1.
Setar
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The Setar is an Iranian musical instrument. It is a member of the family, which is played with the index finger of the right hand. Two and a half ago, a fourth string was added to the setar. It has 25 -27 moveable frets which are made of animal intestines or silk. It originated in Persia before the spread of Islam, the satar is an important instrument in 12 muqam
2.
String instrument
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String instruments, stringed instruments, or chordophones are musical instruments that produce sound from vibrating strings when the performer plays or sounds the strings in some manner. Musicians play some string instruments by plucking the strings with their fingers or a plectrum—and others by hitting the strings with a wooden hammer or by rubbing the strings with a bow. In some keyboard instruments, such as the harpsichord or piano, with bowed instruments, the player rubs the strings with a horsehair bow, causing them to vibrate. With a hurdy-gurdy, the musician operates a wheel that rubs the strings. Bowed instruments include the string instruments of the Classical music orchestra. All of the string instruments can also be plucked with the fingers. Some types of string instrument are mainly plucked, such as the harp, in the Hornbostel-Sachs scheme of musical instrument classification, used in organology, string instruments are called chordophones. Other examples include the sitar, rebab, banjo, mandolin, ukulele, in most string instruments, the vibrations are transmitted to the body of the instrument, which often incorporates some sort of hollow or enclosed area. The body of the instrument also vibrates, along with the air inside it, the vibration of the body of the instrument and the enclosed hollow or chamber make the vibration of the string more audible to the performer and audience. The body of most string instruments is hollow, some, however—such as electric guitar and other instruments that rely on electronic amplification—may have a solid wood body. Archaeological digs have identified some of the earliest stringed instruments in Ancient Mesopotamian sites, like the lyres of Ur, the development of lyre instruments required the technology to create a tuning mechanism to tighten and loosen the string tension. During the medieval era, instrument development varied from country to country, Middle Eastern rebecs represented breakthroughs in terms of shape and strings, with a half a pear shape using three strings. Early versions of the violin and fiddle, by comparison, emerged in Europe through instruments such as the gittern, a four stringed precursor to the guitar and these instruments typically used catgut and other materials, including silk, for their strings. String instrument design refined during the Renaissance and into the Baroque period of musical history, violins and guitars became more consistent in design, and were roughly similar to what we use in the 2000s. At the same time, the 19th century guitar became more associated with six string models. In big bands of the 1920s, the guitar played backing chords. The development of guitar amplifiers, which contained a power amplifier, the development of the electric guitar provided guitarists with an instrument that was built to connect to guitar amplifiers. Electric guitars have magnetic pickups, volume control knobs and an output jack, in the 1960s, larger, more powerful guitar amplifiers were developed, called stacks
3.
Musical instrument classification
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Throughout history, various methods of musical instrument classification have been used. The most commonly used system divides instruments into string instruments, woodwind instruments, brass instruments and percussion instruments, the oldest known scheme of classifying instruments is Chinese and dates from the 3rd millennium BC. It grouped instruments according to the materials they are made of. However, the Chou-Li, an anonymous treatise compiled from sources in about the 2nd century BC, had the following order, metal, stone, clay, leather, silk, wood, gourd. The same order was presented in the Tso Chuan, attributed to Tso Chiu-Ming, more usually, instruments are classified according to how the sound is initially produced. The modern system divides instruments into wind, strings and percussion, the scheme was later expanded by Martin Agricola, who distinguished plucked string instruments, such as guitars, from bowed string instruments, such as violins. Classical musicians today do not always maintain this division, but distinguish between wind instruments with a reed and those where the air is set in motion directly by the lips, many instruments do not fit very neatly into this scheme. The serpent, for example, ought to be classified as a brass instrument, however, it looks more like a woodwind instrument, and is closer to one in many ways, having finger-holes to control pitch, rather than valves. Keyboard instruments do not fit easily into this scheme, for example, the piano has strings, but they are struck by hammers, so it is not clear whether it should be classified as a string instrument or a percussion instrument. Ottoman encyclopedist Hadji Khalifa also recognized the three classes in his Kashf al-Zunun an Asami al-Kutub wa al-Funun, a treatise on the origin. The division pervades Tboli thought about cosmology, social characters of men and women, victor-Charles Mahillon later adopted a system very similar to this. This scheme was taken up by Erich von Hornbostel and Curt Sachs who published an extensive new scheme for classication in Zeitschrift für Ethnologie in 1914. Their scheme is used today, and is most often known as the Hornbostel-Sachs system. Electrophones, such as the guitar or electric bass, which produce sound through electricity and is required to be plugged in to an amplifier. Later Sachs added a category, electrophones, such as theremins. Modern synthesizers and electronic instruments fall in this category, within each category are many subgroups. The system has been criticised and revised over the years, in 1932, comparative musicologist André Schaeffner developed a new classification scheme that was exhaustive, potentially covering all real and conceivable instruments. The Kpelle of West Africa also use this system and they distinguish the struck, including both beaten and plucked, and the blown
4.
Musical instrument
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A musical instrument is an instrument created or adapted to make musical sounds. In principle, any object that produces sound can be a musical instrument—it is through purpose that the object becomes a musical instrument, the history of musical instruments dates to the beginnings of human culture. Early musical instruments may have used for ritual, such as a trumpet to signal success on the hunt. Cultures eventually developed composition and performance of melodies for entertainment, Musical instruments evolved in step with changing applications. The date and origin of the first device considered an instrument is disputed. The oldest object that some refer to as a musical instrument. Some consensus dates early flutes to about 37,000 years ago, many early musical instruments were made from animal skins, bone, wood, and other non-durable materials. Musical instruments developed independently in many populated regions of the world, however, contact among civilizations caused rapid spread and adaptation of most instruments in places far from their origin. By the Middle Ages, instruments from Mesopotamia were in maritime Southeast Asia, development in the Americas occurred at a slower pace, but cultures of North, Central, and South America shared musical instruments. By 1400, musical instrument development slowed in areas and was dominated by the Occident. Musical instrument classification is a discipline in its own right, Instruments can be classified by their effective range, their material composition, their size, etc. However, the most common method, Hornbostel-Sachs, uses the means by which they produce sound. The academic study of instruments is called organology. Once humans moved from making sounds with their bodies—for example, by using objects to create music from sounds. Primitive instruments were designed to emulate natural sounds, and their purpose was ritual rather than entertainment. The concept of melody and the pursuit of musical composition were unknown to early players of musical instruments. A player sounding a flute to signal the start of a hunt does so without thought of the notion of making music. Musical instruments are constructed in an array of styles and shapes
5.
Pandura
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The pandura was an ancient Greek string instrument belonging in the broad class of the lute and guitar instruments. Musical instruments of this class have been observed in ancient Greek artwork from the 3rd or 4th century BC onward, lute-class instruments were present in Mesopotamia since the Akkadian era, or the third millennium BCE. The ancient Greek pandoura was a medium or long-necked lute with a resonating chamber. It commonly had three strings, such an instrument was known as the trichordon. Renato Meucci suggests that the some Italian Renaissance descendants of Pandura type were called chitarra italiana, information about Roman pandura-type instruments comes mainly from ancient Roman artwork. The word pandura was rare in classical Latin writers, there were at least two distinct varieties of pandura. One type was pear-shaped, used in Assyria and Persia, in this type the body had graceful inward curves which led up gradually from base to neck. These curves changed at the end off the instrument to a more sloping outline. The oval type, an instrument of the Egyptians, was also found in ancient Persia. From the ancient Greek word pandoura, an instrument is found in modern Chechnya and Ingushetia. In Georgia the panduri is a fretted instrument. The modern Georganian panduri instrument is in the tanbur class, tambouras Panduri Baglamas Mandora Bandura Tanbur Bouzouki Mandolin J. W. McKinnon Pandoura in New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments Vol 3 p 10 ed S. Sadie. Picture of a pandura, originally published 1947 in the book The Great Palace of the Byzantine Emperors by David Talbot Rice, henry George Farmer calls the instrument a three-stringed pandoura in his 1949 article An Early Greek Pandore. Website that has a history of Pandura with some good photos
6.
Surbahar
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Surbahar, sometimes known as bass sitar, is a plucked string instrument used in the Hindustani classical music of North India. It is closely related to the sitar, but has a lower tone, depending on the instruments size, it is usually pitched two to five whole steps below the standard sitar, but as Indian classical music has no concept of absolute pitch, this may vary. The surbahar is over 130 cm and it uses a dried gourd as a resonator, and has a neck with very wide frets, which allow a glissando of six notes on the same fret through the method of pulling. The neck is out of toona, or teak wood. It has 3-4 rhythm strings, four playing strings, and 10 to 11 sympathetic strings, there are two bridges, the playable strings pass over the greater bridge, which is connected to the tabli with small legs, which are glued in place. The sympathetic strings pass over the bridge which is directly glued on the tabli. The bridges have a curved upper surface which results in a buzzing sound known as jawari. The instrumentalist plays the strings using a plectrum, the mizrab. Three plectrums are used to play the style of alap, jor. In the dhrupad style, instead of performing the sitarkhani and masitkhani gats, some researchers believe that surbahar was invented around 1825. Surbahar was invented by Omrao Khan Beenkar and Ghulam Mohammad was his disciple, Hindustani classical music Sitar Surbahar. com Dr. Ashwin M
7.
Rudra veena
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The rudra veena, and also called bīn, is a large plucked string instrument used in Hindustani classical music, one of the major types of veena played in Indian classical music. It has a tubular body made of wood or bamboo with a length between 54 and 62 inches. Two large, round resonators, made of dried and hollowed gourds, are attached under the tube, twenty-four brass-fitted raised wooden frets are fixed on the tube with the help of wax. There are 4 main strings and 3 chikari strings, as Rudra is a name for the Hindu god Shiva, rudra vina literally means the veena dear to Shiva. Shiva is also said to have created the Rudraveena, inspired by his wife and it is an ancient instrument rarely played today. In the 20th century, Zia Mohiuddin Dagar modified and redesigned the rudra veena to use bigger gourds and this produced a soft and deep sound when plucked without the use of any plectrum. The instrument was modified as the shruti veena by Lalmani Misra to establish Bharats Shadja Gram. Mohan Veena Rudra Veena Rudrav Veena
8.
Saraswati veena
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The Sarasvati vīṇa is an Indian plucked string instrument. It is named after the Hindu goddess Saraswati, who is depicted holding or playing the instrument. Also known as raghunatha veena is used mostly in Carnatic Indian classical music, there are several variations of the veena, which in its South Indian form is a member of the lute family. One who plays the veena is referred to as a vainika and it is one of other major types of veena popular today. The others include chitra veena, vichitra veena and rudra veena, out of these the rudra and vichitra veenas are used in Hindustani music, while the Saraswati veena and the chitra veena are used in the Carnatic music of South India. Some people play music, others play contemporary music. The veena has a history that dates back to the approximately 1500 BCE. In ancient times, the tone vibrating from the bow string when he shot an arrow was known as the Vil Yazh. The Jya ghosha is referred to in the ancient Atharvaveda, eventually, the archers bow paved the way for the musical bow. Twisted bark, strands of grass and grass root, vegetable fibre, over the veenas evolution and modifications, more particular names were used to help distinguish the instruments that followed. The word veena in India was a term used to generally denote stringed instrument. The veena instruments developed much like a tree, branching out into instruments as diverse as the harp-like Akasa, veenas ranged from one string to one hundred, and were composed of many different materials like eagle bone, bamboo, wood and coconut shells. The yazh was an ancient harp-like instrument that was considered a veena. As is seen in many Hindu temple sculptures and paintings, the early veenas were played vertically and it was not until the great Indian Carnatic music composer and Saraswati veena player Muthuswami Dikshitar that it began to be popularized as played horizontally. Prior to his time, the number of frets on the veena were less, - Padmabhooshan Prof. P. Sambamurthy, musicologist. The Saraswati veena developed from Kinnari Veena, made in several regions in South India, those made by makers from Thanjavur in the South Indian state of Tamil Nadu are to date considered the most sophisticated. However, the purest natural sound is extracted by plucking with natural fingernails on a rosewood instrument construction, pitapuram in East Godavari District and Bobbili in vijayanagaram District of Andhra Pradesh are also famous for Veena makers. Sangeeta Ratnakara calls it Ekatantri Veena and gives the method for its construction, while the Saraswati veena is considered in the lute genealogy, other North Indian veenas such as the Rudra veena and Vichitra veena are technically zithers
9.
Gottuvadhyam
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The chitravina is a 20 or 21-string fretless lute in Carnatic music. Today it is played mainly in South India, though its origins can be traced back to Bharatas Natya Shastra, sarangadeva also made a similar reference to the chitravina in his work, Sangita Ratnakara. Iyengars son, Chitravina Narasimhan was instrumental in spreading his fathers stringing and tuning methods as well as playing style, since its first reference in the Natya Shastra, The Chitravina has undergone numerous developments and is today shaped like the South Indian Veena. There are six main strings used for melody that pass over the top of the instrument, among the more prominent solo instruments in Carnatic music, it is also seen in collaborative world music concerts and north-south Indian jugalbandis. The chitravina is generally tuned to G sharp and played with a slide like a Hawaiian steel guitar, the 3 and 2 include an octave string which gives the instrument a unique tone. The fretless nature of the instrument, Narayana Iyengars stringing methods have made its tone reminiscent of the human voice, Narayana Iyengars grandson Chitravina N. Ravikiran plays the instrument and is the inventor of a variant, the navachitravina. Seetha Doraiswamy, known more as a jala tarangam exponent, used to play the Balakokila, a smaller version of the Chitravina
10.
Sarod
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The sarod is a stringed instrument of India, used mainly in Indian classical music. Along with the sitar, it is among the most popular, the sarod is known for a deep, weighty, introspective sound, in contrast with the sweet, overtone-rich texture of the sitar, with sympathetic strings that give it a resonant, reverberant quality. It is an instrument able to produce the continuous slides between notes known as meend, which are important in Indian music. The sarod is believed by some to have descended from the Afghan rubab, many scholars of Indian classical music believe that sarod is a combination of the ancient Chitra veena, the medieval Rabab and modern Sursingar. Some scholars even contend that an instrument may have existed about two thousand years ago in ancient India during the ages of the Gupta kings. In fact, a Gupta period coin depicts the great king Samudragupta playing a Veena, traces of similar Rabab style instruments can also be found in southern India, especially in the states of Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka, where it is known as the Swarbat. The folk Rabab, an instrument popular in north India, had a fingerboard, its strings were made of silk, cotton or gut. In history, reference is made to a Sharadiya Veena from which the name Sarod may have been derived. The word sarod roughly translates to sound or melody in Persian. Although the sarod has been referred to as a bass rubab its tonal bandwidth is actually greater than that of the rubab, especially in the middle. Lalmani Misra opines in his Bharatiya Sangeet Vadya that the sarod is a combination of the ancient chitra veena, there is also speculation that the oud may be the origin of the sarod. Among the many conflicting and contested histories of the sarod, there is one that attributes its invention to the ancestors of the present-day sarod maestro, Amjad Ali Khan. Amjad Ali Khan’s ancestor Mohammad Hashmi Khan Bangash, a musician and horse trader, came to India with the Afghan rubab in the mid-18th century, and became a court musician to the Maharajah of Rewa. It was his descendants, notably his grandson Ghulam Ali Khan Bangash, a musician in Gwalior. A parallel theory credits descendants of Madar Khan, Niyamatullah Khan in particular, the sarod in its present form dates back to approximately 1820, when it started gaining recognition as a serious instrument in Rewa, Shahjahanpur, Gwalior and Lucknow. In the 20th century, the sarod received some finishing touches from Allauddin Khan and this reflects the general state of Indian instrument-making in the present day. The design of the instrument depends on the school of playing, the design of this early model is generally credited to Niyamatullah Khan of the Lucknow Gharana as well as Ghulam Ali Khan of the Gwalior-Bangash Gharana. Among the contemporary sarod players, this design is kept intact by two streams of sarod playing
11.
Sursingar
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The sursingar, sursringar or surshringar, is a musical instrument from India having many similarities with the sarod. It is larger than the sarod and produces a deeper sound and its neck has a metal fingerboard and the steel and bronze strings are played with a metal pick, while the bridge is made of a flat horn. It has two resonant boxes, the box is made from a cut gourd, on which a wooden cover is attached. The main body is made of wood and not leather, the sound producing mechanism of the instrument is formed by a gourd. The gourd is attached to a wooden handle. The handle is covered with a metal plate to facilitate the glissando. It has four strings and four rhythmic drones. The strings are made of brass. These modifications resulted in the increase of resonance in the instrument, the instrument is supported by the left shoulder, as the veena and is played with a plectrum or tab. It is used to music in the Hindustani style Dhrupad. Pyar khan, Jafar khan, Bahadur Sen Khan, Allauddin Khan, Radhika Mohan Maitra, Kumar Birendra Kishore Roy choudhury, Allauddin Khan had a few Sursringar recordings as did Radhika Mohan Maitra
12.
Tambouras
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The tambouras is a Greek traditional string instrument of Byzantine origin. It has existed since at least the 10th century, when it was known in Assyria, at that time, it might have between two and six strings, but Arabs adopted it, and called it a Tanbur. The characteristic long neck and two strings, tuned 5 notes apart and it also similar instrument Tambur in Turkish and each of them have same origin. It is considered that the ancestor is the ancient Greek pandouris, also known as pandoura, pandouros or pandourida. Since modern Greek words do not have a transliteration into the Latin alphabet. Even the final -s may be dropped at the transliteration, since it marks the nominative in Greek. Variations of the word are to be found in Greece, tsambouras, the word ταμπουράς comes from Turkish tambur from Arabic ṭanbūr or Persian tunbūra. The tambouras is a fretted instrument of the lute family, close to Turkish saz. It has movable frets that permit playing tunes in the Greek traditional modes and it was also known as Pandouris, Pandoura and Fandouros in the Byzantine Empire. When the tambouras was tempered, it gave rise to the bouzouki, which is, in fact, a recent development of the tambouras
13.
Tanpura
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The repeated cycle of plucking all strings creates the sonic canvas on which the melody of the raga is drawn. The name tanapura is derived from tana, referring to a phrase, and pura. Hindustani musicians favour the term tanpura whereas Carnatic musicians say tambura, concerning its history, A. D. Ranade states, The first unambiguous reference to the tanpura is in Sangeet Parijat. It is neither mentioned by the earlier texts nor does it find a place in sculptures, stephen Slawek notes that by the end of the 16th century, the tanpura had fully developed in its modern form, and was seen in the miniature paintings of the Mughals. Slawek further suggests that due to structural similarity the sitar and tanpura share a related history, a 2006 article in the performing arts magazine Sruti notes, Any model electronic tanpura produces a sound that is necessarily artificial, which is the opposite of artistic. The electronic substitute has no value and has nothing to teach us. The body shape of the tanpura somewhat resembles that of the sitar, one or more tanpuras may be used to accompany vocalists or instrumentalists. It has four or five strings, which are plucked one after another in a regular pattern to create a harmonic resonance on the basic notes of a key. Jiva refers to soul, that gives life, implying that the tanpura embodies an animated tone quality. To achieve this effect, the pass over a table-shaped, curved-top bridge. When a string is plucked, it has an intermittent periodical grazing contact with the bridge, when the string is plucked, it has a large amplitude. As the energy of the movement gradually diminishes, the contact point of the string with the bridge slowly creeps up the slope of the bridge. Depending on scale, tension and pitch, this can take three and ten seconds. Every single string produces its own cascading range of harmonics and, at the same time, according to this principle, tanpuras are attentively tuned to achieve a particular tonal shade relative to the tonal characteristics of the raga. Tanpuras come in different sizes and pitches, larger males, smaller females for vocalists, and these play at the octave so as not to drown out the soloists lower registers. One female singer may take her sa at F, another at A, sitariyas tune mostly around C#, sarodiyas around C, the male tanpura has an open string length of approximately one metre, the female is three-fourths of the male. The standard tuning is 5-8-8-1 or, in Indian sargam, pa-SA-SA-sa, for ragas that omit the fifth tone, pa, the first string is tuned down to the natural fourth, 4-8-8-1 or Ma-sa-sa-Sa. Some ragas require a common tuning with shuddh or komal NI, NI-sa-sa-SA or 7-8-8-1, or even with the 6th, Dha-s-s-S
14.
Sitarla
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The sitarla is an instrument invented in 2000 by Japanese musician Hideki Ishima that combines aspects of the sitar with the solid body electric guitar. It is an instrument,3 1/2 tones lower than a guitar. Ishima said he had the idea for the instrument 15 years prior and he now plays the instrument exclusively, and it has replaced his guitar playing in Flower Travellin Band. It is featured on their 2008 album We Are Here
15.
Sanskrit language
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Sanskrit is the primary liturgical language of Hinduism, a philosophical language of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, and a literary language and lingua franca of ancient and medieval South Asia. As a result of transmission of Hindu and Buddhist culture to Southeast Asia and parts of Central Asia, as one of the oldest Indo-European languages for which substantial written documentation exists, Sanskrit holds a prominent position in Indo-European studies. The body of Sanskrit literature encompasses a rich tradition of poetry and drama as well as scientific, technical, philosophical, the compositions of Sanskrit were orally transmitted for much of its early history by methods of memorization of exceptional complexity, rigor, and fidelity. Thereafter, variants and derivatives of the Brahmi script came to be used, Sanskrit is today one of the 22 languages listed in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India, which mandates the Indian government to develop the language. It continues to be used as a ceremonial language in Hindu religious rituals and Buddhist practice in the form of hymns. The Sanskrit verbal adjective sáṃskṛta- may be translated as refined, elaborated, as a term for refined or elaborated speech, the adjective appears only in Epic and Classical Sanskrit in the Manusmṛti and the Mahabharata. The pre-Classical form of Sanskrit is known as Vedic Sanskrit, with the language of the Rigveda being the oldest and most archaic stage preserved, Classical Sanskrit is the standard register as laid out in the grammar of Pāṇini, around the fourth century BCE. Sanskrit, as defined by Pāṇini, evolved out of the earlier Vedic form, the present form of Vedic Sanskrit can be traced back to as early as the second millennium BCE. Scholars often distinguish Vedic Sanskrit and Classical or Pāṇinian Sanskrit as separate dialects, although they are quite similar, they differ in a number of essential points of phonology, vocabulary, grammar and syntax. Vedic Sanskrit is the language of the Vedas, a collection of hymns, incantations and theological and religio-philosophical discussions in the Brahmanas. Modern linguists consider the metrical hymns of the Rigveda Samhita to be the earliest, for nearly 2000 years, Sanskrit was the language of a cultural order that exerted influence across South Asia, Inner Asia, Southeast Asia, and to a certain extent East Asia. A significant form of post-Vedic Sanskrit is found in the Sanskrit of Indian epic poetry—the Ramayana, the deviations from Pāṇini in the epics are generally considered to be on account of interference from Prakrits, or innovations, and not because they are pre-Paninian. Traditional Sanskrit scholars call such deviations ārṣa, meaning of the ṛṣis, in some contexts, there are also more prakritisms than in Classical Sanskrit proper. There were four principal dialects of classical Sanskrit, paścimottarī, madhyadeśī, pūrvi, the predecessors of the first three dialects are attested in Vedic Brāhmaṇas, of which the first one was regarded as the purest. In the 2001 Census of India,14,035 Indians reported Sanskrit to be their first language, in India, Sanskrit is among the 14 original languages of the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution. The state of Uttarakhand in India has ruled Sanskrit as its official language. In October 2012 social activist Hemant Goswami filed a petition in the Punjab. More than 3,000 Sanskrit works have been composed since Indias independence in 1947, much of this work has been judged of high quality, in comparison to both classical Sanskrit literature and modern literature in other Indian languages
16.
Punjabi language
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Punjabi /pʌnˈdʒɑːbi/ is an Indo-Aryan language spoken by over 100 million native speakers worldwide, making it the 10th most widely spoken language in the world. It is the language of the Punjabi people who inhabit the historical Punjab region of India. Among the Indo-European languages it is unusual in being a tonal language, Punjabi is the most widely spoken language in Pakistan, the 11th most widely spoken in India and the third-most spoken native language in the Indian Subcontinent. Punjabi is the fourth-most spoken language in the United Kingdom and third-most spoken native language in Canada, the language also has a significant presence in the United Arab Emirates, United States, Saudi Arabia, and Australia. The Punjabi language is written in the Shahmukhi and Gurmukhi scripts, the word Punjabi is derived from the word Panj-āb, Persian for Five Waters, referring to the five major eastern tributaries of the Indus River. Panj is cognate with Sanskrit pañca and Greek πέντε five, the historical Punjab region, now divided between India and Pakistan, is defined physiographically by the Indus River and these five tributaries. One of the five, the Beas River, is a tributary of another, Punjabi developed from Sanskrit through Prakrit language and later Apabhraṃśa From 600 BC Sanskrit gave birth to many regional languages in different parts of India. These all languages are called Prakrit language collectively, Shauraseni Prakrit was one of these Prakrit languages, which was spoken in north and north-western India and Punjabi and western dialects of Hindi developed from this Prakrit. Later in northern India Shauraseni Prakrit gave rise to Shauraseni Aparbhsha, Punjabi emerged as an Apabhramsha, a degenerated form of Prakrit, in the 7th century A. D. and became stable by the 10th century. By the 10th century, many Nath poets were associated with earlier Punjabi works, Arabic and Persian influence in the historical Punjab region began with the late first millennium Muslim conquests on the Indian subcontinent. The Persian language was introduced in the subcontinent a few centuries later by various Persianized Central Asian Turkic, many Persian and Arabic words were incorporated in Punjabi. Punjabi has more Persian and Arabic vocabulary than Bengali, Marathi, later, it was influenced by Portuguese and English, though these influences have been minor in comparison to Persian and Arabic. However, in India English words in the language are more widespread than Hindi. Punjabi is the most widely spoken language in Pakistan, the seventh-most widely spoken in India, Punjabi is the most widely spoken language in Pakistan. Punjabi is the language in the Punjab Province of Pakistan. Punjabi is spoken as a language by over 44. 15% of Pakistanis. About 70. 0% of the people of Pakistan speak Punjabi as either their first or second language, Lahore, the capital of the Punjab Province of Pakistan, is the largest Punjabi-speaking city in the world. 86% of the population of Lahore is native Punjabi and Islamabad
17.
Plucked string instrument
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Plucked string instruments are a subcategory of string instruments that are played by plucking the strings. Plucking is a way of pulling and releasing the string in such a way as to give it an impulse that causes the string to vibrate, plucking can be done with either a finger or a plectrum. Most plucked string instruments belong to the family, which generally consist of a resonating body, and a neck. The zither family does not have a neck, and the strings are stretched across the soundboard, in the harp family, the strings are perpendicular to the soundboard and do not run across it. The harpsichord does not fit any of these categories but is also a string instrument. Bowed string instruments, such as the violin, can also be plucked in the known as pizzicato, however, as they are usually played with a bow. Struck string instruments can be plucked as an extended technique. Plucked string instruments are not a category in the Sachs-Hornbostel classification, as some of them are simple chordophones and others are composite
18.
Mughal Empire
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The dynasty, though ethnically Turco-Mongol, was Persianate in terms of culture. The Mughal empire extended over parts of the Indian subcontinent. The beginning of the empire is conventionally dated to the victory by its founder Babur over Ibrahim Lodi, the Mughal emperors were Central Asian Turco-Mongols belonging to the Timurid dynasty, who claimed direct descent from both Genghis Khan and Timur. During the reign of Humayun, the successor of Babur, the empire was briefly interrupted by the Sur Empire, the classic period of the Mughal Empire started in 1556 with the ascension of Akbar the Great to the throne. Under the rule of Akbar and his son Jahangir, the region enjoyed economic progress as well as harmony. Akbar was a warrior who also forged alliances with several Hindu Rajput kingdoms. Some Rajput kingdoms continued to pose a significant threat to the Mughal dominance of northwestern India, the reign of Shah Jahan, the fifth emperor, between 1628 and 1658 was the golden age of Mughal architecture. He erected several monuments, the best known of which is the Taj Mahal at Agra, as well as the Moti Masjid, Agra, the Red Fort, the Jama Masjid, Delhi. By the mid-18th century, the Marathas had routed Mughal armies, during the following century Mughal power had become severely limited, and the last emperor, Bahadur Shah II, had authority over only the city of Shahjahanabad. He issued a firman supporting the Indian Rebellion of 1857 and following the defeat was therefore tried by the British East India Company for treason, imprisoned and exiled to Rangoon. Contemporaries referred to the empire founded by Babur as the Timurid empire, which reflected the heritage of his dynasty, another name was Hindustan, which was documented in the Ain-i-Akbari, and which has been described as the closest to an official name for the empire. In the west, the term Mughal was used for the emperor, and by extension, the use of Mughal derived from the Arabic and Persian corruption of Mongol, and it emphasised the Mongol origins of the Timurid dynasty. The term gained currency during the 19th century, but remains disputed by Indologists, similar terms had been used to refer to the empire, including Mogul and Moghul. Nevertheless, Baburs ancestors were sharply distinguished from the classical Mongols insofar as they were oriented towards Persian rather than Turco-Mongol culture, ousted from his ancestral domains in Central Asia, Babur turned to India to satisfy his ambitions. He established himself in Kabul and then pushed steadily southward into India from Afghanistan through the Khyber Pass, Baburs forces occupied much of northern India after his victory at Panipat in 1526. The preoccupation with wars and military campaigns, however, did not allow the new emperor to consolidate the gains he had made in India, the instability of the empire became evident under his son, Humayun, who was driven out of India and into Persia by rebels. Humayuns exile in Persia established diplomatic ties between the Safavid and Mughal Courts, and led to increasing Persian cultural influence in the Mughal Empire, the restoration of Mughal rule began after Humayuns triumphant return from Persia in 1555, but he died from a fatal accident shortly afterwards. Humayuns son, Akbar, succeeded to the throne under a regent, Bairam Khan, through warfare and diplomacy, Akbar was able to extend the empire in all directions and controlled almost the entire Indian subcontinent north of the Godavari River
19.
Sympathetic string
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Sympathetic strings or resonance strings are auxiliary strings found on many Indian musical instruments, as well as some Western Baroque instruments and a variety of folk instruments. They are typically not played directly by the performer, only indirectly through the tones that are played on the main strings, sympathetic strings are used to enhance the sound of an instrument. Some instruments have only a few sympathetic strings such as the Hardanger fiddle, other instruments which have more include the sitar and sarod with 15 sympathetic strings, and the sarangi which has a total of 37 sympathetics. These were generally called viola damore, another example is the baryton. In keyboard instruments like the piano, the dampers can be raised to produce this effect. Strings or parts of strings may resonate at their fundamental or harmonic frequencies when other strings are sounded, in general, non-played strings respond in sympathy to other strings being played. Two tones of the pitch will give maximum sympathetic resonance as all harmonics of both strings will overlap. Other harmonic combinations will cause sympathetic resonance at the fifth, fourth, for example, an A string at 440 Hz will cause an E string at 330 Hz to resonate, because they share an overtone of 1320 Hz
20.
Bridge (instrument)
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Most stringed instruments produce their sound through the application of energy to the strings, which sets them into vibratory motion. The strings alone, however, produce only a faint sound because they displace only a volume of air as they vibrate. Consequently, the sound of the strings alone requires impedance matching to the air by transmitting their vibrations to a larger surface area capable of displacing larger volumes of air. This calls for an arrangement that allows for the strings to vibrate freely, a bridge is the customary means by which this is accomplished. Typically, the bridge is perpendicular to the strings and larger surface with the tension of the strings pressing down on the bridge and thus on the larger surface beneath it. That larger, more acoustically responsive surface may be coupled to a sound chamber—an enclosure such as the body of a guitar or violin—that provides resonance that helps amplify the sound, alternatively, a bridge may consist of multiple parts. One common form is a bridge that incorporates a separate bearing surface on which the strings rest and this is often of a material harder than the bridge itself, such as bone, ivory, high-density plastic, or metal. A classical guitar saddle sits loosely in the bridge and is kept there by string tension. The saddle has shallow grooves in it, at least for the treble strings, yet another type of multi-part bridge is common on instruments whose sound plate is curved rather than flat. Instruments of this type, such as guitars and mandolins, often have a bridge with a base. On classical and flat-top guitars the bridge is glued to the top, a bridge held on to the top by string tension, as in archtop guitars, is known as a floating bridge, and requires a separate tailpiece to anchor the strings. The bridge must transfer vibration to the board or other amplifying surface. As the strings are set in motion, it does this by bending to and this causes the sounding board to vibrate at the same frequency as the string producing a wave-like motion and an audible sound. Bridges are designed to hold the strings at a height above the fingerboard of the instrument. Bridge height may be fixed or alterable, in addition to supporting the strings and transmitting their vibrations, the bridge also controls the spacing between strings with shallow grooves cut in the bridge or its saddle. The strings sit in grooves, thus are held in their proper lateral position. The nut, at the end of the instrument from the bridge or tailpiece. Bridges for electric guitars can be divided into two groups, vibrato and non-vibrato
21.
Gourd
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A gourd is a plant of the family Cucurbitaceae, particularly Cucurbita and Lagenaria or the fruit of the two genera of Bignoniaceae calabash tree, Crescentia and Amphitecna. The term refers to a number of species and subspecies, many with hard shells, likely one of the earliest domesticated types of plants, subspecies of the bottle gourd, Lagenaria siceraria, have been discovered in archaeological sites dating from as early as 13,000 BC. Gourds have had numerous uses throughout history, including as tools, musical instruments, objects of art, film, gourd is occasionally used to describe crop plants in the family Cucurbitaceae, like pumpkins, cucumbers, squash, luffa, and melons. More specifically, gourd refers to the fruits of plants in the two Cucurbitaceae genera Lagenaria and Cucurbita, or also to their hollow, dried-out shell, a gourd can also have a hard shell when dehydrated. There are many different gourds worldwide, the main plants referred to as gourds include several species from the Cucurbita genus, Crescentia cujete and Lagenaria siceraria. The bitter melon/balsam apple/balsam pear is also referred to as a gourd. L. siceraria was brought to Europe and the Americas very early in history, being found in Peruvian archaeological sites dating from 13,000 to 11,000 BC and Thailand sites from 11,000 to 6,000 BC. The gourds found in the Americas appear to have come from the Asian subspecies, very early in history, a new study now indicates Africa. The archaeological and DNA records show it likely that the gourd was among the first domesticated species, gourds continued to be used throughout history, in almost every culture throughout the world. European contact in North America found extensive use, including the use of bottle gourds as birdhouses to attract purple martins. Almost every culture had musical instruments made of gourds, including drums, stringed instruments common to Africa and wind instruments and these include Teasle gourd, Spine gourd, Sweet gourd, balsam apple and Momordica sahyadrica. Cultures from arid regions often associated gourds with water, and they appear in creation myths. Since the beginning of their history, they have had a multitude of uses, including food, kitchen tools, toys, musical instruments and decoration. Today, gourds are used for a wide variety of crafts, including jewelry, furniture, dishes, utensils. The Chinese developed a technique of tying a two-part mould around young gourds, or a part of them, so that the gourd grew into the mould, shaped gourds had various decorative uses, especially as boxes, bottles and other containers. The Luffa gourds, Luffa aegyptiaca and Luffa acutangula, have been used throughout recent history as scrubbing sponge and this is prepared by removing the skin and pulp from the gourd, and bleaching the fibers. A güiro is a Latin American percussion instrument made from a gourd, maracas are percussion instruments often made from gourds. A sitar is a stringed instrument, parts of which are made from gourds
22.
Ravi Shankar
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Ravi Shankar, KBE, born Rabindra Shankar Chowdhury, his name often preceded by the title Pandit, was an Indian musician and a composer of Hindustani classical music. He was one of the exponents of the sitar in the second half of the 20th century. Shankar was born to a Bengali family in India, and spent his youth touring India and he gave up dancing in 1938 to study sitar playing under court musician Allauddin Khan. After finishing his studies in 1944, Shankar worked as a composer, creating the music for the Apu Trilogy by Satyajit Ray and his influence on the latter helped popularize the use of Indian instruments in pop music throughout the 1960s. Shankar engaged Western music by writing compositions for sitar and orchestra, from 1986 to 1992, he served as a nominated member of Rajya Sabha, the upper chamber of the Parliament of India. He continued to perform until the end of his life, in 1999, Shankar was awarded Indias highest civilian honour, the Bharat Ratna. Shankar was born on 7 April 1920 in Benares, British India, in a Bengali family and his father, Shyam Shankar, was a Middle Temple barrister and scholar from East Bengal. A respected statesman, lawyer and politician, he served for years as dewan of Jhalawar, Rajasthan. Shyam was married to Hemangini Devi who hailed from a village named Nasrathpur in Mardah block of Ghazipur district, near Benares. Shyam later worked as a lawyer in London, England, and there he married a second time while Devi raised Shankar in Benares, Shankar shortened the Sanskrit version of his first name, Ravindra, to Ravi, for sun. Shankar had six siblings, only four of whom lived past infancy, Uday, Shankar attended the Bengalitola High School in Benares between 1927 and 1928. At the age of ten, after spending his first decade in Benares, by the age of 13 he had become a member of the group, accompanied its members on tour and learned to dance and play various Indian instruments. Shankar was sporadically trained by Khan on tour, and Khan offered Shankar training to become a musician under the condition that he abandon touring. Shankars parents had died by the time he returned from the European tour, Shankar gave up his dancing career in 1938 to go to Maihar and study Indian classical music as Khans pupil, living with his family in the traditional gurukul system. He often studied with Khans children Ali Akbar Khan and Annapurna Devi, Shankar began to perform publicly on sitar in December 1939 and his debut performance was a jugalbandi with Ali Akbar Khan, who played the string instrument sarod. Shankar completed his training in 1944 and he moved to Mumbai and joined the Indian Peoples Theatre Association, for whom he composed music for ballets in 1945 and 1946. Shankar recomposed the music for the popular song Sare Jahan Se Achcha at the age of 25 and he began to record music for HMV India and worked as a music director for All India Radio, New Delhi, from February 1949 to January 1956. Shankar founded the Indian National Orchestra at AIR and composed for it, in his compositions he combined Western, beginning in the mid-1950s he composed the music for the Apu Trilogy by Satyajit Ray, which became internationally acclaimed
23.
Sitar in popular music
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The first known use of the sitar in a rock music recording session was made by the Kinks for their song See My Friends. However, the Yardbirds were more notable when they hired a player to play the main riff for their single Heart Full of Soul. However, the version with the riff was not released at the time. During a break in the filming of The Beatles second movie, Harrison picked up a sitar left on the set as a prop and attempted to play it. His initial interest eventually led to his lessons from Pandit Ravi Shankar. He subsequently played the instrument on the Beatles song Norwegian Wood on the LP Rubber Soul in 1965, George Harrison went on to play the tambura, a long-necked plucked lute, on both Revolver and Sgt. Peppers Lonely Hearts Club Band, as well as laying down tracks for both albums on the songs Love You To, Tomorrow Never Knows, and Within You Without You. A later Beatles song, Across the Universe, also featured the sitar, additionally, Harrison made great use of the sitar on his first solo album, 1968s Wonderwall Music. In early 1966, Rolling Stones guitarist Brian Jones played the sitar on Paint It, Black, Jones also played sitar on some tracks of Between the Buttons and Their Satanic Majesties Request. In early October 1967, he played sitar on My Little One in a recording session with Jimi Hendrix as well as the tambura on Street Fighting Man. A fad for sitars in pop songs soon developed, facilitated by the Danelectro Companys 1967 introduction of the first electric sitar and this instrument was an electric guitar with a distinctive sitar-like sound, rather than an acoustic sitar of the type traditionally made in India. Despite producing similar sounds, the two instruments are completely different, as the electric sitar was much easier to play than the traditional version it quickly became the preferred choice of most rock musicians. The Coral instrument was an item for its time however production only continued for a few years, making them relatively rare. Elvis Presley had several recordings that featured the electric sitar. In the instances of Hi-Heel Sneakers and Snowbird, Nashville, Tennessee session musician Harold Bradley played the electric sitar, for Youll Think Of Me and Stranger In My Own Home Town, highly regarded Memphis, Tennessee and Nashville, Tennessee session musician Reggie Young played the electric sitar. Eric Burdon and the Animals played the instrument in the songs Winds of Change, No Self Pity, Orange and Red Beams, All Is One, We Love You Lil, and Monterey. The Strawberry Alarm Clock use the sitar in songs such as An Angry Young Man, Black Butter-Present, steve Miller Band used sitar in their popular song Wild Mountain Honey. Art-Rock bands such as The Moody Blues used the sitar on a few albums, sorrow also featured the instrument on a few tracks, as did Procol Harums epic song In Held Twas In I on the segment Glimpses of Nirvana
24.
The Beatles
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The Beatles were an English rock band, formed in Liverpool in 1960. With members John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison and Ringo Starr, the Beatles built their reputation playing clubs in Liverpool and Hamburg over a three-year period from 1960, with Stuart Sutcliffe initially serving as bass player. The core of Lennon, McCartney and Harrison went through a succession of drummers, including Pete Best, before asking Starr to join them. They acquired the nickname the Fab Four as Beatlemania grew in Britain the next year, from 1965 onwards, the Beatles produced increasingly innovative recordings, including the albums Rubber Soul, Revolver, Sgt. Peppers Lonely Hearts Club Band, The Beatles and Abbey Road, after their break-up in 1970, they each enjoyed successful musical careers of varying lengths. McCartney and Starr, the members, remain musically active. Lennon was shot and killed in December 1980, and Harrison died of cancer in November 2001. The Beatles are the band in history, with estimated sales of over 600 million records worldwide. They have had more number-one albums on the British charts and sold more singles in the UK than any other act, according to the RIAA, the Beatles are also the best-selling music artists in the United States, with 178 million certified units. In 2008, the group topped Billboard magazines list of the all-time most successful Hot 100 artists, as of 2016 and they have received ten Grammy Awards, an Academy Award for Best Original Song Score and fifteen Ivor Novello Awards. The group was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1988 and they were also collectively included in Time magazines compilation of the twentieth centurys 100 most influential people. In March 1957, John Lennon, then aged sixteen, formed a group with several friends from Quarry Bank school. They briefly called themselves the Blackjacks, before changing their name to the Quarrymen after discovering that a local group was already using the other name. Fifteen-year-old Paul McCartney joined as a rhythm guitarist shortly after he, in February 1958, McCartney invited his friend George Harrison to watch the band. The fourteen-year-old auditioned for Lennon, impressing him with his playing, after a month of Harrisons persistence, they enlisted him as their lead guitarist. By January 1959, Lennons Quarry Bank friends had left the group, the three guitarists, billing themselves at least three times as Johnny and the Moondogs, were playing rock and roll whenever they could find a drummer. They used the name until May, when they became the Silver Beetles, before undertaking a tour of Scotland as the backing group for pop singer. By early July, they had changed their name to the Silver Beatles, allan Williams, the Beatles unofficial manager, arranged a residency for them in Hamburg, but lacking a full-time drummer they auditioned and hired Pete Best in mid-August 1960
25.
The Doors
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The Doors were an American rock band formed in 1965 in Los Angeles, with vocalist Jim Morrison, keyboardist Ray Manzarek, guitarist Robby Krieger, and drummer John Densmore. They were unique and among the most controversial and influential acts of the 1960s, mostly because of Morrisons lyrics and charismatic. After Morrisons death in 1971 at age 27, the members continued as a trio until disbanding in 1973. Signing with Elektra Records in 1966, The Doors released eight albums between 1967 and 1971, All but one hit the Top 10 on the Billboard 200 and went platinum or better. By the end of 1971, it was reported that The Doors had sold 4,190,457 albums domestically and 7,750,642 singles. The band had three million-selling singles in the U. S. with Light My Fire, Hello, I Love You, after Morrisons death in 1971, the surviving trio released two albums Other Voices and Full Circle with Manzarek and Krieger sharing lead vocals. The three members also collaborated on the spoken word recording of Morrisons An American Prayer in 1978, Manzarek, Krieger and Densmore reunited in 2000 for an episode of VH1s Storytellers and subsequently recorded Stoned Immaculate, The Music of The Doors with a variety of vocalists. Although the Doors active career ended in 1973, their popularity has persisted, According to the RIAA, they have sold 33 million certified units in the US and over 100 million records worldwide, making them one of the best-selling bands of all time. The Doors have been listed as one of the greatest artists of all time by many magazines, including Rolling Stone, the Doors were the first American band to accumulate eight consecutive gold and platinum LPs. In 2002, Manzarek and Krieger started playing again, branding themselves as the Doors of the 21st Century. Densmore opted to sit out and, along with the Morrison estate, sued the duo over proper use of the bands name and won. After a short time as Riders On the Storm, they settled on the name Manzarek-Krieger and continued to tour until Manzareks death in 2013 at the age of 74. Three of the studio albums, the self-titled debut, L. A. Woman, and Strange Days, were featured in Rolling Stones 500 Greatest Albums of All Time, at positions 42,362. According to The Washington Posts Martin Weil, the rose to the center of the counterculture of the 1960s. The Doors were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1993, Morrison told Manzarek he had been writing songs and with Manzareks encouragement sang Moonlight Drive. The members came from a musical background of jazz, rock, blues. In August, Densmore joined the group, which had renamed the Doors. This has circulated widely since then as a bootleg recording, in mid-1965, after Manzareks two brothers left, the group recruited guitarist Robby Krieger and the best-known lineup – Morrison, Manzarek, Krieger and Densmore – was complete
26.
The Rolling Stones
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The Rolling Stones are an English rock band formed in London in 1962. The original line-up consisted of Brian Jones, Mick Jagger, Keith Richards, Bill Wyman, Charlie Watts, Stewart was removed from the official line-up in 1963 but continued as a touring member until his death in 1985. Jones left the less than a month prior to his death in 1969, having already been replaced by Mick Taylor. After Taylor left the band, Ronnie Wood took his place in 1975 and has been on guitar in tandem with Richards ever since, following Wymans departure in 1993, Darryl Jones joined as their touring bassist. Other touring keyboardists for the band have been Nicky Hopkins, Billy Preston, the band was first led by Jones, but after teaming as the bands songwriters, Jagger and Richards assumed leadership while Jones dealt with legal and personal troubles. The Rolling Stones were at the forefront of the British Invasion of bands that became popular in the US in 1964, and identified with the youthful and rebellious counterculture of the 1960s. Rooted in blues and early rock and roll, the group began a period of musical experimentation in the mid-1960s that peaked with the psychedelic album Their Satanic Majesties Request. During this period, they were first introduced on stage as The Worlds Greatest Rock, the band continued to release commercially successful records in the 1970s and sold many albums, including Some Girls and Tattoo You, which were their most popular albums worldwide. From 1983 to 1987, tensions between Jagger and Richards almost caused the band to split, however, they managed to patch up their friendship in 1987. They separated temporarily to work on projects and experienced a comeback with Steel Wheels. Since the 1990s, new recorded material from the group has been increasingly less well-received, despite this, the Rolling Stones have continued to be a huge attraction on the live circuit, with stadium tours in the 1990s and 2000s. By 2007, the band had four of the top five highest-grossing concert tours of all time, Voodoo Lounge Tour, Bridges to Babylon Tour, Licks Tour and A Bigger Bang Tour. The Rolling Stones were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1989, Rolling Stone magazine ranked them fourth on the 100 Greatest Artists of All Time list and their estimated album sales are above 250 million. They have released 30 studio albums,18 live albums and numerous compilations, Let It Bleed was their first of five consecutive number one studio and live albums in the UK. Sticky Fingers was the first of eight number one studio albums in the US. In 2008, the band ranked 10th on the Billboard Hot 100 All-Time Top Artists chart, in 2012, the band celebrated its 50th anniversary. Keith Richards and Mick Jagger were childhood friends and classmates in Dartford, Kent, Jagger had formed a garage band with Dick Taylor, mainly playing Muddy Waters, Chuck Berry, Little Richard, Howlin Wolf and Bo Diddley material. Jagger met Richards again in 1960 on platform two of Dartford railway station, the Chuck Berry and Muddy Waters records that Jagger carried revealed a common interest that prompted their musical partnership
27.
Persian language
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Persian, also known by its endonym Farsi, is one of the Western Iranian languages within the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European language family. It is primarily spoken in Iran, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan and it is mostly written in the Persian alphabet, a modified variant of the Arabic script. Its grammar is similar to that of many contemporary European languages, Persian gets its name from its origin at the capital of the Achaemenid Empire, Persis, hence the name Persian. A Persian-speaking person may be referred to as Persophone, there are approximately 110 million Persian speakers worldwide, with the language holding official status in Iran, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan. For centuries, Persian has also been a cultural language in other regions of Western Asia, Central Asia. It also exerted influence on Arabic, particularly Bahrani Arabic. Persian is one of the Western Iranian languages within the Indo-European family, other Western Iranian languages are the Kurdish languages, Gilaki, Mazanderani, Talysh, and Balochi. Persian is classified as a member of the Southwestern subgroup within Western Iranian along with Lari, Kumzari, in Persian, the language is known by several names, Western Persian, Parsi or Farsi has been the name used by all native speakers until the 20th century. Since the latter decades of the 20th century, for reasons, in English. Tajiki is the variety of Persian spoken in Tajikistan and Uzbekistan by the Tajiks, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, the term Persian as a language name is first attested in English in the mid-16th century. Native Iranian Persian speakers call it Fārsi, Farsi is the Arabicized form of Pārsi, subsequent to Muslim conquest of Persia, due to a lack of the phoneme /p/ in Standard Arabic. The origin of the name Farsi and the place of origin of the language which is Fars Province is the Arabicized form of Pārs, in English, this language has historically been known as Persian, though Farsi has also gained some currency. Farsi is encountered in some literature as a name for the language. In modern English the word Farsi refers to the language while Parsi describes Zoroastrians, some Persian language scholars such as Ehsan Yarshater, editor of Encyclopædia Iranica, and University of Arizona professor Kamran Talattof, have also rejected the usage of Farsi in their articles. The international language-encoding standard ISO 639-1 uses the code fa, as its system is mostly based on the local names. The more detailed standard ISO 639-3 uses the name Persian for the dialect continuum spoken across Iran and Afghanistan and this consists of the individual languages Dari and Iranian Persian. Currently, Voice of America, BBC World Service, Deutsche Welle, Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty also includes a Tajik service and an Afghan service. This is also the case for the American Association of Teachers of Persian, The Centre for Promotion of Persian Language and Literature, Persian is an Iranian language belonging to the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European family of languages
28.
Amir Khusrow
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Abul Hasan Yamīn ud-Dīn Khusrau, better known as Amīr Khusrow, was a Sufi musician, poet and scholar. He was a figure in the cultural history of the Indian subcontinent. He was a mystic and a disciple of Nizamuddin Auliya of Delhi. Amīr Khusrau is reputed to have invented certain musical instruments like the sitar and he wrote poetry primarily in Persian, but also in Hindavi. A vocabulary in verse, the Ḳhāliq Bārī, containing Arabic, Persian and he is regarded as the father of Qawwali, and introduced the ghazal style of song into India, both of which still exist widely in India and Pakistan. He is also credited with introducing Persian, Arabic and Turkish elements into Indian classical music and was the originator of the khayal, Amir Khusrau is called the Parrot of India. Khusrau was an expert in many styles of Persian poetry which were developed in medieval Persia and he used 11 metrical schemes with 35 distinct divisions. He has written in many forms including ghazal, masnavi, qata, rubai, do-baiti. His contribution to the development of the g͟hazal, is significant, Amīr Khusrow was born in Patiyali in the Delhi Sultanate. His father, Amīr Saif ud-Dīn Mahmūd, was a Turkic officer, during Genghis Khans invasion of Central Asia, Amir Saif ud-Din migrated from his hometown of Kesh, near Samarkand, to Balkh, where he was the chieftain of the Hazara. Shams ud-Din Iltutmish, the Sultan of Delhi at the time and he provided shelter to the exiled princes, artisans, scholars and rich nobles. In 1230, Amir Saif ud-Din was granted a fief in the district of Patiyali, Amir Saif ud-Din married Bibi Daulatnaz, the daughter of Rawat Arz, who was the famous war minister of Ghiyas ud-Din Balban, the ninth Sultan of Delhi. Daulatnazs family belonged to the Rajput tribes of Uttar Pradesh and they had four children, three sons and a daughter. Amir Khusrow was one among them born in the year 1253 in Patiyali and his father Amir Saif ud-Din Mahmud died in 1260. He started learning and writing poetry at the age of eight, after the death of his father, his mother brought him up and traveled with him to Delhi to his maternal grandfather Imadul Mulks house. In 1271, when Khusrow was 20 years old, his grandfather, from an early age, Khusrow had a deep eagerness to know God and his strong yearning to see God brought him to the Sufi saint Nizamuddin Auliya. Later on, Khusrow was initiated with divine knowledge from his Auliya, after Khusrows grandfathers death, Khusrow joined the army of Malik Chajju, a nephew of the reigning Sultan, Ghiyas ud-Din Balban. This brought his poetry to the attention of the Assembly of the Royal Court where he was honored, when Khusrow was forty seven years old, his mother and brother died
29.
Sufism
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Sufism or Taṣawwuf, which is often defined as Islamic mysticism, the inward dimension of Islam, or the phenomenon of mysticism within Islam, is a mystical trend in Islam characterized. These orders meet for sessions in meeting places known as zawiyas, khanqahs. They strive for ihsan as detailed in a hadith, Ihsan is to worship Allah as if you see Him, if you cant see Him, Rumi stated, The Sufi is hanging on to Muhammad, like Abu Bakr. Sufis regard Muhammad as al-Insān al-Kāmil, the perfect man who exemplifies the morality of God. The orders largely follow one of the four madhhabs of Sunni Islam, classical Sufis were characterized by their asceticism, especially by their attachment to dhikr, the practice of repeating the names of God, often performed after prayers. According to William Chittick, In a broad sense, Sufism can be described as the interiorization, historically, Muslims have used the Arabic word taṣawwuf to identify the practice of Sufis. In this view, it is necessary to be a Muslim to be a true Sufi. However, Islamic scholars themselves are not by any means in agreement about the meaning of the word sufi, Sufis themselves claim that Tasawwuf is an aspect of Islam similar to Sharia, inseparable from Islam and an integral part of Islamic belief and practice. Classical Sufi scholars have defined Tasawwuf as a science whose objective is the reparation of the heart and turning it away from all else, two origins of the word sufi have been suggested. Commonly, the root of the word is traced to ṣafā. Another origin is ṣūf, wool in Arabic, referring to the simple cloaks the early Muslim ascetics wore, the two were combined by the Sufi al-Rudhabari, who said, The Sufi is the one who wears wool on top of purity. Scholars generally agree that ṣūf or wool is probably the word of Sufi. This term was given to them because they wore woollen garments, the term labisal-suf meant he clad himself in wool and applied to a person who renounced the world and became an ascetic. Others have suggested that the word comes from the term ahl aṣ-ṣuffah and these men and women who sat at al-Masjid an-Nabawi are considered by some to be the first Sufis. Al-Qushayri and Ibn Khaldun both rejected all other than ṣūf on linguistic grounds. Sufi orders are based on the bayah that was given to the Prophet Muhammad by his Sahaba, by pledging allegiance to the Prophet Muhammad, the Sahaba had committed themselves to the service of God. According to Islamic belief, by pledging allegiance to Prophet Muhammad and it is through the Prophet Muhammad that Sufis aim to learn about, understand and connect with God. Such a concept may be understood by the hadith, which Sufis regard to be authentic, in which Prophet Muhammad said, I am the city of knowledge, eminent Sufis such as Ali Hujwiri refer to Ali as having a very high ranking in Tasawwuf
30.
Khyal
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Khyal is the modern genre of classical singing in North India. Its name comes from an Arabic word meaning imagination and it is thought to have developed out of Dhrupad introducing frequent taans and alankars in it. It appeared more recently than dhrupad, is a free and flexible form. Like all Indian classical music, khyal is modal, with a melodic line. The modes are called raga, and each raga is a framework of melodic rules. Khyal bases itself on a repertoire of songs, a khyal song is called a bandish. Every singer generally renders the same bandish differently, with only the text, the bandish is divided into two parts — the sthayi and the antara, with the former considered more important as it shows the melodic contours of the raga. The role of the accompanist playing the instrument is to provide continuity when the singer pauses for breath. While there is a variety of rhythmic patterns that could be used by the percussionist, khyal performances typically use Ektaal, Jhoomra, Jhaptaal, Tilwada, Tintal, Rupak. The songs are sometimes preceded by improvised alap to sketch the basic raga structure without drum accompaniment, as the songs are short, and performances long, the lyrics lose some of their importance. Taans are one of the distinguishing features of the khyal. Now and then, the returns to the song, especially its first line. Besides the vilambit and drut tempos, a performance may include ati-vilambit, madhya, song forms such as taranas, thumris or tappas are sometimes used to round off a khyal performance. Khayal was popularized by Niyamat Khan and his nephew Firoz Khan and it seems likely that khyal already existed at the time, although perhaps not in the present form. The compositions of Sadarang and Adarang employ the theme of Urdu love-poetry, the gharana system arose out of stylistic rendering of the khyal by various subsequent generations of musicians. This used to be uncommon, and a few decades ago teachers used to forbid students to hear other gharana singers perform. Today, as always, a singer is expected to develop an individual style, khyāl, Creativity Within North Indias Classical Music Tradition. Some words about Khyal Retrieved 2007-06-10 Khyal - Fantasy in Music Retrieved 2007-06-10
31.
Delhi Sultanate
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The Delhi Sultanate was a Muslim kingdom based mostly in Delhi that stretched over large parts of the Indian subcontinent for 320 years. Five dynasties ruled over Delhi Sultanate sequentially, the Mamluk dynasty, the Khilji dynasty, the Tughlaq dynasty, the Sayyid dynasty, the first four dynasties were of Turkic origin, and the last dynasty was of Afghan origin. Qutb-ud-din Aibak, a slave of Muhammad Ghori, was the first sultan of Delhi. Afterwards the Khilji dynasty was able to conquer most of central India. The sultanate reached the peak of its reach during the Tughlaq dynasty. This was followed by due to continuing Hindu-Muslim wars, states such as the Vijayanagara Empire asserting independence. The Delhi Sultanate caused destruction and desecration of politically important temples of South Asia, in 1526 the Sultanate fell, to be succeeded by the Mughal Empire. By 962 AD, Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms in South Asia were under a wave of raids from Muslim armies from Central Asia. Among them was Mahmud of Ghazni, who raided and plundered kingdoms in north India from east of the Indus river to west of Yamuna river seventeen times between 997 and 1030, Mahmud of Ghazni raided the treasuries but retracted each time, only extending Islamic rule into western Punjab. The wave of raids on north Indian and western Indian kingdoms by Muslim warlords continued after Mahmud of Ghazni, the raids did not establish or extend permanent boundaries of their Islamic kingdoms. The Ghurid Sultan Muizz al-Din Muhammad began a war of expansion into north India in 1173. He sought to carve out a principality for himself by expanding the Islamic world, Mu’izz sought a Sunni Islamic kingdom of his own extending east of the Indus river, and he thus laid the foundation for the Muslim kingdom called the Delhi Sultanate. Some historians chronicle the Delhi Sultanate from 1192 due to the presence, Muizz al-Din was assassinated in 1206, by Ismāʿīlī Shia Muslims in some accounts or by Hindu Khokhars in others. After the assassination, one of Mu’izz slaves, the Turkic Qutbu l-Din Aibak, assumed power, Qutb al-Din Aibak, a slave of Muizz ad-Din Muhammad Ghori, was the first ruler of the Delhi Sultanate. Aibak was of Cuman-Kipchak origin, and due to his lineage, Aibak reigned as the Sultan of Delhi for four years. After Aibak died, Aram Shah assumed power in 1210, but he was assassinated in 1211 by Shams-ud-din Iltutmish, iltutmishs power was precarious, and a number of Muslim amirs challenged his authority as they had been supporters of Qutb al-din Aibak. After a series of conquests and brutal executions of opposition, he consolidated his power and his rule was challenged a number of times, such as by Qubacha, and this led to a series of wars. Iltumish conquered Multan and Bengal from contesting Muslim rulers, as well as Ranathambhore and he also attacked, defeated, and executed Taj al-Din Yildiz, who asserted his rights as heir to Muizz ad-Din Muhammad Ghori
32.
Veena
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The Veena, also spelled as Vina or Beena or Bina, is a multistringed chordophone of the Indian subcontinent. It is an ancient musical instrument that evolved into many variations, such as lutes, zithers, the many regional designs have different names such as the Rudra veena, the Saraswati veena, the Mohan veena and others. The North Indian design, that has used in classical Hindustani music, is a stick zither. About 3.5 to 4 feet long to fit the measurements of the musician, it has a hollow body and it has four main strings which are melody type, and three auxiliary drone strings. To play, the musician plucks the melody strings downward with a plectrum worn on the first and second fingers, the musician stops the resonating strings, when so desired, with the fingers of the free hand. The Veena has been replaced with the Sitar in north Indian performances. The South Indian Veena design, used in classical Carnatic music, is a lute and it is a long-necked, pear-shaped lute, but instead of the lower gourd of the north Indian design it has a pear shaped wooden piece. It too, however, has 24 frets, four melody strings and it remains an important and popular string instrument in classical Carnatic music. As a fretted, plucked lute, the Veena strings can produce pitches in full three octave range, the long hollow neck design of these Indian instruments allow portamento effects and legato ornaments found in Indian ragas. It has been an instrument in Indian classical music, and one revered in the Indian culture by its inclusion in the iconography of Saraswati. These continue to be used, albeit with different designs, in Carnatic classical music, the Sanskrit word Veena in ancient and medieval Indian literature is a generic term for plucked string musical instruments. Veena is mentioned in the Rigveda, Samaveda and other Vedic literature such as the Shatapatha Brahmana, in the ancient texts, Narada is credited with inventing the Veena, and is described as a seven string instrument with frets. The early Sanskrit texts call any stringed instrument as Vana, the Natya Shastra by Bharata Muni, the oldest surviving ancient Hindu text on classical music and performance arts, discusses Veena. The ancient epic Mahabharata describes sage Narada as a Vedic sage famed as a vina player, the Natya Shastra describes a seven string instrument and other string instruments in thirty five verses, and then explains how the instrument should be played. The technique of performance suggests that the Veena in Bharata Munis time was different than the zither or the lute that became popular after Natya Shastra was complete. The ancient Veena, according to Allyn Miner and other scholars, was closer to a harp, the earliest lute and zither style Veena playing musicians are evidenced in Hindu and Buddhist cave temple reliefs in the early centuries of the common era. Similarly, Indian sculptures from the mid 1st millennium CE depict musicians playing string instruments, by about the 6th century CE, the goddess Saraswati sculptures are predominantly with Veena of the zither-style, similar to modern styles. The Tamil word of Veena is yaaḻ and it is in the list of Musical instruments used by Tamil people in Tirumurai dated 6th to 11th century
33.
Fret
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A fret is a raised element on the neck of a stringed instrument. Frets usually extend across the width of the neck. On most modern western fretted instruments, frets are metal strips inserted into the fingerboard, on some historical instruments and non-European instruments, frets are made of pieces of string tied around the neck. Frets divide the neck into fixed segments at intervals related to a musical framework, on instruments such as guitars, each fret represents one semitone in the standard western system, in which one octave is divided into twelve semitones. Fret is often used as a verb, meaning simply to press down the string behind a fret, fretting often refers to the frets and/or their system of placement. Pressing the string against the fret reduces the length of the string to that between the bridge and the next fret between the fretting finger and the bridge. This is damped if the string were stopped with the fingertip on a fretless fingerboard. Frets make it easier for a player to achieve an acceptable standard of intonation. Furthermore, a fretted fingerboard makes it easier to play chords accurately, a disadvantage of frets is that they restrict pitches to the temperament defined by the fret positions. A player may still influence intonation, however, by pulling the string to the side to increase string tension and this technique is often used by electric guitarists of all genres, and is an important part of sitar playing. On instruments with frets that are thicker off the fingerboard, string tension, sometimes a player can pull the string toward the bridge or nut, thus lowering or raising the string tension and pitch. However, except for instruments that accommodate extensive string pulling, like the sitar, since the intonation of most modern western fretted instruments is equal tempered, the ratio of the distances of two consecutive frets to the bridge is 212, or approximately 1.059463. Theoretically, the twelfth fret should divide the string in two exact halves, to compensate for the increase in string tension when the string is pressed against the frets, the bridge position is adjusted slightly so the 12th fret plays exactly in tune. Fan frets (also fanned frets, slanted frets, or multi-scale, Frets are generally perpendicular to the instruments neck centerline, on a fanned fretboard, the frets are angled with only one center fret perpendicular to the neck’s centerline. This gives the strings more length and the higher strings shorter length. The idea is to more accurate tuning and deeper bass. Some think that fanned frets might be more ergonomic, fanned frets first appeared on the 16th century Orpharion, a variant of the cittern, tuned like a lute. John Starrett revived the idea in the seventies on his innovative instrument
34.
Vilayat Khan
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Ustad Vilayat Khan was one of Indias well known sitar maestros. Along with Ravi Shankar, Ali Akbar Khan, Nikhil Banerjee and his younger brother Imrat Khan and he recorded his first 78-RPM disc at the age of 8, and gave his last concert in 2004 at the age of 75. Vilayat Khan was born in Gouripur, Mymensingh in then East Bengal in British India and his father Enayat Khan was recognised as a leading sitar and surbahar player of his time, as had been his grandfather, Imdad Khan, before him. He was taught in the style, known as the Imdadkhani Gharana or Etawah Gharana. His uncle, Zinde Hassan, looked after his riyaz, as a boy, Vilayat wanted to be a singer, but his mother, herself from a family of vocalists, felt he had a strong responsibility to bear the family torch as a sitar maestro. Vilayat Khan performed at All Bengal Music Conference, as his first concert and his performance at the concert organized by Vikramaditya Sangeet Parishad, Mumbai in 1944 drew the headline Electrifying Sitar. In the 1950s, Vilayat Khan worked closely with instrument makers, especially the famous sitar-makers Kanailal & Hiren Roy, also, he liked to perform without a tanpura drone, filling out the silence with strokes to his chikari strings. Some ragas he would somewhat re-interpret, others he invented himself, when he died from lung cancer in 2004, Vilayat Khan had been recording for over 65 years, broadcasting on All India Radio almost as long and had been seen as a master for 60 years. He had been touring outside India off and on for more than 50 years, in the 1990s, his recording career reached a climax of sorts with a series of ambitious CDs for India Archive Music in New York, some traditional, some controversial, some eccentric. Vilayat Khan composed and conducted the score for three feature films - Satyajit Rays Jalsaghar in Bengali, Merchant-Ivory Productions The Guru in English, the Imdad Khan family is of Rajput lineage. The family is of Hindu origin and later converted to Islam, in an informal continuation of his Rajput lineage, Vilayat Khans father Enayat Khan kept a Hindu name of Nath Singh. Vilayat Khan himself composed many bandishes using the pen name, Nath Piya, Vilayat Khan spent much of his life in Calcutta. He had three children from his first marriage, Yaman Khan, Sufi singer Zila Khan, and sitarist Shujaat Khan, by his second marriage, Vilayat Khan had one son, Hidayat, also a professional sitarist. Vilayat was survived also by his brother, Imrat Khan. The brothers played celebrated duets in their youth, but had a severe falling-out, vilayats nephews Ustad Rais Khan, Ustad Nishat Khan, and Ustad Irshad Khan are sitar players. Vilayat took few disciples other than his sons, among the best-known are Kashinath Mukherjee and Arvind Parikh, he also gave lessons to Big Jim Sullivan. He trained his daughter, Zila, in sitar and vocal music, the ceremony appears in a documentary made in 1991 and also in Indias Ministry of External Affairs film on his life, entitled Spirit to Soul. Vilayat Khans animosity for the politics and institutions of Indias cultural life was another matter, in January 2000, when he was awarded the Padma Vibhushan, the second highest civilian award, he again refused, going so far as to call it an insult
35.
Bishnupur gharana
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The Bishnupur gharana is a form of singing that follows the Dhrupad tradition of Hindustani music, one of the two forms of Indian classical music. It originated in Bishnupur, West Bengal, India in late 18th-century, the name of the town means city of Vishnu in Bengali. In the ancient past, this area, known as Mallabhum was the abode of Malla Kings who were vassals to the Mughal Empire who were devotees of Lord Vishnu, Bishnupur Gharana was established in 1370 A. D. by the court musicians of Malla Kings. Historians suggest that Mallabhum had once been the centre of Eastern India. It also has the distinction of being the only Gharana in West Bengal, the gharana is reputed to have been established in the 13th century, even though there is no historic evidence to support this. The famous Dhrupad Singer Bahadur Khan of the Senia Gharana, descendant of Tansen, fled to Bishnupur and made his Gharana popular, Bahadur Khan was not only a vocalist but could also efficiently play on such instruments as the Veena, the Rabaab, the surashringaar. The king, Raghunath Singh Deo II, made all arrangements to honour him as his court singer, the Maharaja also announced that anyone having a sweet voice and interested in music could learn from Bahadur Khan without any fees. He also bore the financial liability for the poor students, in time, a good number of students became the disciples of Bahadur Khan. Historical evidence points to Pt. Ramachandra Bhattacharya, a disciple of Ud, Bahadur Khan as the founder of the gharana. Bishnupur Gharana therefore has a link to Betia Gharana through this unbroken relationship. Three of them were from Bishnupur Gharana, Gopeswar Bandyopadhyay, Satyakinkar Bandyopadhyay, first maiden Gramophone record in Khayal in 1902 Tara Parameshwari by Lal Chand Baral, who learnt under Ramprassanna Bandyopadhyay published by Gramophone Concert and Nicole. First Dhrupad record in 1902 Naad Bidya Sabse Sera Raag Darbari, Taal Choutal, Khayal started from Ramshankar Bhattachariyas age. His writings on Khayal is being found Bramhamoyi Paratpara, on the Raga Yaman Kalyan, ramprasanna Bandyopadhyay was the foremost Surbahar and Sitar Artist of India up to 1928. They gave a performance in Dhrupad. After this they gave individual performance, in this style, the artist excels in unfolding the beauty of the Raga through the alap. It is simple, devoid of heavy, cumbersome ornamentation and it is free from intricate play with the rhythm. Layakari is however allowed in Dhamar, another form of vocalisation, the Khayal of the Bishnupur School is noted for its sweet, lilting melody. It is adorned with the ornaments, which add variety to the melodic presentation of the Raga
36.
Drone (music)
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In music, a drone is a harmonic or monophonic effect or accompaniment where a note or chord is continuously sounded throughout most or all of a piece. Burden also refers to a part of a song that is repeated at the end of each stanza, the term comes from the French bourdon, a staff, or a pipe made in the form of a staff. The drone does not take its name from the bee and it is a far older word, sharing an Indo-European root with the Sanskrit dhran, the Greek thren-os, and the English thrum, drum, and dream. Of all harmonic devices, it is not only the simplest, a drone effect can be achieved through a sustained sound or through repetition of a note. It most often establishes a tonality upon which the rest of the piece is built, a drone can be instrumental, vocal or both. Drone can be placed in different ranges of the texture, in the lowest part, in the highest part. The drone is most often placed upon the tonic or dominant, a drone on the same pitch as a melodic note tends to both hide that note and to bring attention to it by increasing its importance. A drone differs from a pedal tone or point in degree or quality. A pedal point may be a form of tone and thus required to resolve unlike a drone, or a pedal point may simply be considered a shorter drone. The systematic use of drones originated in instrumental music of ancient Southwest Asia, and spread north and west to Europe, east to India and it is a key component of much Australian aboriginal music through the didgeridoo. It is used in Indian music and is played with the tanpura and other Indian drone instruments like the ottu, the ektar, the dotara, the surpeti, the surmandal and the shank. Most of the types of bagpipes that exist worldwide have up to three drones, making one of the first instruments that comes to mind when speaking of drone music. In America, most forms of the African-influenced banjo contain a drone string, since the 1960s, the drone has become a prominent feature in drone music and other forms of avant-garde music. In vocal music drone is particularly widespread in traditional cultures, particularly in Europe. Drones are not uncommon in primitive music, but neither are they characteristic of it and it is also present in some isolated regions of Asia. Drone is also the term for the part of a musical instrument intended to produce the drone effects sustained pitch, different melodic Indian instruments contain a drone. For example, the sitar features three or four resonating drone strings, and Indian notes are practiced to a drone, bagpipes feature a number of drone pipes, giving the instruments their characteristic sounds. A hurdy-gurdy has one or more drone strings, the bass strings of the Slovenian drone zither also freely resonate as a drone
37.
Melody
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A melody, also tune, voice, or line, is a linear succession of musical tones that the listener perceives as a single entity. In its most literal sense, a melody is a combination of pitch and rhythm, while more figuratively and it may be considered the foreground to the background accompaniment. A line or part need not be a foreground melody, melodies often consist of one or more musical phrases or motifs, and are usually repeated throughout a composition in various forms. Melodies may also be described by their melodic motion or the pitches or the intervals between pitches, pitch range, tension and release, continuity and coherence, cadence, the true goal of music—its proper enterprise—is melody. All the parts of harmony have as their purpose only beautiful melody. Therefore, the question of which is the significant, melody or harmony, is futile. Beyond doubt, the means is subordinate to the end, given the many and varied elements and styles of melody many extant explanations confine us to specific stylistic models, and they are too exclusive. Paul Narveson claimed in 1984 that more than three-quarters of melodic topics had not been explored thoroughly, melodies in the 20th century utilized a greater variety of pitch resources than ha been the custom in any other historical period of Western music. While the diatonic scale was used, the chromatic scale became widely employed. Composers also allotted a structural role to the dimensions that previously had been almost exclusively reserved for pitch. Kliewer states, The essential elements of any melody are duration, pitch, and quality, texture, for example, Jazz musicians use the term lead or head to refer to the main melody, which is used as a starting point for improvisation. Rock music, melodic music, and other forms of popular music, indian classical music relies heavily on melody and rhythm, and not so much on harmony, as the music contains no chord changes. Balinese gamelan music often uses complicated variations and alterations of a melody played simultaneously. In western classical music, composers often introduce an initial melody, or theme, classical music often has several melodic layers, called polyphony, such as those in a fugue, a type of counterpoint. Often, melodies are constructed from motifs or short melodic fragments, richard Wagner popularized the concept of a leitmotif, a motif or melody associated with a certain idea, person or place. Appropriation Hocket Parsons code, a notation used to identify a piece of music through melodic motion—the motion of the pitch up. Harvard Dictionary of Music, 2nd ed. p. 517–19, the Art of Melody, p. xix–xxx. A Textbook of Melody, A course in functional melodic analysis, a History Of Melody, Barrie and Rockliff, London
38.
Overtone
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An overtone is any frequency greater than the fundamental frequency of a sound. Using the model of Fourier analysis, the fundamental and the overtones together are called partials, harmonics, or more precisely, harmonic partials, are partials whose frequencies are integer multiples of the fundamental. These overlapping terms are used when discussing the acoustic behavior of musical instruments. The model of Fourier analysis provides for the inclusion of inharmonic partials, when a resonant system such as a blown pipe or plucked string is excited, a number of overtones may be produced along with the fundamental tone. In simple cases, such as for most musical instruments, the frequencies of these tones are the same as the harmonics. Examples of exceptions include the drum, – a timpani whose first overtone is about 1.6 times its fundamental resonance frequency, gongs and cymbals. The human vocal tract is able to produce highly variable amplitudes of the overtones, called formants, most oscillators, from a guitar string to a flute, will naturally vibrate at a series of distinct frequencies known as normal modes. The lowest normal mode frequency is known as the fundamental frequency, often, when an oscillator is excited by, for example, plucking a guitar string, it will oscillate at several of its modal frequencies at the same time. So when a note is played, this gives the sensation of hearing other frequencies above the lowest frequency, timbre is the quality that gives the listener the ability to distinguish between the sound of different instruments. The timbre of an instrument is determined by which overtones it emphasizes and that is to say, the relative volumes of these overtones to each other determines the specific flavor or color of sound of that family of instruments. The intensity of each of these overtones is rarely constant for the duration of a note, over time, different overtones may decay at different rates, causing the relative intensity of each overtone to rise or fall independent of the overall volume of the sound. A carefully trained ear can hear these changes even in a single note and this is why the timbre of a note may be perceived differently when played staccato or legato. A driven non-linear oscillator, such as the folds, a blown wind instrument, or a bowed violin string will oscillate in a periodic. This generates the impression of sound at integer multiple frequencies of the known as harmonics, or more precisely. Thus, in music, overtones are often called harmonics, depending upon how the string is plucked or bowed, different overtones can be emphasized. However, some overtones in some instruments may not be of an integer multiplication of the fundamental frequency. High quality instruments are built in such a manner that their individual notes do not create disharmonious overtones. This is illustrated by the following, Consider a guitar string and this dead length actually varies from string to string, being more pronounced with thicker and/or stiffer strings
39.
Jivari
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Javārī, in Indian classical music refers to the overtone-rich buzzing sound characteristic of classical Indian string instruments such as the tanpura, sitar, surbahar, rudra veena and Sarasvati veena. Javari can refer to the phenomenon itself and to the meticulously carved bone, ivory or wooden bridges that support the strings on the sounding board. A similar sort of bridge is used on traditional Ethiopian lyres, as well as on the ancient Greek kithara, a similar sound effect, called in Japanese sawari, is used on some traditional Japanese instruments as well. These cotton threads are known in Hindi as jīvā, meaning life and this process is called adjusting the javari. After a substantial time of playing, the surface directly under the string will wear out through the impact of the strings. The sound will become thin and sharp and tuning also becomes a problem, then a skilled, experienced craftsman needs to redress and polish the surface, which is called doing the javari. The rich and very much alive resonant sound requires great sensitivity, typical of javari on an instrument with preferably long strings, is that on the soundboard the strings run over a wide bridge with a very flat parabolic curve. The curvature of the bridge has made in a precise relation to the optimum level of playing, or more exact. Any string, given length, density, pitch and tension, wants to be plucked within the limits of its elasticity, when a string of a tanpura is plucked properly, it produces a tone with a certain amplitude that will slowly decrease as the tone fades out. In this gradual process, the string, moving up and down according to its frequency, the exact grazing-spot will gradually shift up the sloping surface, as a function of the decreasing amplitude, finally dissolving into the rest-position of the open string. In this complex dynamic process, the shifting grazing will touch upon micro-nodes on the string, exciting a wide range of harmonics in a sweeping mode. The desired effect is that of a row of harmonics in a rainbow of sound. As an analogy, a shaped and adjusted javari is similar to the refraction of white light through a prism. When the prism is of good proportions and quality and used properly, the voice of an artist which is marked by a rich sound resembling that produced by two consonants played together, is often loosely known to have Javārī in it, although such use is arbitrary. The javari of a tanpura is in a way fine-tuned with a cotton thread under the string, both the thread itself and its function is called jiva. The jiva lifts the string by its diameter off the bridge and gives the necessary clearance, by carefully shifting the jiva the sequence of the shifting grazing on the parabolic surface of the bridge becomes tuneable within limits. For each string there should be a relative to the curve of the bridge where optimum sound quality is found. Within the area of resonance and sustain, a little play should be available for further fine-tuning
40.
Resonator
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The oscillations in a resonator can be either electromagnetic or mechanical. Resonators are used to generate waves of specific frequencies or to select specific frequencies from a signal. Musical instruments use acoustic resonators that produce sound waves of specific tones, another example is quartz crystals used in electronic devices such as radio transmitters and quartz watches to produce oscillations of very precise frequency. A cavity resonator is one in which waves exist in a space inside the device. Acoustic cavity resonators, in sound is produced by air vibrating in a cavity with one opening, are known as Helmholtz resonators. A physical system can have as many resonant frequencies as it has degrees of freedom, systems with one degree of freedom, such as a mass on a spring, pendulums, balance wheels, and LC tuned circuits have one resonant frequency. Systems with two degrees of freedom, such as coupled pendulums and resonant transformers can have two resonant frequencies, a crystal lattice composed of N atoms bound together can have N resonant frequencies. As the number of coupled harmonic oscillators grows, the time it takes to transfer energy from one to the next becomes significant, the vibrations in them begin to travel through the coupled harmonic oscillators in waves, from one oscillator to the next. The term resonator is most often used for an object in which vibrations travel as waves, at an approximately constant velocity, bouncing back. The material of the resonator, through which the waves flow, therefore, they can have millions of resonant frequencies, although only a few may be used in practical resonators. The oppositely moving waves interfere with other, and at its resonant frequencies reinforce each other to create a pattern of standing waves in the resonator. If the distance between the sides is d, the length of a trip is 2 d. To cause resonance, the phase of a sinusoidal wave after a round trip must be equal to the initial phase so the waves self-reinforce. The above analysis assumes the medium inside the resonator is homogeneous, so the waves travel at a constant speed, and they are then called overtones instead of harmonics. There may be several such series of resonant frequencies in a single resonator, an electrical circuit composed of discrete components can act as a resonator when both an inductor and capacitor are included. Oscillations are limited by the inclusion of resistance, either via a specific resistor component, such resonant circuits are also called RLC circuits after the circuit symbols for the components. A distributed-parameter resonator has capacitance, inductance, and resistance that cannot be isolated into separate lumped capacitors, inductors, an example of this, much used in filtering, is the helical resonator. A single layer coil that is used as a secondary or tertiary winding in a Tesla coil or magnifying transmitter is also a distributed resonator
41.
Teak
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Teak is a tropical hardwood tree species placed in the flowering plant family Lamiaceae. Tectona grandis is a large, deciduous tree that occurs in mixed hardwood forests and it has small, fragrant white flowers and large papery leaves that are often hairy on the lower surface. It is sometimes known as the Burmese teak, Teak wood has a leather-like smell when it is freshly milled. It is particularly valued for its durability and water resistance, and is used for building, exterior construction, veneer, furniture, carving, turnings. Myanmars teak forests account for half of the worlds naturally occurring teak. Molecular studies show there are two centres of genetic origin of teak, one in India and the other in Myanmar. CP teak is a description of teak from the states of India. Nagpur teak is another regional Indian teak and it produces small, white flowers arranged in dense clusters at the end of the branches. Flowers contain both types of reproductive organs The word teak comes from, Tamil tekku, Malayalam word thekku, the plant is known as Thekka in Sinhala by Sri Lankan people. Teak is a large, deciduous tree up to 40 m tall with gray to grayish brown branches, leaves are ovate-elliptic to ovate, 15–45 cm long by 8–23 cm wide, and are held on robust petioles that are 2–4 cm long. Fragrant white flowers are borne on 25–40 cm long by 30 cm wide panicles from June to August, the corolla tube is 2. 5–3 mm long with 2 mm wide obtuse lobes. Tectona grandis sets fruit from September to December, fruits are globose and 1. 2-1.8 cm in diameter, flowers are weakly protandrous in that the anthers precede the stigma in maturity and pollen is shed within a few hours of the flower opening. The flowers are entomophilous, but can occasionally be anemophilous. A1996 study found that in its range in Thailand. Heartwood is brownish red in colour, sometimes there are dark patches on it. There is a scent in newly cut wood. Sapwood is whitish to yellowish brown in colour. It can easily separate from heartwood, wood texture is hard and ring porous
