1.
Rob Malda
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Rob Malda, also known as CmdrTaco, is an American Internet content author, and former editor-in-chief of the website Slashdot. Malda is an alumnus of Hope College and Holland Christian High School, in 1997, Malda and Jeff Bates created Slashdot while undergraduates of Hope College. After running the site for two years on a shoestring, they sold the site to Andover. net, which was acquired by VA Linux Systems. Malda ran the site out of the SourceForge, Inc. office in Dexter, Rob Malda also wrote a monthly column for Computer Power User. In 2002, he was named in the MIT Technology Review TR100 as one of the top 100 innovators in the world under the age of 35, on August 25,2011, Rob Malda announced his resignation from Slashdot. On March 5,2012, Malda was appointed as Chief Strategist and Editor-at-Large of WaPo Labs, after The Washington Post Company sold its newspaper operations to Amazon. com CEO Jeff Bezos, the company rebranded as Graham Holdings Company. WaPo Labs became Trove, for which Malda was Chief Strategist and Head of Product, Malda proposed to longtime girlfriend Kathleen Fent using the front page of Slashdot on February 14,2002. They were married on December 8,2002, in Las Vegas, personal homepage Computer Power User Magazine Homepage CmdrTaco interview on the FLOSS Podcast Robs resignation post on Slashdot
2.
Jeff Bates (technologist)
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Jeff Bates, also known as hemos, is the co-founder of Slashdot along with Rob Malda. Bates graduated from Holland Christian High School in 1994 and received a Bachelors degree in History from Hope College in 1998, Malda and Bates created Slashdot in 1997, while undergraduates at Hope College. In 1999 they sold the site to Andover. net, which was acquired by VA Linux Systems in 2000, Bates served as Director of Media Operations for Geeknet from May 2001 through July 2004, when he became Vice President of Editorial Operations and Executive Editor of Slashdot. In February 2008 he became Geeknets Vice President of Platform and headed the engineering and product teams for Slashdot, freshmeat. In August 2011, Bates joined Google, Slashdot is a technology-related news website, it features user-submitted and evaluated news stories about science and technology related topics. In 2012, Slashdot had around 3.7 million unique visitors per month, the site has won more than 20 awards, including Peoples Voice Awards in 2000 for Best Community Site and Best News Site. Occasionally, a story will link to a server causing a surge of traffic. This phenomenon is known as the Slashdot effect
3.
Revenue
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In accounting, revenue is the income that a business has from its normal business activities, usually from the sale of goods and services to customers. Revenue is also referred to as sales or turnover, some companies receive revenue from interest, royalties, or other fees. Revenue may refer to income in general, or it may refer to the amount, in a monetary unit, received during a period of time, as in Last year. Profits or net income generally imply total revenue minus total expenses in a given period, in accounting, revenue is often referred to as the top line due to its position on the income statement at the very top. This is to be contrasted with the line which denotes net income. For non-profit organizations, annual revenue may be referred to as gross receipts, in general usage, revenue is income received by an organization in the form of cash or cash equivalents. Sales revenue or revenues is income received from selling goods or services over a period of time, tax revenue is income that a government receives from taxpayers. In more formal usage, revenue is a calculation or estimation of periodic income based on a standard accounting practice or the rules established by a government or government agency. Two common accounting methods, cash basis accounting and accrual basis accounting, corporations that offer shares for sale to the public are usually required by law to report revenue based on generally accepted accounting principles or International Financial Reporting Standards. In a double-entry bookkeeping system, revenue accounts are general ledger accounts that are summarized periodically under the heading Revenue or Revenues on an income statement, Revenue account names describe the type of revenue, such as Repair service revenue, Rent revenue earned or Sales. Money income from activities that are ordinary for a corporation, company, partnership. For some businesses, such as manufacturing and/or grocery, most revenue is from the sale of goods, service businesses such as law firms and barber shops receive most of their revenue from rendering services. Lending businesses such as car rentals and banks receive most of their revenue from fees, Revenues from a businesss primary activities are reported as sales, sales revenue or net sales. This includes product returns and discounts for early payment of invoices, most businesses also have revenue that is incidental to the businesss primary activities, such as interest earned on deposits in a demand account. This is included in revenue but not included in net sales, Sales revenue does not include sales tax collected by the business. Other revenue is revenue from peripheral operations, for example, a company that manufactures and sells automobiles would record the revenue from the sale of an automobile as regular revenue. The combination of all the revenue generating systems of a business is called its revenue model, Revenue is a crucial part of financial statement analysis. The company’s performance is measured to the extent to which its asset inflows compare with its asset outflows, net income is the result of this equation, but revenue typically enjoys equal attention during a standard earnings call
4.
Alexa Internet
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Alexa Internet, Inc. is a California-based company that provides commercial web traffic data and analytics. It is an owned subsidiary of Amazon. com. Founded as an independent company in 1996, Alexa was acquired by Amazon in 1999 and its toolbar collects data on browsing behavior and transmits them to the Alexa website, where they are stored and analyzed. This is the basis for the web traffic reporting. According to its website, Alexa provides traffic data, global rankings, as of 2015, its website has been visited by over 6.5 million people monthly. Alexa Internet was founded in April 1996 by American web entrepreneurs Brewster Kahle, Alexa initially offered a toolbar that gave Internet users suggestions on where to go next, based on the traffic patterns of its user community. The company also offered context for each site visited, to whom it was registered, how many pages it had, how other sites pointed to it. Alexas operations grew to include archiving of web pages as they are crawled and this database served as the basis for the creation of the Internet Archive accessible through the Wayback Machine. In 1998, the company donated a copy of the archive, Alexa continues to supply the Internet Archive with Web crawls. In 1999, as the company moved away from its vision of providing an intelligent search engine. Alexa began a partnership with Google in early 2002, and with the web directory DMOZ in January 2003, in May 2006, replaced Google with Bing as a provider of search results. In December 2006, Amazon released Alexa Image Search, built in-house, it was the first major application built on the companys Web platform. In December 2005, Alexa opened its extensive search index and Web-crawling facilities to third-party programs through a set of Web services. These could be used, for instance, to construct vertical search engines that could run on Alexas own servers or elsewhere. In May 2007, Alexa changed their API to limit comparisons to three websites, reduce the size of embedded graphs in Flash, and add mandatory embedded BritePic advertisements. In April 2007, the company filed a lawsuit, Alexa v. Hornbaker, in the lawsuit, Alexa alleged that Ron Hornbaker was stealing traffic graphs for profit, and that the primary purpose of his site was to display graphs that were generated by Alexas servers. Hornbaker removed the term Alexa from his name on March 19,2007. Thereafter, Alexa became a purely analytics-focused company, on March 31,2009, Alexa launched a major website redesign
5.
Hope College
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Hope College is a private, residential liberal arts college in downtown Holland, Michigan, United States, a few miles from Lake Michigan. It opened in 1851 as the Pioneer School by Dutch immigrants four years after the community was first settled, the first freshman college class matriculated in 1862 and Hope received its state charter in 1866. Hope College is affiliated with the Reformed Church in America and it retains a vibrant Christian atmosphere, the schools 125 acres campus is adjacent to the downtown commercial district and has been shared with Western Theological Seminary since 1884. The schools enrollment is just over 3,600 undergraduates, hopes motto is taken from Psalm 42,5, Spera in Deo. The colleges emblem is an anchor, the primary-level Pioneer School was later expanded to secondary, and soon after, college level education as Hope College. Van Vleck Hall, which housed the Pioneer School, is the oldest building on campus. It is the second oldest building in the city, the first freshman college class matriculated in 1862, and Hope received its state charter in 1866. The college admitted its first female students in 1878,2015 marks Hope Colleges 150th year of education. In honor of this celebration, Hope College held many events throughout 2015, the celebration began with the 150th commencement on May 3,2015. The year held two grand openings, the Kruizenga Art Museum and the Jack H. Miller Center for Musical Arts, the College also sponsored the Presidential Colloquium lecture series which featured an address by David Brooks on Christian education in the 21st century. The college offers 90+ majors, all of lead to a Bachelor of Arts, Bachelor of Music, Bachelor of Science, Bachelor of Science in Engineering. It has a student population of about 3,400 with a student-to-faculty ratio of 12,1. The college offers study programs in several US cities, including Philadelphia, Washington, D. C. and Chicago. Among its international programs, a summer semester in Vienna is fairly popular among students. Hope maintains strong ties to the Reformed Church of America and seeks to educate students within the historic Christian faith while maintaining an academic education. In addition, Hope College is a member of the Great Lakes Colleges Association, courses offered at Hope are divided into five disciplines. General Education While taking courses in General Education at Hope, students encounter an array of topics rooted in the liberal arts education. Regardless of his or her major, students take courses in the areas of art, history, language, literature, math, students also participate in a First-Year Seminar course and a Senior Seminar course
6.
Dice.com
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Dice. com is a career website based in San Jose, California. It serves information technology and engineering professionals, Dice. com is owned by DHI Group, Inc. Dice. com typically has approximately 80,000 tech job listings, the website claims to have 3 million registered technology professionals and approximately 2.4 million unique visitors each month. Of those registered users, 75% have a degree or higher. In June 2009, Dice. com advertised 48,000 jobs, in 2014, Dice. com advertised 80,000 positions daily. Founded in 1990 by Lloyd Linn and Diane Rickert, two contractors, Dice. com had 175 employees by April 2001. Today, DHI Group, Inc. has 500+ employees worldwide, chris Benner, in his 2002 book Work in the new economy, flexible labor markets in Silicon Valley, called Dice. com he most prominent site in the Silicon Valley high-tech recruiting industry. Dice is an acronym for Data-processing Independent Consultants Exchange, in the book, Benner says the dice imagery actually captures fairly well the type of high-rolling lifestyle that high-end contractors aspire to. Dice was originally a bulletin board service where recruiters would list open jobs, Dice began operations in the San Francisco Bay Area in 1990. In 1994, the founders moved Dices headquarters to Des Moines and they then launched the URL www. dice. com in 1996. In 1999, Dice opened the website to direct hiring companies while continuing to serve the recruiting and staffing industry. In February of the year, it was acquired by EarthWeb. In 2001, the parent company, Earthweb, changed its name to Dice Inc, in October that same year, Dice. com moved operations to Urbandale, Iowa. Then, in 2003, Dice Inc. completed a financial restructuring, in 2005, Dice Inc. was acquired by Dice Holdings, Inc. which is owned equally by private equity firms General Atlantic LLC and Quadrangle Group LLC. In 2007, Dice Holdings completed a public offering and its stock began trading on the New York Stock Exchange under the ticker symbol DHX. In 2015, parent company Dice Holdings changed its name to DHI Group, a career website, as well as Targeted Job Fairs. AllHealthcareJobs. com - June 2009. Dice Acquires Healthcare Job Board FINS. com - June 2012, Slashdot, SourceForge, and Freecode from Geeknet, forming Slashdot Media – September 2012. The IT Job Board - August 2013, a business which includes numerous European websites and a targeted marketing business, IT Media
7.
SourceForge
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SourceForge is a Web-based service that offers software developers a centralized online location to control and manage free and open-source software projects. SourceForge was one of the first to offer this service free of charge to open source projects, since 2012 the website runs on Apache Allura software. As of March 2014, the SourceForge repository claimed to host more than 430,000 projects and had more than 3.7 million registered users, the domain sourceforge. net attracted at least 33 million visitors by August 2009 according to a Compete. com survey. Negative community reactions to the program led to review of the program, nonetheless. The program was cancelled by new owners BizX on February 9,2016, on May 17,2016 they announced that it would scan all projects for malware, SourceForge is a web-based source code repository. It acts as a location for free and open-source software projects. It was the first to offer service for free to open-source projects. Project developers have access to centralized storage and tools for managing projects, though it is best known for providing revision control systems such as CVS, SVN, Bazaar, Git and Mercurial. Major features include project wikis, metrics and analysis, access to a MySQL database, the vast number of users at SourceForge. net exposes prominent projects to a variety of developers and can create a positive feedback loop. As a projects activity rises, SourceForge. nets internal ranking system makes it visible to other developers through SourceForge directory. Given that many projects fail due to lack of developer support. SourceForges traditional revenue model is through advertising sales on their site. In 2006 SourceForge Inc. reported quarterly takings of US$6.5 million, in 2009 SourceForge reported a gross quarterly income of US$23 million through media and e-commerce streams. In 2011 a revenue of 20 million USD was reported for the value of the SourceForge, slashdot and freecode holdings. Since 2013 additional revenue generation schemes, such as models, were trialled. The result has in some cases been the appearance of malware bundled with SourceForge downloads, on February 9,2016, SourceForge announced they had eliminated their DevShare program practice of bundling installers with project downloads. The software running the SourceForge site was released as software in January 2000 and was later named SourceForge Alexandria. In September 2002 SourceForge was temporarily banned in China, the site was banned again in China, for about a month, in July 2008
8.
Internet troll
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This sense of both the noun and the verb troll is associated with Internet discourse, but also has been used more widely. Media attention in recent years has equated trolling with online harassment, for example, the mass media have used troll to mean a person who defaces Internet tribute sites with the aim of causing grief to families. Application of the troll is subjective. Some readers may characterize a post as trolling, while others may regard the same post as a contribution to the discussion. Like any pejorative term, it can be used as an ad hominem attack, as noted in an OS News article titled Why People Troll and How to Stop Them, The traditional definition of trolling includes intent. That is, trolls purposely disrupt forums, whether someone intends to disrupt a thread or not, the results are the same if they do. Others have addressed the issue, e. g. Claire Hardaker, in her Ph. D. thesis Trolling in asynchronous computer-mediated communication. Regardless of the circumstances, controversial posts may attract a strong response from those unfamiliar with the robust dialogue found in some online, rather than physical. The trollface is an occasionally used to indicate trolling in Internet culture. At times, the word can be abused to refer to anyone with controversial opinions they disagree with, such usages goes against the ordinary meaning of troll in multiple ways. Most importantly, trolls dont actually believe the views they claim. Farhad Manjoo criticises this view, noting that if the person really is trolling, there are competing theories of where and when troll was first used in Internet slang, with numerous unattested accounts of BBS and UseNet origins in the early 1980s or before. The English noun troll in the sense of ugly dwarf or giant dates to 1610. The word evokes the trolls of Scandinavian folklore and childrens tales, antisocial, quarrelsome, early non-Internet slang use of trolling can be found in the military, by 1972 the term trolling for MiGs was documented in use by US Navy pilots in Vietnam. It referred to use of. decoys, with the mission of drawing. fire away, the contemporary use of the term is alleged to have appeared on the Internet in the late 1980s, but the earliest known attestation according to the Oxford English Dictionary is in 1992. The context of the quote cited in the Oxford English Dictionary sets the origin in Usenet in the early 1990s as in the phrase trolling for newbies, as used in alt. folklore. urban. Commonly, what is meant is a relatively gentle inside joke by veteran users, for example, a veteran of the group might make a post on the common misconception that glass flows over time. Long-time readers would recognize the posters name and know that the topic had been discussed a lot, but new subscribers to the group would not realize
9.
Open-source software
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Open-source software may be developed in a collaborative public manner. According to scientists who studied it, open-source software is a prominent example of open collaboration, a 2008 report by the Standish Group states that adoption of open-source software models has resulted in savings of about $60 billion per year to consumers. In the early days of computing, programmers and developers shared software in order to learn from each other, eventually the open source notion moved to the way side of commercialization of software in the years 1970-1980. In 1997, Eric Raymond published The Cathedral and the Bazaar and this source code subsequently became the basis behind SeaMonkey, Mozilla Firefox, Thunderbird and KompoZer. Netscapes act prompted Raymond and others to look into how to bring the Free Software Foundations free software ideas, the new term they chose was open source, which was soon adopted by Bruce Perens, publisher Tim OReilly, Linus Torvalds, and others. The Open Source Initiative was founded in February 1998 to encourage use of the new term, a Microsoft executive publicly stated in 2001 that open source is an intellectual property destroyer. I cant imagine something that could be worse than this for the software business, IBM, Oracle, Google and State Farm are just a few of the companies with a serious public stake in todays competitive open-source market. There has been a significant shift in the corporate philosophy concerning the development of FOSS, the free software movement was launched in 1983. In 1998, a group of individuals advocated that the free software should be replaced by open-source software as an expression which is less ambiguous. Software developers may want to publish their software with an open-source license, the Open Source Definition, notably, presents an open-source philosophy, and further defines the terms of usage, modification and redistribution of open-source software. Software licenses grant rights to users which would otherwise be reserved by law to the copyright holder. Several open-source software licenses have qualified within the boundaries of the Open Source Definition, the open source label came out of a strategy session held on April 7,1998 in Palo Alto in reaction to Netscapes January 1998 announcement of a source code release for Navigator. They used the opportunity before the release of Navigators source code to clarify a potential confusion caused by the ambiguity of the free in English. Many people claimed that the birth of the Internet, since 1969, started the open source movement, the Free Software Foundation, started in 1985, intended the word free to mean freedom to distribute and not freedom from cost. Since a great deal of free software already was free of charge, such software became associated with zero cost. The Open Source Initiative was formed in February 1998 by Eric Raymond and they sought to bring a higher profile to the practical benefits of freely available source code, and they wanted to bring major software businesses and other high-tech industries into open source. Perens attempted to open source as a service mark for the OSI. The Open Source Initiatives definition is recognized by governments internationally as the standard or de facto definition, OSI uses The Open Source Definition to determine whether it considers a software license open source
10.
GNU General Public License
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The GNU General Public License is a widely used free software license, which guarantees end users the freedom to run, study, share and modify the software. The license was written by Richard Stallman of the Free Software Foundation for the GNU Project. The GPL is a license, which means that derivative work can only be distributed under the same license terms. This is in distinction to permissive free licenses, of which the BSD licenses. GPL was the first copyleft license for general use, historically, the GPL license family has been one of the most popular software licenses in the free and open-source software domain. Prominent free software licensed under the GPL include the Linux kernel. In 2007, the version of the license was released to address some perceived problems with the second version that were discovered during its long-time usage. To keep the license up to date, the GPL license includes an optional any later version clause, developers can omit it when licensing their software, for instance the Linux kernel is licensed under GPLv2 without the any later version clause. The GPL was written by Richard Stallman in 1989, for use with programs released as part of the GNU project, the original GPL was based on a unification of similar licenses used for early versions of GNU Emacs, the GNU Debugger and the GNU C Compiler. These licenses contained similar provisions to the modern GPL, but were specific to each program, rendering them incompatible, Stallmans goal was to produce one license that could be used for any project, thus making it possible for many projects to share code. The second version of the license, version 2, was released in 1991, version 3 was developed to attempt to address these concerns and was officially released on 29 June 2007. Version 1 of the GNU GPL, released on 25 February 1989, the first problem was that distributors may publish binary files only—executable, but not readable or modifiable by humans. To prevent this, GPLv1 stated that any vendor distributing binaries must also make the source code available under the same licensing terms. The second problem was that distributors might add restrictions, either to the license, the union of two sets of restrictions would apply to the combined work, thus adding unacceptable restrictions. To prevent this, GPLv1 stated that modified versions, as a whole, had to be distributed under the terms in GPLv1. Therefore, software distributed under the terms of GPLv1 could be combined with software under more permissive terms, according to Richard Stallman, the major change in GPLv2 was the Liberty or Death clause, as he calls it – Section 7. The section says that licensees may distribute a GPL-covered work only if they can all of the licenses obligations. In other words, the obligations of the license may not be severed due to conflicting obligations and this provision is intended to discourage any party from using a patent infringement claim or other litigation to impair users freedom under the license
11.
Webby Award
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Categories include websites, advertising and media, online film and video, mobile sites and apps, and social. Two winners are selected in each category, one by members of The International Academy of Digital Arts and Sciences, each winner presents a five-word acceptance speech, a trademark of the annual awards show. Hailed as the Internet’s highest honor, the award is one of the older Internet-oriented awards, the Webby Awards began in 1996, sponsored by the Academy of Web Design and Cool Site of the Day. The first Webby Awards were produced by Kay Dangaard at the Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel as a nod to the first site of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and that first year, they were called Webbie Awards. The first Site of the Year winner was the pioneer webisodic serial The Spot, todays Webbys were founded by Tiffany Shlain when she was hired by the The Web Magazine to establish the awards. The event was held in San Francisco from 1996 to 2004, after the first year the awards became more successful than the magazine and IDG closed the publication. Shlain continued to run The Webby Awards with the help of Maya Draisin until 2004, the International Academy of Digital Arts and Sciences, which selects the winners of The Webby Awards, was established in 1998 by co-founders Tiffany Shlain, Spencer Ante and Maya Draisin. David-Michel Davies, CEO of Webby Media Group, current Executive Director of the Webby Awards, in 2009, the 13th Annual Webby Awards received nearly 10,000 entries from all 50 states and over 60 countries. That same year, more than 500,000 votes were cast in The Webby Peoples Voice Awards, in 2012, the sixteenth Annual Webby awards received 1.5 million votes from more than 200 countries for the Peoples Voice awards. In 2015, the 19th Annual Webby Awards received nearly 13,000 entries from all 50 U. S. states, during the Call for Entries phase, each entry is rated by Associate Members of the International Academy of Digital Arts & Sciences. Entries that receive the highest marks during this first round of voting are included on category-specific shortlists, deloitte provides vote tabulation consulting for the Webby Awards. Winners of both the Academy-selected and People’s Voice-selected awards are invited to the Webbys, the Webby Awards are presented in over a hundred categories among all four types of entries. A website can be entered in categories and receive multiple awards. In each category, two awards are handed out, a Webby Award selected by The International Academy of Digital Arts and Sciences, past winners include Amazon. com, eBay, Travel + Leisure, SimplyHired. com, Kayak. com, Yahoo. Each year, the International Academy of Digital Arts and Sciences also honors individuals with Webby Special Achievement Awards, since 2005, The Webby Awards has been presented in New York City. Comedian Rob Corddry hosted the ceremony from 2005 to 2007, seth Meyers of Saturday Night Live hosted in 2008 and 2009, B. J. Novak of NBCs The Office in 2010, and Lisa Kudrow in 2011. Comedian, actor, and writer Patton Oswalt hosted from 2012 to 2014, comedian Hannibal Buress will host the 19th Annual Webby Awards. The Webbys are famous for limiting recipients to five-word speeches, which are often humorous, in 2005 when accepting his Lifetime Achievement Award, former Vice President Al Gores speech was Please dont recount this vote
12.
Slashdot effect
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The Slashdot effect, also known as slashdotting, occurs when a popular website links to a smaller site, causing a massive increase in traffic. This overloads the smaller site, causing it to slow down or even become unavailable. The name stems from the influx of web traffic that would result from the technology news site Slashdot linking to websites. However the name is dated as flash crowds from Slashdot were reported to be diminishing as of 2005 due to competition from similar sites. Google Doodles, which link to results on the doodle topic. Sites that are maintained on shared hosting services often fail when confronted with the Slashdot effect, a flash crowd is a more generic term without using any specific name that describes a network phenomenon where a network or host suddenly receives a lot of traffic. This is sometimes due to the appearance of a website on a blog or news column and it was later extended to describe any similar effect from being listed on a popular site, similar to the more generic term, flash crowd, which is a more appropriate term. The term flash crowd was coined in 1973 by Larry Niven in his science fiction short story and it predicted that a consequence of inexpensive teleportation would be huge crowds materializing almost instantly at the sites of interesting news stories. Twenty years later, the term commonly used on the Internet to describe exponential spikes in website or server usage when it passes a certain threshold of popular interest. This effect was anticipated years earlier in 1956 in Alfred Besters novel The Stars My Destination, the Reddit effect has also been used to describe viral crowd fundraising efforts in addition to the surge in web traffic. Sites such as Slashdot, Digg, Reddit, StumbleUpon and Fark consist of brief submitted stories, the typical submission introduces a news item or website of interest by linking to it. In response, large masses of readers tend to rush to view the referenced sites. The ensuing flood of requests from readers can exceed the sites available bandwidth or the ability of its servers to respond. Major news sites or corporate websites are typically engineered to serve large numbers of requests, websites that fall victim may be hosted on home servers, offer large images or movie files or have inefficiently generated dynamic content. These websites often became unavailable within a few minutes of a storys appearance, occasionally, paying Slashdot subscribers rendered a site unavailable even before the story was posted for the general readership. The flood usually peaked when the article was at the top of the front page. Traffic usually remained at elevated levels until the article was pushed off the front page, however, some articles had significantly longer lifetimes due to the popularity, newsworthiness, or interest in the linked article. By 2005, reporters were commenting that the Slashdot effect had been diminishing, however, the effect has been seen involving Twitter when some popular users mention a website
13.
Linux
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Linux is a Unix-like computer operating system assembled under the model of free and open-source software development and distribution. The defining component of Linux is the Linux kernel, an operating system kernel first released on September 17,1991 by Linus Torvalds, the Free Software Foundation uses the name GNU/Linux to describe the operating system, which has led to some controversy. Linux was originally developed for computers based on the Intel x86 architecture. Because of the dominance of Android on smartphones, Linux has the largest installed base of all operating systems. Linux is also the operating system on servers and other big iron systems such as mainframe computers. It is used by around 2. 3% of desktop computers, the Chromebook, which runs on Chrome OS, dominates the US K–12 education market and represents nearly 20% of the sub-$300 notebook sales in the US. Linux also runs on embedded systems – devices whose operating system is built into the firmware and is highly tailored to the system. This includes TiVo and similar DVR devices, network routers, facility automation controls, televisions, many smartphones and tablet computers run Android and other Linux derivatives. The development of Linux is one of the most prominent examples of free, the underlying source code may be used, modified and distributed—commercially or non-commercially—by anyone under the terms of its respective licenses, such as the GNU General Public License. Typically, Linux is packaged in a known as a Linux distribution for both desktop and server use. Distributions intended to run on servers may omit all graphical environments from the standard install, because Linux is freely redistributable, anyone may create a distribution for any intended use. The Unix operating system was conceived and implemented in 1969 at AT&Ts Bell Laboratories in the United States by Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, Douglas McIlroy, first released in 1971, Unix was written entirely in assembly language, as was common practice at the time. Later, in a key pioneering approach in 1973, it was rewritten in the C programming language by Dennis Ritchie, the availability of a high-level language implementation of Unix made its porting to different computer platforms easier. Due to an earlier antitrust case forbidding it from entering the computer business, as a result, Unix grew quickly and became widely adopted by academic institutions and businesses. In 1984, AT&T divested itself of Bell Labs, freed of the legal obligation requiring free licensing, the GNU Project, started in 1983 by Richard Stallman, has the goal of creating a complete Unix-compatible software system composed entirely of free software. Later, in 1985, Stallman started the Free Software Foundation, by the early 1990s, many of the programs required in an operating system were completed, although low-level elements such as device drivers, daemons, and the kernel were stalled and incomplete. Linus Torvalds has stated that if the GNU kernel had been available at the time, although not released until 1992 due to legal complications, development of 386BSD, from which NetBSD, OpenBSD and FreeBSD descended, predated that of Linux. Torvalds has also stated that if 386BSD had been available at the time, although the complete source code of MINIX was freely available, the licensing terms prevented it from being free software until the licensing changed in April 2000
14.
Open-source model
–
Open-source software may be developed in a collaborative public manner. According to scientists who studied it, open-source software is a prominent example of open collaboration, a 2008 report by the Standish Group states that adoption of open-source software models has resulted in savings of about $60 billion per year to consumers. In the early days of computing, programmers and developers shared software in order to learn from each other, eventually the open source notion moved to the way side of commercialization of software in the years 1970-1980. In 1997, Eric Raymond published The Cathedral and the Bazaar and this source code subsequently became the basis behind SeaMonkey, Mozilla Firefox, Thunderbird and KompoZer. Netscapes act prompted Raymond and others to look into how to bring the Free Software Foundations free software ideas, the new term they chose was open source, which was soon adopted by Bruce Perens, publisher Tim OReilly, Linus Torvalds, and others. The Open Source Initiative was founded in February 1998 to encourage use of the new term, a Microsoft executive publicly stated in 2001 that open source is an intellectual property destroyer. I cant imagine something that could be worse than this for the software business, IBM, Oracle, Google and State Farm are just a few of the companies with a serious public stake in todays competitive open-source market. There has been a significant shift in the corporate philosophy concerning the development of FOSS, the free software movement was launched in 1983. In 1998, a group of individuals advocated that the free software should be replaced by open-source software as an expression which is less ambiguous. Software developers may want to publish their software with an open-source license, the Open Source Definition, notably, presents an open-source philosophy, and further defines the terms of usage, modification and redistribution of open-source software. Software licenses grant rights to users which would otherwise be reserved by law to the copyright holder. Several open-source software licenses have qualified within the boundaries of the Open Source Definition, the open source label came out of a strategy session held on April 7,1998 in Palo Alto in reaction to Netscapes January 1998 announcement of a source code release for Navigator. They used the opportunity before the release of Navigators source code to clarify a potential confusion caused by the ambiguity of the free in English. Many people claimed that the birth of the Internet, since 1969, started the open source movement, the Free Software Foundation, started in 1985, intended the word free to mean freedom to distribute and not freedom from cost. Since a great deal of free software already was free of charge, such software became associated with zero cost. The Open Source Initiative was formed in February 1998 by Eric Raymond and they sought to bring a higher profile to the practical benefits of freely available source code, and they wanted to bring major software businesses and other high-tech industries into open source. Perens attempted to open source as a service mark for the OSI. The Open Source Initiatives definition is recognized by governments internationally as the standard or de facto definition, OSI uses The Open Source Definition to determine whether it considers a software license open source
15.
Holland, Michigan
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Holland is a city in the western region of the Lower Peninsula of the U. S. state of Michigan. It is situated near the shore of Lake Michigan on Lake Macatawa. The city spans the Ottawa/Allegan county line, with 9.08 square miles in Ottawa, as of the 2010 census, the population was 33,051, with an Urbanized Area population of 95,394. Holland is the largest city in Ottawa County, and as of 2013 part of the Grand Rapids-Wyoming-Muskegon Metropolitan Statistical Area, Holland was founded by Dutch Americans, and is in an area that has a large percentage of citizens of Dutch American heritage. It is home to Hope College and Western Theological Seminary, institutions of the Reformed Church in America, Ottawa County was originally populated by Ottawa Indians. In 1846, Reverend Alex Tomasik established the Old Wing Mission as an outreach to the native population, Holland was settled in 1847 by Dutch Calvinist separatists, under the leadership of Dr. Albertus van Raalte. Dire economic conditions in the Netherlands compelled them to emigrate, while their desire for freedom led them to unite. Van Raalte and his colony settled on land in the midst of the Ottawa peoples Old Wing Mission Colony near the Black River where it streamed to Black Lake which, in turn, joint occupation by the two communities was not a marriage made in heaven. Eventually, the Dutch settlers purchased the land from the natives, in 1848, Michigan suffered from a smallpox epidemic. In Hollands early history, Van Raalte was a spiritual leader, in 1847 Van Raalte established a congregation of the Reformed Church in America, which would later be called the First Reformed Church of Holland. On March 25,1867, Holland was incorporated as a city with Isaac Cappon being the citys first mayor, the city suffered a major fire on October 8–9,1871, the same time as the Great Chicago Fire in Illinois and the very deadly Peshtigo Fire in Wisconsin. Because of the Great Michigan Fire, Manistee and Port Huron, Holland was known as the City of Churches. There are 170 churches in the greater Holland area, many of which are with the Reformed Church in America, the city is the home to the church that started the trend of the What Would Jesus Do. bracelets in 1989. In 1987, a 23-year-old City Council member Phil Tanis was elected mayor of Holland, the Holland Museum contains exhibits about the citys history. Another, the Cappon House Museum, was built in 1874 and is a museum that once housed the first mayor of Holland. The Settlers House Museum, a building that survived the fire, contains furnishings. Hollands downtown is listed in the National Register of Historic Places, nearby Holland State Park is a Michigan State Park. Across the channel from the State Park is the Holland Harbor Light, De Zwaan, an original 250-year-old Dutch windmill, is situated on Windmill Island, a municipal park
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Geeknet
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Geeknet, Inc. is a Fairfax County, Virginia–based company that owns the online retailer ThinkGeek. Formerly known as VA Research, VA Linux Systems, VA Software and it was formerly headquartered in Mountain View, California. VA Research was founded in November 1993 by Stanford graduate student Larry Augustin, Augustin was a Stanford colleague of Jerry Yang and David Filo, the founders of Yahoo. VA Research built and sold personal computer systems with the Linux operating system installed, at the time they started operations, they were one of the first computer vendors to offer Linux as a pre-installed operating system. During its initial years of operation, the business was profitable and grew quickly, with over $100 million in sales and it was the largest vendor of pre-installed Linux computers, having approximately 20 percent of the Linux hardware market. In October 1998, the company received investments of $5.4 million from Intel, in March and April 1999, VA Research purchased Enlightenment Solutions, marketing company Electric Lichen L. L. C. and VAs top competitor, Linux Hardware Solutions. That year, VA Research also won a competition for the right to operate the linux. com domain. It was rumored that Microsoft and other bidders had offered more cash for the domain, in the summer of 1999 programmers Tony fusion94 Guntharp, Uriah Welcome, Tim Perdue and Drew Streib began designing and developing SourceForge. SourceForge was released to the public at Comdex on 17 November 1999, VA began porting Linux to the new IA-64 processor architecture in earnest. Intel and Sequoia, along with Silicon Graphics and other investors, by then, VA planned to change its name to VA Linux Systems and conduct an initial public offering of its stock. VA Linux Systems took its stock public in a public offering on 9 December 1999. The IPO offered shares at $30, but the traders held back the trade until the bids hit $299. The stock popped up to later in the day. However, this success was short-lived, and within a year the stock was selling at well below the initial offer price. As of 2005, this was still the most successful IPO of all time, the stock price reached an intra-day peak of 54 cents on 24 July 2002. It then soared more than 1,000 percent to a high of $6.38 on 11 September 2003. As of 26 November 2006, the stock closed at $4.64, many authors of free software were invited to buy shares at the initial price offering as part of a friends and family deal. On 3 February 2000, the announced that it was acquiring Andover. net
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Initial public offering
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Through this process, a privately held company transforms into a public company. Initial public offerings are used by companies to raise the expansion of capital, possibly to monetize the investments of early private investors. A company selling shares is never required to repay the capital to its public investors, after the IPO, when shares trade freely in the open market, money passes between public investors. The IPO process is known as going public. Details of the offering are disclosed to potential purchasers in the form of a lengthy document known as a prospectus. Most companies undertake an IPO with the assistance of an investment banking firm acting in the capacity of an underwriter, underwriters provide several services, including help with correctly assessing the value of shares and establishing a public market for shares. Alternative methods such as the dutch auction have also been explored, in terms of size and public participation, the two most notable examples of this method is the Google IPO and Snapchats parent company Snap Inc. China has recently emerged as a major IPO market, with several of the largest IPOs taking place in that country, the earliest form of a company which issued public shares was the case of the publicani during the Roman Republic. Like modern joint-stock companies, the publicani were legal bodies independent of their members whose ownership was divided into shares, there is evidence that these shares were sold to public investors and traded in a type of over-the-counter market in the Forum, near the Temple of Castor and Pollux. The shares fluctuated in value, encouraging the activity of speculators, mere evidence remains of the prices for which partes were sold, the nature of initial public offerings, or a description of stock market behavior. Publicanis lost favor with the fall of the Republic and the rise of the Empire, the first modern IPO occurred in March 1602 when the Dutch East India Company offered shares of the company to the public in order to raise capital. All the shares were tradable, and the shareholders received receipts for the purchase, a share certificate documenting payment and ownership such as we know today was not issued but ownership was instead entered in the companys share register. In the United States, the first IPO was the offering of Bank of North America around 1783. An IPO, therefore, allows a company to tap into a pool of potential investors to provide itself with capital for future growth, repayment of debt. A company selling shares is never required to repay the capital to its public investors. Those investors must endure the unpredictable nature of the market to price. After the IPO, when shares trade freely in the open market, for early private investors who choose to sell shares as part of the IPO process, the IPO represents an opportunity to monetize their investment. This type of offering is not dilutive, since no new shares are being created, once a company is listed, it is able to issue additional common shares in a number of different ways, one of which is the follow-on offering
18.
United States presidential election, 2004
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The United States presidential election of 2004, the 55th quadrennial presidential election, was held on Tuesday, November 2,2004. Republican Party candidate and incumbent President George W. Bush won re-election, defeating Democratic Party candidate John Kerry, Senator from Massachusetts and eventual United States Secretary of State. Bush and incumbent Vice President Dick Cheney were renominated by their party with no difficulty, Howard Dean, former Governor of Vermont, was initially the frontrunner for the Democratic Partys nomination, but Kerry won nearly all of the primaries and caucuses. Kerry chose Senator John Edwards of North Carolina, who had himself sought that partys 2004 presidential nomination, foreign policy was the dominant theme throughout the election campaign, particularly Bushs conduct of the War on Terrorism and the aftermath of the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Domestic issues were debated as well, including the economy and jobs, health care, as of 2016, this was also the most recent election in which the Republican candidate won the popular vote. In the Electoral College, Bush received 286 votes to Kerrys 251, as of 2016, this marks the last election in which Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico and Virginia voted for the Republican candidate. Just eight months into his presidency, the terrorist attacks of September 11,2001, Bushs approval ratings surged to near 90%. Within a month, the forces of a coalition led by the United States entered Afghanistan, by December, the Taliban had been removed, although a long and ongoing reconstruction would follow. The Bush administration then turned its attention to Iraq, and argued the need to remove Saddam Hussein from power in Iraq had become urgent. Among the stated reasons were that Saddams regime had tried to acquire nuclear material and had not properly accounted for biological and chemical material it was known to have previously possessed. Both the possession of weapons of mass destruction, and the failure to account for them. The United States invaded Iraq on March 20,2003, along with a coalition of the willing that consisted of troops from the United Kingdom. Within about three weeks, the invasion caused the collapse of both the Iraqi government and its forces, however, the U. S. Bushs approval rating in May was at 66%, according to a CNN–USA Today–Gallup poll, however, Bushs high approval ratings did not last. Bushs popularity rose as a president, and he was able to ward off any serious challenge to the Republican nomination. Senator Lincoln Chafee from Rhode Island considered challenging Bush on a platform in New Hampshire. On March 10,2004, Bush officially clinched the number of delegates needed to be nominated at the 2004 Republican National Convention in New York City and he accepted the nomination on September 2,2004, and retained Vice President Dick Cheney as his running mate. During the convention and throughout the campaign, Bush focused on two themes, defending America against terrorism and building an ownership society, Senator from North Carolina Howard Dean, former Governor of Vermont Wesley Clark, retired U. S
19.
7 July 2005 London bombings
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The explosions were caused by homemade organic peroxide-based devices packed into backpacks. The bombings were followed two weeks later by a series of attempted attacks that failed to cause injury or damage, the 7 July attacks occurred the day after London had won its bid to host the 2012 Olympic Games, which had highlighted the citys multicultural reputation. The train had left Kings Cross St. Pancras about eight minutes earlier, at the time of the explosion, the trains third car was approximately 100 yards along the tunnel from Liverpool Street. The parallel track of the Hammersmith & City line between Liverpool Street and Aldgate East was also damaged in the blast, the train had left Kings Cross St. Pancras about eight minutes previously. There were several other nearby at the time of the explosion. Two other trains were at Edgware Road, a train on platform 2. A third bomb was detonated on a 6-car London Underground 1973 Stock Piccadilly line deep-level Underground train, number 311, the device exploded approximately one minute after the service departed Kings Cross, by which time it had travelled about 500 yards. The explosion occurred at the rear of the first car of the train—number 166—causing severe damage to the rear of car as well as the front of the second one. The surrounding tunnel also sustained damage and it was originally thought that there had been six, rather than three, explosions on the Underground network. The bus bombing brought the total to seven, this was clarified later in the day. Police also revised the timings of the blasts, initial reports had indicated that they occurred during a period of almost half an hour. This was due to initial confusion at London Underground, where the explosions were believed to have been caused by power surges. An early report, made in the minutes after the explosions, involved a person under a train, while another described a derailment. A code amber alert was declared by LU at 09,19, as the tunnel contains two parallel tracks, it is relatively wide. The two explosions on the Circle line were able to vent their force into the tunnel. The Piccadilly line is a tunnel, up to 30 m below the surface and with narrow single-track tubes. This confined space reflected the blast force, concentrating its effect, earlier, the bus had passed through the Kings Cross area as it travelled from Hackney Wick to Marble Arch. At its final destination, the bus turned around and started the route to Hackney Wick
20.
Evolution
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Evolution is change in the heritable characteristics of biological populations over successive generations. Evolutionary processes give rise to biodiversity at every level of organisation, including the levels of species, individual organisms. In July 2016, scientists reported identifying a set of 355 genes from the LUCA of all living on Earth. The fossil record includes a progression from early biogenic graphite, to microbial mat fossils, existing patterns of biodiversity have been shaped both by speciation and by extinction. More than 99 percent of all species that lived on Earth are estimated to be extinct. Estimates of Earths current species range from 10 to 14 million, more recently, in May 2016, scientists reported that 1 trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one-thousandth of one percent described. In the mid-19th century, Charles Darwin formulated the theory of evolution by natural selection. This teleonomy is the quality whereby the process of natural selection creates and preserves traits that are fitted for the functional roles they perform. The processes by which the changes occur, from one generation to another, are called evolutionary processes or mechanisms, the four most widely recognized evolutionary processes are natural selection, genetic drift, mutation and gene migration. Natural selection and genetic drift sort variation, mutation and gene migration create variation, consequences of selection can include meiotic drive, nonrandom mating and genetic hitchhiking. In the early 20th century the modern evolutionary synthesis integrated classical genetics with Darwins theory of evolution by natural selection through the discipline of population genetics, the importance of natural selection as a cause of evolution was accepted into other branches of biology. Moreover, previously held notions about evolution, such as orthogenesis, evolutionism, evolutionary computation, a sub-field of artificial intelligence, involves the application of Darwinian principles to problems in computer science. The proposal that one type of organism could descend from another type goes back to some of the first pre-Socratic Greek philosophers, such as Anaximander, such proposals survived into Roman times. The poet and philosopher Lucretius followed Empedocles in his masterwork De rerum natura, in contrast to these materialistic views, Aristotelianism considered all natural things as actualisations of fixed natural possibilities, known as forms. This was part of a teleological understanding of nature in which all things have an intended role to play in a divine cosmic order. In the 17th century, the new method of modern science rejected the Aristotelian approach, however, this new approach was slow to take root in the biological sciences, the last bastion of the concept of fixed natural types. The biological classification introduced by Carl Linnaeus in 1735 explicitly recognized the nature of species relationships. Other naturalists of this time speculated on the change of species over time according to natural laws
21.
Intelligent design
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Intelligent design is a creationist religious argument for the existence of God, presented by its proponents as an evidence-based scientific theory about lifes origins but found to be pseudoscience. Proponents claim that certain features of the universe and of living things are best explained by an intelligent cause, the leading proponents of ID are associated with the Discovery Institute, a politically conservative think tank based in the United States. Although they state that ID is not creationism and deliberately avoid assigning a personality to the designer, both irreducible complexity and specified complexity present detailed negative assertions that certain features are too complex to be the result of natural processes. Proponents then conclude by analogy that these features are evidence of design, from the mid-1990s, the intelligent design movement, supported by the Discovery Institute, advocated inclusion of intelligent design in public school biology curricula. This led to the 2005 Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District trial in which U. S. District Judge John E. Teaching of evolution was effectively suspended in U. S. Young Earth creationists promoted creation science as a scientific explanation of the world in which we live. This frequently invoked the argument from design to explain complexity in nature as demonstrating the existence of God, the argument from design, the teleological argument or argument from intelligent design, has been advanced in theology for centuries. It can be summarised briefly as Wherever complex design exists, there must have been a designer, nature is complex, Thomas Aquinas presented it in his fifth proof of Gods existence as a syllogism. In 1802, William Paleys Natural Theology presented examples of intricate purpose in organisms, Creation science prefigured the intelligent design arguments of irreducible complexity, even featuring the bacterial flagellum. In the United States, attempts to introduce creation science in schools led to court rulings that it is religious in nature, and thus cannot be taught in public school science classrooms. Barbara Forrest writes that the intelligent design movement began in 1984 with the book The Mystery of Lifes Origin, Reassessing Current Theories, Thaxton, a chemist, with two other authors, and published by Jon A. Buells Foundation for Thought and Ethics. Thaxton held a conference in 1988, Sources of Information Content in DNA, in November of that year, Thaxton described his reasoning as a more sophisticated form of Paleys argument from design. At the Sources of Information Content in DNA conference in 1988, Intelligent design avoids identifying or naming the intelligent designer—it merely states that one must exist—but leaders of the movement have said the designer is the Christian God. The Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District court ruling held the latter to be the case, variations on the phrase appeared in YEC publications, a 1967 book co-written by Percival Davis referred to design according to which basic organisms were created. The first systematic use of the term, defined in a glossary and claimed to be other than creationism, was in Of Pandas and People, co-authored by Davis, a Discovery Institute report says that Charles B. Thaxton, editor of Pandas, had picked the phrase up from a NASA scientist, Stephen C. Meyer was at the conference, and later recalled that The term intelligent design came up. It thus represents the start of the intelligent design movement. Intelligent design was the most prominent of around fifteen new terms it introduced as a new lexicon of creationist terminology to oppose evolution without using religious language, although presented as a scientific textbook, philosopher of science Michael Ruse considers the contents worthless and dishonest
22.
Saddam Hussein
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Saddam Hussein Abd al-Majid al-Tikriti was the fifth President of Iraq, serving in this capacity from 16 July 1979 until 9 April 2003. In the early 1970s, Saddam nationalized oil and other industries, the state-owned banks were put under his control, leaving the system eventually insolvent mostly due to the Iran–Iraq War, the Gulf War, and UN sanctions. Through the 1970s, Saddam cemented his authority over the apparatuses of government as oil money helped Iraqs economy to grow at a rapid pace, positions of power in the country were mostly filled with Sunni Arabs, a minority that made up only a fifth of the population. Saddam formally rose to power in 1979, although he had been the de facto head of Iraq for several years prior. He suppressed several movements, particularly Shia and Kurdish movements, seeking to overthrow the government or gain independence, and maintained power during the Iran–Iraq War and the Gulf War. Whereas some in the Arab world lauded Saddam for his opposition to the United States, the total number of Iraqis killed by the security services of Saddams government in various purges and genocides is unknown, but the lowest estimate is 250,000. Saddams Baath party was disbanded and elections were held, following his capture on 13 December 2003, the trial of Saddam took place under the Iraqi Interim Government. On 5 November 2006, Saddam was convicted of charges of crimes against humanity related to the 1982 killing of 148 Iraqi Shiites and his execution was carried out on 30 December 2006. His mother, Subha Tulfah al-Mussallat, named her newborn son Saddam and he is always referred to by this personal name, which may be followed by the patronymic and other elements. He never knew his father, Hussein Abd al-Majid, who disappeared six months before Saddam was born, shortly afterward, Saddams 13-year-old brother died of cancer. The infant Saddam was sent to the family of his maternal uncle Khairallah Talfah until he was three and his mother remarried, and Saddam gained three half-brothers through this marriage. His stepfather, Ibrahim al-Hassan, treated Saddam harshly after his return, at about age 10, Saddam fled the family and returned to live in Baghdad with his uncle Kharaillah Talfah. Later in his relatives from his native Tikrit became some of his closest advisors and supporters. Under the guidance of his uncle he attended a high school in Baghdad. After secondary school Saddam studied at an Iraqi law school for three years, dropping out in 1957 at the age of 20 to join the revolutionary pan-Arab Baath Party, during this time, Saddam apparently supported himself as a secondary school teacher. Revolutionary sentiment was characteristic of the era in Iraq and throughout the Middle East, in Iraq progressives and socialists assailed traditional political elites. Moreover, the nationalism of Gamal Abdel Nasser in Egypt profoundly influenced young Baathists like Saddam. The rise of Nasser foreshadowed a wave of revolutions throughout the Middle East in the 1950s and 1960s, with the collapse of the monarchies of Iraq, Egypt, and Libya
23.
Fahrenheit 9/11
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Fahrenheit 9/11 is a 2004 documentary film by American filmmaker, director and political commentator Michael Moore. The film takes a look at the presidency of George W. Bush, the War on Terror. The film is the highest grossing documentary of all time, the film generated intense controversy, including disputes over its accuracy. The film debuted at the 2004 Cannes Film Festival and received a 20-minute standing ovation, the film was also awarded the Palme dOr, the festivals highest award. Miramax had earlier distributed another film for Moore, The Big One, at that time, Disney was the parent company of Miramax. According to the book DisneyWar, Disney executives did not know that Miramax agreed to finance the film until they saw a posting on the Drudge Report, Michael Eisner called Harvey Weinstein and ordered him to drop the film. In addition, Disney sent two letters to Weinstein demanding Miramax drop the film, but Weinstein was in contract negotiations with Disney, so he offered a compromise that he would drop the film if Disney did not like it. After Fahrenheit 9/11 was nearly finished, Miramax held several preview screenings, Weinstein informed Eisner that Fahrenheit 9/11 was finished, and Eisner was surprised by the fact that Miramax had continued making the film. Disney sent production vice president Brad Epstein to watch Fahrenheit 9/11 on April 24,2004, according to Weinstein, Epstein said he liked the film, but according to the report Epstein sent to the Walt Disney Company board of directors, Epstein clearly criticized it. Eisner told Weinstein that Disneys board decided not to allow Miramax to release the film, Weinstein was furious and he asked George J. Mitchell to see the film, but Mitchell declined. Weinstein asked lawyer David Boies to help find a solution, the Weinsteins, the New York Times reported about Disneys decision on May 5,2004. Disney stated that both Moores agent and Miramax were advised in May 2003 that Miramax would not be permitted to distribute the film, because of these difficulties, distribution was first secured in numerous countries outside the U. S. The Weinsteins agreed to repay Disney for all costs to that point and they also agreed to be responsible for all costs to finish the film and all marketing costs not paid by any third-party film distributors. A settlement between the Weinsteins and Disney was also reached so that 60% of the profit would be donated to charity. The Weinsteins established Fellowship Adventure Group to handle the distribution of this film, Fellowship Adventure Group joined forces with Lions Gate Entertainment and IFC Films to release it in the United States theatrically. Moore stated that he was grateful to them now that everyone who wants to see it will now have the chance to do so. After being informed that the film had been given an R rating by the Motion Picture Association of America, Moore appealed the decision, Moores lawyer, former Governor of New York, Mario Cuomo, was not allowed to attend the hearing. The appeal was denied on June 22,2004, and Cuomo contended that it was because he had banned from the hearing
24.
Microsoft
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Its best known software products are the Microsoft Windows line of operating systems, Microsoft Office office suite, and Internet Explorer and Edge web browsers. Its flagship hardware products are the Xbox video game consoles and the Microsoft Surface tablet lineup, as of 2016, it was the worlds largest software maker by revenue, and one of the worlds most valuable companies. Microsoft was founded by Paul Allen and Bill Gates on April 4,1975, to develop and it rose to dominate the personal computer operating system market with MS-DOS in the mid-1980s, followed by Microsoft Windows. The companys 1986 initial public offering, and subsequent rise in its share price, since the 1990s, it has increasingly diversified from the operating system market and has made a number of corporate acquisitions. In May 2011, Microsoft acquired Skype Technologies for $8.5 billion, in June 2012, Microsoft entered the personal computer production market for the first time, with the launch of the Microsoft Surface, a line of tablet computers. The word Microsoft is a portmanteau of microcomputer and software, Paul Allen and Bill Gates, childhood friends with a passion for computer programming, sought to make a successful business utilizing their shared skills. In 1972 they founded their first company, named Traf-O-Data, which offered a computer that tracked and analyzed automobile traffic data. Allen went on to pursue a degree in science at Washington State University. The January 1975 issue of Popular Electronics featured Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systemss Altair 8800 microcomputer, Allen suggested that they could program a BASIC interpreter for the device, after a call from Gates claiming to have a working interpreter, MITS requested a demonstration. Since they didnt actually have one, Allen worked on a simulator for the Altair while Gates developed the interpreter and they officially established Microsoft on April 4,1975, with Gates as the CEO. Allen came up with the name of Micro-Soft, as recounted in a 1995 Fortune magazine article. In August 1977 the company formed an agreement with ASCII Magazine in Japan, resulting in its first international office, the company moved to a new home in Bellevue, Washington in January 1979. Microsoft entered the OS business in 1980 with its own version of Unix, however, it was MS-DOS that solidified the companys dominance. For this deal, Microsoft purchased a CP/M clone called 86-DOS from Seattle Computer Products, branding it as MS-DOS, following the release of the IBM PC in August 1981, Microsoft retained ownership of MS-DOS. Since IBM copyrighted the IBM PC BIOS, other companies had to engineer it in order for non-IBM hardware to run as IBM PC compatibles. Due to various factors, such as MS-DOSs available software selection, the company expanded into new markets with the release of the Microsoft Mouse in 1983, as well as with a publishing division named Microsoft Press. Paul Allen resigned from Microsoft in 1983 after developing Hodgkins disease, while jointly developing a new OS with IBM in 1984, OS/2, Microsoft released Microsoft Windows, a graphical extension for MS-DOS, on November 20,1985. Once Microsoft informed IBM of NT, the OS/2 partnership deteriorated, in 1990, Microsoft introduced its office suite, Microsoft Office
25.
Scientology
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Scientology is a body of religious beliefs and practices created in 1954 by American author L. Ron Hubbard. Hubbard initially developed a program of ideas called Dianetics, which was distributed through the Dianetics Foundation, the foundation soon entered bankruptcy and Hubbard lost the rights to his seminal publication Dianetics, The Modern Science of Mental Health in 1952. He then recharacterized the subject as a religion and renamed it Scientology, retaining the terminology, doctrines, the E-meter, and the practice of auditing. Within a year, he regained the rights to Dianetics and retained both subjects under the umbrella of the Church of Scientology. ”Hubbard writes, “thus, Scientology means knowing about knowing, or science of knowledge. ”Hubbards groups have encountered considerable opposition and controversy. In January 1951, the New Jersey Board of Medical Examiners brought proceedings against Hubbards Dianetics Foundation on the charge of teaching medicine without a license, Hubbards followers engaged in a program of covert and illegal infiltration of the U. S. government. Hubbard-inspired organizations and their classification are often a point of contention, Germany classifies Scientology groups as an anti-constitutional sect. In France, Scientology groups have been classified as a cult by some parliamentary reports. L. Ron Hubbard was the child of Harry Ross Hubbard, a United States Navy officer. Hubbard spent three semesters at George Washington University but was placed on probation in September 1931 and he failed to return for the fall 1932 semester. In July 1941, Hubbard was commissioned as a Lieutenant in the U. S. Naval Reserve, on May 18,1943, the subchaser left Portland. That night, Hubbard ordered his crew to fire 35 depth charges and his ship sustained minor damage and three crew were injured. Having run out of charges and with the presence of a submarine still unconfirmed by other ships. The navy report concludes that there was no submarine in the area, a decade later, Hubbard claimed he had sunk a Japanese submarine in his Scientology lectures. On June 28,1941, Hubbard ordered his crew to fire on the Coronado Islands, Hubbard apparently did not realize that the islands belonged to US-allied Mexico, nor that he had taken his vessel into Mexican territorial waters. He was reprimanded and removed from command on July 7, after reassignment to a naval facility in Monterey, California, Hubbard became depressed and fell ill. Reporting stomach pains in April 1945, he spent the remainder of the war as a patient in Oak Knoll Naval Hospital in Oakland, according to his later teachings, during this time Hubbard made scientific breakthroughs by use of endocrine experiments. On October 15,1947, Hubbard wrote a letter to the Veterans Administration formally requesting psychiatric treatment, within a few years, Hubbard would condemn psychiatry as evil, which would grow into a major theme in Scientology. In April 1938, Hubbard reportedly reacted to a used in a dental procedure
26.
Church of Scientology
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The Church of Scientology International is officially the Church of Scientologys parent organization, and is responsible for guiding local Scientology churches. At a local level, every church is a corporate entity set up as a licensed franchise and has its own board of directors. The first Scientology church was incorporated in December 1953 in Camden and its international headquarters are located at the Gold Base, in an unincorporated area of Riverside County, California. The location at Gilman Hotsprings is kept secret from most Scientologists, Scientology Missions International is under CSI and overseers Scientology missions, which are local Scientology organizations smaller than churches. The Church of Spiritual Technology is the organization which owns all the copyrights of the estate of L. Ron Hubbard, the highest authority in the Church of Scientology is the Religious Technology Center. The RTC claims to only be the holder of Scientology and Dianetics trademarks, RTC chairman David Miscavige is widely seen as the effective head of Scientology. David Miscavige is the highest-ranking Sea Org officer, holding the rank of captain, the first Scientology church was incorporated in December 1953 in Camden, New Jersey by L. Ron Hubbard, his wife Mary Sue Hubbard, and John Galusha. By that time, the Hubbard Association of Scientologists International had already operating since 1952 and Hubbard himself had already been selling Scientology books. In 1953 he wrote to Helen OBrien, who was managing the organisation,213 Soon after, despite OBriens misgivings and resignation, he announced the religious nature of Scientology in a bulletin to all Scientologists, stressing its relation to the concept of Dharma. The first Church of Scientology opened in 1954 in Los Angeles, after the formation of the Church of Scientology, Hubbard composed its creed. Hubbard had official control of the organization until 1966 when this function was transferred to a group of executives, although Hubbard maintained no formal relationship with Scientologys management, he remained firmly in control of the organization and its affiliated organizations. Although RTC is a corporation from the Church of Scientology International, whose president and chief spokesperson is Heber Jentzsch. In 1996, the Church of Scientology implemented the Golden Age of Tech releasing a training program for Scientology auditors, while precisely following Hubbards teachings. It was followed by the launch of The Golden Age of Knowledge in 2005, between 2005 and 2010, the church would complete its 25-year program to restore and verify the churchs scriptures. The church released the second phase of the Golden Age of Tech on November 2013, the Super Power Rundown a new component of auditing, was released in Clearwater, Florida. The Church of Scientology promotes Scientology, a body of beliefs and related practices created by Hubbard, starting in 1952 as a successor to his earlier self-help system, Scientology teaches that people are immortal spiritual beings who have forgotten their true nature. Scientologys central mythology developed around the notion of the thetan. In Scientology, the thetan is the expression of theta, described by Neusner as the cosmic source
27.
Digital Millennium Copyright Act
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The Digital Millennium Copyright Act is a United States copyright law that implements two 1996 treaties of the World Intellectual Property Organization. It criminalizes production and dissemination of technology, devices, or services intended to circumvent measures that control access to copyrighted works and it also criminalizes the act of circumventing an access control, whether or not there is actual infringement of copyright itself. In addition, the DMCA heightens the penalties for infringement on the Internet. The DMCAs principal innovation in the field of copyright is the exemption from direct and indirect liability of Internet service providers and this exemption was adopted by the European Union in the Electronic Commerce Directive 2000. The Copyright Directive 2001 implemented the 1996 WIPO Copyright Treaty in the EU, the treaties have two major portions. One portion includes works covered by treaties in U. S. copy prevention laws. For further analysis of this portion of the Act and of cases under it, see WIPO Copyright and Performances, the second portion is often known as the DMCA anti-circumvention provisions. The section contains a number of limitations and exemptions, for such things as government research. The section does not include a fair use exemption from criminality nor a scienter requirement, OCILLA also includes a counternotification provision that offers OSPs a safe harbor from liability to their users when users claim that the material in question is not, in fact, infringing. OCILLA also facilitates issuing of subpoenas against OSPs to provide their users identity, DMCA Title III modified section 117 of the copyright title so that those repairing computers could make certain temporary, limited copies while working on a computer. It reversed the precedent set in MAI Systems Corp. v. Peak Computer, DMCA Title IV contains an assortment of provisions, Clarified and added to the duties of the Copyright Office. Added ephemeral copy for broadcasters provisions, including certain statutory licenses, added provisions to facilitate distance education. Added provisions to assist libraries with keeping phonorecords of sound recordings, added provisions relating to collective bargaining and the transfer of movie rights. DMCA Title V added sections 1301 through 1332 to add a sui generis protection for boat hull designs, boat hull designs were not considered covered under copyright law because boats are useful articles whose form cannot be cleanly separated from their function. Exemptions are granted when it is shown that access-control technology has had an adverse effect on the ability of people to make non-infringing uses of copyrighted works. The exemption rules are revised every three years, Exemptions expire after three years and must be resubmitted for the next rulemaking cycle. Consequently, the issued in the prior rulemakings in 2000,2003,2006,2010 and 2013 are no longer valid. After much criticism, on December 29,2015, the Copyright Office initiated a study to assess the operation of section 1201 and this is different from usual public comments on exemption proposals
28.
Valentine's Day
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Valentines Day, also called Saint Valentines Day or the Feast of Saint Valentine, is an annual holiday celebrated on February 14. According to legend, during his imprisonment, Saint Valentine healed the daughter of his jailer, Asterius, the day first became associated with romantic love within the circle of Geoffrey Chaucer in the 14th century, when the tradition of courtly love flourished. In 18th-century England, it evolved into an occasion in which expressed their love for each other by presenting flowers, offering confectionery. In Europe, Saint Valentines Keys are given to lovers as a romantic symbol, Valentines Day symbols that are used today include the heart-shaped outline, doves, and the figure of the winged Cupid. Since the 19th century, handwritten valentines have given way to mass-produced greeting cards, Saint Valentines Day is an official feast day in the Anglican Communion, as well as in the Lutheran Church. Numerous early Christian martyrs were named Valentine, the Valentines honored on February 14 are Valentine of Rome and Valentine of Terni. Valentine of Rome was a priest in Rome who was martyred in 269 and was added to the calendar of saints by Pope Galesius in 496 and was buried on the Via Flaminia. The flower-crowned skull of Saint Valentine is exhibited in the Basilica of Santa Maria in Cosmedin, other relics are found at Whitefriar Street Carmelite Church in Dublin, Ireland. Valentine of Terni became bishop of Interamna and is said to have been martyred during the persecution under Emperor Aurelian in 273 and he is buried on the Via Flaminia, but in a different location from Valentine of Rome. His relics are at the Basilica of Saint Valentine in Terni, oruch states that abstracts of the acts of the two saints were in nearly every church and monastery of Europe. The Catholic Encyclopedia also speaks of a saint named Valentine who was mentioned in early martyrologies under date of February 14. He was martyred in Africa with a number of companions, Saint Valentines head was preserved in the abbey of New Minster, Winchester, and venerated. February 14 is celebrated as St. Valentines Day in various Christian denominations, it has, for example, in addition, the feast day of Saint Valentine is also given in the calendar of saints of the Lutheran Church. In the Eastern Orthodox Church, St. J. C. Cooper, in The Dictionary of Christianity, contemporary records of Saint Valentine were most probably destroyed during this Diocletianic Persecution in the early 4th century. The same events are found in Bedes Martyrology, which was compiled in the 8th century. It states that Saint Valentine was persecuted as a Christian and interrogated by Roman Emperor Claudius II in person, Claudius was impressed by Valentine and had a discussion with him, attempting to get him to convert to Roman paganism in order to save his life. Valentine refused and tried to convert Claudius to Christianity instead, because of this, he was executed. Before his execution, he is reported to have performed a miracle by healing Julia, the jailers daughter and his forty-six member household came to believe in Jesus and were baptized
29.
Las Vegas Valley
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The Las Vegas Valley is a major metropolitan area located in the southern part of the U. S. state of Nevada. The largest urban agglomeration in the state, it is the heart of the Las Vegas–Paradise-Henderson, the Valley is largely defined by the Las Vegas Valley landform, a 600 sq mi basin area surrounded by mountains to the north, south, east and west of the metropolitan area. The Valley is home to the three largest incorporated cities in Nevada, Las Vegas, Henderson and North Las Vegas, six unincorporated towns governed by the Clark County government are part of the Las Vegas Township and constitute the largest community in the state of Nevada. Since the 1990s the Las Vegas Valley has seen exponential growth, in 2014, a record breaking 41 million visited the Las Vegas area, producing a gross metropolitan product of more than $100 billion. The first reported non-Native American visitor to the Las Vegas Valley was the Mexican scout Rafael Rivera in 1829. Las Vegas was named by Mexicans in the Antonio Armijo party, including Rivera, in the 19th century, areas of the valley contained artesian wells that supported extensive green areas, or meadows, hence the name Las Vegas. The area was settled by Mormon farmers in 1854 and later became the site of a United States Army fort in 1864. Since the 1930s, Las Vegas has generally been identified as a center as well as a resort destination. Nellis Air Force Base is located in the northeast corner of the valley, the ranges that the Nellis pilots use and various other land areas used by various federal agencies, limit growth of the valley in terms of geographic area. Businessman Howard Hughes arrived in the late 1960s and purchased many casino hotels, as well as television, legitimate corporations began to purchase casino hotels as well, and the mob was run out by the federal government over the next several years. The constant stream of tourist dollars from the hotels and casinos was augmented by a new source of money from the establishment of what is now Nellis Air Force Base. The influx of personnel and casino job-hunters helped start a land building boom which is now leveling off. The Las Vegas area remains one of the top entertainment destinations. The valley is contained in the Las Vegas Valley landform and this includes the cities of Las Vegas, North Las Vegas, and Henderson, and the unincorporated towns of Paradise, Spring Valley, Sunrise Manor, Enterprise, Winchester, and Whitney. The valley is located within the larger metropolitan area, as the metropolitan area covers all of Clark County -including parts that do not fall within the valley. The government of Clark County has an Urban Planning Area of Las Vegas and this definition is a roughly rectangular area, about 20 mi from east to west and 30 miles from north to south. Notable exclusions from the Urban Planning Area include Red Rock, Blue Diamond, the Las Vegas Metropolitan Police Department is the largest police department in the valley and the state and exercises jurisdiction in the entire county. The department does not exercise jurisdiction in areas with separate police forces such as North Las Vegas, Henderson, Boulder City, Nellis Air Force Base
30.
Nevada
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Nevada is a state in the Western, Mountain West, and Southwestern regions of the United States of America. Nevada is the 7th most extensive, the 34th most populous, nearly three-quarters of Nevadas people live in Clark County, which contains the Las Vegas–Paradise metropolitan area where three of the states four largest incorporated cities are located. Nevada is officially known as the Silver State because of the importance of silver to its history and economy. It is also known as the Battle Born State, because it achieved statehood during the Civil War, as the Sage-brush State, for the plant of the same name. Nevada borders Oregon to the northwest, Idaho to the northeast, California to the west, Arizona to the southeast, Nevada is largely desert and semi-arid, much of it located within the Great Basin. Areas south of the Great Basin are located within the Mojave Desert, while Lake Tahoe, about 86% of the states land is managed by various jurisdictions of the U. S. federal government, both civilian and military. Before European contact, Native Americans of the Paiute, Shoshone, the first Europeans to explore the region were Spanish. They called the region Nevada because of the snow covered the mountains in winter. The area formed part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain, the United States annexed the area in 1848 after its victory in the Mexican–American War, and it was incorporated as part of Utah Territory in 1850. The discovery of silver at the Comstock Lode in 1859 led to a boom that became an impetus to the creation of Nevada Territory out of western Utah Territory in 1861. Nevada became the 36th state on October 31,1864, as the second of two added to the Union during the Civil War. Nevada has a reputation for its libertarian laws, in 1940, with a population of just over 110,000 people, Nevada was by far the least-populated state, with less than half the population of the next least-populated state. However, legalized gambling and lenient marriage and divorce laws transformed Nevada into a major tourist destination in the 20th century, Nevada is the only U. S. state where prostitution is legal, though it is illegal in Clark County, Washoe County and Carson City. The tourism industry remains Nevadas largest employer, with mining continuing as a sector of the economy. The name Nevada comes from the Spanish nevada, meaning snow-covered, most Nevadans pronounce the second syllable of their state name using the vowel of trap. Many from outside the Western United States pronounce it with the vowel of father, although the latter pronunciation is closer to the Spanish pronunciation, it is not the pronunciation preferred by most Nevadans. State Assemblyman Harry Mortenson proposed a bill to recognize the alternate pronunciation of Nevada, though the bill was not supported by most legislators, the Nevadan pronunciation is the de facto official one, since it is the one used by the state legislature. Nevada is almost entirely within the Basin and Range Province, and is broken up by many mountain ranges
31.
Web banner
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A web banner or banner ad is a form of advertising on the World Wide Web delivered by an ad server. This form of online advertising entails embedding an advertisement into a web page and it is intended to attract traffic to a website by linking to the website of the advertiser. In many cases, banners are delivered by an ad server. This payback system is often how the content provider is able to pay for the Internet access to supply the content in the first place, usually though, advertisers use ad networks to serve their advertisements, resulting in a revshare system and higher quality ad placement. Web banners differ in that the results for advertisement campaigns may be monitored real-time, behavior is often tracked through the use of a click tag. Many web surfers regard these advertisements as annoying because they distract from a web pages actual content or waste bandwidth, in some cases, web banners cover screen content that the user wishes to see. Newer web browsers often include software adblocker options to disable pop-ups or block images from selected websites, another way of avoiding banners is to use a proxy server that blocks them, such as Privoxy. Web browsers may also have extensions available that block banners, for example Adblock Plus for Mozilla Firefox, or AdThwart for Google Chrome, the pioneer of online advertising was Prodigy, a company owned by IBM and Sears at the time. Prodigy used online advertising first to promote Sears products in the 1980s, Prodigy was unable to capitalize on any of its first mover advantage in online advertising. The first clickable web ad was sold by Global Network Navigator in 1993 to Heller, Ehrman, White, & McAuliffe, GNN was the first commercially supported web publication and one of the very first commercial web sites ever. HotWired was the first web site to sell ads in large quantities to a wide range of major corporate advertisers. Andrew Anker was HotWireds first CEO, rick Boyce, a former media buyer with San Francisco advertising agency Hal Riney & Partners, spearheaded the sales effort for the company. HotWired coined the term banner ad and was the first company to provide click through rate reports to its customers, the first web banner sold by HotWired was paid for by AT&T Corp. and was put online on October 27,1994. Another source also credits Hotwired and October 1994, but has Coors Zima campaign as the first web banner, in May 1994, Ken McCarthy mentored Boyce in his transition from traditional to online advertising and first introduced the concept of a clickable/trackable ad. He stated that he believed only a direct response model—in which the return on investment of individual ads was measured—would prove sustainable over the long run for online advertising. In spite of this prediction, banner ads were valued and sold based on the number of impressions they generated, the first central ad server was released in July 1995 by Focalink Communications, which enabled the management, targeting, and tracking of online ads. A local ad server quickly followed from NetGravity in January 1996, the new online advertising model that emerged in the early years of the 21st century, introduced by GoTo. com, relies heavily on tracking ad response rather than impressions. The banner ad played a significant role in enabling the development of paid advertising on the Internet
32.
April Fools' Day
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April Fools Day is celebrated every year on April 1 by playing practical jokes and spreading hoaxes. The jokes and their victims are called April fools, people playing April Fool jokes expose their prank by shouting April Fool. Some newspapers, magazines, and other published media report fake stories, although popular since the 19th century, the day is not a public holiday in any country. Geoffrey Chaucers The Canterbury Tales contains the first recorded association between April 1 and foolishness, the custom of setting aside a day for the playing of harmless pranks upon ones neighbor is recognized widely throughout the world. Some precursors of April Fools Day include the Roman festival of Hilaria, in Chaucers Canterbury Tales, the Nuns Priests Tale is set Syn March bigan thritty dayes and two. Modern scholars believe there is a copying error in the extant manuscripts. Thus the passage originally meant 32 days after March, i. e.2 May, the anniversary of the engagement of King Richard II of England to Anne of Bohemia, readers apparently misunderstood this line to mean 32 March, i. e. April 1. In Chaucers tale, the vain cock Chauntecleer is tricked by a fox, in 1508, French poet Eloy dAmerval referred to a poisson d’avril, a possible reference to the holiday. In 1539, Flemish poet Eduard de Dene wrote of a nobleman who sent his servants on foolish errands on April 1, in 1686, John Aubrey referred to the holiday as Fooles holy day, the first British reference. On April 1,1698, several people were tricked into going to the Tower of London to see the Lions washed, in the Middle Ages, New Years Day was celebrated on March 25 in most European towns. In some areas of France, New Years was a week-long holiday ending on April 1, some writers suggest that April Fools originated because those who celebrated on January 1 made fun of those who celebrated on other dates. The use of January 1 as New Years Day was common in France by the century. In the Netherlands, the origin of April Fools Day is often attributed to the Dutch victory at Brielle in 1572, op 1 april verloor Alva zijn bril. is a Dutch proverb, which can be translated to, On the first of April, Alva lost his glasses. In this case, the serve as a metaphor for Brielle. This theory, however, provides no explanation for the celebration of April Fools Day. Although no Biblical scholar or historian are known to have mentioned a relationship, in a 1908 edition of the Harpers Weekly cartoonist newspaper, Bertha R. McDonald wrote, authorities gravely back with it to the time of Noah, in the UK, an April Fool joke is revealed by shouting April fool. At the recipient, who becomes the April fool, a study in the 1950s, by folklorists Iona and Peter Opie, found that in the UK, and in countries whose traditions derived from the UK, the joking ceased at midday
33.
HTML
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Hypertext Markup Language is the standard markup language for creating web pages and web applications. With Cascading Style Sheets and JavaScript it forms a triad of cornerstone technologies for the World Wide Web, Web browsers receive HTML documents from a webserver or from local storage and render them into multimedia web pages. HTML describes the structure of a web page semantically and originally included cues for the appearance of the document, HTML elements are the building blocks of HTML pages. With HTML constructs, images and other objects, such as interactive forms and it provides a means to create structured documents by denoting structural semantics for text such as headings, paragraphs, lists, links, quotes and other items. HTML elements are delineated by tags, written using angle brackets, tags such as <img /> and <input /> introduce content into the page directly. Include explicit close tags for elements that permit content but are left empty, by carefully following the W3Cs compatibility guidelines, a user agent should be able to interpret the document equally as HTML or XHTML. For documents that are XHTML1.0 and have made compatible in this way. When delivered as XHTML, browsers should use an XML parser, HTML4 defined three different versions of the language, Strict, Transitional and Frameset. The Transitional and Frameset versions allow for presentational markup, which is omitted in the Strict version, instead, cascading style sheets are encouraged to improve the presentation of HTML documents. Because XHTML1 only defines an XML syntax for the language defined by HTML4, as this list demonstrates, the loose versions of the specification are maintained for legacy support. However, contrary to popular misconceptions, the move to XHTML does not imply a removal of this legacy support, rather the X in XML stands for extensible and the W3C is modularizing the entire specification and opening it up to independent extensions. The primary achievement in the move from XHTML1.0 to XHTML1.1 is the modularization of the entire specification, the strict version of HTML is deployed in XHTML1.1 through a set of modular extensions to the base XHTML1.1 specification. Likewise, someone looking for the loose or frameset specifications will find similar extended XHTML1.1 support, the modularization also allows for separate features to develop on their own timetable. So for example, XHTML1.1 will allow quicker migration to emerging XML standards such as MathML, in summary, the HTML4 specification primarily reined in all the various HTML implementations into a single clearly written specification based on SGML. XHTML1.0, ported this specification, as is, next, XHTML1.1 takes advantage of the extensible nature of XML and modularizes the whole specification. XHTML2.0 was intended to be the first step in adding new features to the specification in a standards-body-based approach. The WHATWG considers their work as living standard HTML for what constitutes the state of the art in major browser implementations by Apple, Google, Mozilla, Opera, hTML5 is specified by the HTML Working Group of the W3C following the W3C process. HTML lacks some of the found in earlier hypertext systems, such as source tracking, fat links
34.
Cascading Style Sheets
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Cascading Style Sheets is a style sheet language used for describing the presentation of a document written in a markup language. It can also display the web page differently depending on the size or viewing device. Readers can also specify a different style sheet, such as a CSS file stored on their own computer, to override the one the author specified. Changes to the design of a document can be applied quickly and easily, by editing a few lines in the CSS file they use. The CSS specification describes a priority scheme to determine which style rules apply if more than one rule matches against a particular element, in this so-called cascade, priorities are calculated and assigned to rules, so that the results are predictable. The CSS specifications are maintained by the World Wide Web Consortium, Internet media type text/css is registered for use with CSS by RFC2318. The W3C operates a free CSS validation service for CSS documents, CSS has a simple syntax and uses a number of English keywords to specify the names of various style properties. A style sheet consists of a list of rules, each rule or rule-set consists of one or more selectors, and a declaration block. In CSS, selectors declare which part of the markup a style applies to by matching tags, Selectors may apply to, all elements of a specific type, e. g. Classes and IDs are case-sensitive, start with letters, and can include alphanumeric characters and underscores. A class may apply to any number of instances of any elements, an ID may only be applied to a single element. Pseudo-classes are used in CSS selectors to permit formatting based on information that is not contained in the document tree. One example of a widely used pseudo-class is, hover, which identifies content only when the points to the visible element. It is appended to a selector as in a, hover or #elementid, a pseudo-class classifies document elements, such as, link or, visited, whereas a pseudo-element makes a selection that may consist of partial elements, such as, first-line or, first-letter. Selectors may be combined in ways to achieve great specificity and flexibility. Multiple selectors may be joined in a spaced list to specify elements by location, element type, id, class, the order of the selectors is important. For example, div. myClass applies to all elements of class myClass that are inside div elements, the following table provides a summary of selector syntax indicating usage and the version of CSS that introduced it. A declaration block consists of a list of declarations in braces, each declaration itself consists of a property, a colon, and a value. If there are multiple declarations in a block, a semi-colon must be inserted to separate each declaration, properties are specified in the CSS standard
35.
Freecode
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Freecode, formerly Freshmeat, is a website owned by BIZX, Inc. It helped people find software and keep track of the latest releases and updates, among other things, the site also hosted user reviews and discussions. A majority of the software covered is open source for Unix-like systems, although Freecode also covered releases of closed-source, commercial and cross-platform software on Mac OS X, Freecode was notable for its age, having started in 1997 as the first web-based aggregator of software releases. The site was renamed from Freshmeat to Freecode on October 29,2011, purportedly as a result of low traffic levels, the site is no longer being updated as of June 18,2014. Because many of the linked software projects are otherwise difficult to find, after Open Source Initiative co-founder Eric S. Raymond called for a replacement, freshcode. club was created and is accepting submissions. However, Open Hub also lists open source projects and already offers more information on projects than Freecode, on January 27,2016, Freecode was sold, along with SourceForge and Slashdot, to current owners BIZX, Inc. The site remains in its state, but some discussion is on going to restore it. Prior to Freecodes archival, programmers registered their projects with the site, users could browse for software and downloads, and were able to rate or comment on the software. An NNTP server allowed Usenet-like access, complex search queries could be saved, Freecode also offered a news ticker stream, a daily newsletter, articles on Unix software-related topics and an IRC channel. The entire database of software releases was freely available as a download, SourceForge List of free software project directories Official website freshcode. club
36.
Grateful Dead
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The Grateful Dead was an American rock band formed in 1965 in Palo Alto, California. Their music, writes Lenny Kaye, touches on ground that most other groups dont even know exists and these various influences were distilled into a diverse and psychedelic whole that made the Grateful Dead the pioneering Godfathers of the jam band world. The band was ranked 57th by Rolling Stone magazine in its The Greatest Artists of All Time issue, the Grateful Dead have sold more than 35 million albums worldwide. The Grateful Dead was founded in the San Francisco Bay Area amid the rise of the counterculture of the 1960s, the founding members were Jerry Garcia, Bob Weir, Ron Pigpen McKernan, Phil Lesh, and Bill Kreutzmann. Members of the Grateful Dead had played together in various San Francisco bands, including Mother McCrees Uptown Jug Champions, Lesh was the last member to join the Warlocks before they became the Grateful Dead, he replaced Dana Morgan Jr. who had played bass for a few gigs. Drummer Mickey Hart and nonperforming lyricist Robert Hunter joined in 1967, with the exception of McKernan, who died in 1973, and Hart, who took time off from 1971 to 1974, the core of the band stayed together for its entire 30-year history. The other official members of the band are Tom Constanten, John Perry Barlow, Keith Godchaux, Donna Godchaux, Brent Mydland, pianist Bruce Hornsby was a touring member from 1990 to 1992, as well as guesting with the band on occasion before and after the tours. After the death of Jerry Garcia in 1995, former members of the band, along with musicians, toured as the Other Ones in 1998,2000, and 2002, and the Dead in 2003,2004. In 2015, the four surviving core members marked the bands 50th anniversary in a series of concerts that were billed as their last performances together. There have also been several spin-offs featuring one or more members, such as Dead & Company, Furthur, the Rhythm Devils, Phil Lesh & Friends, RatDog. The Grateful Dead began their career as the Warlocks, a group formed in early 1965 from the remnants of a Palo Alto, the bands first show was at Magoos Pizza located at 639 Santa Cruz Avenue in suburban Menlo Park, California, on May 5,1965. They were initially known as the Warlocks, coincidentally, the Velvet Underground was also using that name on the East Coast, the show was not recorded but the set list has been preserved. Gigging as a bar band, the group changed its name after finding out that another band of the same name had signed a recording contract. The first show under the new name Grateful Dead was in San Jose, California on December 4,1965, at one of Ken Keseys Acid Tests. Earlier demo tapes have survived, but the first of over 2,000 concerts known to have recorded by the bands fans was a show at the Fillmore Auditorium in San Francisco on January 8,1966. Later that month, the Grateful Dead played at the Trips Festival, the name Grateful Dead was chosen from a dictionary. According to Phil Lesh, in his autobiography, picked up an old Britannica World Language Dictionary. In that silvery elf-voice he said to me, Hey, man, the definition there was the soul of a dead person, or his angel, showing gratitude to someone who, as an act of charity, arranged their burial
37.
Neal Cassady
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Neal Leon Cassady was a major figure of the Beat Generation of the 1950s and the psychedelic and counterculture movements of the 1960s. He was prominently featured as himself in the original version of Jack Kerouacs novel On the Road. He also served as the model for the character Dean Moriarty in the 1957 version of that book, in many of Kerouacs later books, Cassady is represented by the character Cody Pomeray. Cassady was born to Maude Jean and Neal Marshall Cassady in Salt Lake City and his mother died when he was 10, and he was raised by his alcoholic father in Denver, Colorado. Cassady spent much of his youth living on the streets of skid row with his father or in reform school. As a youth, Cassady was repeatedly involved in petty crime and he was arrested for car theft when he was 14, for shoplifting and car theft when he was 15, and for car theft and fencing stolen property when he was 16. In 1941, the 15-year-old Cassady met Justin W. Brierly, Brierly was well known as a mentor of promising young men and was impressed by Cassadys intelligence. Over the next few years, Brierly took a role in Cassadys life. Brierly helped admit Cassady to East High School where he taught Cassady as a student, encouraged and supervised his reading, and found employment for him. Cassady continued his activities, however, and was repeatedly arrested from 1942 to 1944, on at least one of these occasions. In June 1944, Cassady was arrested for possession of stolen goods and he and Brierly actively exchanged letters during this period, even through Cassadys intermittent incarcerations, this correspondence represents Cassadys earliest surviving letters. Brierly, a homosexual, is also believed to have been responsible for Cassadys first homosexual experience. In October 1945, after being released from prison, Cassady married the 16-year-old LuAnne Henderson, in 1946, the couple traveled to New York City to visit their friend, Hal Chase, another protégé of Brierlys. It was while visiting Chase at Columbia University that Cassady met Jack Kerouac, although Cassady did not attend Columbia, he soon became friends with them and their acquaintances, some of whom later became members of the Beat Generation. While in New York, Cassady persuaded Kerouac to teach him to write fiction and his genius mind absorbed every book he could find, whether literature, philosophy or science. Jack had had an education, which Neal envied, but intellectually he was more than a match for Jack. Carolyn Robinson met Cassady in 1946, while she worked in Denver, Carolyn would leave the Beat group shortly after walking in on Neal, his wife LuAnne, and Allen Ginsberg in bed together. Five weeks after Carolyns departure, Neal got an annulment from LuAnne and married Carolyn, Carolyns book, Off the Road, Twenty Years with Cassady, Kerouac and Ginsberg, details her marriage to Cassady and recalls him as, the archetype of the American Man
38.
Chris DiBona
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Chris DiBona is the director of open source at Google. In his former work on Googles public sector software, he looked after Google Moderator, before joining Google, he was an editor at Slashdot and co-founded Damage Studios. DiBona has a B. S. in computer science from George Mason University and he also co-edited Open Sources, Voices from the Open Source Revolution and Open Sources 2.0. He formerly co-hosted FLOSS Weekly with Leo Laporte, the show premiered on April 7,2006, and features prominent guests from the free software/open source community. He also appeared on This Week in Tech and CrankyGeeks from time to time and was in the documentary Revolution OS, on July 29,2007, Laporte announced that due to commitment issues, DiBona was stepping down as host of FLOSS Weekly. DiBona runs Science Foo Camp annually with Tim OReilly of OReilly Media and Timo Hannay of Nature on the Google campus in Mountain View, DiBona was a Linux commentator on TechTVs The Screen Savers, during 2004 and parts of 2005. His stories concentrated on fun applications and consumer use of Linux, DiBona formerly served on the board of Our Good Works, a non-profit that looks after the volunteer matching website Allforgood. org. DiBona served on the board of imeem, a San Francisco, Ca. based social networking firm, and advises PicPlz. Hes a visiting scientist at the MIT Sloan School of Management, and he also advises Ingenuitas on their sightmachine project. Hes also an associate in Google Ventures, diBonas Weblog Chris DiBona at the Internet Movie Database Revolution OS at the Internet Movie Database
39.
Free software
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The right to study and modify software entails availability of the software source code to its users. This right is conditional on the person actually having a copy of the software. Richard Stallman used the existing term free software when he launched the GNU Project—a collaborative effort to create a freedom-respecting operating system—and the Free Software Foundation. The FSFs Free Software Definition states that users of software are free because they do not need to ask for permission to use the software. Free software thus differs from proprietary software, such as Microsoft Office, Google Docs, Sheets, and Slides or iWork from Apple, which users cannot study, change, freeware, which is a category of freedom-restricting proprietary software that does not require payment for use. For computer programs that are covered by law, software freedom is achieved with a software license. Software that is not covered by law, such as software in the public domain, is free if the source code is in the public domain. Proprietary software, including freeware, use restrictive software licences or EULAs, Users are thus prevented from changing the software, and this results in the user relying on the publisher to provide updates, help, and support. This situation is called vendor lock-in, Users often may not reverse engineer, modify, or redistribute proprietary software. Other legal and technical aspects, such as patents and digital rights management may restrict users in exercising their rights. Free software may be developed collaboratively by volunteer computer programmers or by corporations, as part of a commercial, from the 1950s up until the early 1970s, it was normal for computer users to have the software freedoms associated with free software, which was typically public domain software. Software was commonly shared by individuals who used computers and by manufacturers who welcomed the fact that people were making software that made their hardware useful. Organizations of users and suppliers, for example, SHARE, were formed to exchange of software. As software was written in an interpreted language such as BASIC. Software was also shared and distributed as printed source code in computer magazines and books, in United States vs. IBM, filed January 17,1969, the government charged that bundled software was anti-competitive. While some software might always be free, there would henceforth be an amount of software produced primarily for sale. In the 1970s and early 1980s, the industry began using technical measures to prevent computer users from being able to study or adapt the software as they saw fit. In 1980, copyright law was extended to computer programs, Software development for the GNU operating system began in January 1984, and the Free Software Foundation was founded in October 1985
6408 (Apr 2018[update])[2]
