India, the festivities leading to it varies. The performance arts tradition during the Dussehra festival was inscribed by UNESCO as one of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity in 2008, the festivities, states UNESCO, include songs, narration, recital and dialogue based on the Hindu text Ramacharitmanas by Tulsidas. In many parts, the audience and villagers join in and participate spontaneously, some helping the artists, others helping with stage set up, create make-up, effigies and lights. These arts come to a close on the night of Dussehra, Kullu Dussehra is celebrated in the Kullu valley of Himachal Pradesh, and is regionally notable for its large fair and parade witnessed by estimated half a million people. The festival is a symbol of victory of good over evil by Raghu Nath, the special feature of the Kullu Dussehra procession is the arrival of floats containing deities from different parts of the nearby regions and their journey to Kullu. Vijayadasami is celebrated in a variety of ways in South India, celebrations range from worshipping Durga, lighting up temples and major forts such as at Mysore, to displaying colorful figurines, known as a golu. The festival played a role in the 14th-century Vijayanagara Empire. The Italian traveller Niccolò de Conti described the intensity and importance as a grandeur religious. The event revered Durga as the warrior goddess, the celebrations hosted athletic competitions, singing and dancing, fireworks, a pageantry military parade and charitable giving to the public. The city of Mysore has traditionally been a center of Dussehra-Vijayadashami celebrations
10.
India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
11.
Janakpur
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Janakpur is the capital of Dhanusa District in Nepal. The city is a centre for religious and cultural tourism, the city is also known as Janakpurdham, which was founded in the early 18th century. According to oral tradition, an earlier city existed in the area, also known as Janakpurdham, the city is located about 123 km south-east of Kathmandu. As of 2015, the city had a population of 169,287, the Nepal Railways operates between Janakpur and India. Accounts of ascetics, pandits and bards indicate that Janakpurdham was founded in the early 18th century, the earliest description of Janakpurdham as a pilgrimage site dates to 1805. Earlier archaeological evidence of the presence of an ancient city has not been found, according to the Hindu epic Ramayana, King Janak of Videhas palace was located in ancient Janakpur, the capital of the Videha Kingdom. He is said to have found a girl in a furrow, called her Sita. When she was older, he offered her in marriage to anyone who was able to lift the bow of Shiva, many royal suitors tried, but only Rama, prince of Ayodhya, could lift the bow. According to an old song, this bow was found northeast of Janakpur, until the 1950s, Janakpur was a cluster of rural hamlets inhabited by farmers, artisans, priests and clerks who worked for the monasteries that controlled the land. After independence in India, Janakpur expanded to a commercial centre, as Rama and Sita are major figures in Hinduism, Janakpur is an important pilgrimage site for Hindus all over the world. As Gotama Rahugana composed many hymns of the Rigveda, these events must date to the Regvedic period, gautama Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, and Vardhamana Mahavira, the 24th and final Tirthankara of the Jain religion, are said to have lived in Janakpur. The region was an important centre for history of Mithila during the first millennium, the major rivers surrounding Janakpur are Dudhmati, Jalad, Rato, Balan and Kamala. Janakpur is one of the fast developing cities of Nepal, and is the fifth city of Nepal. The city has good health care facilities, and a number of parks as well as private schools, colleges. There are medical and engineering colleges which are affiliated to the Tribhuvan University, the economy is mostly based on tourism, agriculture and local industries. The paintings on pottery, walls and courtyards made by Maithili women are known as Madhubani art, Janakpur attracts migrants from the surrounding area, moving to the city for medical care, education and jobs. The largest employer was the Janakpur Cigarette Factory Limited and Janakpur Railway until 2013, Nepal Railways is the only operational railway in Nepal. It connects Janakpur to the Indian border at Siraha on the Nepal side with a checkpoint for goods
12.
Nepal
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Nepal, officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal, is a landlocked central Himalayan country in South Asia. Nepal is divided into 7 provinces and 75 districts and 744 local units including 4 metropolises,13 sub-metropolises,246 municipal councils and 481 village and it has a population of 26.4 million and is the 93rd largest country by area. Bordering China in the north and India in the south, east, Nepal does not border Bangladesh, which is located within only 27 km of its southeastern tip. It neither borders Bhutan due to the Indian state of Sikkim being located in between, Nepal has a diverse geography, including fertile plains, subalpine forested hills, and eight of the worlds ten tallest mountains, including Mount Everest, the highest point on Earth. Kathmandu is the capital and largest city. It is a nation with Nepali as the official language. The territory of Nepal has a history since the Neolithic age. The name Nepal is first recorded in texts from the Vedic Age, the era which founded Hinduism, in the middle of the first millennium BCE, Gautama Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, was born in southern Nepal. Parts of northern Nepal were intertwined with the culture of Tibet, the Kathmandu Valley in central Nepal became known as Nepal proper because of its complex urban civilization. It was the seat of the prosperous Newar confederacy known as Nepal Mandala, the Himalayan branch of the ancient Silk Road was dominated by the valleys traders. The cosmopolitan region developed distinct traditional art and architecture, by the 18th century, the Gorkha Kingdom achieved the unification of Nepal. The Shah dynasty established the Kingdom of Nepal and later formed an alliance with the British Empire, the country was never colonized but served as a buffer state between Imperial China and Colonial India. In the 20th century, Nepal ended its isolation and forged ties with regional powers. Parliamentary democracy was introduced in 1951, but was suspended by Nepalese monarchs in 1960 and 2005. The Nepalese Civil War resulted in the proclamation of a republic in 2008, modern Nepal is a federal secular parliamentary republic. Nepal is a nation, ranking 144th on the Human Development Index in 2016. The country struggles with the transition from a monarchy to a republic and it also suffers from high levels of hunger and poverty. Despite these challenges, Nepal is making progress, with the government declaring its commitment to elevate the nation from least developed country status by 2022
13.
Videha
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Videha was an ancient kingdom in Vedic India established by King Janaka and based in Mithila, India. The kingdoms trans-boundary is presently located in Mithila region of Northern Bihar of India, according to the sacred Ramayana, the capital of Videha kingdom is mentioned as Mithila. During the late Vedic period, Videha became one of the political and cultural centers of South Asia, along with Kuru. Raychaudhuri suggests 14th- to 8th-century BCE range, while Witzel suggests c.900 to 500 BCE for the Brahmanas, the Vedic school of Aitareyins probably moved to Videha and other centers of scholarship, during the late Vedic period. The region and culture of Videha is often mention in Hindu literature, the texts mention the idea of royal dynasty and the tradition of philosopher-kings who renounce, with examples including Nami, Janaka and other kings. King Nimi or Nami of Videha is included as the 21st of the twenty four Tirthankaras in Jainism, towards the end of the Vedic period, Videha likely became part of the Vriji confederation and subsequently into the Magadha empire. The Videha kingdom is mentioned in the Sanskrit epics, the Mahabharata. In the Ramayana, Sita is the princess from Videha, who marries Rama creating an alliance between the kingdoms of Kosala and Videha, the capital of Videha was in Janakpur, a town presently located in Southern Nepal
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Lava (Ramayana)
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Lava or Luv and his twin brother Kusha, were the children of Lord Rama and his wife Sita, whose story is recounted in the Hindu epic Ramayana. Lava was elder of the two and is said to have wheatish golden complexion like their mother, while Kusha had blueish complexion like their father, Lava is purported to have founded Lavapuri, that is, the modern day city of Lahore, which is named after him. The Southeast Asian country Laos and the Thai city Lopburi were both named after him, the Sikarwar Rajputs, Awadhiya and Leva Patidar are present-day Indo-Aryan ethnic groups who claim to be descendants of Lava. Lava belongs to the Ikshvaku clan or Suryavansh Dynasty of Kshatriyas in ancient India, Lavan was born Normally with the assistance of the women of the forest Sita was forced to live in during the excile period. The story of Kushan is magical, one day Sita went out to get water, so she asked sage Valmiki to watch her son, Lavan. While getting the water Sita realized that the sage wouldnt properly watch her son, Sita knew the forest was a dangerous place and that lions and tigers could take her child while she was away. Sita then ran to the sage, relieved that her son, the sage was reciting poems, as she thought. She didnt want to interrupt the chant the sage was doing so she took Lavan without waking the sage, when the sage awoke he was completely unaware Sita had taken Lavan. The sage panicked and knew that Sita would be depressed if her son was missing or eaten by a beast. Knowing that she would panick the sage sung another chant to create another child to place of Lavan. Valmki then put a needle used to write and put it in the crib Lavan was in. He hoped Sita wouldnt tell the difference, later on, Sita found the sage at the same spot and was confused to see another child in the crib. So she woke the sage and asked him what happened, the sage Valmki then told Sita the truth. Sita did not want to abandon the child so she named him Kushan and raised him as her own son, then Lavan and Kushan were known as twins. According to Ramayana, Sita was banished from the kingdom of Ayodhya by Rama due to the gossip of kingdom folk and she took refuge in the ashram of Sage Valmiki located on the banks of the Tamsa river. Lava and Kusha were born at the ashram and were educated and trained in military skills under the tutelage of Valmiki and they also learned the story of Rama. Lava and Kusha became rulers after their father Rama and founded the cities of Lahore, the king of Kosala Raghava Rama installed his son Lava at Sravasti and Kusha at Kushavati. There is a associated with Lava inside Shahi Qila, Lahore
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Kusha (Ramayana)
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Kusha and his twin brother Lava were the children of Rama and his wife Sita, whose story is recounted in the Hindu epic Ramayana. He was the ruler of the kingdom centered at Kasur in ancient times and his brother Lava is purported to be the founder of Lahore. The imperial line that ruled Varanasi and the Maurya Empire, which ruled the Indian subcontinent from 320-185 BCE, Kusha is said to be an Ikshvaku. According to Ramayana, pregnant Sita was banished from the kingdom of Ayodhya by Rama due to the gossip and she then took refuge in the ashram of the sage Valmiki located on the banks of the Tamsa River. In some versions Sita gave birth to twin sons, when Rama performed the Ashvamedha Yagya, which the sage Valmiki, with Lava and Kusha, attended, Lava and Kusha sung the Ramayana in the presence of Rama and his vast audience. When Lava and Kusha recited about Sitas exile, Rama became grief-stricken, Sita called upon the earth, her mother, to receive her and as the ground opened, she vanished into it. Rama then learnt that Lava and Kusha were his children, in some versions, Lava-Kusha catch the horse of the sacrifice and defeat Ramas brothers and army and when Rama came to fight with them Sita intervenes and unites father and sons. Lava and Kusha became rulers after their father Rama and founded the cities of Lavapuri, Kushavati was a city in Kosala Kingdom as per epic Ramayana. The king of Kosala, Raghava Rama, installed his son Lava at Sravasti, the city is now identified to be Kushinagar, a town near Gorakhpur
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Janaka
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Janaka is the name used to refer to the kings of Videha. The Videha kingdom was located between east of Gandaki River, west of Koshi River, north of Ganga river and south of Himalayas, the region is now divided between the present day Indian state of Bihar and a small part of Province No.2 of Nepal. Janaka Dynasty ruled the Videha kingdom from their capital, Mithila, a certain King Janaka, who probably reigned during the 7th century BCE, is mentioned in the late Vedic literature as a great philosopher-king. A King Janaka is also mentioned in the Ramayana epic, Janaka is the foster father of Sita, the heroine of the Hindu epic Ramayana. His conversation with Ashtavakra is recorded as Ashtavakra Gita, wherein he is depicted as one realised, many spiritual teachers have referred to this writing often translating and deducing its meaning. Under his reign, Videha became a dominant political and cultural center of the Indian subcontinent, Bihar Kings of Mithila Maithils Rama Sita Trikaranasuddhi Urmila Videha Dictionary of Hindu Lord and Legend by Anna Dhallapiccola
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Urmila
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Urmila is a character in the Hindu epic Ramayana. She was daughter of King Janaka of Janakpur and his wife Queen Sunaina and she was wife of Lakshmana, younger brother of Rama. They had two sons - Angada and Chandraketu, when Lakshman went to exile along with Ram and Sita, Urmila was ready to accompany him but he hesitated and asked her to stay back in Ayodhya to take care of his aging parents. Urmila is notable for her unparalleled sacrifice called Urmila Nidra, in Bharatpur district of Rajasthan, there is a temple dedicated to Lakshman and Urmila. The temple was built in 1870 AD by the then ruler Balwant Singh of Bharatpur and is considered as a temple by the royal family of Bharatpur State. When Rama was exiled to the forest for fourteen years on Kaikeyis insistence, Urmila persuaded Lakshmana to permit her to following him into exile but to no avail. Lakshmana reasoned that he will have no time for her in his day and night steadfast service to his brother and he persuaded Urmila that her welfare would be a concern in the forest and could hinder his services to his brother. After much persuasion, Urmila reluctantly agreed to stay back contemplating if she could serve her husband any way possible, as the night fell on the first day of the exile, Lakshmana stood guard over Ram and Sita with a strong resolve not to sleep until the exile ended. As Lakshmana stood guard over his brothers dwelling, a resplendent goddess called Nidra Devi manifested before Lakshmana, on Lakshmanas enquiry, she introduced herself as the Goddess of Sleep and informed him that not sleeping for fourteen years is an act of defiance against nature. Lakshmana requested Nidra Devi for a way out so that he could carry out his Dharma towards his brother, Lakshmana requested Nidra Devi to approach his wife, Urmila, to help him. In South India, Urmila Nidra is a used to refer to deep sleep by a person who cannot be woken easily. Urmila, the sleeping princess - The New Indian Express Lakshmans wife goes to sleep - Devlok Valmiki Ramayana, English verse translation by Desiraju Hanumanta Rao, Ramayana, English verse translation by Ralph T. H. Griffith at the Project Gutenberg
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Shrutakirti
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In Hindu epic Ramayana, Shrutakirti or Shrutkeerti is daughter of king Kushadhwaja and his wife queen Chandrabhaga. Kushadhwaja is brother of king Janaka, whose daughter Sita is married to Rama, shurtakirti is married to Ramas youngest brother Shatrughan. They had two sons-Shatrughati and Subahu and she had an elder sister Mandavi
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Vaishnavism
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Vaishnavism is one of the major traditions within Hinduism along with Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism. It is also called Vishnuism, its followers are called Vaishnavas, the tradition is notable for its avatar doctrine, wherein Vishnu is revered in one of many distinct incarnations. Of these, ten avatars of Vishnu are the most studied, Krishna, Rama, Narayana, Vāsudeva, Hari, Vithoba, Kesava, Madhava, Govinda and Jagannath are among the popular names used for the same supreme. The tradition has traceable roots to the 1st millennium BCE, as Bhagavatism, later developments led by Ramananda created a Rama-oriented movement, now the largest monastic group in Asia. The Vaishnava tradition has many sampradayas ranging from the medieval era Dvaita school of Madhvacharya to Vishishtadvaita school of Ramanuja, new Vaishnavism movements have been founded in the modern era such as the ISKCON of Prabhupada. The tradition is known for the devotion to an avatar of Vishnu. Key texts in Vaishnavism include the Vedas, the Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, the Pancaratra texts, Krishnaism becomes associated with bhakti yoga in the medieval period. Although Vishnu was a Vedic solar deity, he is mentioned less often compared to Agni, Indra and other Vedic deities, other scholars state that there are other Vedic deities, such as water deity Nara, who together form the historical roots of Vaishnavism. The ancient emergence of Vaishnavism is unclear, the evidence inconsistent, according to Dalal, the origins may be in Vedic deity Bhaga, who gave rise to Bhagavatism. According to Preciado-Solís, the Vedic deities Nara and Narayana form one of the Vedic roots of Vaishnavism, according to Dandekar, Vaishnavism may have emerged from merger of several ancient theistic traditions, where the various deities were integrated as different avatars of the same god. In Dandekar theory, Vaishnavism emerged at the end of the Vedic period, closely before the urbanisation of northern India. This earliest phase was established the time of Pāṇini who, in his Astadhyayi and this was followed by a merger with the cult of Gopala-Krsna of the cowherd community of the Abhıras at the 4th century CE. The character of Gopala Krishna is often considered to be non-Vedic, according to Dandekar, such mergers consolidated the position of Krishnaism between the heterodox sramana movement and the orthodox Vedic religion. The Greater Krsnaism, states Dandekar, then merged with the Rigvedic Vishnu, syncretism of various traditions and Vedism resulted in Vaishnavism. At this stage that Vishnu of the Rig Veda was assimilated into non-Vedic Krishnaism, the appearance of Krishna as one of the Avatars of Vishnu dates to the period of the Sanskrit epics in the early centuries CE. The Bhagavad Gita was incorporated into the Mahabharata as a key text for Krishnaism, finally, the Narayana-cult was also included, which further brahmanized Vaishnavism. The Nara-Narayana cult may have originated in Badari, a ridge of the Hindu Kush. Purusa Narayana may have later turned into Arjuna and Krsna
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Vishnu
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Vishnu is one of the principal deities of Hinduism, and the Supreme Being in its Vaishnavism tradition. Along with Brahma and Shiva, Vishnu forms a Hindu trinity, however and his avatars most notably include Krishna in the Mahabharata and Rama in the Ramayana. He is also known as Narayana, Jagannath, Vasudeva, Vithoba and he is one of the five equivalent deities worshipped in Panchayatana puja of the Smarta Tradition of Hinduism. In Hindu inconography, Vishnu is usually depicted as having a dark, or pale blue complexion and having four arms. He holds a padma in his left hand, Kaumodaki gada in his lower right hand, Panchajanya shankha in his upper left hand. A traditional depiction is Lord Vishnu reclining on the coils of Ananta, accompanied by his consort devi Lakshmi, yaska, the mid 1st-millennium BCE Vedanga scholar, in his Nirukta, defines Vishnu as viṣṇur viṣvater vā vyaśnoter vā, one who enters everywhere. He also writes, atha yad viṣito bhavati tad viṣnurbhavati, that which is free from fetters, the medieval Indian scholar Medhātithi suggested that the word Vishnu has etymological roots in viś, meaning to pervade, thereby connoting that Vishnu is one who is everything and inside everything. Vishnu is a Vedic deity, but not a prominent one when compared to Indra, Agni, just 5 out of 1028 hymns of the Rigveda, a 2nd millennium BCE Hindu text, are dedicated to Vishnu, and he finds minor mention in the other hymns. Though a minor mention and with overlapping attributes in the Vedas, he has important characteristics in various hymns of Rig Veda and he is also described in the Vedic literature as the one who supports heaven and earth. In the Vedic hymns, Vishnu is invoked alongside other deities, especially Indra and his distinguishing characteristic in Vedas is his association with light. Two Rigvedic hymns in Mandala 7 refer to Vishnu, in section 7.99 of the Rgveda, Vishnu is addressed as the god who separates heaven and earth, a characteristic he shares with Indra. In the Vedic texts, the deity or god referred to as Vishnu is Surya or Savitr, in hymn 7.99 of Rigveda, Indra-Vishnu are equivalent and produce the sun, with the verses asserting that this sun is the source of all energy and light for all. In other hymns of the Rigveda, Vishnu is a friend of Indra. In the Yajurveda, Taittiriya Aranyaka, Narayana sukta, Narayana is mentioned as the supreme being, the first verse of Narayana Suktam mentions the words paramam padam, which literally mean highest post and may be understood as the supreme abode for all souls. This is also known as Param Dhama, Paramapadam or Vaikuntha, Rig Veda 1.22.20 a also mentions the same paramam padam. In the Atharvaveda, the mythology of a boar who raises goddess earth from the depths of cosmic ocean appears, in post-Vedic mythology, this legend becomes one of the basis of many cosmogonic myth called the Varaha legend, with Varaha as an avatar of Vishnu. Several hymns of the Rigveda repeat the mighty deed of Vishnu called the Trivikrama and it is an inspiration for ancient artwork in numerous Hindu temples such as at the Ellora Caves, which depict the Trivikrama legend through the Vamana avatar of Vishnu. Trivikrama refers to the three steps or three strides of Vishnu
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Krishna
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Krishna is a major Hindu deity. He is one of the most widely revered and popular Indian divinities, worshipped as the incarnation of the Hindu god Vishnu. Krishnas birthday is celebrated every year by Hindus on Janmashtami according to the lunisolar Hindu calendar, Krishna is also known by numerous names, such as Govinda, Mukunda, Madhusudhana, Vasudeva and Makhan chor in affection. The anecdotes and narratives of Krishnas life are generally titled as Krishna Leela and he is a central character in the Bhagavata Purana, the Bhagavad Gita, and is mentioned in many Hindu philosophical, theological and mythological texts. They portray him in various perspectives, a god-child, a prankster, a lover, a divine hero. The synonyms of Krishna have been traced to 1st millennium BCE literature, worship of Krishna as Svayam Bhagavan, sometimes referred to as Krishnaism, arose in the Middle Ages in the context of the Bhakti movement. Krishna-related literature has inspired performance arts such as Bharatnatyam, Kathakali, Kuchipudi, Odissi. Since the 1960s, the worship of Krishna has also spread to the Western world, the name originates from the Sanskrit word Kṛṣṇa, which is primarily an adjective meaning black, dark or dark blue. The waning moon is called Krishna Paksha, relating to the adjective meaning darkening, the name is also interpreted sometimes as all attractive. As a name of Vishnu, Krishna is listed as the 57th name in the Vishnu Sahasranama, based on his name, Krishna is often depicted in idols as black or blue-skinned. Krishna is also known by other names, epithets and titles. Among the most common names are Mohan enchanter, Govinda meaning chief herdsman, Gopala, some of the distinct names may be regionally important—for instance, Jagannatha, a popular incarnation of Puri, Odisha in eastern India. Krishna is represented in the Indian traditions in many ways, with common features. His iconography typically depicts him as black or dark reflecting his name, however ancient and medieval reliefs and stone-based arts depict him in the natural color of the material he is made from, both in India and in southeast Asia. In some texts, his skin is described as the color of Jambul. Krishna is often depicted wearing a peacock feather wreathe or crown, in this form, he usually stands with one leg bent in front of the other in the Tribhanga posture. He is sometimes accompanied by cows or a calf, symbolism for the divine herdsman Govinda, alternatively, he is shown as an amorous man with the gopis, often making music or playing pranks. In other icons, he is a part of the scene on the battlefield of the epic Mahabharata
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Dashavatara
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Dashavatara refers to the ten avatars of Vishnu, the Hindu god of preservation. Vishnu is said to descend in form of an avatar to restore cosmic order, the list of Dashavatara varies across sects and regions. The standard list is as follows, Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Narasimha, Vamana, Parashurama, Rama, Krishna, Buddha, sometimes, Krishna replaces Vishnu as the source of all avatars and Balarama takes Krishnas place in the list. In other versions, Krishna may be dropped from the list and substituted by regional deities like Vithoba, the order of the Dashavataras has been interpreted to be reflective of Darwinian evolution. The word Dashavatara derives from daśa, meaning ten and avatar, God Vishnu incarnates on Earth from time to time to eradicate evil forces, to restore the dharma and to liberate the worthy ones or devotees from the cycle of births and deaths. A similar thread appears in Buddhism, the Pāli Canon refers to 28 Buddhas, while the Mahayana tradition additionally has many Buddhas of celestial origin, for example Amitābha and Vairocana. The time till completion for Kali Yuga is in 427,000 years, at that time, the Supreme Personality of Godhead will appear on the earth. Acting with the power of pure spiritual goodness, He will rescue eternal religion, Matsya, the fish, from the Satya Yuga. Vishnu takes the form of a fish to save Manu from the deluge, after which he takes his boat to the new world along with one of every species of plant and animal, Kurma, the tortoise, from the Satya Yuga. Varaha, the boar, from the Satya Yuga and he appeared to defeat Hiranyaksha, a demon who had taken the Earth, or Prithvi, and carried it to the bottom of what is described as the cosmic ocean in the story. The battle between Varaha and Hiranyaksha is believed to have lasted for a thousand years, which the former finally won, Varaha carried the Earth out of the ocean between his tusks and restored it to its place in the universe. Narasimha, the half-man/half-lion, from the Satya Yuga, Vishnu descended as an anthropomorphic incarnation, with the body of a man and head and claws of a lion. He then disembowels the rakshasa at the threshold of his house, at dusk, with his claws. Vamana, a dwarf, from the Treta Yuga, the fourth descendant of Hiranyakashyap, Bali, with devotion and penance was able to defeat Indra, the god of firmament. This humbled the other deities and extended his authority over the three worlds, the gods appealed to Vishnu for protection and he descended as a boy Vamana. During a yajna of the king, Vamana approached him and Bali promised him for whatever he asked, Vamana asked for three paces of land. Bali agreed, and the dwarf then changed his size to that of a giant and he stepped over heaven in his first stride, and the netherworld with the second. Bali realized that Vamana was Vishnu incarnate, in deference, the king offered his head as the third place for Vamana to place his foot
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Matsya
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Matsya is the avatar of the Hindu god Vishnu in the form of a fish. Often listed as the first avatar in the lists of the ten avatars of Vishnu, Matsya is described to have rescued the first man, Manu. Matsya may be depicted as a giant fish, or anthropomorphically with a human torso connected to the half of a fish. The earliest accounts of the legend associate Matsya with the creator god Prajapati, however, Puranic scriptures incorporate Matsya as an avatar of Vishnu. When the flood destroys the world, Manu - in some versions accompanied by the seven great sages - survives by boarding the ark, which Matsya pulls to safety. In later versions of this story, the sacred texts Vedas are hidden by a demon, whom Matsya slays, Manu is rescued, the tale is in the tradition of the family of flood myths, common across cultures. Matsya is depicted in two forms, as a fish or in an anthropomorphic form. He holds in two of his hands the Sudarshana chakra and a shankha, the weapons of Vishnu. The other two make the gestures of varadamudra, which grants boons to the devotee, and abhayamudra. In another configuration, he might have all four attributes of Vishnu, namely the Sudarshana chakra, a shankha, a gada, the human torso generally wears a shawl and a garland. The shawl, worn over his elbows, may be wrapped such that the switch between the human torso and fish half is hidden, Matsya may be depicted alone or in a scene depicting his combat with a demon. A demon called Shankhasura emerging from a conch is sometimes depicted attacking Matsya with a sword as Matsya combats or kills him. Both of them may be depicted in the ocean, while the god Brahma and/or manuscripts or four men, in some scenes, Matsya is depicted as a fish pulling the boat with Manu and the seven great sages on it. Early accounts of the Deluge equate Matsya with the Vedic deity Prajapati, the Shatapatha Brahmana is the earliest extant text to mention Matsya and the flood myth in Hinduism. It identifies the fish with Prajapati-Brahma, the central characters are the fish and Vaivasvata Manu or Satyavrata who becomes the progenitor of mankind. In this version, Vaivasvata Manu, the legislator and the ancestor of two royal dynasties and who later become the progenitor of mankind. In this version, water is brought to Manu for his ablutions and while Manu was washing and taking bath, the tiny fish appealed to Manu to protect him so that he was not eaten by a bigger fish and in return promised to rescue Manu from an impending flood. The fish requested Manu to keep him in a jar and allow him to grow, as he outgrew the pit to transfer him into the ocean, where as a large fish, he will then become indestructible
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Kurma
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In Hinduism, Kurma is the second Avatar of Vishnu, succeeding Matsya and preceding Varaha. Like Matsya, this also occurred in Satya Yuga. The temples dedicated to Kurma are located in Kurmai, Chittoor district, Andhra Pradesh, scripture indicates that the sage Durvasa had given a garland to Indra, the king of Gods. Indra placed the garland around his elephant, but the animal trampled it, Durvasa then cursed the gods to lose their immortality, strength, and divine powers. After losing the kingdom of heaven, they approached Vishnu for help and he advised that they had to drink the nectar of immortality to regain their glory. To obtain it, they needed to churn the ocean of milk, a body of water so large they needed Mount Mandara as the staff. The Devas were not strong enough to churn on their own, and declared peace with their foes, finally, Mount Mandara churned, but the force was so great the mountain began to sink into the ocean of milk. Taking the form of the turtle Kurma, Vishnu bore the mountain on his back as they churned the waters, fourteen precious things arose from the turbulent ocean, culminating with Dhanvantari, the physician of the gods, who brought with him the nectar of immortality. The Asuras immediately took the nectar, and quarreled amongst themselves, Vishnu then manifested himself as the beautiful Mohini and tricked the Asuras to retrieve the potion, which he then distributed to the Devas. Though the Asuras realized the trick, it was too late—the Devas had regained their powers, the name of the village Kurmai mentioned above originated as there is historical temple of Kurma Varadarajaswamy, god in this village. The temple located in Srikurmam in Srikakulam District, Andhra Pradesh, is also the Avatar of Kurma, Vishnu Media related to Kurma at Wikimedia Commons Hindu Gods, Kurma Indian Divinity, Kurma Avatar
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Varaha
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Varaha is the avatar of the Hindu god Vishnu in the form of a boar. Varaha is listed as third in the Dashavatara, the ten avatars of Vishnu. When the demon Hiranyaksha stole the earth and hid her in the primordial waters, Varaha slew the demon and retrieved the Earth from the ocean, lifting it on his tusks, and restored Bhudevi to her place in the universe. Varaha may be depicted completely as a boar or in a form, with a boars head. His consort, Bhudevi, the earth, is depicted as a young woman. The earth may be depicted as a mass of land too, like Vishnus first two avatars - Matsya and Kurma, the third avatar Varaha is depicted either in zoomorphic form as an animal, or anthropomorphically. The portrayal of the anthropomorphic Varaha is similar to the fourth avatar Narasimha, the sculpture may not resemble a boar realistically, and may have his features altered for stylistic purposes. The earth, personified as the goddess Bhudevi, clings to one of Varahas tusks, often the colossus is decorated by miniature figurines of gods and goddesses and other world creatures appearing all over his body, which signify the whole of creation. Such sculptures are found in Eran, Muradpur, Badoh, Gwalior, Jhansi, in the anthropomorphic form, Varaha often has a stylized boar face, like the zoomorphic models. The position and size of the tusks may also be altered, the ears, cheeks and eyes are generally based on human ones. Early sculptors in Udayagiri and Eran faced the issue of how to attach the head to the human body. However, in Badami, the problem was resolved by including a human neck, while some sculptures show a mane, it is dropped and replaced by a high conical crown - typical of Vishnu iconography - in others. Varaha sculptures generally look up to the right, there are rare instances of left-facing Varaha depictions. Varaha has four arms, two of which hold the Sudarshana chakra and shankha, while the two hold a gada, a sword, or a lotus or one of them makes the varadamudra. Varaha may be depicted with all of Vishnua attributes in his four hands, the Sudarshana chakra, the shankha, the gada, sometimes, Varaha may carry only two of Vishnus attributes, a shankha and the gada personified as a female called Gadadevi. Varaha is often shown with a muscular physique and in a heroic pose and he is often depicted triumphantly emerging from the ocean as he rescues the earth. The earth may be personified as the goddess Bhudevi in Indian sculpture, Bhudevi is often shown as a small figure in the icon. In later Indian paintings, the earth or a part of it is depicted lifted up by Varahas tusks
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Narasimha
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The avatar of Narasingha is evidenced in early epics, iconography, and temple and festival worship for over a millennium. Narasingha is often visualised as having a human torso and lower body, with a lion face and this image is widely worshipped in deity form by a significant number of Vaiṣṇava groups. Vishnu assumed this form on top of Himvat mountain and he is known primarily as the Great Protector who specifically defends and protects his devotees in times of need. Vishnu is believed to have taken the avatar to destroy the demon king Hiranyakashipu, the word Narasimha means lion-man/half man and half lion. There is also a reference in the Mahābhārata and a Gopāla Tapani Upaniṣad. The Ṛg Veda contains an epithet that has been attributed to Narasiṃha, the half-man, half-lion avatāra is described as, like some wild beast, dread, prowling, mountain-roaming. There is an allusion to a Namuci story in RV. VIII14.13, With waters foam you tore off, Indra and this short reference is believed to have culminated in the full puranic story of Narasiṃha. Bhagavata Purāṇa describes that Vishnu, in his previous avatar as Varāha, the younger brother of Hirṇayakṣa, Hiraṇyakaśipu, wanted revenge on Vishnu and his followers. He undertook many years of penance to take revenge on Viṣṇu, Brahma thus offers the demon a boon. Brahma replies that he himself is not immortal, so he cant grant immortality to anyone else. O my lord, O best of the givers of benediction, if you will grant me the benediction I desire. Grant me that I not die within any residence or outside any residence, during the daytime or at night, grant me that my death not be brought about by any weapon, nor by any human being or animal. Grant me that I not meet death from any entity, living or nonliving created by you, grant me, further, that I not be killed by any demigod or demon or by any great snake from the lower planets. Since no one can kill you in the battlefield, you have no competitor, therefore, grant me the benediction that I too may have no rival. Give me sole lordship over all the entities and presiding deities. Furthermore, give me all the mystic powers attained by long austerities, Hiraṇyakaśipu was happy thinking that he had won over death. Prior to this, while Hiraṇyakaśipu was performing austerities at Mandarācala Mountain, his home was attacked by Indra, at this point the Devarṣi Nārada intervenes to protect Kayādu, whom he describes as sinless. Thus, Prahlāda later begins to show symptoms of this training by Nārada, gradually becoming recognised as a devoted follower of Viṣṇu
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Vamana
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Vamana is described in the Puranas as the fifth avatar of Vishnu, and the first incarnation of the Second Age or Treta yuga. Vamana = a dwarf Upendra = younger brother of Indra Trivikrama = one who strode over the three worlds in three steps Aditi took Payovrata to propitiate Lord Vishnu, as a result, Vamana was born to Aditi and Kashyapa. He is the twelfth of the Adityas, the Bhagavata Purana describes that Vishnu descended as the Vamana avatar to restore the authority of Indra over the heavens, as it had been taken by Mahabali, a benevolent Asura King. Bali was the grandson of Hiranyakshipu, the grand son of Prahlada. Vamana, in the guise of a short Brahmin carrying a wooden umbrella, Mahabali consented, against the warning of his guru, Sukracharya. Vamana then revealed his identity and enlarged to gigantic proportions to stride over the three worlds and he stepped from heaven to earth with the first step, from earth to the netherworld with the second. King Mahabali, unable to fulfill his promise, offered his head for the third, Vamana then placed his foot and gave the king immortality for his humility. He was also allowed to return year to see the citizens of his country. The festival of Onam for some and first day of Diwali for some is related to this return of Mahabali, Mahabali is seen as a symbol of prosperity and love. In worshiping Mahabali and his ancestor Prahláda, he conceded sovereignty of Pátála, some texts also report that Vamana did not step into the netherworld, and instead gave its rule to Bali. In giant form, Vamana is known as Trivikrama
28.
Parasurama
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Parashurama is the sixth avatar of Vishnu in Hinduism. He is the son of Renuka and one of the saptarishis and he lived during the last Treta and Dvapara Yugas and is one of the Chiranjivi of Hinduism. Parashurama, a Brahmin, received his famous axe after undertaking terrible penance to please Shiva, Parashurama is most known for ridding the world of kshatriyas twenty-one times over after the mighty king Kartavirya Arjuna, not the famous one of Mahabharata, killed his father. As per the Mahabharata, Parashurama single-handedly successfully conquered the entire world, Parashurama conducted hundreds of Ashvamedhas and gave away the entire earth he conquered as alms to sage Kashyapa. He plays important roles in the Mahabharata and Ramayana, serving as mentor to Bhishma, Parashurama and Indrajit are believed to be the only humans who ever possessed the three ultimate weapons, the Brahmanda astra, Vaishnava astra and Pashupatastra. Parashurama was a disciple of Shiva and learned the scriptures and the arts of warfare from Shiva and he then acquired celestial weapons from Shiva and the other gods on Shivas instructions. Shiva personally trained Parashurama for decades in the art of warfare. The Bhargavastra was his personal celestial weapon, Parashurama also fought back the advancing seas to save the lands of Konkan and Kerala. Parashurama is worshipped as mūlapuruṣa, or male ancestral founder by some Anavil, Dravidulu, Bhumihar, Tyagi, Chitpavan, along with the sages Vyasa, Kripa and Dronas son Ashwatthama, Parashurama is considered to be foremost among the rishis in the Kaliyuga. Parashurama will also become one of the saptarishi in the 8th Manvantara, Parashurama is a mighty Maharathi and he will reappear as the martial instructor of Vishnus 10th avatar Kalki. The word Parashurama is derived from two words parashu meaning axe and rama, so literally, the word Parashurama means Rama with an axe. Though a Brahmin by birth, Parashurama expressed unusual interest in weapons, afterwards, Parashurama devoted himself in serving his parents and brothers, helping Jamadagni to run his hermitage. According to the Brahmanda Purana, when Parashurama was a teenager, Jamadagni permitted his son and Parashurama visited Richika in his hermitage. Richika and his wife welcomed him and Parashurama stayed with them for a few months, serving them, curious about his ancestors, Parashurama went to the hermitage of Richikas father Aurva and a few months later, he went to Aurvas father, Chyavana. Parashurama was devoted to them and they too gave him knowledge, many months later, Chyavana told Parashurama to meet his own father, Sage Bhrigu, the very progenitor of the Bhargava race himself. With Chyavanas instructions, Parashurama was able to enter Bhrigus hermitage, Parashurama lived with Bhrigu for many months and Bhrigu trained his descendant in performing harsh penances. Lord Shiva was pleased with this, and appeared before him, Parashurama expressed his desire to obtain celestial weapons and skills in warfare from the God. Shiva told him that he would grant the boon only when Parashurama proved himself to be a worthy soul, Shiva told Parashurama to undertake a Tirtha Yatra or holy pilgrimage. After years of penances, Shiva was pleased with Parashuramas devotion, Shiva ordered Parashurama to slay the Daityas and Danavas who were the enemies of the Devas, to which the latter agreed
29.
Balarama
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Balarama, also known as Baladeva, Balabhadra and Halayudha, is the elder brother of Krishna and is regarded generally as an avatar of Shesha. He is also considered as the Sankarshana form of Vishnu. He may have originated in Vedic times as a deity of agriculture, in Jainism, he is known as Baladeva. He is often depicted with a cup, pitcher, shield. The evil king Kansa, the brother of Devaki, was intent upon killing the children of his sister because of a prediction that he would die at the hands of her eighth son. Vishnu then impregnated the belly of Devaki with two strands of hair, one black, one white, to ensure their safety, their essence was transferred before birth to Rohini, who also desired a child. At birth, Krishna had a darker complexion, while Balarama was born fair, the other name of Balarama is Sankarshana, meaning a spirit transferred between two wombs. According to Bhagavata Purana, the name Sankarshana means, one who brings together two different families of King Yadus and Nanda Babas dynasties and he was named Rama, but because of his great strength he was called Balarama, Baladeva, or Balabhadra, meaning Strong Rama. He was born under Shravana nakshatra on Shraavana Purnima or Raksha Bandhan, one day, Nanda requested the presence of Sage Gargamuni, his priest, to name the newborn Krishna and Balarama. When the Garga arrived, Nanda, received him well and requested the naming ceremony, Gargamuni then reminded Nanda that Kamsa was looking for the son of Devaki and if he performed the ceremony in opulence, it would come to his attention. He attracts the Yadus to follow his instructions and therefore his name is Sankarshana, Balarama spent his childhood as a cow herder with his brother Krishna. He killed Dhenuka, an asura sent by Kansa, as well as Pralamba, after the evil king died, Balarama and Krishna went to the ashrama of sage Sandipani at Ujjain for study. He later married Revati, daughter of King Kakudmi, ruler of Kushasthali or Anarta Balarama taught both Duryodhana of the Kauravas and Bhima of the Pandavas the art of fighting with a mace. When war broke between the Kauravas and the Pandavas, Balarama cared for both sides and so remained neutral, when Bhima defeated Duryodhana by striking him in the groin with his mace, Balarama threatened to kill Bhima. This was prevented when Krishna reminded Balarama of the vow of Bhima—to kill Duryodhana by crushing the thigh he had exposed to Bhimas wife Draupadi, some scriptures describe a great white snake that left the mouth of Balarama, in reference to his identity as Ananta-Sesha. The place where he departed is situated near Somnath Temple in Gujarat, the local people of Veraval believe that in the cave near the temple place, the white snake who came out of Balaramas mouth got into that cave and went back to Paatal Lok. Narratives of Balarama are found in Mahabharata, Harivamsha, Bhagavata Purana, Krishna Charit Manas and he is classified in the Vyuha avatar Sankarshana where in Adishesha and Lakshmana are part of. Vyasa Mahabharata states that after Balaramas death, he turned into a white snake, so it can be concluded that Balarama is an avatar of Adishesha in Dwaparayuga, as Lakshmana was in Tretayuga and Patanjali in Kaliyuga
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Gautama Buddha in Hinduism
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Gautama Buddha is viewed as an avatar of the god Vishnu in Vaishnava Hinduism. The Buddha is described in important Hindu scriptures, including almost all the major puranas and they portray him with two roles, preaching non-theistic Vedic views in order to restore the Dharma and criticizing animal sacrifice. Another important scripture that mentions him as an avatar is Parasharas Brihat Parashara Hora Shastra, Buddha is often described as a yogi or yogācārya and as a sannyāsi. His father is usually called Śuddhodhana, which is consistent with the Buddhist tradition and he is described as beautiful, of yellow skin, and wearing brown-red or red robes. Only a few mention the worship of Buddha, e. g. the Varahapurana states that one desirous of beauty should worship him. The foolish Jina, imagined him to be his son, thus the lord Sri Hari expertly deluded Jina and other demons by his strong words of non-violence. In many puranas, the Buddha is described as an incarnation of Vishnu who incarnated in order to bring either demons or mankind close to the Vedic dharma. The Bhavishya Purana contains the following, At this time, reminded of the Kali Age, the god Vishnu became born as Gautama, the Shakyamuni, then Shuddodana ruled for twenty years, and Shakyasimha for twenty. At the first stage of the Kali Age, the path of the Vedas was destroyed and those who sought refuge with Vishnu were deluded. This pattern changed in the eighth century, the Buddha was replaced as the supreme, imperial deity by one of the Hindu gods. Previously the Buddha had been accorded imperial-style worship and this also was the same period of time the Buddha was made into an avatar of Vishnu. Some sources say that it was Sugata Buddha, also called Adi-Buddha, O Lord Hari, who have assumed the form of Buddha. O Buddha of compassionate heart, you decry the slaughtering of poor animals performed according to the rules of Vedic sacrifice, radhakrishnan, If a Hindu chants the Vedas on the banks of the Ganges. If the Japanese worship the image of Buddha, if the European is convinced of Christs mediatorship and it is their deepest apprehension of God and Gods fullest revelation to them. A number of figures in modern Hinduism, including Mahatma Gandhi, have been inspired by the life and teachings of the Buddha. B. R. Ambedkar denied that Buddha was an incarnation of Vishnu, among the 22 vows he gave to the Dalit Buddhist movement, the 5th vow is I do not and shall not believe that Lord Buddha was the incarnation of Vishnu. I believe this to be madness and false propaganda. Their motive was to absorb Buddhism into their religion and he further expresses that this strategy worked in India to uproot Buddhism from the land of its origin
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Kalki
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In Hinduism, Kalki is the tenth avatar of the god Vishnu in the current Mahayuga, foretold to appear at the end of Kali Yuga, the current epoch. The Purana scriptures foretell that Kalki will be atop a horse with a drawn blazing sword. He is the harbinger of the end time in Hindu eschatology, in Tibetan Buddhism Kalachakra tradition,25 rulers of the Shambhala Kingdom held the title of Kalki, Kulika or Kalki-king. During Vaishakha, the first fortnight in Shukla Paksha is dedicated to fifteen deities, in this tradition, the twelth day is Vaishakha Dwadashi and is dedicated to Madhava, another name for Kalki. The name Kalki is derived from the Sanskrit word kalā which means any practical art, the name Kalki may be a metaphor for eternity or time as kalā has the secondary meaning of a part including time or atoms. The name Kalki may also be derived from the Sanskrit word kalka which means filth, so, the name Kalki can also be meant destroyer of the filth. There are numerous interpretations of Vedic traditions, avatara means descent and refers to a descent of the divine into the material realm in the Avataris self same form. The Garuda Purana lists ten avatars, with Kalki being the tenth, one of the earliest mentions of Kalki is in the Vishnu Purana, dated to after the Gupta Empire. At village/community of Shmbhal, principally of great soul brahmins, on the 12th of the waxing moon in the month of Madhwa Lord Vishnu arrived. This amounts to just 12 days per any given year, furthermore as there is one day per year of Lord Sri Maha Vishnu. जातं ददृशतुः पुत्रं पितरौ हृष्ट-मानसौ।। जातं jatam + ददृशतुः dadastu + पुत्रं putram + पितरौ pitarau + हृष्ट hrshta + मानसौ manasau, then the parents were mentally overjoyed by their son being born. This points to the sun sign of Aries, in the month of Chaitra, the fifteen days in Shukla paksha are dedicated to fifteen gods or deities. Each day of the Chaitra month is dedicated to a different god, the 12th day of Chaitra Shukla Pakshaya is dedicated to Lord Sri Maha Vishnu. There is a description of his background in other sources of scripture, Vishnuyasha refers to the father of Kalki as a devotee of Vishnu while Sumati refers to His mother in Shambhala. Also it is written in Kalki Purana that he will have four brothers who are Sumanta, Prajna, the Agni Purana predicts that at the time of his birth, evil kings will feed on the pious. Kalki will be born son of Vishnuyasha in the mythic Shambhala and he will have Yajnavalkya as his spiritual guru. Parashurama, the avatar of Vishnu is a Chiranjivi and in scripture is believed to be alive. He will be a martial preceptor of Kalki, teaching him military science, warfare arts, the purana also relates that Hari, will then give up the form of Kalki, return to heaven and the Krita or Satya Yuga will return as before
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Nara-Narayana
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Nara-Narayana is a Hindu deity pair. Nara-Narayana is the avatar of the God Vishnu on earth. In the concept of Nara-Narayana, the human soul Nara is the companion of the Divine Narayana. The Hindu epic Mahabharata identifies the God Krishna with Narayana and Arjuna - the chief hero of the epic - with Nara, the legend of Nara-Narayana is also told in the scripture Bhagavata Purana. Hindus believe that the pair dwells at Badrinath, where their most important temple stands, the Nara-Narayana pair is frequently worshipped in temples of the Swaminarayan Faith. Nara means human, and Narayana refers to the name of the deity, in epic poetry, they are the sons of Dharma by Murti or Ahimsa and emanations of Vishnu, Arjuna being identified with Nara, and Krishna with Narayana. - Mahabharata, Harivamsa and Purana. Narayana is Vishnu while Nara is Shesha Nara-Narayana are depicted jointly or separately in images, when depicted separately, Nara is portrayed with two hands and wearing deer skin while Narayana is shown on the right in the usual form of Vishnu. Sometimes, both of them are depicted identical to each other and they are depicted four-armed holding a mace, a discus, a conch and a lotus, resembling Vishnu. Arjuna and Krishna are often referred to as Nara-Narayana in the Mahabharata and are considered part incarnations of Nara and Narayana respectively, in a previous life, the duo were born as the sages Nara and Narayana, and who performed great penances at the holy spot of Badrinath. Nara and Narayana were the Fourth Avatar of Lord Vishnu, the twins were sons of Dharma, the son of Brahma and his wife Murti or Ahimsa. They live at Badrika performing severe austerities and meditation for the welfare of the world and these two inseparable sages took avatars on earth for the welfare of mankind. Legend has it that once Lord Shiva tried to bring the fame of Nara and Narayana before the entire world. To do that, he hurled his own potent weapon Paashupathastra at the meditating rishis, the power of their meditation was so intense that the astra lost its power before them. Lord Shiva stated that this happened since the duo were jnanis of the first order constantly in the state of Nirvikalpa Samadhi, the Bhagavata Purana tells the story of the birth of Urvashi from the sages Nara-Narayana. Once, sages Nara-Narayana were meditating in the shrine of Badrinath situated in the Himalayas. Their penances and austerities alarmed the gods, so Indra, the King of Devas, sent Kamadeva, Vasanta and apsaras to inspire them with passion, the sage Narayana took a flower and placed it on his thigh. Immediately there sprung from it a beautiful nymph whose charms far excelled those of the celestial nymphs, Narayana sent this nymph to Indra with them, and from her having been produced from the thigh of the sage, she was called Urvashi. In Badrinath Temples sanctorium, to the far side of the stone image of Badri-Vishala, are the images of Nara. Also, the Nara and Narayana peaks tower over Badrinath, in Vanaparvan, Krishna says to Arjuna, O invincible one, you are Nara and I am Hari Narayana, and we, the sages Nara-Narayana, have come to this world at the proper time
33.
Hayagriva
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Hayagriva, also spelt Hayagreeva, is a horse-headed avatar of the Lord Vishnu in Hinduism. In Sanskrit, Hayagrīva means haya=Horse, grīva=Neck, in Hinduism, Lord Hayagriva is an avatar of shri Vishnu. He is worshipped as the God of knowledge and wisdom, with a human body, symbolically, the story represents the triumph of pure knowledge, guided by the hand of God, over the demonic forces of passion and darkness. Origins about the worship of Hayagriva have been researched, some of the early evidences dates back to 2,000 BCE, Hayagriva is one of the prominent deity in Vaishnava tradition. His blessings are sought when beginning study of sacred and secular subjects. Special worship is conducted on the day of the moon in August and on Mahanavami. He is also hailed as Hayasirsa and it is very popular among devotees of Hayagrīva. His beauty, like fresh cut crystal, is an auspicious brilliance that never decays, may this Lord of speech who showers such cooling rays of grace on me be forever manifest in my heart. In the Mahavairocana-sutra translated and copied in 1796 by I-hsing it says and his body is the color of the sun at dawn. He wears flaming effulgence and skulls as a garland and his nails are long and sharp, his face shows a pair of bare tiger’s fangs. His hair is that of a burning lion’s mane. He is awesomely powerful and this is the fierce Vidyaraja of the Lotus section. He is just like a horse-jewel of a Cakravartin that wanders the four continents, nowhere and never does he rest, having all the great and this is his nature, and therefore he possesses this terrible and all-mighty light. Many others submit to him at first sight. This is because though he is fierce and terrible, his heart is full of compassion. ”-- Hayagrīva Stotram, v.32 Later on Hayagriva is referred to as the “Horse necked one”, Defender of faith”, the “Terrible executioner”, the “Excellent Horse”, and the “Aerial horse”. This said, the Horse Avatar of Lord Vishnu is seen as pulling the sun up to the every day. This relationship is the classic nonduality of the Hindu tantra, marichi represents the essence of the power of creation of the cosmos, and is the in/yin half of Dainichi Nyôrai. Whereas Hayagriva represents the other aspect, that of the manifestation of the power of yin/in as action. In other words, Hayagriva represents the manifestation of yin/in as the power and this is the very definition of tantra, that of action
34.
Hanuman
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Hanuman is an ardent devotee of Rama. He is one of the figures in the Hindu epic Ramayana. As one of the Chiranjivi, he is mentioned in several other texts, including the Mahabharata. Hanuman participated in Ramas war against the demon king Ravana, several later texts also present him as an incarnation of Shiva. He is the son of Anjana and Kesari and is described as the son of the wind-god Pawan. The Sanskrit texts mention several legends about how Hanuman got his name, one legend is that Indra, the king of the gods, struck Hanumans jaw during his childhood. The child received his name from the Sanskrit words Hanu and -man, the name thus means one with prominent or disfigured jaw. Another theory says the name derives from the Sanskrit words Han and maana, some Jain texts mention that Hanuman spent his childhood on an island called Hanuruha, which is the origin of his name. According to another theory, the name Hanuman derives from the word for male monkey. Linguistic variations of Hanuman include Hanumat, Anuman, Hanumantha, Hanumanthudu, other names of Hanuman include, Anjaneya, Anjaniputra, Anjaneyar, Anjaneyudu, Anjanisuta all meaning the son of Anjana. Similar in meaning to - Vaanaraanaamadheesham, shreeraamadootam, the one who is the messenger of Rama. Atulita Bala Dhaamam, the one who is the repository of incomparable strength, hemshailaabha Deham, the one whose body resembles a golden mountain. Danujvana Krushanum, the one who is the destroyer of forces of demons, gyaaninaam Agraganyam, the one who is considered foremost among knowledgeable beings. Sakala Guna Nidhaanam, the one who is the repository of all the virtues, raghupati Priya Bhaktam, the one who is the dearest of all devotees to Rama. Sankata Mochana, the one who liberates from dangers In the 3rd chapter of Kishkindha Kaanda of Valmiki Ramayana, summarized as follows, Ablest sentence maker. The knower of all Vedas and Scriptures, scholar in nine schools of grammars. Possessing faultless speech and facial features Hanuman is mentioned in both the Hindu epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata, the word Vrsakapi or Vrishakapi, later used as an epithet for Hanuman, is mentioned in the Rigveda. Some writers, such as Nilakantha believe that the Vrishakapi of Rigveda alludes to Hanuman, however, other scholars believe that Hanuman is not mentioned in the Vedic mythology, the Vrsakapi of Rigveda refers to another deity or is a common name for the monkeys
35.
Shesha
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In Hinduism, Shesha, also known as Sheshanaga or Adishesha, is the nagaraja or king of all nāgas and one of the primal beings of creation. In the Puranas, Shesha is said to all the planets of the universe on his hoods. He is sometimes referred to as Ananta Shesha, which translates as endless-Shesha or Adishesha first Shesha and it is said that when Adishesa uncoils, time moves forward and creation takes place, when he coils back, the universe ceases to exist. Vishnu is often depicted as resting on Shesha, Shesha is considered a servant and a manifestation of Vishnu. He is said to have descended to Earth in two forms or avatars, Lakshmana, brother of Rama, Balarama, brother of Krishna. Shesha in Sanskrit texts, especially relating to mathematical calculation. But in Sanskrit it also means 6 shesham as the sheshanaga has been depicted to have many heads, Shesha is generally depicted with a massive form that floats coiled in space, or on the ocean of bliss, to form the bed on which Vishnu lies. Sometimes he is shown as five-headed or seven-headed, but more commonly as a many thousand-headed serpent and his name means that which remains, from the Sanskrit root śiṣ, because when the world is destroyed at the end of the kalpa, Shesha remains as he is. In the Bhagavadgita of Chapter 10, verse 29, Shri Krishna while describing 75 of his common manifestations, declares, anantaś ca asmi nāgānāṁ, Of the nagas, as per the Mahabharata, Shesha was born to sage Kashyap and his wife Kadru. Kadru gave birth to a snakes, of which Shesha was the eldest. After Shesha, Vasuki, Airavata and Takshaka were born, in order, a lot of Sheshas brothers were cruel and were bent upon inflicting harm on others. They were even unkind to Garuda, who was Kashyapa’s son through Vinatha, Shesha, disgusted by the cruel acts of his brothers, left his mother and kin, and took to austere penances. He lived on air and meditated in places including Gandhamadhana, Badrikashrama, Gokarna, Pushkara and his penances were so severe that his flesh, skin and muscles dried up and merged with his frame. Brahma, convinced of his Sheshas will, asked Shesha to request a boon, Shesha asked that he be able to keep his mind under control so that he could continue to perform ascetic penances. Brahma then asked a favour of Shesha, to go beneath the unstable earth, Shesha agreed and went to the netherworld and stabilized her with his hood. He is known to support her even today, thus making Patala his perennial residence, Shesha is also depicted as floating in the ocean of the changing world, forming the bed of Maha Vishnu. Since he is known as Adishesha and because he is Anantashesha or simply Ananta and he is said to live since before the creation of the universe. When the universe is towards its end, he creates 11 rudras from him to destroy the universe for a new one to be created and he expands himself as garbhodakshayi-vishnu in the beginning of the universe to create Brahma
36.
Hindu scriptures
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Hindu texts are manuscripts and historic literature related to any of the diverse traditions within Hinduism. A few texts are shared resources across these traditions and broadly considered as Hindu scriptures and these include the Vedas and the Upanishads. There are two classifications of Hindu texts, Shruti – that which is heard, and Smriti – that which is remembered. The Śruti refers to the body of most authoritative, ancient religious texts, without any author and it includes the four Vedas including its four types of embedded texts - the Samhitas, the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas and the early Upanishads. The Smriti texts are a body of Hindu texts attributed to an author. Many ancient and medieval Hindu texts were composed in Sanskrit, many others in regional Indian languages, in modern times, most ancient texts have been translated into other Indian languages and some in Western languages. This verbal tradition of preserving and transmitting Hindu texts, from one generation to next, the Vedas are a large body of Hindu texts originating in ancient India, before about 300 BCE. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature, hindus consider the Vedas to be apauruṣeya, which means not of a man, superhuman and impersonal, authorless. Vedas are also called śruti literature, distinguishing them from religious texts. The Veda, for orthodox Indian theologians, are considered revelations, in the Hindu Epic the Mahabharata, the creation of Vedas is credited to Brahma. There are four Vedas, the Rigveda, the Yajurveda, the Samaveda, each Veda has been subclassified into four major text types – the Samhitas, the Aranyakas, the Brahmanas, and the Upanishads. The Upanishads are a collection of Hindu texts which contain some of the philosophical concepts of Hinduism. The Upanishads are commonly referred to as Vedānta, variously interpreted to either the last chapters, parts of the Veda or the object. The concepts of Brahman and Ātman are central ideas in all the Upanishads, the Upanishads are the foundation of Hindu philosophical thought and its diverse traditions. Of the Vedic corpus, they alone are known. More than 200 Upanishads are known, of which the first dozen or so are the oldest and most important and are referred to as the principal or main Upanishads. The mukhya Upanishads are found mostly in the part of the Brahmanas and Aranyakas and were, for centuries, memorized by each generation. The early Upanishads all predate the Common Era, some in all likelihood pre-Buddhist, of the remainder, some 95 Upanishads are part of the Muktika canon, composed from about the start of common era through medieval Hinduism
37.
Vedas
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The Vedas are a large body of knowledge texts originating in the ancient Indian subcontinent. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature, Hindus consider the Vedas to be apauruṣeya, which means not of a man, superhuman and impersonal, authorless. Vedas are also called śruti literature, distinguishing them from religious texts. The Veda, for orthodox Indian theologians, are considered revelations seen by ancient sages after intense meditation, in the Hindu Epic the Mahabharata, the creation of Vedas is credited to Brahma. The Vedic hymns themselves assert that they were created by Rishis, after inspired creativity. There are four Vedas, the Rigveda, the Yajurveda, the Samaveda, each Veda has been subclassified into four major text types – the Samhitas, the Aranyakas, the Brahmanas, and the Upanishads. Some scholars add a fifth category – the Upasanas, the various Indian philosophies and denominations have taken differing positions on the Vedas. Schools of Indian philosophy which cite the Vedas as their authority are classified as orthodox. Other śramaṇa traditions, such as Lokayata, Carvaka, Ajivika, Buddhism and Jainism, despite their differences, just like the texts of the śramaṇa traditions, the layers of texts in the Vedas discuss similar ideas and concepts. The Sanskrit word véda knowledge, wisdom is derived from the root vid- to know and this is reconstructed as being derived from the Proto-Indo-European root *u̯eid-, meaning see or know. The noun is from Proto-Indo-European *u̯eidos, cognate to Greek εἶδος aspect, not to be confused is the homonymous 1st and 3rd person singular perfect tense véda, cognate to Greek οἶδα oida I know. Root cognates are Greek ἰδέα, English wit, etc, the Sanskrit term veda as a common noun means knowledge. The term in some contexts, such as hymn 10.93.11 of the Rigveda, means obtaining or finding wealth, property, a related word Vedena appears in hymn 8.19.5 of the Rigveda. It was translated by Ralph T. H. Griffith as ritual lore, as studying the Veda by the 14th century Indian scholar Sayana, as bundle of grass by Max Müller, Vedas are called Maṛai or Vaymoli in parts of South India. Marai literally means hidden, a secret, mystery, in some south Indian communities such as Iyengars, the word Veda includes the Tamil writings of the Alvar saints, such as Divya Prabandham, for example Tiruvaymoli. The Vedas are among the oldest sacred texts, the Samhitas date to roughly 1700–1100 BC, and the circum-Vedic texts, as well as the redaction of the Samhitas, date to c. 1000-500 BC, resulting in a Vedic period, spanning the mid 2nd to mid 1st millennium BC, or the Late Bronze Age, Michael Witzel gives a time span of c.1500 to c. Witzel makes special reference to the Near Eastern Mitanni material of the 14th century BC the only record of Indo-Aryan contemporary to the Rigvedic period
38.
Upanishads
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The Upanishads are a collection of ancient Sanskrit texts that contain some of the central philosophical concepts of Hinduism, some of which are shared with Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism. Early Upanishads are considered by Hindus as part of their scriptures that discuss the nature of ultimate reality, the Upanishads are commonly referred to as Vedānta, variously interpreted to mean either the last chapters, parts of the Veda or the object, the highest purpose of the Veda. The concepts of Brahman and Ātman are central ideas in all the Upanishads, the Upanishads are the foundation of Hindu philosophical thought and its diverse traditions. Of the Vedic corpus, they alone are known. More than 200 Upanishads are known, of which the first dozen or so are the oldest and most important and are referred to as the principal or main Upanishads. The mukhya Upanishads are found mostly in the part of the Brahmanas and Aranyakas and were, for centuries, memorized by each generation. The early Upanishads all predate the Common Era, five of them in all likelihood pre-Buddhist, of the remainder, some 95 Upanishads are part of the Muktika canon, composed from about the last centuries of 1st-millennium BCE through about 15th-century CE. New Upanishads, beyond the 108 in the Muktika canon, continued to be composed through the modern and modern era. Along with the Bhagavad Gita and the Brahmasutra, the mukhya Upanishads provide a foundation for the later schools of Vedanta, among them. With the translation of the Upanishads in the early 19th century they started to attract attention from a western audience. Arthur Schopenhauer was deeply impressed by the Upanishads and called it the production of the highest human wisdom, modern era Indologists have discussed the similarities between the fundamental concepts in the Upanishads and major western philosophers. The Sanskrit term Upaniṣad translates to sitting down near, referring to the student sitting down near the teacher while receiving esoteric knowledge, monier-Williams Sanskrit Dictionary adds that, According to native authorities Upanishad means setting to rest ignorance by revealing the knowledge of the supreme spirit. Adi Shankara explains in his commentary on the Kaṭha and Brihadaranyaka Upanishad that the word means Ātmavidyā, other dictionary meanings include esoteric doctrine and secret doctrine. The word appears in the verses of many Upanishads, such as the verse of the 13th volume in first chapter of the Chandogya Upanishad. The authorship of most Upanishads is uncertain and unknown, Radhakrishnan states, almost all the early literature of India was anonymous, we do not know the names of the authors of the Upanishads. The Vedic texts themselves assert that they were created by Rishis, after inspired creativity. Women, such as Maitreyi and Gargi participate in the dialogues and are credited in the early Upanishads. There are exceptions to the tradition of the Upanishads and other Vedic literature
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Ramcharitmanas
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Ramcharitmanas, is an epic poem in the Awadhi dialect of Hindi, composed by the 16th-century Indian bhakti poet Goswami Tulsidas. Ramcharitmanas literally means Lake of the deeds of Rama, Ramcharitmanas is considered as one of the greatest works of Hindi literature. Tulsidas was a scholar of Sanskrit. However, he wanted the story of Rama to be accessible to the general masses, tradition has it that Tulsidas had to face a lot of criticism from the sanskrit scholars of Varanasi for being a bhasha poet. However, Tulsidas remained steadfast in his resolve for simplifying the knowledge contained in the Vedas, the Upanishads, subsequently, his work was accepted by all. Ramcharitmanas, for the first time in the history of North India, made available the story of Rama to the man to sing, meditate. The writing of Ramcharitmanas also heralded many a cultural tradition, most significantly that of the tradition of Ramlila, Ramcharitmanas is considered by many as a work belonging to the Saguna school of the Bhakti movement in Hindi literature. Tulsidas began writing the Ramcharitmanas in Ayodhya in Vikram Samvat 1631, the exact date is stated within the poem as being the ninth day of the month of Chaitra, which is the birthday of Rama, Rama Navami. Ramcharitmanas was composed at Ayodhya, Varanasi & Chitrakoot, India was under the reign of Mughal emperor Akbar during this period. This also makes Tulsidas a contemporary of William Shakespeare, the Ramcaritmanas is written in vernacular Avadhi language, The core of the work is considered by some to be a poetic retelling of the events of the Sanskrit epic Ramayana by Valmiki. The Valmiki Ramayana is centered on the narrative of Rama, the scion of the tree of king Raghu of the Sun Dynasty. Rama was the prince of Ayodhya and is considered in Hindu tradition as one of the Avataras of Vishnu. However, the Ramacharitmanas is by no means a word-to-word copy of the Valmiki Ramayana nor an abridged re-telling of the latter, Ramcaritmanas has elements from many other Ramayanas written earlier in Sanskrit and other Indian dialects as well as stories from Puranas. Tulsidas himself never writes Ramcharitmanas as being a retelling of Valmiki Ramayana and he calls the epic Ramcharitmanas as the story of Rama was stored in the mind of Shiva before he narrated the same to His wife Parvati. Tulsidas claims to have received the story through his guru, Narharidas. Tulsidas was a naive child, some understand this passage of the Ramcharitmanas to mean that Tulsidas at first could not grasp the story fully as he was a naïve young boy. His guru graciously repeated it again and again so that he could understand the remember it, then he narrated the story and named it Ramcharitmanas as Shiva himself called it. The epic poem is, therefore, also referred to as Tulsikrit Ramayana, the Ramcharitmanas is a masterpiece of vernacular literature. Some believe it to represent a challenge to the dominance of high-class Brahmanical Sanskrit, however, this interpretation appears faulty as Tulsidas himself was a brahmin and often talks very highly of the Brahmins in Ramcharitmanas and other books written by him
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Puranas
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The word Puranas literally means ancient, old, and it is a vast genre of Indian literature about a wide range of topics, particularly myths, legends and other traditional lore. Composed primarily in Sanskrit, but also in languages, several of these texts are named after major Hindu deities such as Vishnu, Shiva. The Puranas genre of literature is found in both Hinduism and Jainism, the content is highly inconsistent across the Puranas, and each Purana has survived in numerous manuscripts which are themselves inconsistent. The Hindu Puranas are anonymous texts and likely the work of authors over the centuries, in contrast, most Jaina Puranas can be dated. There are 18 Maha Puranas and 18 Upa Puranas, with over 400,000 verses, the first versions of the various Puranas were likely composed between the 3rd- and 10th-century CE. The Puranas do not enjoy the authority of a scripture in Hinduism and they have been influential in the Hindu culture, inspiring major national and regional annual festivals of Hinduism. The religious practices included in them are considered Vaidika, because they do not preach initiation into Tantra, the Bhagavata Purana has been among the most celebrated and popular text in the Puranic genre, and is of non-dualistic tenor. The Puranic literature wove with the Bhakti movement in India, vyasa, the narrator of the Mahabharata, is hagiographically credited as the compiler of the Puranas. The date of the production of the written texts does not define the date of origin of the Puranas and they existed in an oral form before being written down, and were incrementally modified well into the 16th century. An early occurrence of the term purana is found in the Chandogya Upanishad, translated by Patrick Olivelle as the corpus of histories, importantly, the most famous form of itihāsapurāṇaṃ is the Mahabharata. The term also appears in the Atharvaveda 11.7.24, the extant Puranas, states Coburn, are not identical to the original Puranas. In the 19th century, F. E. Pargiter believed the original Purana may date to the time of the redaction of the Vedas. Wendy Doniger, based on her study of indologists, assigns approximate dates to the various Puranas and she dates Markandeya Purana to c.250 CE, Matsya Purana to c. 250–500 CE, Vayu Purana to c.350 CE, Harivamsa and Vishnu Purana to c.450 CE, 350–950 CE, Vamana Purana to c. 450–900 CE, Kurma Purana to c, 550–850 CE, and Linga Purana to c. Of the many texts designated Puranas the most important are the Mahāpurāṇas or the major Puranas and these are said to be eighteen in number, divided into three groups of six, though they are not always counted in the same way. The difference between Upapuranas and Mahapuranas has been explained by Rajendra Hazra as, a Mahapurana is well known, the Upapuranas are eighteen in number, with disagreement as to which canonical titles belong in that list of eighteen. The Ganesha and Mudgala Puranas are devoted to Ganesha, the Devi-Bhagavata Purana, which extols the goddess Durga, has become a basic text for Devi worshipers
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Vishnu Purana
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The Vishnu Purana is one of the eighteen Mahapuranas, a genre of ancient and medieval texts of Hinduism. It is an important Pancharatra text in the Vaishnavism literature corpus, the manuscripts of Vishnu Purana have survived into the modern era in many versions. More than any other major Purana, the Vishnu Purana presents its contents in Pancalaksana format – Sarga, Pratisarga, Vamśa, Manvañtara, the Vishnu Purana is among the shorter Purana texts, with about 7,000 verses in extant versions. It primarily centers around the Hindu god Vishnu and his avatars such as Krishna, the Purana, states Wilson, is pantheistic and the ideas in it, like other Puranas, are premised on the Vedic beliefs and ideas. Vishnu Purana, like all major Puranas, attributes its author to be sage Veda Vyasa, the actual author and date of its composition are unknown and contested. Estimates range of its range from 1st millennium BCE to early 2nd-millennium CE. The text was composed and rewritten in layers over a period of time. The Padma Purana categorizes Vishnu Purana as a Sattva Purana, the composition date of Vishnu Purana is unknown and contested, with estimates widely disagreeing. Rajendra Chandra Hazra, 275-325 CE Ramachandra Dikshitar, 700-300 BCE, Roy, Rocher states that the date of the Visnu Purana is as contested as that of any other Purana. Vishnu Purana like all Puranas has a complicated chronology, each titled work consists of material that has grown by numerous accretions in successive historical eras. Thus no Purana has a date of composition. It is as if they were libraries to which new volumes have been added, not necessarily at the end of the shelf. Many of the extant manuscripts were written on palm leaf or copied during the British India colonial era, the extant text comprises six aṃśas and 126 adhyāyas. The first part has 22 chapters, the part consists 16 chapters, the third part comprises 18 chapters. The fifth and the parts are the longest and the shortest part of the text. The textual tradition claims that the original Vishnu Purana had 23,000 verses, the text is composed in metric verses or sloka, wherein each verse has exactly 32 syllables, of which 16 syllables in the verse may be free style per ancient literary standards. The Vishnu Purana is an exception in that it presents its contents in Vishnu worship-related Pancalaksana format – Sarga, Pratisarga, Vamśa, Manvañtara, and Vamśānucaritam. Vishnu Purana opens as a conversation between sage Maitreya and his guru, Parashara, with the asking, what is the nature of this universe
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listen (help·info), Sanskrit: सीता, IAST: Sītā) or Seeta, is the consort of Lord Rama (incarnation of Vishnu) and an avatar of Sri Lakshmi, the Hindu goddess that denotes good sign, good fortune, prosperity, success, happiness. She is esteemed as the paragon of spousal and feminine virtues for all Hindu women.[6]
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