1.
Ski Station
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Ski Station is a railway station located in Ski, Norway. Located 24 kilometres from Oslo Central Station on the Østfold Line, the station is served by all passenger trains on the Østfold Line. This includes InterCity Express services to Halden Station and Gothenburg Central Station, as well as Oslo Commuter Rail services to Moss Station, Ski is also terminal station for a commuter train service to Oslo that stops at all stations on the Østfold Line. The restaurant at the station was taken over by Norsk Spisevognselskap on 1 January 1921, after an agreement with NSB, Spisevognselskapet renovated the restaurant and took over operations again on 1 January 1924. It was closed on 14 April 1946, in the mid 1990s the Østfold Line between Ski to Moss was upgraded to double track and 160-kilometre-per-hour operation. Plans to build a new double track from Ski to Oslo. The first stage of this building a new station at Ski. The new station will include six platforms
2.
Resort
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A resort is a self-contained commercial establishment that endeavors to provide most of a vacationers wants, such as food, drink, lodging, sports, entertainment, and shopping, on the premises. The term resort may be used for a property that provides an array of amenities, typically including entertainment. A hotel is frequently a central feature of a resort, such as the Grand Hotel at Mackinac Island, some resorts are also timeshare or fractionally owned, or wholly owned condominium complexes. A resort is not always a commercial establishment operated by a single company, commonly these facilities are of higher quality than would be expected if one were to stay at a hotel or eat in a towns restaurants. Closely related to these resorts are convention and large meeting sites, generally these occur in cities where special meeting halls, together with ample accommodations as well as varied dining and entertainment, are provided. An all-inclusive resort charges a price that includes most or all items. At a minimum, most inclusive resorts include lodging, unlimited food, drink, sports activities, all-inclusive resorts are found in the Caribbean, particularly in Dominican Republic, Egypt, and elsewhere. Many also offer sports and other included in the price as well. They are often located in warmer regions, the all-inclusive model originated in the Club Med resorts, which were founded by the Belgian Gérard Blitz. Some all-inclusive resorts are designed for specific vacation interests, for example, certain resorts cater to adults, while even more specialized properties accept couples only. Other all-inclusive resorts are geared toward families, with facilities like craft centers, game rooms, all-inclusive resorts are also very popular locations for destination weddings. A spa resort is a short term residential/lodging facility with the purpose of providing individual services for spa-goers to develop healthy habits. Historically many such spas were developed at the location of natural hot springs or sources of mineral waters, golf resorts are resorts that cater specifically to the sport of golf, and include access to one or more golf course and or clubhouse. Golf resorts typically provide golf packages that provide visitors with all greens and cart fees, range balls, accommodations, in North America a ski resort is generally a destination resort in a ski area. Ski resort is less likely to refer to a town or village, a megaresort is a type of destination resort which is of an exceptionally large size, such as those along the Las Vegas Strip. In Singapore integrated resort is a euphemism for a destination resort. A holiday village is a type of self-contained resort in Europe, a holiday camp in the United Kingdom refers to a resort where the accommodation is in chalets. The term holiday park is used for a resort where the accommodation includes static caravans, there are 1500+ timeshare resorts in the U. S. that are operated by major hospitality, timeshare-specific, or independent companies
3.
Skiing
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Skiing is a mode of transport, recreational activity and competitive winter sport in which the participant uses skis to glide on snow. Many types of skiing events are recognized by the International Olympic Committee. Skiing has a history of almost five millennia, although modern skiing has evolved from beginnings in Scandinavia, it may have been practiced as early as 600 BC in what is now China. The word ski is one of a handful of words Norway has exported to the international community and it comes from the Old Norse word skíð which means split piece of wood or firewood. Asymmetrical skis were used at least in northern Finland and Sweden until the late 19th century, on one leg the skier wore a long straight non-arching ski for sliding, and on the other a shorter ski for kicking. Early skiers used one long pole or spear, the first depiction of a skier with two ski poles dates to 1741. Until the mid-19th century skiing was primarily used for transport, and since then has become a recreation, military ski races were held in Norway during the 18th century, and ski warfare was studied in the late 18th century. As equipment evolved and ski lifts were developed skiing evolved into two main genres during the late 19th and early 20th century, Alpine and Nordic, also called downhill skiing, alpine skiing typically takes place on a piste at a ski resort. It is characterized by fixed-heel bindings that attach at both the toe and the heel of the skiers boot, because alpine equipment is somewhat difficult to walk in, ski lifts, including chairlifts, bring skiers up the slope. Backcountry skiing can be accessed by helicopter, snowcat, hiking, facilities at resorts can include night skiing, après-ski, and glade skiing under the supervision of the ski patrol and the ski school. Alpine skiing branched off from the older Nordic skiing around the 1920s, Alpine equipment specialized to where it can only be used with the help of lifts. The Nordic disciplines include cross-country skiing and ski jumping, which share in common the use of binding that attach at the toes of the skiers boots, cross-country skiing may be practiced on groomed trails or in undeveloped backcountry areas. Ski jumping skiing is practiced at certain areas that are deemed for ski jumping only, Telemark skiing is a ski turning technique and FIS-sanctioned discipline. It is named after the Telemark region of Norway, using equipment similar to nordic skiing, the ski bindings having the ski boot attached only at the toe. This allows the skier to raise his/her heel throughout the turn, the following disciplines are sanctioned by the FIS and USSA. Many have their own cups and are in the Winter Olympic Games. Cross-country, The sport encompasses a variety of formats for cross-country skiing races over courses of varying lengths, such races occur over homologated, groomed courses designed to support classic and free-style events, where the skiers may employ skate skiing. Alpine skiing discliplines include combined, downhill, slalom, giant slalom, Super-G, one run of each even like one run of Super-G and one run of Slalom skiing this is called a Super Combined
4.
Snowboarding
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Snowboarding is a recreational activity and Olympic and Paralympic sport that involves descending a snow-covered slope while standing on a snowboard attached to a riders feet. The development of snowboarding was inspired by skateboarding, sledding, surfing and skiing and it was developed in the United States in the 1960s, became a Winter Olympic Sport at Nagano in 1998 and first featured in the Winter Paralympics at Sochi in 2014. Its popularity in the United States peaked in 2007 and has been in a decline since, and, in 1966 alone over half a million snurfers were sold. In the early 1970s, Poppen organized snurfing competitions at a Michigan ski resort that attracted enthusiasts from all over the country, one of those early pioneers was Tom Sims, a devotee of skateboarding. He produced commercial snowboards in the mid-70s, articles about his invention in such mainstream magazines as Newsweek helped publicize the young sport. The pioneers were not all from the United States, in 1976, Welsh skateboard enthusiasts Jon Roberts and that same year, he founded Burton Snowboards in Londonderry, Vermont. The snowboards were made of wooden planks that were flexible and had water ski foot traps, very few people picked up snowboarding because the price of the board was considered too high at $38, but eventually Burton would become the biggest snowboarding company in the business. The first competitions to offer prize money were the National Snurfing Championship, in 1979, Jake Burton Carpenter, came from Vermont to compete with a snowboard of his own design. There were protests about Jake entering with a non-snurfer board, paul Graves, and others, advocated that Jake be allowed to race. A modified Open division was created and won by Jake as the sole entrant and that race was considered the first competition for snowboards and is the start of what has now become competitive snowboarding. In 1980 the event moved to Pando Winter Sports Park near Grand Rapids, in 1982, the first USA National Snowboard race was held near Woodstock, Vermont, at Suicide Six. The race, organized by Graves, was won by Burtons first team rider Doug Bouton, in 1983, the first World Championship halfpipe competition was held at Soda Springs, California. Tom Sims, founder of Sims Snowboards, organized the event with the help of Mike Chantry, in 1985, the first World Cup was held in Zürs, Austria, further cementing snowboardings recognition as an official international competitive sport. In 1990, the International Snowboard Federation was founded to provide universal contest regulations, many alpine resorts have terrain parks. At the 1998 Winter Olympic Games in Nagano, Japan, Snowboarding became an official Olympic event, initially, ski areas adopted the sport at a much slower pace than the winter sports public. Indeed, for years, there was animosity between skiers and snowboarders, which led to an ongoing skier vs snowboarder feud. Early snowboards were banned from the slopes by park officials, for several years snowboarders would have to take a small skills assessment prior to being allowed to ride the chairlifts. It was thought that a snowboarder would wipe the snow off the mountain
5.
Winter sport
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A winter sport or winter activity is a recreational activity or sport which is played on snow or ice. Most such sports are variations of skiing, ice skating and sledding, traditionally such sports were only played in cold areas during winter, but artificial snow and artificial ice allow more flexibility. Artificial ice can be used to provide ice rinks for ice skating, ice hockey, common individual sports include cross-country skiing, Alpine skiing, snowboarding, ski jumping, speed skating, figure skating, luge, skeleton, bobsleigh and snowmobiling. Common team sports include ice hockey, curling and bandy, based on the number of participants, ice hockey is the worlds most popular winter sport, followed by bandy. Winter sports often have their own tournaments, such as the Winter Olympic Games. Snow and ice during the wintertime has led to other means of transportation, such as sledges, skis and this also led to different pastimes and sports being developed in the winter season as compared to other times of the year. Naturally, winter sports are popular in countries with longer winter seasons. While most winter sports are played outside, ice hockey, speed skating, indoor ice rinks with artificial ice allow ice skating and hockey to be played in hot climates. Note, the Olympic rings next to a sport indicates that particular sport is included in the Winter Olympic Games. The Paralympic logo indicates the same for a sport not in the Olympics but in the Winter Paralympic Games
6.
Piste
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A piste is a marked ski run or path down a mountain for snow skiing, snowboarding, or other mountain sports. This European term is French and synonymous with trail, slope, pronunciation varies slightly in English, with British English using a long i, and American pronunciation using a short i. Increasingly, North Americans employ its common European antonym, off piste, to describe backcountry skiing, pistes are usually maintained using tracked vehicles known as snowcats to compact or groom the snow to even out trail conditions, remove moguls, and redistribute snow to extend the ski season. Natural snow is often augmented with snow making machines early in the season or when the snowpack is low, typically, grading is done by the resort, and grades are relative to other trails within that resort. In North America, a rating system is used to indicate the comparative difficulty of trails. Australia and New Zealand also share the same rating system, ski trail difficulty is measured by percent slope, not degree angle. A 100% slope is a 45 degree angle, in general, beginner slopes are between 6% and 25%. Intermediate slopes are between 25% and 40%, difficult slopes are 40% and up. However, this is just a rule of thumb. Although slope gradient is the consideration in assigning a trail difficulty rating. A trail will be rated by its most difficult part, even if the rest of the trail is easy, ski resorts assign ratings to their own trails, rating a trail compared only with other trails at that resort. Also considered, width of the trail, sharpest turns, terrain roughness, in Europe, pistes are classified by a color-coded system. The actual color system differs in parts for each country - in all blue, red. Shapes are not always used - sometimes all ratings are circles as being defined in the rules of the German Skiing Association DSV. The three basic color codes of the DSV have been integrated into the national standards DIN32912 in Germany, the ratings are, Green Learning or Beginner slopes. These are usually not marked trails, but tend to be large, open, can sometimes be marked as a Green circle. Blue An easy trail, similar to the North American Green Circle, the slope gradient shall not exceed 25% except for short wide sections with a higher gradient. Sometimes described as a blue square, Red An intermediate slope, similar to the North American Blue Square
7.
Ski lift
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A ski lift is a mechanism for transporting skiers up a hill. Ski lifts are typically a paid service at ski resorts, the first ski lift was built in 1908 by German Robert Winterhalder in Schollach/Eisenbach, Hochschwarzwald. Types of lifts are, Aerial lifts transport skiers while suspended off the ground, cable railways, including funiculars Helicopters are used for heliskiing and snowcats for snowcat skiing. This is backcountry skiing or boarding accessed by a snowcat or helicopter instead of a lift, cat skiing is less than half the cost of heliskiing, more expensive than a lift ticket but is easier than ski touring. Skiing at select, extreme resorts, like Silverton Mountain, is also guided, even when skiing just off the lift
8.
North America
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North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be considered a subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean, and to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers, about 16. 5% of the land area. North America is the third largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe. In 2013, its population was estimated at nearly 565 million people in 23 independent states, or about 7. 5% of the worlds population, North America was reached by its first human populations during the last glacial period, via crossing the Bering land bridge. The so-called Paleo-Indian period is taken to have lasted until about 10,000 years ago, the Classic stage spans roughly the 6th to 13th centuries. The Pre-Columbian era ended with the migrations and the arrival of European settlers during the Age of Discovery. Present-day cultural and ethnic patterns reflect different kind of interactions between European colonists, indigenous peoples, African slaves and their descendants, European influences are strongest in the northern parts of the continent while indigenous and African influences are relatively stronger in the south. Because of the history of colonialism, most North Americans speak English, Spanish or French, the Americas are usually accepted as having been named after the Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci by the German cartographers Martin Waldseemüller and Matthias Ringmann. Vespucci, who explored South America between 1497 and 1502, was the first European to suggest that the Americas were not the East Indies, but a different landmass previously unknown by Europeans. In 1507, Waldseemüller produced a map, in which he placed the word America on the continent of South America. He explained the rationale for the name in the accompanying book Cosmographiae Introductio, for Waldseemüller, no one should object to the naming of the land after its discoverer. He used the Latinized version of Vespuccis name, but in its feminine form America, following the examples of Europa, Asia and Africa. Later, other mapmakers extended the name America to the continent, In 1538. Some argue that the convention is to use the surname for naming discoveries except in the case of royalty, a minutely explored belief that has been advanced is that America was named for a Spanish sailor bearing the ancient Visigothic name of Amairick. Another is that the name is rooted in a Native American language, the term North America maintains various definitions in accordance with location and context. In Canadian English, North America may be used to refer to the United States, alternatively, usage sometimes includes Greenland and Mexico, as well as offshore islands
9.
Conference and resort hotels
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Conference and resort hotels are hotels which often contain full-sized luxury facilities with full-service accommodations and amenities. These hotels may attract business conferences and vacationing tourists and offer more than a convenient place to stay. These hotels may be referred to as major conference center hotels, flagship hotels, destination hotels, the market for conference and resort hotels is a subject for market analysis. These hotels as destinations may be characterized by distinctive architecture, upscale lodgings, ballrooms, large facilities, restaurants. They may be located in a variety of settings from major cities to remote locations, since the 1800s, the traditional concept full service conference and resort hotels has been based upon a venue which is typically remote and has a natural feature as its attraction. For example, the Kviknes Hotel in Norway is a difficult to reach remote location which provides access to the scenic fjord at Balestrand. A megaresort is a type of destination which is of a large size. The hotels along the Las Vegas Strip are most typically thought of as megaresorts owing to their immense size, Kirk Kerkorian is credited for building the first mega resort in 1969 earning him the nickname father of the mega resort. Two projects in Las Vegas in 1969 and 1973 by architect Martin Stern, Jr. and entrepreneur Kirk Kerkorian, the International Hotel, the Mirage given its size and emphasis on non-gaming entertainment options like shopping and fine dining to draw in customers. Megaresorts use the same fantastic or mythical theme throughout their properties, many megaresorts have a large theme park as its centerpiece. Resorts such as the Walt Disney Parks and Resorts feature multiple hotels, multiple theme parks, other megaresorts exist with no specific centerpiece, having many features that are considered prominent, such as Atlantis Paradise Island and its upcoming sister park in Dubai
10.
Slovakia
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Slovakia, officially the Slovak Republic, is a landlocked country in Central Europe. It is bordered by the Czech Republic and Austria to the west, Poland to the north, Ukraine to the east, Slovakias territory spans about 49,000 square kilometres and is mostly mountainous. The population is over 5 million and comprises mostly ethnic Slovaks, the capital and largest city is Bratislava. The Slavs arrived in the territory of present-day Slovakia in the 5th and 6th centuries, in the 7th century, they played a significant role in the creation of Samos Empire and in the 9th century established the Principality of Nitra. In the 10th century, the territory was integrated into the Kingdom of Hungary, which became part of the Habsburg Empire. After World War I and the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, a separate Slovak Republic existed in World War II as a client state of Nazi Germany. In 1945, Czechoslovakia was reëstablished under Communist rule as a Soviet satellite, in 1989 the Velvet Revolution ended authoritarian Communist rule in Czechoslovakia. Slovakia became an independent state on 1 January 1993 after the dissolution of Czechoslovakia. The country maintains a combination of economy with universal health care. The country joined the European Union in 2004 and the Eurozone on 1 January 2009, Slovakia is also a member of the Schengen Area, NATO, the United Nations, the OECD, the WTO, CERN, the OSCE, the Council of Europe and the Visegrád Group. The Slovak economy is one of the fastest growing economies in Europe and its legal tender, the Euro, is the worlds 2nd most traded currency. Although regional income inequality is high, 90% of citizens own their homes, in 2016, Slovak citizens had visa-free or visa-on-arrival access to 165 countries and territories, ranking the Slovak passport 11th in the world. Slovakia is the world’s biggest per-capita car producer with a total of 1,040,000 cars manufactured in the country in 2016 alone, the car industry represents 43 percent of Slovakia’s industrial output, and a quarter of its exports. Radiocarbon datingputs the oldest surviving archaeological artefacts from Slovakia – found near Nové Mesto nad Váhom – at 270,000 BC and these ancient tools, made by the Clactonian technique, bear witness to the ancient habitation of Slovakia. Other stone tools from the Middle Paleolithic era come from the Prévôt cave near Bojnice, the most important discovery from that era is a Neanderthal cranium, discovered near Gánovce, a village in northern Slovakia. The most well-known finds include the oldest female statue made of mammoth-bone, the statue was found in the 1940s in Moravany nad Váhom near Piešťany. Numerous necklaces made of shells from Cypraca thermophile gastropods of the Tertiary period have come from the sites of Zákovská, Podkovice, Hubina and these findings provide the most ancient evidence of commercial exchanges carried out between the Mediterranean and Central Europe. The Bronze Age in the territory of modern-day Slovakia went through three stages of development, stretching from 2000 to 800 BC
11.
Cerro Catedral
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Cerro Catedral is a mountain located 19 kilometres from San Carlos de Bariloche, and inside the Nahuel Huapí National Park, Patagonia, Argentina. The mountain holds one of the biggest ski centers in South America, with an area of 6 km2,120 km of ski runs. It is also popular due to the magnificent view of the Nahuel Huapi lake. There are also a number of hotels and hostels at the foot of the mountain, during the summer, the Refugio Frey and a camping accommodate trekkers and rock climbers next to Tonček lagoon, near the Torre Principal, Catedrals highest point. The climate is affected by the altitude, at higher elevations, at the weather station, the climate is classified as an alpine climate or a tundra climate while at lower elevations, the climate is classified as a cool mediterranean climate. Cerro Catedral has the highest frequency of days with snowfalls in Argentina, averaging 98 days per year. com, an online climbing guidebook to Cerro Catedral
12.
Argentina
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Argentina, officially the Argentine Republic, is a federal republic in the southern half of South America. With a mainland area of 2,780,400 km2, Argentina is the eighth-largest country in the world, the second largest in Latin America, and the largest Spanish-speaking one. The country is subdivided into provinces and one autonomous city, Buenos Aires. The provinces and the capital have their own constitutions, but exist under a federal system, Argentina claims sovereignty over part of Antarctica, the Falkland Islands, and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands. The earliest recorded presence in the area of modern-day Argentina dates back to the Paleolithic period. The country has its roots in Spanish colonization of the region during the 16th century, Argentina rose as the successor state of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, a Spanish overseas viceroyalty founded in 1776. The country thereafter enjoyed relative peace and stability, with waves of European immigration radically reshaping its cultural. The almost-unparalleled increase in prosperity led to Argentina becoming the seventh wealthiest developed nation in the world by the early 20th century, Argentina retains its historic status as a middle power in international affairs, and is a prominent regional power in the Southern Cone and Latin America. Argentina has the second largest economy in South America, the third-largest in Latin America and is a member of the G-15 and it is the country with the second highest Human Development Index in Latin America with a rating of very high. Because of its stability, market size and growing high-tech sector, the description of the country by the word Argentina has to be found on a Venice map in 1536. In English the name Argentina probably comes from the Spanish language, however the naming itself is not Spanish, Argentina means in Italian of silver, silver coloured, probably borrowed from the Old French adjective argentine of silver > silver coloured already mentioned in the 12th century. The French word argentine is the form of argentin and derives of argent silver with the suffix -in. The Italian naming Argentina for the country implies Argentina Terra land of silver or Argentina costa coast of silver, in Italian, the adjective or the proper noun is often used in an autonomous way as a substantive and replaces it and it is said lArgentina. The name Argentina was probably first given by the Venitian and Genoese navigators, in Spanish and Portuguese, the words for silver are respectively plata and prata and of silver is said plateado and prateado. Argentina was first associated with the silver mountains legend, widespread among the first European explorers of the La Plata Basin. The first written use of the name in Spanish can be traced to La Argentina, a 1602 poem by Martín del Barco Centenera describing the region, the 1826 constitution included the first use of the name Argentine Republic in legal documents. The name Argentine Confederation was also used and was formalized in the Argentine Constitution of 1853. In 1860 a presidential decree settled the name as Argentine Republic
13.
Volcano
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A volcano is a rupture in the crust of a planetary-mass object, such as Earth, that allows hot lava, volcanic ash, and gases to escape from a magma chamber below the surface. Earths volcanoes occur because its crust is broken into 17 major, therefore, on Earth, volcanoes are generally found where tectonic plates are diverging or converging. This type of volcanism falls under the umbrella of plate hypothesis volcanism, Volcanism away from plate boundaries has also been explained as mantle plumes. These so-called hotspots, for example Hawaii, are postulated to arise from upwelling diapirs with magma from the boundary,3,000 km deep in the Earth. Volcanoes are usually not created where two plates slide past one another. Erupting volcanoes can pose hazards, not only in the immediate vicinity of the eruption. Historically, so-called volcanic winters have caused catastrophic famines, the word volcano is derived from the name of Vulcano, a volcanic island in the Aeolian Islands of Italy whose name in turn comes from Vulcan, the god of fire in Roman mythology. The study of volcanoes is called volcanology, sometimes spelled vulcanology, at the mid-oceanic ridges, two tectonic plates diverge from one another as new oceanic crust is formed by the cooling and solidifying of hot molten rock. Most divergent plate boundaries are at the bottom of the oceans, therefore, most volcanic activity is submarine, black smokers are evidence of this kind of volcanic activity. Where the mid-oceanic ridge is above sea-level, volcanic islands are formed, for example, subduction zones are places where two plates, usually an oceanic plate and a continental plate, collide. In this case, the plate subducts, or submerges under the continental plate forming a deep ocean trench just offshore. In a process called flux melting, water released from the subducting plate lowers the temperature of the overlying mantle wedge. This magma tends to be very viscous due to its high content, so it often does not reach the surface. When it does reach the surface, a volcano is formed, typical examples of this kind of volcano are Mount Etna and the volcanoes in the Pacific Ring of Fire. Because tectonic plates move across them, each volcano becomes dormant and is eventually re-formed as the plate advances over the postulated plume and this theory is currently under criticism, however. The most common perception of a volcano is of a mountain, spewing lava and poisonous gases from a crater at its summit, however. The features of volcanoes are more complicated and their structure. Some volcanoes have rugged peaks formed by lava domes rather than a summit crater while others have features such as massive plateaus
14.
Mount Etna
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Mount Etna is an active stratovolcano on the east coast of Sicily, Italy, in the Metropolitan City of Catania, between the cities of Messina and Catania. It lies above the convergent plate margin between the African Plate and the Eurasian Plate and it is the tallest active volcano in Europe, currently 3,329 m high, though this varies with summit eruptions. It is the highest peak in Italy south of the Alps, Etna covers an area of 1,190 km2 with a basal circumference of 140 km. This makes it by far the largest of the three volcanoes in Italy, being about two and a half times the height of the next largest, Mount Vesuvius. Only Mount Teide in Tenerife surpasses it in the whole of the European–North-African region, Mount Etna is one of the most active volcanoes in the world and is in an almost constant state of activity. The fertile volcanic soils support extensive agriculture, with vineyards and orchards spread across the slopes of the mountain. Due to its history of recent activity and nearby population, Mount Etna has been designated a Decade Volcano by the United Nations, in June 2013, it was added to the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites. According to Adrian Room’s book Place-names of the World, the name Etna originated from the Phoenician word attuna meaning furnace or chimney and he dismisses the hypothesis that Etna is from the Greek αἴθω, meaning I burn, through an iotacist pronunciation. In Classical Greek, it is called Αἴτνη, a name also to Catania and the city originally known as Inessa. In Arabic, it was called جبل النار Jabal al-Nār and it is also known as Mungibeddu in Sicilian and Mongibello or Montebello in Italian. The term is not in use today, although some older people still call it this. According to another hypothesis the term Mongibello comes from the Latin Mulciber, the people of the Etna sometimes use the jargon term a muntagna, simply the mountain par excellence. Nowadays, the term Mongibello indicates the top area of the two central craters encompassing also the craters in the southeast and the northeast of the volcanic cone. Volcanic activity first took place at Etna about 500,000 years ago, about 300,000 years ago, volcanism began occurring to the southwest of the summit then, before activity moved towards the present centre 170,000 years ago. Eruptions at this time built up the first major volcanic edifice, the growth of the mountain was occasionally interrupted by major eruptions, leading to the collapse of the summit to form calderas. From about 35,000 to 15,000 years ago, Etna experienced some highly explosive eruptions, generating pyroclastic flows. Ash from these eruptions has been found as far away as south of Romes border,800 km to the north, the landslide left a large depression in the side of the volcano, known as Valle del Bove. Research published in 2006 suggested this occurred around 8000 years ago, and caused a huge tsunami and it may have been the reason the settlement of Atlit Yam, now below sea level, was suddenly abandoned around that time
15.
Sicily
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Sicily is the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea. It is an autonomous Region of Italy, along with surrounding minor islands, Sicily is located in the central Mediterranean Sea, south of the Italian Peninsula, from which it is separated by the narrow Strait of Messina. Its most prominent landmark is Mount Etna, the tallest active volcano in Europe, the island has a typical Mediterranean climate. The earliest archaeological evidence of activity on the island dates from as early as 12,000 BC. It became part of Italy in 1860 following the Expedition of the Thousand, a revolt led by Giuseppe Garibaldi during the Italian unification, Sicily was given special status as an autonomous region after the Italian constitutional referendum of 1946. Sicily has a rich and unique culture, especially regard to the arts, music, literature, cuisine. It is also home to important archaeological and ancient sites, such as the Necropolis of Pantalica, the Valley of the Temples, Sicily has a roughly triangular shape, earning it the name Trinacria. To the east, it is separated from the Italian mainland by the Strait of Messina, about 3 km wide in the north, and about 16 km wide in the southern part. The northern and southern coasts are each about 280 km long measured as a line, while the eastern coast measures around 180 km. The total area of the island is 25,711 km2, the terrain of inland Sicily is mostly hilly and is intensively cultivated wherever possible. Along the northern coast, the ranges of Madonie,2,000 m, Nebrodi,1,800 m. The cone of Mount Etna dominates the eastern coast, in the southeast lie the lower Hyblaean Mountains,1,000 m. The mines of the Enna and Caltanissetta districts were part of a leading sulphur-producing area throughout the 19th century, Sicily and its surrounding small islands have some highly active volcanoes. Mount Etna is the largest active volcano in Europe and still casts black ash over the island with its ever-present eruptions and it currently stands 3,329 metres high, though this varies with summit eruptions, the mountain is 21 m lower now than it was in 1981. It is the highest mountain in Italy south of the Alps, Etna covers an area of 1,190 km2 with a basal circumference of 140 km. This makes it by far the largest of the three volcanoes in Italy, being about two and a half times the height of the next largest, Mount Vesuvius. In Greek Mythology, the deadly monster Typhon was trapped under the mountain by Zeus, Mount Etna is widely regarded as a cultural symbol and icon of Sicily. The Aeolian Islands in the Tyrrhenian Sea, to the northeast of mainland Sicily form a volcanic complex, the three volcanoes of Vulcano, Vulcanello and Lipari are also currently active, although the latter is usually dormant
16.
Strait of Messina
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The Strait of Messina is the narrow passage between the eastern tip of Sicily and the western tip of Calabria in the south of Italy. It connects the Tyrrhenian Sea to the north with the Ionian Sea to the south, within the central Mediterranean. At its narrowest point, between Torre Faro and Villa San Giovanni, it measures 3.1 km in width, though near the town of Messina the width is some 5.1 km, the strait has strong tidal currents that create a unique marine ecosystem. A natural whirlpool in the portion of the strait has been linked to the Greek legend of Scylla. In some circumstances, the mirage of Fata Morgana can be observed when looking at Sicily from Calabria, with its bottleneck shape, it is also a compulsory point of transit of the migration of many bird species. In 1957, a 220 kV overhead power line was built across the Strait of Messina and its pylons are among the highest in the world. This power line has since replaced by a submarine power cable. Due to this form of more than 300 species are recorded in the area that is a major European hot spot for raptors with a record of 35.000 in a spring. Between them the Honey Buzzard and the Marsh Harrier are the most frequent, species like Bonellis Eagle and Egyptian Vulture are less frequent, in the coastal salt lakes of the Strait of Messina species like Glossy Ibis, Flamingos and Black-winged Stilt use to stop to rest. The site is also favorable to observe the storks, the monte Dinnammare and the other Peloritani mountains overlooking the Strait are a natural theater for the birdwatching of these spectacular flights. Due to the peculiar hydrogeological conditions the Strait of Messina has high levels of biodiversity, the strait is also an important point of migration of many species of fish in the Mediterranean Sea. There is also a service between Messina and Reggio Calabria. For decades, the possibility of building a bridge across the Messina Strait has been under discussion, in 2006, under Prime Minister Romano Prodi the project was cancelled. Supporters perceive the bridge as a huge job-creation scheme and a boost for tourism to the island, opponents see it as an ecological disaster, a structure at risk due to especially strong winds and earthquakes, and a boon for Sicilian and Calabrian organized crime. Berlusconi claimed in 2009 that work would be completed by 2016 although in February 2013, between Scylla and Charybdis Fabio Spadi The Bridge on the Strait of Messina, Lowering the Right of Innocent Passage. International and Comparative Law Quarterly 50,411 ff, from Rome to Sicily, Plane or Train. Expert Travel Advice, The New York Times, Feb.7,2008 The New York Times
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Davos
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Davos is a municipality in the Prättigau/Davos Region in the canton of Graubünden, Switzerland. It has a permanent population of 11,109, Davos is located on the river Landwasser, in the Rhaetian Alps, between the Plessur and Albula Range. At 1,560 m, it is the highest town in Europe, Davos is host to the World Economic Forum, an annual meeting of global political and business elites and the home of one of Switzerlands biggest ski resorts. At the end of year it serves as the site of the annual Spengler Cup ice hockey tournament. The current settlement of the Davos area began in the High Middle Ages with the immigration of Rhaeto-Romans, the village of Davos is first mentioned in 1213 as Tavaus. Natives still speak a dialect that is atypical for Graubünden, showing similarities with German idioms of western parts of Switzerland, in 1436, the League of the Ten Jurisdictions was founded in Davos. Robert Louis Stevenson, who suffered from tuberculosis, wintered in Davos in 1880 upon the recommendation of his Edinburgh physician Dr. George Balfour, arthur Conan Doyle wrote an article about skiing in Davos in 1899. A sanatorium in Davos is also the inspiration for the Berghof Sanitorium in Thomas Manns novel Der Zauberberg, between 1936 and 1938, Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, then at the end of his life and living in Davos since 1917, depicted Davos and the Junkerboden. His painting has a both Romantic and pantheistic atmosphere and simplified formal structure, during the natural ice era of winter sports, Davos and the Davos Eisstadion were a mecca for speed skating. Many international championships were held here, and many records were set. The only European Bandy Championship was held in the town in 1913, subsequently, Davos became a famous ski resort, especially frequented by tourists from the United Kingdom and the Netherlands. After peaking in the 1970s and 1980s, the city settled down as a leading, Davos has an area, of 283.98 km2. Of this area, about 35. 0% is used for agricultural purposes, of the rest of the land,2. 3% is settled and 40. 5% is unproductive land. In the 2004/09 survey a total of 337 ha or about 1. 2% of the area was covered with buildings. Over the same period, the amount of recreational space in the municipality increased by 10 ha and is now about 0. 22% of the total area. Of the agricultural land,1,296 ha is fields and grasslands and 9,056 ha consists of alpine grazing areas, since 1985 the amount of agricultural land has decreased by 736 ha. Over the same period the amount of forested land has increased by 481 ha. Rivers and lakes cover 285 ha in the municipality, until 2017 the municipality was located in the Davos subdistrict of the Prättigau/Davos district, after 2017 it was part of the Prättigau/Davos Region
18.
St. Moritz
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St. Moritz is a high Alpine luxury resort in the Engadine in Switzerland, at an elevation of about 1,800 metres above sea level. It is Upper Engadines major village and a municipality in the district of Maloja in the Swiss canton of Graubünden. St. Moritz lies on the slopes of the Albula Alps below the Piz Nair overlooking the flat and wide glaciated valley of the Upper Engadine and eponymous lake. It hosted the Winter Olympics in 1928 and 1948, St. Moritz is a popular destination for the upper class and international jetset. It has one of the most expensive ski resorts in the world | along with many luxurious five star hotels, votive offerings, swords, and needles from the Bronze Age found at the base of the springs in St. Moritz indicate that the Celts had already discovered them. St. Moritz is first mentioned around 1137–39 as ad sanctum Mauricium, the village was named after Saint Maurice, an early Christian saint from southern Egypt said to have been martyred in 3rd century Roman Switzerland while serving as leader of the Theban Legion. Pilgrims traveled to Saint Mauritius often to the church of the springs, in 1519, the Medici pope, Leo X, promised full absolution to anyone making a pilgrimage to the church of the springs. In the 16th century, the first scientific treatises about the St. Moritz mineral springs were written, in 1535, Paracelsus, the great practitioner of nature cures, spent some time in St. Moritz. Although it received some visitors during the summer, the origins of the winter resort only date back 152 years ago to September 1864, when St. If they were to find St. Moritz attractive in winter and this marked not only the start of winter tourism in St. Moritz but the start of winter tourism in the whole of the Alps. The first tourist office in Switzerland was established the year in the village. The first European Ice-Skating Championships were held at St. Moritz in 1882, the first bob run and bob race was held in 1890. By 1896, St. Moritz became the first village in the Alps to install electric trams, a horse race was held on snow in 1906, and on the frozen lake the following year. The first ski school in Switzerland was established in St. Moritz in 1929, St. Moritz hosted the 1928 Winter Olympics, the stadium still stands today, and again in 1948. It has hosted over 20 FIBT World Championships, three FIS Alpine World Ski Championships and over 40 Engadin Skimarathons since 1969. It has also hosted other events since, including some unlikely ones on the frozen lake in the 1970s and 1980s such as a golf tournament. St. Moritz has also been the venue for many Sailing and Windsurfing World Championships, since the early 1980s St. Moritz is also promoted and known as Top of the World. The expression was registered as a trademark by the tourist office in 1987, between 9–12 June 2011, St. St. Moritz had an area, of 28.69 km2
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Chamonix
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Chamonix-Mont-Blanc, more commonly known as Chamonix, is a commune in the Haute-Savoie département in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region in south-eastern France. It was the site of the first Winter Olympics in 1924, the communes population of around 8,900 ranks 1, 089th within the country of France. The north side of the summit of Mont Blanc, and therefore the summit itself are part of the village of Chamonix, to the south side, the situation is different depending on the country. Italy considers that the passes through the top. France considers that the runs along the rocky Tournette under the summit cap. The south side was in France, assigned to the commune of Saint-Gervais-les-Bains sharing the summit with its neighbor Chamonix and it is this situation for France, which is found on the French IGN maps. With an area of 245 km2, Chamonix is the fourth largest commune in mainland France, however, in 1786 the inhabitants bought their freedom from the canons of Sallanches, to whom the priory had been transferred in 1519. In 1530, the inhabitants obtained from the Count of the Genevois the privilege of holding two fairs a year, while the valley was visited by the civil officials and by the bishops of Geneva. But travellers for pleasure were very rare, the first party to publish an account of their visit was that of Dr. Richard Pococke, Mr. William Windham and others, such as the Englishmen who visited the Mer de Glace in 1741. In 1742 came P. Martel and several other Genevese, in 1760 H. B. de Saussure, the commune successfully lobbied to change its name from Chamonix to Chamonix-Mont-Blanc in 1916. The holding of the first Winter Olympic Games in Chamonix in 1924 further raised Chamonixs profile as an international tourist destination, during the Second World War, a Childrens Home operated in Chamonix, in which several dozens of Jewish children were hidden from the Nazis. Some of their saviors were recognised as Righteous Among the Nations, the commune of Chamonix-Mont-Blanc includes 16 villages and hamlets. Chamonix has a climate, between oceanic and humid continental climate, with an average annual precipitation of 1,275 mm. Summers are mild and winters are cold and snowy, Population Change Sources, Ldh/EHESS/Cassini until 1962, INSEE database from 1968 · Population Over Time Chamonix is a winter sports resort town. As the highest European mountain west of Russia, Mont Blanc attracts mountain climbers, there is a cable car up to the 3,842 m Aiguille du Midi. Constructed in 1955, it was then the highest cable car in the world, the town of Chamonix is served by French Route Nationale 205, nicknamed the Route blanche, or white route, due to its snowiness. This is an extension of French autoroute 40, similarly nicknamed the autoroute blanche, which ends at Le Fayet, the 11. 6-km Mont Blanc Tunnel originates here, linking Chamonix to Courmayeur in Italy. Chamonix is linked to Switzerland by what used to be RN 506a, in 2006, it was converted to a Route Départementale 1506, with a part of it integrated into RN205
20.
Val Gardena
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Gherdëina is a valley in Northern Italy, in the Dolomites of South Tyrol. It is best known as a skiing, rock climbing, the valleys main river is the Derjon. The three municipalities in Gherdëina are Urtijëi, Sëlva, and Santa Cristina, they were served by the Fërata de Gherdëina from 1916 until 1960, Gherdëina is one of five valleys with a majority of Ladin speakers. The form of the Ladin language spoken in this valley is called Gardenese in Italian, Grödnerisch in German, the woodcarving industry has flourished in Gherdëina since the 17th century. Since the 19th century, statues and altars carved in the area have been shipped to Catholic churches throughout the world, in the 18th century, besides religious statuettes, the production of woodcarved figurines of genre art was widespread in the valley. Among them statuettes of beggars generally in pairs, four seasons, in the 19th and 20th century, carving of wooden toys was such a widespread occupation in all Gardenese families that Amelia Edwards called Urtijëi the capital of Toyland. One of the valleys best-known products is the peg wooden doll which was all over Europe. In one of her many trips Margaret Warner Morley went to Europe to Gherdëina where she was inspired to write the novel Donkey John of the toy valley, the Parish Church of Urtijëi displays a rich collection of statues carved by local artists in the last two centuries. The Museum Gherdëina in Urtijëi owns a collection of historical wooden toys. The valley hosted the FIS Alpine World Ski Championships in 1970, Gherdëina is home to the Saslong Classic, a mens World Cup downhill race that has been held almost every year since 1969. Since 2002, the downhill has been paired with a super G race, the Saslong course is considered one of the five classic mens downhill races, along with Garmisch-Partenkirchens Kandahar, Kitzbühels Hahnenkamm, Wengens Lauberhorn, and Val dIseres Criterium. It is well known for the Camel Humps, a series of three small jumps which racers must negotiate in quick succession, two men have managed to win the Saslong title four times in a career, Austrian Franz Klammer and Italys Kristian Ghedina. If super G wins are also included, two men have matched that feat, Peter Müller of Switzerland and Austrian Michael Walchhofer. A womens slalom and parallel slalom were held in 1975. Gherdëina is part of the Sella Ronda alpine ski touring circuit, the Gardena Spring Trophy is an annual international figure skating competition held every spring in the Valley. Gherdëina has a Serie A ice hockey team, the HC Gherdëina, carolina Kostner is a figure skater and cousin of Isolde Kostner, the ski-champion. Giorgio Moroder record producer, songwriter, performer and DJ Woodcarved beggars Amelia Edwards, a midsummer ramble in the Dolomites. Donkey John of the toy valley
21.
St Anton am Arlberg
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Sankt Anton am Arlberg, commonly referred to as St. Anton, is a village and ski resort in the Austrian state of Tyrol. It lies in the Tyrolean Alps, with aerial tramways and chairlifts up to 2,811 m and it is also a popular summer resort among hikers, trekkers and mountaineers. Skiing has a history in St. Anton, ski instructors from the area emigrated to the US in the 1930s. St. Anton was the host of the Alpine World Ski Championships in 2001, St. Anton is frequently listed as one of the worlds top skiing resorts both in terms of skiing available and après-ski entertainment. St. Anton lies on the Rosanna River and is on the main east-west rail line between Austria and Switzerland, there are many airports that serve St. Anton by way of train and car that include Munich, Zürich, Innsbruck and Friedrichshafen. The centre is a pedestrian zone, on the western edge of village is the Galzigbahn which has been replaced by a Funitel gondola. The new gondola includes a first-ever Ferris wheel, enabling passengers to board the gondolas on ground level, the Funitel accesses the Galzig slopes and connects to Schindler and Valluga peaks. On the eastern edge of town, the Nassereinbahn rises to the Nasserein area with connections to the Kapall peak, the Kapall, Valluga, and Schindler peaks provide skiers with close to 1,500 vertical metres skiing. Slope-side après-ski bars can be found on the Steissbachtal trail just above St. Anton, the groomed runs in the region cater to all levels, 43% are for beginners, 41% for intermediate skiers and 16% are for the more advanced. There are also 200 km of deep runs in the area. Expert terrain includes less-frequently groomed ski routes such as Schindlerkar and Mattun, and the backside of Valluga down to Zürs, there are also a large number of off-piste routes in the area that experts can explore with the help of a guide. By car, St. Anton is easily reached, making use of the A14 motorway, alternatively, St. Anton, Langen am Arlberg and Kloesterle have railway stations. Both St. Anton and Langen am Arlberg are stops on international train services between Zuerich and Budapest, making it easy to reach the ski area from across the continent, St. Anton and surrounding villages/resorts are served by a network of bus routes. In the town itself, there are two hubs, known as the Terminal Ost and the Terminal West, Terminal Ost gives access to the Nassereinbahn Gondola and the Terminal West to the Galzigbahn/ Rendlbahn gondolas as well as the towns railway station. There is a route with frequent, year-round services between St. Anton and Landeck, the latter being a town located at the entrance to the main valley. Frequent free bus services operate between different parts of St. Anton town as well as from Pettneu, Schnann and Flirsch. Further information regarding bus and train travel can be found by viewing the St. Anton website, there are other activities one can do in St. Anton. There are many sightseeing spots around the village, cycle tracks and a centre with pools, whirlpools
22.
Lech (Vorarlberg)
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Lech am Arlberg is a mountain village and an exclusive ski resort in the Bludenz district in the Austrian state of Vorarlberg on the banks of the river Lech. In terms of geography and history, Lech belongs to the Tannberg district. In tourist terms, however, it is part of the Arlberg region, Lech is administered together with the neighbouring villages of Zürs, Zug, Oberlech and Stubenbach. Lech was founded in the century by Walser migrants from the canton of Wallis in Switzerland. Until the nineteenth century it was known as Tannberg, but subsequently the full name Tannberg am Lech gave rise to the present name Lech. In recent years Lech has grown to one of the worlds premier ski destinations. Lech is best known for its skiing and it is well connected via mechanical lifts and groomed pistes with the neighbouring villages of Zürs, St Christof, St. Together these villages form the Arlberg region, the birthplace of the modern Alpine skiing technique and the seat of the Ski Club Arlberg. Lech is also the starting and finishing point for Der Weisse Ring, a circle of runs and lifts that is a popular tour and the scene of an annual race involving both experts and others. Lech is a holiday destination for Royal families and celebrities, for example Tom Cruise, Diana, Princess of Wales, and the former Queen Beatrix. The mountain holiday in the movie Bridget Jones Diary 2 was shot in Lech, although not as well frequented in the summer as it is in the winter, Lech nevertheless has much to offer the summer visitor, in terms of sporting, cultural, culinary and other activities. There are many hotels in Lech, as well as numerous top class restaurants. One former well-known visitor was the writer Ludwig Bemelmans, whose 1949 novel The Eye of God was set in a fictionalised Lech. Lech has a number of points of cultural interest, including, the church of St Nicholas, originally numbering 100, most were removed in April 2012, although some few still remain remain
23.
Courchevel
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Courchevel is a French Alps ski resort. It is a part of Les Trois Vallées, the largest linked ski areas in the world, Courchevel also refers to the towns of Courchevel 1300, Courchevel 1550, Courchevel 1650, and Courchevel 1850, which are named for their altitudes in metres. They are situated in the commune of Saint-Bon-Tarentaise, the resort centre of Courchevel is at 1,747 metres. The somewhat misleading name Courchevel 1850 was chosen for marketing reasons to compete with arch rival Val dIsère and it is the Jardin Alpin area of Courchevel 1850 which is actually located at 1,850 metres. Courchevel is in the commune of Saint-Bon-Tarentaise in the Tarentaise Valley, Savoie, the original resort was planned during World War II with a study in 1942 by the Vichy regime and in a doctorate by the town planner Laurent Chappis. Chappis was a choice to direct the development of the resort in the immediate post war years. Courchevel 1850 was significant, as it was the first resort in France to be constructed from scratch, within the Tarentaise Valley you find the biggest concentration of world-class ski resorts in the world. Most well known neighbour systems are Paradiski and Espace Killy, a weekly lift ticket in Courchevel/Les Trois Vallées gives you a choice to ski one day in each of the other two systems mentioned. There were once plans to all systems and resorts to create the - by far - largest ski area in the world. However that vision was ended with the creation of the Vanoise National Park, the Courchevel valley also includes the town of La Tania, built as competitors accommodation for the 1992 Winter Olympics in Albertville. Le Praz hosted the Olympic ski jumping and Nordic combined competitions for those games took place at Tremplin du Praz in Le Praz, there was a ski Jump in Courchevel 1850 on the snowfront however it was removed recently due to safety precautions. Courchevel is the most eastern resort of the Three Valleys, the biggest connected ski area in the world and it is renowned for its excellent lift system which is virtually queue free, even at the busiest of times. In the 2011-2012 season Courchevel rebranded, changing the names of each of the four villages in an away from the association with altitude. Courchevel has 11 luxury hotels with a 5-star ranking, in 2011 France introduced a very prestigious 6th star ranking for hotels, named palaces. The palace 6th star ranking is awarded to the most prestigious, exclusive. No more than eight hotels in France have received this rating, two of those eight hotels are in Courchevel tree-lined Jardin Alpin area. No other ski resorts in France have hotels with the palace ranking, Courchevel is also known for its fine dining. Its the ski resort with the most Michelin starred restaurants, a total of seven restaurants share 11 Michelin stars, including four restaurants that have been awarded two Michelin stars, including Le Chabichou
24.
Alpe d'Huez
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LAlpe dHuez is a ski resort at 1,250 to 3,330 metres. It is a pasture in the Central French Alps, in the commune of Huez. It is part of the Grandes Rousses massif, over the Oisans, Alpe dHuez is used regularly in the Tour de France cycle race, including twice on the same day in 2013. The site of the Alpe has been occupied since the Middle Ages. East of LAlpe veti, a medieval agglomeration had indeed grown from the end of the 11th to the 14th century under the name of Brandes. It was composed of a castle, a church with a cemetery. Its occupants operated a mine on behalf of the Dauphin. It is currently the only medieval coron known and preserved in its entirety, making it a site in Europe. Excavated and studied continuously since 1977 by a team of the CNRS, the medieval mining operation stretched from Gua to the Lac Blanc. The massif was also the subject of mining operations, including copper and it is also at Alpe dHuez where botanist Gaston Bonnier began his study of flora of France in 1871. The station was developed from the 1920s and this is where the first platter lift for skiers was opened in 1936 with perches by Jean Pomagalski, creator of the Poma company. Each year, the International Festival of comedy film of Alpe dHuez is held in January, Alpe dHuez also has an altiport, the Alpe dHuez Airport, built for the 10th Winter Olympics held at Grenoble in 1968. It was named for Henri Giraud on 15 April 2000, in memory of the famous mountain pilot, the altiport hosts helicopters including those of civil security, SAF Helicopteres and the Dauphiné flying club. A gourmet restaurant is located on the edge of the platform, Alpe dHuez has a modern and original church, the appearance of which recalls a silhouette of the Virgin Mary. This church houses an organ which is unique in the world. The organ takes the form of a hand drawn up towards the sky, designed by composer Jean Guillou, each year, concerts are held around this instrument on Thursday night, winter and summer, as well as organ, pan flute and choral courses during the summer. The Heritage House of Oisans, of the Musée de France, Alpe dHuez is primarily used for downhill, or Alpine skiing. Alpe dHuez is one of Europes premier skiing venues, the site of the Pomagalskis first surface lift in the mid thirties, the resort gained popularity when it hosted the bobsleigh events of the 1968 Winter Olympics
25.
Aspen/Snowmass
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Aspen Snowmass is a winter resort complex located in Pitkin County in western Colorado in the United States. Owned and operated by the Aspen Skiing Company it comprises four skiing/snowboarding areas on four adjacent mountains in the vicinity of the towns of Aspen and Snowmass Village. The four areas form one of the most famous winter resorts in the world and are annually the destination for visitors from all over the world. The four ski areas of the complex are, Aspen Mountain, the oldest of the four areas, located on Bell Mountain, Aspen Highlands, located on Highland Peak and Loge Peak just north of Aspen. Buttermilk, a low altitude family-oriented ski area just north of Aspen Highlands, Snowmass, the largest of the four areas, located near Snowmass Village. Official site of Aspen/Snowmass Aspen/Snowmass City Guide
26.
Breckenridge Ski Resort
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Breckenridge Ski Resort is an alpine ski resort in the western United States, in Breckenridge, Colorado. Just west of the Continental Divide in Summit County, it is one of the most visited ski resorts in the western hemisphere. Breckenridge is owned and operated by one of the leading ski resort operators, Vail Resorts, Inc. which also operates other ski resorts in Colorado, Utah, Michigan, Minnesota. The mountain first opened on December 16,1961, consisting of trails on Peak 8 serviced currently by the Colorado SuperChair, the main lift was a double chairlift, Lift 1, which had a midway unloading station. Lift 1 ran from the area up to a point slightly west of the top of the current Colorado SuperChair. This small butte overlooks the Rocky Mountain SuperChair and is accessible by hiking from the Vista Haus along a dirt road in the summer. A year later, a chairlift was installed up the double-black trail Mach One. The lift, later numbered Lift 3, ran from near the present-day Peak 8 SuperConnects midway load station up to near the top of Lift 5, in 1965, Lift 1 was supplemented by Lift 2, constructed to serve the south part of Peak 8. A base lodge was opened on Peak 8, but it was destroyed in an explosion shortly after completion. Breckenridge expanded into high alpine terrain with the construction of a lift from near the top of Lift 2 to near the top of the current Lift 6 in 1967. In 1970, Breckenridge was purchased by the Aspen Skiing Company, from 1970 to 1978, the resort expanded onto Peak 9, opening four Riblet double chairlifts and one triple chairlift. Lift A serviced beginner terrain, while Lift C services trails on the part of the main Peak 9 face. Lift D ran from near the bottom of the Beaver Run SuperChair to near the top of the EpicMix course on Sundown, Lift B ran alongside Cashier, running from the top of the original Quicksilver SuperChair and offloading at the top of the Mercury SuperChair. In 1979, Lift 6 replaced the Peak 8 platter lift, also in 1979, an Alpine slide was constructed on Peak 8 under Lift 5. The slide is composed of three fiberglass tubes - Lanes A, B, and C, a and B are for slower and inexperienced riders and run parallel to each other. Breckenridge and other ski resorts faced a drought in the winter of 1980-1981. In 1981, Breckenridge installed the worlds first high speed quad chairlift. The lift was constructed by Doppelmayr, in 1983, Riblet constructed Lift E, a double chairlift servicing the north-facing chutes on Peak 9
27.
Sestriere
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Sestriere is an alpine village in Italy, a comune of the Province of Turin. It is situated in Val Susa,17 km from the French border and its name derives from Latin, ad petram sistrariam, that is at sixty Roman miles from Turin. The main mountains around Sestriere are, Monte Fraiteve 2,701 m in the north-east, Monte Sises 2,658 m, Punta Rognosa di Sestriere 3,280 m and Monte Motta 2,850 m in the south-east. Sestriere is divided several smaller hamlets, Sestriere Colle, on the pass top, Sestriere Borgata, in Val Chisone, Champlas du Col and Champlas Janvier. Formerly, the pass belonged to the municipality of Cesana, the ski resorts at Sestriere were built in the 1930s by Giovanni Agnelli and have been further developed after the Second World War by his nephew Giovanni Nasi. Sestriere is a skiing resort, during the winter holidays the population goes up to about 20,000 people. Together with the villages of Pragelato, Claviere, Sauze dOulx, Cesana Torinese and San Sicario, Sestriere is connected to 146 skiable pistes, for a total of up to 400 km of trails, of which 120 are provided with artificial snow. Sestriere has also one of the few facilities where it is possible to ski at night on a floodlit run and it regularly hosts FIS Alpine Ski World Cup events, and it hosted the FIS World Championships in 1997, and the IPC World Championships in 2011. It was a venue during the 2006 Winter Olympic Games. Pragelato - the resort is part of the Via Lattea, is connected to this area by the Pattemouche-Anfiteatro cableway, Claviere - This small resort is just over the border in Italy and is included in the Monts de la lune lift pass. It is where the Olympic cross country ski teams practised for the Olympics in 2006, San Sicario - The biathlon and Alpine skiing events were held there in the 2006 Winter Olympic Games. They also held the bobsleigh and luge events here, one can attempt the Olympic womens super G and downhill courses. Sauze dOulx - Free Style Skiing Olympic events held here in 2006, the resort is acclaimed for its lively après-ski. Serre Chevalier - Nearby French resort with over 250 km of skiing, there is a free day of skiing here on your lift pass. Montgenèvre - Nearby French resort with over 85 km of pistes, montgenevres ski area has 8 green runs,12 blue,22 red and 10 black slopes and is linked to the Via Lattea ski area. There is a day of skiing here on your lift pass. In the summertime it is possible to play golf on Europes highest 18-hole course and it is also a starting and arrival point in the Tour de France and the Giro dItalia. Due to its location across two valleys, Sestriere is close to several hiking paths, Sestriere organized an International Athletics Meeting from 1988 until 1995 and in 2004
28.
Flaine
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Flaine is a ski area in the Haute Savoie region of the French Alps, and is a part of the linked Grand Massif domain. It is in the territory of the communes of Magland and Arâches-la-Frasse, Flaine is linked to Samoëns, Morillon, Les Carroz and Sixt-Fer-à-Cheval, with 267 km of pistes in total. It featured the first 8-seater high speed chairlift, Les Grands Vans, Flaine is often called the big snowy bowl due to it having one of the best snow records in the Alps. It is a modern, car-free resort with a wealth of amenities, Éric and Sylvie Boissonnas entrusted Flaine’s design to Marcel Breuer, the eminent Bauhaus architect whose structural designs are well-known around the world. These include The Palais de lUnesco in Paris, the Whitney Museum, The Atlanta-Fulton Central Branch Library, Flushing Meadows Sports Park in New York City, Breuer is also known for his innovative use of materials in creating his iconic furniture designs. With one of his pieces being the Wassily Chair. Right from the stage, Éric Boissonnas and Marcel Breuer were careful not to disturb the natural surroundings. In other words, the general layout blends in with the contours. The result is a feeling of privacy and tranquillity, the construction of the resort was not without difficulty. The result was a three year delay and huge cost overruns, and led to state involvement in French ski resort development. By the time the resort was opened on the 17 January 1969 it had probably cost Boissonnas the equivalent of around $250 million from his fortune at 2005 prices. The site is divided into two areas which are joined by two free lifts, the lower area, Flaine Forum, at an altitude of 1600 m, has more restaurants, shops bars and accommodation. The resort boasts a wealth of works of art - La Tête de Femme by Pablo Picasso, Le Boqueteau by Jean Dubuffet. More apartments like Montsoleil are going in just above the Hameau next to the golf course, opened in 2011, it has been called Le Refuge de Golf. Flaine is about 1 hour and 15 minutes away from Geneva airport, approximately 3 hours drive from Lyon and it is close to resorts Les Houches, Les Contamines, large ski area Chamonix-Mont-Blanc as well as the Portes du Soleil region — notably resorts Les Gets and Morzine. Trips to Italy via the Mont Blanc Tunnel to Courmayeur are also possible, bus services are available several times a day to Taninges in the Giffre Valley where buses to Geneva and Chamonix can be accessed. The most notable runs in Flaine include Styx, le Diamant Noir, Serpentine, Fred, Tourmaline, Flaine was the first resort to feature artificial snow making in Europe from 1973. Interestingly, in different grade of run there is a theme in the Flaine bowl
29.
La Plagne
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La Plagne is a French ski area in the alpine valley of the Tarentaise. Since 2003, La Plagne and the resort of Les Arcs form Paradiskis ski area. It is currently owned by Compagnie des Alpes, La Plagne is the most popular ski resort in the world with more than 2.5 million visitors a season on average. La Plagne lies at altitudes between 3,250 metres and 1,250 m, La Plagne has 100 km2 of ski area spread across four communes. La Plagne has 225 kilometres of slopes, and a large off piste skiing area including Bellecôtes North Face, a bobsleigh, luge, and skeleton track was built in La Plagne for the 1992 Winter Olympics held in nearby Albertville. La Plagne was created in 1961, as with many resorts in the Alps, the agriculture and mining industries were in crisis, which led to young people leaving the valley in search of work. In 1960, four towns created an association to defend their interests, with an initiative of Dr. Borrionne, on 24 December 1961, La Plagne opened, with its two drag lifts and its four slopes. Emile Allais, great ski-champion, has helped La Plagne to grow, immediately, La Plagne generated a great deal of success, and in 1966, Guy Lux, a French TV, presented Interneiges, a live competition between two French resorts. The first of the resorts of La Plagne opened in December 1961, the name of Plagne Centre dates from 1982, before which the resort was before simply called La Plagne. Plagne Centre has an urban, but functional architecture, and was created by Michel Bezançon, called the Steamer of the snow, the main building of Aime-La Plagne was created by Michel Bezançon. In 1990, the Club Med was built, with an inspired by Tibetan temples. At the end of the 60s, this village, located in the valley of Bozel. The Vanoise National Park gave Champagny possibility to develop its summer activities, in 1969, Champagny became attached to the La Plagne resort, rather than to nearby Courchevel. Champagny is on a slope, unlike the other parts of La Plagne, meaning it gets more sunshine. Montchavin is found in the commune of Bellentre, Alpine farming community with many originaland pretty buildings. Now there are 3 chairlifts serving the village of Montchavin, with one linking to Les Coches, a distance away. Created in 1974, this resort was in project since 1968 and it was to be called Les Ours, but it is the summit of Bellecôte which gave its name to the new resort. Michel Bezançon drew the resort like a dam to close the valley
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Shahdag Mountain Resort
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Shahdag Mountain Resort is Azerbaijans first and largest winter resort. The Shahdag Mountain Resort Complex was open to the public in 2012 and it is located in the Azerbaijans Greater Caucasus range, the site is located near Shahdag National Park, which is known for having an intact ecological system and an untouched flora and fauna. It is the first and largest ski resort in Azerbaijan, plans for the project include 10-123 star hotels, golf-clubs, 160-180 cottages, Aqua Park and other objects in the complex. The winter season in Shahdag begins in the half of December and finishes at the beginning of April. In the website of Shahdag the opening information is updated for every season. Ministry of Culture and Tourism / The Administration of Shahdag Mountain Resort PGI Management 1. 435-2. 100m 11, lift Base Shahdag Hotel & Spa Pik Palace Main Square Currently there are 5 Hotels opened. Current hotel beds in Shahdag Mountain Resort, Shahdag Hotel & Spa Zirve Hotel Gaya Residence Pik Palace Park Chalet Total 1
31.
Azerbaijan
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Azerbaijan, officially the Republic of Azerbaijan, is a country in the South Caucasus region, situated at the crossroads of Southwest Asia and Southeastern Europe. It is bound by the Caspian Sea to the east, Russia to the north, Georgia to the northwest, Armenia to the west and Iran to the south. The exclave of Nakhchivan is bound by Armenia to the north and east, Iran to the south and west, the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic proclaimed its independence in 1918 and became the first democratic state in the Muslim orient world. The country was incorporated into the Soviet Union in 1920 as the Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic, the modern Republic of Azerbaijan proclaimed its independence on 30 August 1991, prior to the official dissolution of the USSR in December 1991. In September 1991, the Armenian majority of the disputed Nagorno-Karabakh region seceded to form the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic, the region and seven adjacent districts outside it became de facto independent with the end of the Nagorno-Karabakh War in 1994. These regions are recognized as part of Azerbaijan pending a solution to the status of the Nagorno-Karabakh. Azerbaijan is a unitary semi-presidential republic, the country is a member state of the Council of Europe, the OSCE and the NATO Partnership for Peace program. It is one of six independent Turkic states, a member of the Turkic Council. Azerbaijan has diplomatic relations with 158 countries and holds membership in 38 international organizations and it is one of the founding members of GUAM, the Commonwealth of Independent States and the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons. Its term of office began on 19 June 2006, Azerbaijan is also a member state of the Non-Aligned Movement, holds observer status in World Trade Organization and is a correspondent at the International Telecommunication Union. The Constitution of Azerbaijan does not declare an official religion and all political forces in the country are secularist. However, the majority of the population are of a Shiite Muslim background, Azerbaijan has a high level of human development which ranks on par with most Eastern European countries. It has a rate of economic development and literacy, as well as a low rate of unemployment. According to the Davos World Economic Forum, Azerbaijans economy has scored 37th place within 138 countries in 2016, Global Competitiveness Index 2015 indicates that Azerbaijan scores highest in its region. ASAN services, established with Presidential Decree, are known for eliminating bribery. ASAN Service has been awarded with United Nations Public Service Award 2015, the ruling party, the New Azerbaijan Party, has been accused of authoritarianism and human rights abuses. The original etymology of name is thought to have its roots in the once-dominant Zoroastrianism. In the Avesta, Frawardin Yasht, there is a mention of âterepâtahe ashaonô fravashîm ýazamaide, the name Atropates itself is the Greek transliteration of an Old Iranian, probably Median, compounded name with the meaning Protected by the Fire or The Land of the Fire
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Mountain resort
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A mountain resort is a place to holiday or vacation located in a mountainous area. In hot climates hill and mountain resorts are visited for the temperatures at higher elevations. In China the emperors of the Qing Dynasty built the Chengde Mountain Resort in the 18th century, in Pakistan, the Galyat areas are a popular summer destination. They are also favorite for a cold snowy experience in the winter, murree, Ayubia, Nathiagali, Kalabagh are some of the popular places. Other places like the Northern Areas which include Gilgit Baltistan and Kashmir are also a choice, in the Philippines, the American colonial government built its first summer capital in Baguio to escape Manilas heat. In Turkey, city dwellers traditionally spent summer vacations at mountain resorts known as yaylas, in Cyprus the most popular mountain resort is Platres In Thailand the third highest mountain is a popular resort at Doi Ang Kang in Chiangmai province Fang District. Ski resort Dorward, Sherry Design for Mountain Communities, A Landscape and Architectural Guide Van Nostrand Reinhold ISBN9780442220952
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Chairlift
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They are the primary onhill transport at most ski areas, but are also found at amusement parks, various tourist attractions, and increasingly in urban transport. Depending on carrier size and loading efficiency, a passenger ropeway can move up to 4000 people per hour, and the fastest lifts achieve operating speeds of up to 12 m/s or 43.2 km/h. The two-person double chair, which for years was the workhorse of the ski industry. The four person detachable chairlift can transport 2400 people per hour with an average speed of 5 m/s. Some bi and tri cable elevated ropeways and reversible tramways achieve much greater operating speeds, a chairlift consists of numerous components to provide safe efficient transport. Especially at ski areas, chairlifts are referred to with a ski industry vernacular, a one-person lift is a single, a two-person lift is a double, a three-person lift a “triple”, four-person lifts are “quads”, and a six-person lift is a six pack. If the lift is a chairlift, it is typically referred to as a “high-speed” lift. Because fixed grip lifts move faster than detachables at load and unload, misloads are more frequent on fixed grips, detachable grips allow a greater rope speed to be used, usually twice that of a fixed grip chair, while simultaneously having slower loading and unloading sections. The capacity of a lift is constrained by the power, the rope speed, the carrier spacing, the vertical displacement. Human passengers can load only so quickly until loading efficiency decreases, the rope is the defining characteristic of an elevated passenger ropeway. The rope stretches and contracts as the tension exerted upon it increases and decreases, the fibre core contains a lubricant which protects the rope from corrosion and also allows for smooth flexing operation. The rope must be lubricated to ensure safe operation and long life. Various techniques are used for constructing the rope, dozens of wires are wound into a strand. Several strands are wound around a core, their twist is oriented in the same or opposite direction as the individual wires. Rope is constructed in a fashion, and must be spliced together before carriers are affixed. Splicing involves unwinding long sections of either end of the rope, sections of rope must be removed, as the strands overlap during the splicing process. Every lift involves at least two terminals and may also have intermediate supporting towers, a bullwheel in each terminal redirects the rope, while sheaves on the towers support the rope well above the ground. The number of towers is engineered based on the length and strength of the rope, worst case environmental conditions, the bullwheel with the prime mover is called the drive bullwheel, the other is the return bullwheel
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Surface lift
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A surface lift is a means of cable transport and is a transportation system used to transport skiers and snowboarders where riders remain on the ground as they are pulled uphill. Once prevalent, they have gradually been overtaken in popularity by higher capacity aerial lifts like chairlifts, today, surface lifts are most often found on beginner slopes and very small ski areas. Surface lifts have many disadvantages compared to aerial lifts, they require more passenger skills, surface must be continuous, they impede skiable terrain, slow speed, with the increase in snowboarding, surface lifts are replaced by chairlifts. They are often utilized at glacier skiing resorts because their supports can be anchored in glacier ice due to the lower forces, the first surface lift was built in 1908 by German Robert Winterhalder in Schollach/Eisenbach, Hochschwarzwald. A steam-powered toboggan tow,950 feet in length, was built in Truckee, California, the first skier-specific tow in North America was apparently installed in 1933 by Alec Foster at Shawbridge in the Laurentians outside Montreal, Quebec. The Shawbridge tow was quickly copied at Woodstock, Vermont in New England in 1934 by Bob and Betty Royce and their tow was driven by the rear wheel of a Ford Model A. Their relative simplicity made tows widespread and contributed to an explosion of the sport in the United States, before tows, only people willing to walk uphill could ski. Suddenly relatively unathletic people could participate, greatly increasing the appeal of the sport, within five years, more than 100 tow ropes were operating in North America. A rope tow consists of a cable or rope running through a bullwheel at the bottom and one at the top, in the simplest case, passengers grab hold of the rope and are pulled along while standing on their skis or snowboards and sliding up the hill. The grade of this style of rope tow is limited by passenger grip strength, metal handles can be attached to the rope to help grip. Steeper, faster and longer rope tows require the use of a nutcracker, the rider wears a harness around the hips. To this is attached a clamp, much like the nutcracker from which it derives its name and this eliminates the need to hold on and allows the rope to be supported at waist height by pulleys. This ssystem was used on many fields worldwide from the 1940s, a T-bar or J-bar lift is employed for low-capacity slopes in large resorts and small local areas. It consists of a cable loop running over a series of wheels. Hanging from the rope are a series of vertical recoiling cables, the horizontal bar is placed behind the skiers buttocks or between the snowboarders legs, and pushes the passengers uphill while they slide across the ground. The first T-bar lift in the United States was installed in 1940 at the Pico Mountain ski area and it was considered a great improvement over the rope tow. An earlier, potentially home-grown, T-bar was installed at Rib Mountain, Wisconsin, in 1937, invented in the 1930s, J-Bars were installed in the 1930s in North America and Australia, with the Ski Hoist at Charlotte Pass in Australia dating from 1938. J-bars have been superseded by T-bars which have twice the capacity, a J-bar closely resembles a T-bar, except that each carrier holds only one passenger
35.
Gondola lift
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A gondola lift, as opposed to a cable car, is a means of cable transport and type of aerial lift which is supported and propelled by cables from above. It consists of a loop of cable that is strung between two stations, sometimes over intermediate supporting towers. The cable is driven by a bullwheel in a terminal, which is connected to an engine or electric motor. They are often considered continuous systems since they feature a haul rope which moves and circulates around two terminal stations. Depending on the combination of cables used for support and/or haulage and the type of grip, the capacity, cost, because of the proliferation of such systems in the Alpine regions of Europe, the French language name of Télécabine is also used in an English language context. Gondola lifts should not be confused with cable cars or the US aerial tramways as the latter solely operates with fixed grips and simply shuttles back and forth between two end terminals. In some systems the passenger cabins, which can hold between two and 8 people, are connected to the cable by means of spring-loaded grips. These grips allow the cabin to be detached from the cable and slowed down in the terminals, to allow passengers to board. Doors are almost always automatic and controlled by a lever on the roof or on the undercarriage that is pushed up or down, cabins are driven through the terminals either by rotating tires, or by a chain system. To be accelerated to and decelerated from line speed, cabins are driven along by progressively swifter rotating tires until they reach line or terminal speed, on older installations, gondolas are accelerated manually by an operator. Gondola lifts can have intermediate stops that allow for uploading and downloading on the lift, examples of a lift with three stops instead of the standard two are the Village Gondola and the Excalibur Gondolas at Whistler Blackcomb. In 1986, Doppelmayr built the worlds first eight-passenger gondola at Steamboat Ski Resort, such a system is called Pulse Cabin because usually more than one cabin are loaded at a time before the trip begins. Another type of lift is the bi-cable gondola, which has one other stationary cable, besides the main haul rope. One of the famous examples of this type of lift include the Ngong Ping Cable Car in Hong Kong, the Singapore Cable Car. This system has the advantage that the stationary cables strength and properties can be tailored to each span, there are also tri-cable gondolas that have two stationary cables that support the cabins. They differ from cable cars in that the latter consist only of one or two usually larger cabins, moving up and down, not circulating, bi and tri cable systems provide greater lateral stability allowing the system to operate in higher cross-winds. Open-air gondolas, or cabriolet as commonly called, are uncommon and are quite primitive because they are exposed to the elements. Their cabins are usually hollow cylinder, open from chest height up, with a floor and they are usually used as village gondolas and for short distances
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Aerial tramway
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An aerial tramway, sky tram, cable car, ropeway or aerial tram is a type of aerial lift which uses one or two stationary ropes for support while a third moving rope provides propulsion. With this form of lift, the grip of an aerial tramway cabin is fixed onto the propulsion rope, as such, careful phrasing is necessary to prevent confusion. It is also called a ropeway or even incorrectly referred to as a gondola lift. A gondola lift has cabins suspended from a continuously circulating cable whereas aerial trams simply shuttle back, in Japan, the two are considered as the same category of vehicle and called ropeway, while the term cable car means Cable car and funicular. An aerial railway where the vehicles are suspended from a track is known as a suspension railway. An aerial tramway consists of one or two fixed cables, one loop of cable, and a number of passenger cabins, the fixed cables provide support for the cabins while the haulage rope, by means of a grip, is solidly connected to the truck. An electric motor drives the haulage rope which provides propulsion, Aerial tramways differ from gondola lifts in that gondola lifts are considered continuous systems. A similar system of cables is used in a funicular railway, the two passenger cabins, which carry from 4 to over 150 people, are situated at opposite ends of the loops of cable. Thus, while one is coming up, the other is going down the mountain, some aerial trams have only one cabin, which lends itself better for systems with small elevation changes along the cable run. The first operational aerial tram was built in 1644 by Adam Wiebe in Gdańsk and it was moved by horses and used to move soil over the river to build defences. It is called the first known cable lift in European history and it is not known how long this lift was used. In any case, it would be another 230 years before Germany would get the cable lift. Other mining systems were developed in the 1860s by Hodgson, Hallidie went on to perfect a line of mining and people tramways after 1867 in California and Nevada. Tramways are sometimes used in regions to carry ore from a mine located high on the mountain to an ore mill located at a lower elevation. Ore tramways were common in the early 20th century at the mines in North and South America, one can still be seen in the San Juan Mountains of the US state of Colorado. Over one thousand mining tramways were built around the world—Spitsbergen, Russia, Alaska, Argentina, New Zealand and this experience was replicated with the use of tramways in the First World War particularly on the Isonzo Front in Italy. The German firm of Bleichert built hundreds of freight and military tramways, strangely, Bleichert even built the first tourist tramway at Bolzano/Bozen, in then Tyrolian Austria in 1913. Other firms entered the mining tramway business- Otto, Leschen, Breco Ropeways Ltd, ceretti and Tanfani, and Riblet for instance
37.
First aid
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First aid is the assistance given to any person suffering a sudden illness or injury, with care provided to preserve life, prevent the condition from worsening, and/or promote recovery. First aid is generally performed by the layperson, with many people trained in providing basic levels of first aid, mental health first aid is an extension of the concept of first aid to cover mental health. There are many situations which may require first aid, and many countries have legislation, regulation and this can include specific training or equipment to be available in the workplace, the provision of specialist first aid cover at public gatherings, or mandatory first aid training within schools. First aid, however, does not necessarily any particular equipment or prior knowledge. First aid can be performed on all mammals, although this article relates to the care of human patients, the ancient Egyptians were the first to use bandages including the high genius doctor Imhotep. They not only used them o to create mummies but also as part of the treatments for surgical patients, most ancient Greek doctors, philosophers, etc studied in ancient Egypt and then returned to Greece. The bandaging of battle wounds is shown on Classical Greek pottery from circa 500 BCE, there are numerous references to first aid performed within the Roman army, with a system of first aid supported by surgeons, field ambulances, and hospitals. Roman legions had the role of capsarii, who were responsible for first aid such as bandaging. Further examples occur through history, still mostly related to battle, with such as the Knights Hospitaller in the 11th century CE, providing care to pilgrims. During the late 18th century, drowning as a cause of death was a concern amongst the population. This led to the formation, in 1774, of the Society for the Recovery of Persons Apparently Drowned, later the Royal Humane Society, who did much to promote resuscitation. Napoleons surgeon, Baron Dominique-Jean Larrey, is credited with creating an ambulance corps, the Red Cross and Red Crescent are still the largest provider of first aid worldwide. The bandage was issued as standard to the Prussian combatants, and this was followed by creating its own wheeled transport litter in 1875, and in 1877 established the St John Ambulance Association to train men and women for the benefit of the sick and wounded. Following this, in 1878, Shepherd and Colonel Francis Duncan took advantage of the newly charitable focus of St John, the first classes were conducted in the hall of the Presbyterian school in Woolwich using a comprehensive first aid curriculum. First aid training began to spread through the British Empire through organisations such as St John, often starting, as in the UK, with high risk activities such as ports, certain skills are considered essential to the provision of first aid and are taught ubiquitously. Particularly the ABCs of first aid, which focus on critical life-saving intervention, ABC stands for Airway, Breathing, and Circulation. The same mnemonic is used by all emergency health professionals, attention must first be brought to the airway to ensure it is clear. Following evaluation of the airway, a first aid attendant would determine adequacy of breathing, some organizations add a fourth step of D for Deadly bleeding or Defibrillation, while others consider this as part of the Circulation step
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Hazard
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A hazard is a situation that poses a level of threat to life, health, property, or environment. Hazards can be dormant or potential, with only a risk of harm, however, once a hazard becomes active. A hazardous situation that has come to pass is called an incident, Hazard and possibility interact together to create risk. Identification of hazard risks is the first step in performing a risk assessment, hazards are sometimes classified into three modes, Dormant—The situation environment is currently affected. For instance, a hillside may be unstable, with the potential for a landslide, armed—People, property, or environment are in potential harms way. Active—A harmful incident involving the hazard has actually occurred, often this is referred to not as an active hazard but as an accident, emergency, incident, or disaster. Hazards are generally labeled as one of five types Physical hazards are conditions or situations that can cause the physical harm or intense stress. Physical hazards can be natural and human made elements. Chemical hazards are substances that can harm or damage to the body. Chemical hazards can be natural or human made origin. Biological hazards are biological agents that can cause harm to the human body, some biological agents can be viruses, parasites, bacteria, food, fungi, and foreign toxins. Psychological hazards are created during work related stress or a stressful environment, ergonomic Hazard By its nature, a hazard involves something that could potentially be harmful to a persons life, health, property, or the environment. One key concept in identifying a hazard is the presence of stored energy that, stored energy can occur in many forms, chemical, mechanical, thermal, radioactive, electrical, etc. Another class of hazard does not involve release of stored energy, examples include confined or limited egress spaces, oxygen-depleted atmospheres, awkward positions, repetitive motions, low-hanging or protruding objects, etc. A common method is to score both likelihood and seriousness on a scale and multiplying one by the other to produce a comparative score. Risk = Hazard × Vulnerability / Capacity This score identifies hazards that require mitigation, a low score on likelihood of occurrence may mean that the hazard is dormant, whereas a high score indicates it may be an active hazard. An important component of seriousness if incident occurred is serious to whom, different populations may be affected differently by accidents. For example, an explosion has widely differing effects on different populations and these possible effects range from death from overpressure or shrapnel, to inhalation of noxious gases, to exposure to a loud noise
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Snowmobile
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A snowmobile, also known as a snowmachine, is a vehicle designed for winter travel and recreation on snow. It is designed to be operated on snow and ice and does not require a road or trail, snowmobiling is a sport that many people have taken on as a serious hobby. Older snowmobiles could generally accommodate two people, however, most snowmobiles manufactured in the last twenty-five years have been designed for a single rider. Snowmobiles built with the ability to carry two riders are referred to as 2-up snowmobiles or touring models and make up a small share of the market. Snowmobiles do not have any enclosures, except for a windshield, skis at the front provide directional control. Early snowmobiles used rubber tracks, but modern snowmobiles tracks are made of a Kevlar composite. Originally, snowmobiles were powered by two-stroke gasoline internal combustion engines, the second half of the 20th century saw the rise of recreational snowmobiling, whose riders are called snowmobilers or sledders. Recreational riding is known as snowcross/racing, trail riding, freestyle, mountain climbing, boondocking, carving, ditchbanging, in the summertime snowmobilers can drag race on grass, asphalt strips, or even across water. Many individuals later modified Ford Model Ts with the undercarriage replaced by tracks and they were popular for rural mail delivery for a time. The common name for these conversion of cars and small trucks was Snowflyers, where early designs had 10 horsepower two-stroke engines, there has been a move toward newer style 2-stroke and 4-stroke gasoline engines, some with over 200 hp. It parallels the development of the automobile and later aviation, often using the same components for a different use. In the first races held near Three Lakes in 1926,104 of these snowbuggies started, eliason made 40 snowmobiles, patented in 1927. Upon receiving an order for 200 from Finland, he sold his patent to the FWD Company of Clintonville and they made 300 for military use, then transferred the patent to a Canadian subsidiary. The American Motor Sleigh was a short-lived novelty vehicle produced in Boston in 1905, designed for travel on snow, it consisted of a sleigh body mounted on a framework that held an engine, a drive-shaft system, and runners. Although considered a novelty, sales were low and production ceased in 1906. The Aerosani, propeller-driven and running on skis, was built in 1909–1910 by Russian inventor Igor Sikorsky of helicopter fame, Aerosanis were used by the Soviet Red Army during the Winter War and World War II. There is some dispute over whether Aerosanis count as snowmobiles because they were not propelled by tracks, adolphe Kégresse designed an original caterpillar tracks system, called the Kégresse track, while working for Tsar Nicholas II of Russia between 1906 and 1916. These used a belt rather than interlocking metal segments and could be fitted to a conventional car or truck to turn it into a half-track, suitable for use over soft ground
40.
Sledding
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Sledding, sledging or tobogganing is a worldwide winter activity, generally carried out in a prone or seated position on a vehicle generically known as a sled, a sledge, or a toboggan. It is the basis of three Olympic sports, luge, skeleton and bobsledding, the practical use of sleds is ancient and widespread. They were developed in areas with consistent winter snow cover, as vehicles to transport materials and/or people, far more efficiently than wheeled vehicles could in icy, early designs included hand-pulled sizes as well as larger dog, horse, or ox drawn versions. Early examples of sleds and sledges were found in the Oseberg Viking ship excavation, the Toboggan sled is also a traditional form of transport used by the Innu and Cree of northern Canada and the people of Ancient Egypt are thought to have used sledges extensively for construction. The generic term sledding refers to traveling down a hill using a sled such as a flexible flyer with wooden slats. Flat plastic or aluminum discs and improvised sleds may also be used, the activity has been known to exist as a fringe recreational activity far into the distant murky past in toboggan-type sleds which seasonally supplant the ubiquitous cart. First, back country sleds are made of plastic material. Second, the construction, with a large amount of snow-side surface area keeps the sled afloat in deeper snow conditions. Though the original runner sleds possessed directional control, their thin runner blades bogged down in anything, disk sleds, on the other hand, possessed floatation but no directional control. Third, modern back country sleds have a system, which usually consists of a simple belt strap that attaches to the sides of the sled. With the sledder in the position, the strap may go over the sledders thighs or calves before connecting with the strap from the other side of the sled with some sort of buckling device. Finally, back country sleds have foam pads glued for the sledder to kneel on for shock absorption, one such sled is the Mad River Rocket. Back country sledding is a kin to back country alpine skiing or snowboarding than to traditional pile the family in the van. The terrain for back country sledding includes powder-filled steeps, open bowls, cliff-filled ridges. Back country sleds, with the system and padding, may also be used for freestyle moves such as spins and flips off jumps. Though similarities exist between back country sledding and alpine skiing/snowboarding, important differences separate the disciplines, from a technical perspective, the lack of a metal edge and the lower center of gravity make it more difficult to control a back country sled on icy or packed snow surfaces. From an access perspective, alpine resorts do not allow sledding on the actual mountain, the first ride down a hill on a sled is the most important, but most also the most difficult, as it determines the path of the sled for further runs down the hill. It is essential to steer the sled along the most exciting course, perhaps adding twists, other techniques to improve the ride include turning around, lying on the stomach, or closing both eyes
41.
Sled
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Most commonly sleds are used on snow or ice, however in certain cases they may be used on any surfaces, especially on ones with relatively low friction, such as sand or wet grass. They may be used to transport passengers, cargo, or both, shades of meaning differentiating the three terms often reflect regional variations depending on historical uses and prevailing climate. In Britain sledge is the term, and more common than sled. Toboggan is sometimes used synonymously with sledge but more often to refer to a type of sledge without runners. Sleigh refers to a moderate to large-sized, usually open-topped vehicle to carry passengers or goods, in Scandinavia particularly a sleigh may also be drawn by reindeer, as for Father Christmas. In American usage sled remains the term but often implies a smaller device. Sledge implies a heavier sled used for moving freight or massive objects, in Australia, where there is limited snow, sleigh and sledge are given equal preference in local parlance. The people of Ancient Egypt are thought to have used sledges extensively in the construction of their public works, sleds and sledges were found in the Oseberg Viking ship excavation. The sledge was also prized, because – unlike wheeled vehicles – it was exempt from tolls. Until the late 19th century, a closed winter sled, or vozok and it was a means of transport preferred by royals, bishops, and boyars of Muscovy. Several royal vozoks of historical importance have been preserved in the Kremlin Armoury, man-hauled sledges were the traditional means of transport on British exploring expeditions to the Arctic and Antarctic regions in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Dog sleds were used by most others, such as Roald Amundsen, today some people use kites to tow exploration sleds in such climes. The word sled comes from Middle English sledde, which itself has the origins in Old Dutch word slee, the same word shares common ancestry with both sleigh and sledge. North Americas Horse Drawn Sleigh Rides
42.
Dog sled
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A dog sled or dog sleigh is a sled pulled by one or more sled dogs used to travel over ice and through snow. Numerous types of sleds are used, depending on their function and they can be used for dog sled racing. Dog power has been used for hunting and travel for over a thousand years, as far back as the 10th century BCE these dogs have contributed to human culture. Assembling a dog sled team involves picking leader dogs, point dogs, swing dogs, the lead dog is crucial, so mushers take particular care of these dogs. Another important detail is to have powerful wheel dogs to pull the sled out from the snow, however, Alaskan Huskies are also a popular dog for sled dog racing, because of their endurance, good eating habits, speed, and dedication to running even when tired. Sometimes, for sprint races, mushers use short haired hounds that are faster than the average husky and these hounds are raised from a young age to pull. It is harder to train hounds than it is to train Siberian Huskies and Malamutes to pull a sled because it is not in their nature, training should start at around six months of age by pulling a small log behind them. Sirius Dog Sled Patrol The Canadian Museum of Civilization - History of Dogsled mail in the Yukon
43.
Ice skating
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Ice skating is the act of moving on ice by using ice skates. It can be done for a variety of reasons, including exercise, leisure, traveling, ice skating occurs both on specially prepared ice surfaces, both indoors and outdoors, as well as on naturally occurring bodies of frozen water, such as ponds, lakes and rivers. A study by Federico Formenti of the University of Oxford suggests that the earliest ice skating happened in southern Finland more than 3,000 years ago, originally, skates were merely sharpened, flattened bone strapped to the bottom of the foot. Skaters did not actually skate on the ice, but rather glided on top of it, true skating emerged when a steel blade with sharpened edges was used. Skates now cut into the ice instead of gliding on top of it, adding edges to ice skates was invented by the Dutch in the 13th or 14th century. These ice skates were made of steel, with sharpened edges on the bottom to aid movement, the construction of modern ice skates has stayed largely the same since then. In the Netherlands, ice skating was considered proper for all classes of people, ice skating was also practised in China during the Song dynasty, and became popular among the ruling family of the Qing dynasty. Ice skating was brought to Britain from the Netherlands, where James II was briefly exiled in the 17th century, when he returned to England, this new sport was introduced to the British aristocracy, and was soon enjoyed by people from all walks of life. The first organised skating club was the Edinburgh Skating Club, formed in the 1740s, from this description and others, it is apparent that the form of skating practiced by club members was indeed an early form of figure skating rather than speed skating. On the Continent, participation in ice skating was limited to members of the upper classes, emperor Rudolf II of the Holy Roman Empire enjoyed ice skating so much, he had a large ice carnival constructed in his court in order to popularise the sport. King Louis XVI of France brought ice skating to Paris during his reign, madame de Pompadour, Napoleon I, Napoleon III and the House of Stuart were, among others, royal and upper class fans of ice skating. The next skating club to be established was in London and was not founded until 1830, as the technology for the maintenance of natural ice did not exist, these early rinks used a substitute consisting of a mixture of hogs lard and various salts. The area of ice is extremely convenient for such as may be desirous of engaging in the graceful. Skating became popular as a recreation, a means of transport, racing was the preserve of workers, most of them agricultural labourers. It is not known when the first skating matches were held, but by the nineteenth century racing was well established. Skating as a sport developed on the lakes of Scotland and the canals of the Netherlands, in the 13th and 14th centuries wood was substituted for bone in skate blades, and in 1572 the first iron skates were manufactured. When the waters froze, skating matches were held in towns, in these local matches men would compete for prizes of money, clothing or food. The winners of matches were invited to take part in the grand or championship matches in which skaters from across the Fens would compete for cash prizes in front of crowds of thousands
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