1.
Food and Drug Administration
–
The Food and Drug Administration is a federal agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services, one of the United States federal executive departments. As of 2017, 3/4th of the FDA budget is funded by the pharmaceutical companies due to the Prescription drug user fee act and these include regulating lasers, cellular phones, condoms and control of disease on products ranging from certain household pets to sperm donation for assisted reproduction. The FDA is led by the Commissioner of Food and Drugs, appointed by the President with the advice, the Commissioner reports to the Secretary of Health and Human Services. Dr. Robert M. Califf, MD is the current commissioner, who took over in February 2016 for Dr. Stephen Ostroff, the FDA has its headquarters in unincorporated White Oak, Maryland. The agency also has 223 field offices and 13 laboratories located throughout the 50 states, the United States Virgin Islands, in 2008, the FDA began to post employees to foreign countries, including China, India, Costa Rica, Chile, Belgium, and the United Kingdom. The site was renamed from the White Oak Naval Surface Warfare Center to the Federal Research Center at White Oak, the first building, the Life Sciences Laboratory, was dedicated and opened with 104 employees on the campus in December 2003. Only one original building from the facility was kept. All other buildings are new construction, the project is slated to be completed by 2017, assuming future Congressional funding While most of the Centers are located in the Washington, D. C. The Office of Regulatory Affairs is considered the eyes and ears of the agency, the Office of Regulatory Affairs is divided into five regions, which are further divided into 20 districts. Districts are based roughly on the divisions of the federal court system. Each district comprises a main office and a number of Resident Posts. ORA also includes the Agencys network of laboratories, which analyze any physical samples taken. Though samples are usually food-related, some laboratories are equipped to analyze drugs, cosmetics, the Office of Criminal Investigations was established in 1991 to investigate criminal cases. Unlike ORA Investigators, OCI Special Agents are armed, and dont focus on aspects of the regulated industries. In many cases, OCI pursues cases involving Title 18 violations, OCI Special Agents often come from other criminal investigations backgrounds, and work closely with the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Assistant Attorney General, and even Interpol. OCI receives cases from a variety of sources—including ORA, local agencies, OCI is a smaller branch, comprising about 200 agents nationwide. The FDA frequently works with federal agencies, including the Department of Agriculture, Drug Enforcement Administration, Customs and Border Protection. Often local and state government agencies also work with the FDA to provide regulatory inspections, the FDA regulates more than US$1 trillion worth of consumer goods, about 25% of consumer expenditures in the United States
2.
Tobacco
–
Tobacco is a product prepared from the leaves of the tobacco plant by curing them. The plant is part of the genus Nicotiana and of the Solanaceae family, while more than 70 species of tobacco are known, the chief commercial crop is N. tabacum. The more potent variant N. rustica is also used around the world, Tobacco contains the alkaloid nicotine, which is a stimulant. Dried tobacco leaves are used for smoking in cigarettes, cigars, pipe tobacco. They can be consumed as snuff, chewing tobacco, dipping tobacco. Tobacco use is a factor for many diseases, especially those affecting the heart, liver. In 2008, the World Health Organization named tobacco as the single greatest preventable cause of death. The English word tobacco originates from the Spanish and Portuguese word tabaco, the precise origin of this word is disputed, but it is generally thought to have derived at least in part, from Taino, the Arawakan language of the Caribbean. In Taino, it was said to either a roll of tobacco leaves or to tabago. Tobacco has long used in the Americas, with some cultivation sites in Mexico dating back to 1400–1000 BC. Many Native American tribes have traditionally grown and used tobacco, traditionally, tobacco is seen as a gift from the Creator, with the ceremonial tobacco smoke carrying ones thoughts and prayers to the Creator. Following the arrival of the Europeans to the Americas, tobacco became popular as a trade item. Hernández de Boncalo, Spanish chronicler of the Indies, was the first European to bring seeds to the Old World in 1559 following orders of King Philip II of Spain. These seeds were planted in the outskirts of Toledo, more specifically in a known as Los Cigarrales named after the continuous plagues of cicadas. Before the development of lighter Virginia and white burley strains of tobacco, small quantities were smoked at a time, using a pipe like the midwakh or kiseru or smoking newly invented waterpipes such as the bong or the hookah. The alleged benefits of tobacco also account for its considerable success, Tobacco smoking, chewing, and snuffing became a major industry in Europe and its colonies by 1700. Tobacco has been a major crop in Cuba and in other parts of the Caribbean since the 18th century. In the late 19th century, cigarettes became popular, James Bonsack created a machine that automated cigarette production
3.
Motto
–
A motto is a maxim, a phrase meant to formally summarize the general motivation or intention of an individual, family, social group or organization. A motto may be in any language, but Latin has been widely used, especially in the Western world. In heraldry, a motto is depicted below the shield in a banderole, this placement stems from the Middle Ages, in which the vast majority of nobles possessed a coat of arms. In the case of Scottish heraldry it is mandated to appear above the crest, spanish coats of arms may display a motto in the bordure of the shield. In heraldic literature, the rallying cry respectively battle banner are also common, which date back to the battle cry. In English heraldry mottos are not granted with armorial bearings, in Scottish heraldry, mottos can only be changed by re-matriculation, with the Lord Lyon King of Arms. Although very unusual and perhaps outside standard heraldic practice, there are examples of the particular appearance of the motto scroll. Ships and submarines in the Royal Navy each have a badge and motto, Latin has been very common for mottos, but for nation states their official language is generally chosen. A canting motto is one that contains word play, for example, the motto of the Earl of Onslow is Festina lente, punningly interpreting on-slow. In literature, a motto is a sentence, phrase, poem, or word prefixed to an essay, chapter, novel and it is a short, suggestive expression of a guiding principle for the written material that follows. For example, Robert Louis Stevensons Travels with a Donkey in the Cévennes uses mottos at the start of each section, epigram Hendiatris Inscription List of Latin phrases List of mottos List of national mottos Slogan Tagline United in diversity United we stand, divided we fall
4.
Phrase
–
In everyday speech, a phrase may be any group of words, often carrying a special idiomatic meaning, in this sense it is roughly synonymous with expression. In linguistic analysis, a phrase is a group of words that functions as a constituent in the syntax of a sentence, a phrase typically appears within a clause, but it is possible also for a phrase to be a clause or to contain a clause within it. There is a difference between the use of the term phrase and its technical use in linguistics. In common usage, a phrase is usually a group of words with some special meaning or other significance, such as all rights reserved, economical with the truth, kick the bucket. It may be a euphemism, a saying or proverb, a fixed expression, in grammatical analysis, particularly in theories of syntax, a phrase is any group of words, or sometimes a single word, which plays a particular role within the grammatical structure of a sentence. It does not have to have any meaning or significance, or even exist anywhere outside of the sentence being analyzed. This means that expressions that may be called phrases in everyday language are not phrases in the technical sense. In grammatical analysis, most phrases contain a key word that identifies the type and linguistic features of the phrase, this is known as the head-word, or the head. The syntactic category of the head is used to name the category of the phrase, for example, the remaining words in a phrase are called the dependents of the head. Most theories of syntax view most phrases as having a head, a phrase lacking a head is known as exocentric, and phrases with heads are endocentric. When a noun is used in a sentence without an explicit determiner, for full discussion, see Determiner phrase. See the Generative approaches section of the article for details. Many theories of syntax and grammar illustrate sentence structure using phrase trees, trees show the words, phrases, and, at times, clauses that make up sentences. Any word combination that corresponds to a complete subtree can be seen as a phrase, there are two established and competing principles for constructing trees, they produce constituency and dependency trees and both are illustrated here using an example sentence. The node labels in the two trees mark the syntactic category of the different constituents, or word elements, of the sentence, in the constituency tree each phrase is marked by a phrasal node, and there are eight phrases identified by phrase structure analysis in the example sentence. On the other hand, the tree identifies a phrase by any node that exerts dependency upon, or dominates. And, using dependency analysis, there are six phrases in the sentence, the trees and phrase-counts demonstrate that different theories of syntax differ in the word combinations they qualify as a phrase. Here the constituency tree identifies three phrases that the tree does not, namely, house at the end of the street, end of the street
5.
Advertising slogan
–
Advertising slogans are short, memorable groups of words used in advertising campaigns. The advertising phrases are means of drawing attention to one distinctive feature, the purpose is to emphasize a phrase that an entity wishes to be remembered by, Particularly, for marketing a specific corporate image, Or, connection to a business product or consumer base. Some slogans are created just for specific campaigns, others are intended as a corporate slogan. Various slogans start out as the former, and are, over time, some advertising slogans are memorable after general use is discontinued. According to the 1913 Websters Dictionary, a slogan derives from the Gaelic sluagh-ghairm and it has come to mean in its contemporary sense, a distinctive advertising motto, or advertising phrase, used by any entity to convey a purpose or ideal, Or, a catchphrase. Taglines, tag lines, or tags are American terms for public communication promoting products. In the UK they are called end lines, endlines, or straplines, in Japan, they are called catchcopy or catch phrase. A marketing slogan can play a part in the interplay between rival companies and it is a business function for attracting customers. Advertising slogans as a system of control include devices similar to watchwords, catchwords. Advertising slogans have extended into areas, such as politics. Fountainheads of strength are found in such features as antithesis, alliteration, euphoniousness, punning, obviousness, the use of slogans may be examined in so far as the slogans continue unconscious and unintentional responses
6.
Religion
–
Religions have sacred histories and narratives, which may be preserved in sacred scriptures, and symbols and holy places, that aim mostly to give a meaning to life. Religions may contain symbolic stories, which are said by followers to be true, that have the side purpose of explaining the origin of life. Traditionally, faith, in addition to reason, has considered a source of religious beliefs. There are an estimated 10,000 distinct religions worldwide, about 84% of the worlds population is affiliated with one of the five largest religions, namely Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism or forms of folk religion. With the onset of the modernisation of and the revolution in the western world. The religiously unaffiliated demographic include those who do not identify with any religion, atheists. While the religiously unaffiliated have grown globally, many of the religiously unaffiliated still have various religious beliefs, about 16% of the worlds population is religiously unaffiliated. The study of religion encompasses a variety of academic disciplines, including theology, comparative religion. Theories of religion offer various explanations for the origins and workings of religion, Religion is derived from the Latin religiō, the ultimate origins of which are obscure. One possible interpretation traced to Cicero, connects lego read, i. e. re with lego in the sense of choose, go over again or consider carefully. The medieval usage alternates with order in designating bonded communities like those of monastic orders, we hear of the religion of the Golden Fleece, of a knight of the religion of Avys. In the ancient and medieval world, the etymological Latin root religio was understood as a virtue of worship, never as doctrine, practice. In the Quran, the Arabic word din is often translated as religion in modern translations and it was in the 19th century that the terms Buddhism, Hinduism, Taoism, and Confucianism first emerged. Max Müller characterized many other cultures around the world, including Egypt, Persia, what is called ancient religion today, they would have only called law. Some languages have words that can be translated as religion, but they may use them in a different way. For example, the Sanskrit word dharma, sometimes translated as religion, throughout classical South Asia, the study of law consisted of concepts such as penance through piety and ceremonial as well as practical traditions. Medieval Japan at first had a union between imperial law and universal or Buddha law, but these later became independent sources of power. There is no equivalent of religion in Hebrew, and Judaism does not distinguish clearly between religious, national, racial, or ethnic identities
7.
Oxford Dictionary of English
–
The Oxford Dictionary of English is a single-volume English dictionary published by Oxford University Press, first published in 1998 as The New Oxford Dictionary of English. The word new was dropped from the title with the Second Edition in 2003 and this dictionary is not based on the Oxford English Dictionary and should not be mistaken for a new or updated version of the OED. It is a new dictionary which strives to represent as faithfully as possible the current usage of English words. The Revised Second Edition contains 355,000 words, phrases, the Third Edition was published in August 2010, with some new words, including vuvuzela. It is currently the largest single-volume English-language dictionary published by Oxford University Press, the first editor, Judy Pearsall, wrote in the introduction that it is based on a modern understanding of language and is derived from a corpus of contemporary English usage. For example, the editors did not discourage split infinitives, the first edition was based on bodies of texts such as the British National Corpus and the citation database of the Oxford Reading Programme. The dictionary views the language from the perspective that English is a world language, a network of consultants provide extensive coverage of English usage from the United States to the Caribbean and New Zealand. A more unusual decision was to omit pronunciations of common, everyday words, the International Phonetic Alphabet is used to present pronunciations, which are in turn based on the Received Pronunciation. The Second Edition added over 3,000 new words, senses and phrases drawn from the Oxford English Corpus, the New Oxford American Dictionary is the American version of the Oxford Dictionary of English, with substantial editing and uses a diacritical respelling scheme rather than the IPA system. CD-ROM supports Windows 95/NT and above, impression Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press paperback edition 1st. Impression CD edition, Includes iFinger version 2.0, impression New edition edition Hardcover edition, 1st. The online version is updated every three months, Oxford Dictionaries Online also includes the New Oxford American Dictionary, Oxford Thesaurus of English, Oxford American Writer’s Thesaurus and grammar and usage resources. The online version added more than 80,000 words from the OED in August 2015, Includes nearly 100,000 headwords, with 11,000 proper names, over 350,000 words and phrases and definitions,11,000 encyclopaedic entries,68,000 explanations. Hardcover edition, Includes 12-month access to Oxford Dictionaries Online, impression Android version, Published by MobiSystems, Inc. Premium version includes audio pronunciation, offline mode, priority support, Version 7.0.177, Support split screen for Android 7. Version 7.1.195, Support Shortcut Items for Android 7.1 Version 7.1.208, Includes over 350,000 words, phrases, premium version includes 75,000 audio pronunciations of both common and rare words. IOS free version, Published by MobiSystems, Inc, Version 8.2.9, Includes iOS10 optimization. Version 8.5.6, Supports voice over, voice search in iOS10, OS X paid version, Published by WordWeb Software
8.
Scottish Gaelic
–
Scottish Gaelic or Scots Gaelic, sometimes also referred to as Gaelic, is a Celtic language native to Scotland. A member of the Goidelic branch of the Celtic languages, Scottish Gaelic, like Modern Irish and Manx, developed out of Middle Irish. The 2011 census of Scotland showed that a total of 57,375 people in Scotland could speak Gaelic at that time, the census results indicate a decline of 1,275 Gaelic speakers from 2001. A total of 87,056 people in 2011 reported having some facility with Gaelic compared to 93,282 people in 2001, only about half of speakers were fully literate in the language. Nevertheless, revival efforts exist and the number of speakers of the language under age 20 has increased, Scottish Gaelic is neither an official language of the European Union nor the United Kingdom. Outside Scotland, a group of dialects collectively known as Canadian Gaelic are spoken in parts of Atlantic Canada, mainly Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island. In the 2011 census, there were 7,195 total speakers of Gaelic languages in Canada, with 1,365 in Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island where the responses mainly refer to Scottish Gaelic. About 2,320 Canadians in 2011 also claimed Gaelic languages as their mother tongue, with over 300 in Nova Scotia, aside from Scottish Gaelic, the language may also be referred to simply as Gaelic. In Scotland, the word Gaelic in reference to Scottish Gaelic specifically is pronounced, outside Ireland and Great Britain, Gaelic may refer to the Irish language. Scottish Gaelic should not be confused with Scots, the Middle English-derived language varieties which had come to be spoken in most of the Lowlands of Scotland by the modern era. Prior to the 15th century, these dialects were known as Inglis by its own speakers, from the late 15th century, however, it became increasingly common for such speakers to refer to Scottish Gaelic as Erse and the Lowland vernacular as Scottis. Today, Scottish Gaelic is recognised as a language from Irish. Gaelic in Scotland was mostly confined to Dál Riata until the 8th century, when it began expanding into Pictish areas north of the Firth of Forth, by 900, Pictish appears to have become extinct, completely replaced by Gaelic. An exception might be made for the Northern Isles, however, however, though the Pictish language did not disappear suddenly, a process of Gaelicisation was clearly underway during the reigns of Caustantín and his successors. By a certain point, probably during the 11th century, all the inhabitants of Alba had become fully Gaelicised Scots, by the 10th century, Gaelic had become the dominant language throughout northern and western Scotland, the Gaelo-Pictic Kingdom of Alba. Its spread to southern Scotland, was even and totalizing. Place name analysis suggests dense usage of Gaelic in Galloway and adjoining areas to the north and west as well as in West Lothian, less dense usage is suggested for north Ayrshire, Renfrewshire, the Clyde Valley and eastern Dumfriesshire. In south-eastern Scotland, there is no evidence that Gaelic was ever widely spoken, the area shifted from Cumbric to Old English during its long incorporation into the Anglo-Saxon Kingdom of Northumbria
9.
Irish language
–
Irish, also referred to as Gaelic or Irish Gaelic, is a Goidelic language of the Indo-European language family originating in Ireland and historically spoken by the Irish people. Irish is spoken as a first language by a minority of Irish people. Irish enjoys constitutional status as the national and first official language of the Republic of Ireland and it is also among the official languages of the European Union. The public body Foras na Gaeilge is responsible for the promotion of the language throughout the island of Ireland and it has the oldest vernacular literature in Western Europe. The fate of the language was influenced by the power of the English state in Ireland. Elizabethan officials viewed the use of Irish unfavourably, as being a threat to all things English in Ireland and its decline began under English rule in the 17th century. In the latter part of the 19th century, there was a decrease in the number of speakers. Irish-speaking areas were hit especially hard, by the end of British rule, the language was spoken by less than 15% of the national population. Since then, Irish speakers have been in the minority, efforts have been made by the state, individuals and organisations to preserve, promote and revive the language, but with mixed results. Around the turn of the 21st century, estimates of native speakers ranged from 20,000 to 80,000 people. In the 2011 Census, these numbers had increased to 94,000 and 1.3 million, there are several thousand Irish speakers in Northern Ireland. It has been estimated that the active Irish-language scene probably comprises 5 to 10 per cent of Irelands population, there has been a significant increase in the number of urban Irish speakers, particularly in Dublin. In Gaeltacht areas, however, there has been a decline of the use of Irish. Údarás na Gaeltachta predicted that, by 2025, Irish will no longer be the language in any of the designated Gaeltacht areas. Survey data suggest that most Irish people think highly of Irish as a marker of identity. It has also argued that newer urban groups of Irish speakers are a disruptive force in this respect. In An Caighdeán Oifigiúil the name of the language is Gaeilge, before the spelling reform of 1948, this form was spelled Gaedhilge, originally this was the genitive of Gaedhealg, the form used in Classical Irish. Older spellings of this include Gaoidhealg in Classical Irish and Goídelc in Old Irish, the modern spelling results from the deletion of the silent dh in the middle of Gaedhilge, whereas Goidelic languages, used to refer to the language family including Irish, comes from Old Irish
10.
Rhetoric
–
Rhetoric is the art of discourse, wherein a writer or speaker strives to inform, persuade or motivate particular audiences in specific situations. As a subject of study and a productive civic practice. Its best known definition comes from Aristotle, who considers it a counterpart of both logic and politics, and calls it the faculty of observing in any case the available means of persuasion. The five canons of rhetoric, which trace the traditional tasks in designing a persuasive speech, were first codified in classical Rome, invention, arrangement, style, memory, along with grammar and logic, rhetoric is one of the three ancient arts of discourse. From Ancient Greece to the late 19th century, it was a part of Western education. Scholars have debated the scope of rhetoric since ancient times, although some have limited rhetoric to the specific realm of political discourse, many modern scholars liberate it to encompass every aspect of culture. Contemporary studies of rhetoric address a diverse range of domains than was the case in ancient times. Many contemporary approaches treat rhetoric as human communication that includes purposeful, Public relations, lobbying, law, marketing, professional and technical writing, and advertising are modern professions that employ rhetorical practitioners. Because the ancient Greeks highly valued public political participation, rhetoric emerged as a tool to influence politics. Consequently, rhetoric remains associated with its political origins, however, even the original instructors of Western speech—the Sophists—disputed this limited view of rhetoric. According to the Sophists, such as Gorgias, a successful rhetorician could speak convincingly on any topic and this method suggested rhetoric could be a means of communicating any expertise, not just politics. In his Encomium to Helen, Gorgias even applied rhetoric to fiction by seeking for his own pleasure to prove the blamelessness of the mythical Helen of Troy in starting the Trojan War. Looking to another key rhetorical theorist, Plato defined the scope of rhetoric according to his opinions of the art. He criticized the Sophists for using rhetoric as a means of deceit instead of discovering truth, in Gorgias, one of his Socratic Dialogues, Plato defines rhetoric as the persuasion of ignorant masses within the courts and assemblies. Rhetoric, in Platos opinion, is merely a form of flattery and functions similarly to cookery, thus, Plato considered any speech of lengthy prose aimed at flattery as within the scope of rhetoric. Aristotle both redeemed rhetoric from his teacher and narrowed its focus by defining three genres of rhetoric—deliberative, forensic or judicial, and epideictic, when one considers that rhetoric included torture, it is clear that rhetoric cannot be viewed only in academic terms. However, the enthymeme based upon logic was viewed as the basis of rhetoric, however, since the time of Aristotle, logic has changed. For example, Modal logic has undergone a major development that also modifies rhetoric, yet, Aristotle also outlined generic constraints that focused the rhetorical art squarely within the domain of public political practice
11.
Chant
–
A chant is the rhythmic speaking or singing of words or sounds, often primarily on one or two main pitches called reciting tones. Chant may be considered speech, music, or a heightened or stylized form of speech, in the later Middle Ages some religious chant evolved into song. Chanting is a commonly used spiritual practice, like prayer, chant may be a component of either personal or group practice. Diverse spiritual traditions consider chant a route to spiritual development, tibetan Buddhist chant involves throat singing, where multiple pitches are produced by each performer. The concept of chanting mantras is of significance in many Hindu traditions. Indias bhakti devotional tradition centres on kirtan, which has a following in many countries, the Hare Krishna movement is based especially on the chanting of Sanskrit Names of God in the Vaishnava tradition. Japanese Shijin, or chanted poetry, mirrors Zen Buddhist principles and is sung from the Dan tien — the locus of power in Eastern traditions, a lo divino Fight song Sea shanty A site about Vedic chants Traditional Buddhist Chants as in the Buddhist Encyclopedia
12.
Slogan (heraldry)
–
A slogan is used in Scottish heraldry as a heraldic motto or a secondary motto. It usually appears above the crest on a coat of arms, the word slogan dates from 1513, though it is a variant of the earlier slogorn, which was an Anglicisation of the Scottish Gaelic sluagh-ghairm. The word slogan dates from 1513 and it is a variant of the earlier slogorn, which was an Anglicisation of the Scottish Gaelic sluagh-ghairm. Slogans are used in heraldry, most notably in Scottish heraldry, in Scottish heraldry slogans are used as mottoes, or secondary mottoes. Slogans usually appear above the crest on a coat of arms, there may be several possible origins for mottoes used in heraldry, however slogans are considered to have originated from battle cries or war cries. There are several notable heraldic mottoes which are thought to originate from a war cries, for example, the Royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom contains the motto DIEU ET MON DROIT which has been thought to originated as a war cry. As has the motto MONTJOYE SAINT-DENIS which appeared on the former French coat of arms, several mottoes found in Irish heraldry, which end in a boo, are also thought to have originated as war cries. Examples of such Irish mottoes are CROM A BOO of the Fitzgerald earls of Leinster, not all slogans are actually authentic war cries though. Many slogans pertaining to Scottish clan chiefs have been registered relatively recently at the Court of the Lord Lyon, in at least one case, a patron saint is used as a slogan, as in St Bennet and Set On of the Setons. The arms of Grant use two slogans, CRAIG ELACHAIDH, and STANDFAST, sometimes a clan chiefs slogan appears on his crest badge and in consequence on the crest badges worn by his clan members. In some cases the chiefs slogan appears on his standard, guidon
13.
Public sphere
–
The public sphere is an area in social life where individuals can come together to freely discuss and identify societal problems, and through that discussion influence political action. The public sphere can be seen as a theater in modern societies in which participation is enacted through the medium of talk. This new public sphere spanned the public and the private realms and this area is conceptually distinct from the state, it a site for the production and circulation of discourses that can in principle be critical of the state. These distinctions between state apparatuses, economic markets, and democratic associations. are essential to democratic theory, the people themselves came to see the public sphere as a regulatory institution against the authority of the state. The study of the sphere centers on the idea of participatory democracy. Democratic governance rests on the capacity of and opportunity for citizens to engage in enlightened debate, what does it mean that something is public. Jürgen Habermas says, We call events and occasions public when they are open to all and this notion of the public becomes evident in terms such as public health, public education, public opinion or public ownership. They are opposed to the notions of private health, private education, private opinion, the notion of the public is intrinsically connected to the notion of the private. Habermas stresses that the notion of the public is related to the notion of the common, for Hannah Arendt, the public sphere is therefore the common world that gathers us together and yet prevents our falling over each other. Habermas defines the sphere as a society engaged in critical public debate. Conditions of the sphere are according to Habermas, The formation of public opinion All citizens have access. Conference in unrestricted fashion about matters of general interest, which implies freedom from economic, debate over the general rules governing relations. The work is considered the foundation of contemporary public sphere theories. In his historical analysis, Habermas points out three so-called institutional criteria as preconditions for the emergence of the new public sphere, if not realized, it was at least consequential. Discussion within such a public presupposed the problematization of areas that then had not been questioned. The domain of ‘common concern’ which was the object of critical attention remained a preserve in which church. The issues discussed became ‘general’ not merely in their significance, but also in their accessibility, Habermas argued that the bourgeois society cultivated and upheld these criteria. The public sphere was well established in locations including coffee shops and salons, areas of society where various people could gather
14.
Nike, Inc.
–
The company is headquartered near Beaverton, Oregon, in the Portland metropolitan area. It is one of the worlds largest suppliers of athletic shoes and apparel, as of 2012, it employed more than 44,000 people worldwide. In 2014 the brand alone was valued at $19 billion, making it the most valuable brand among sports businesses. The company was founded on January 25,1964, as Blue Ribbon Sports, by Bill Bowerman and Phil Knight, the company takes its name from Nike, the Greek goddess of victory. Nike also owned Bauer Hockey between 1995 and 2008, and previously owned Cole Haan and Umbro, in addition to manufacturing sportswear and equipment, the company operates retail stores under the Niketown name. Nike sponsors many high-profile athletes and sports teams around the world, with the highly recognized trademarks of Just Do It, Nike, originally known as Blue Ribbon Sports, was founded by University of Oregon track athlete Phil Knight and his coach Bill Bowerman in January 1964. The company initially operated as a distributor for Japanese shoe maker Onitsuka Tiger, says Davis, I told Tom Brokaw that I was the first. I dont care all the billionaires say. Bill Bowerman made the first pair of shoes for me, in fact, I didnt like the way they felt on my feet. There was no support and they were too tight, but I saw Bowerman make them from the waffle iron, and they were mine. In 1964, in its first year in business, BRS sold 1,300 pairs of Japanese running shoes grossing $8,000, by 1965 the fledgling company had acquired a full-time employee, and sales had reached $20,000. In 1967, due to increasing sales, BRS expanded retail and distribution operations on the East Coast, in Wellesley. By 1971, the relationship between BRS and Onitsuka Tiger was nearing an end, BRS prepared to launch its own line of footwear, which would bear the Swoosh newly designed by Carolyn Davidson. The Swoosh was first used by Nike on June 18,1971, patent and Trademark Office on January 22,1974. In 1976, the company hired John Brown and Partners, based in Seattle, the following year, the agency created the first brand ad for Nike, called There is no finish line, in which no Nike product was shown. By 1980, Nike had attained a 50% market share in the U. S. athletic shoe market, together, Nike and Wieden+Kennedy have created many print and television advertisements, and Wieden+Kennedy remains Nikes primary ad agency. Walt Stack was featured in Nikes first Just Do It advertisement, wieden credits the inspiration for the slogan to Lets do it, the last words spoken by Gary Gilmore before he was executed. Throughout the 1980s, Nike expanded its line to encompass many sports
15.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
16.
Media manipulation
–
Media manipulation is a series of related techniques in which partisans create an image or argument that favours their particular interests. It is used within public relations, propaganda, marketing, etc, while the objective for each context is quite different, the broad techniques are often similar. As illustrated below, many of the modern mass media manipulation methods are types of distraction, on the assumption that the public has a limited attention span. Activism is the practice or doctrine that has an emphasis on direct vigorous action especially supporting or opposing one side of a controversial matter and it is quite simply starting a movement to effect or change social views. It is frequently started by individuals but is done collectively through social movements with large masses. These social movements can be done through public rallies, strikes, street marches, most of Kings movements were done through non-violence rallies and public speeches to show the white American population that they were peaceful but also wanted change in their community. In 1964, the Civil Rights Acts commenced giving African Americans equality with all races, advertising is the action of attracting public attention to something, especially through paid announcements for products and services. This tends to be done by businesses who wish to sell their product by paying media outlets to show their products or services on television breaks, banners on websites and these advertisements are not only done by businesses but can also be done by certain groups. Non-commercial advertisers are those who spend money on advertising in a hope to raise awareness for a cause or promote specific ideas and these include groups such as interest groups, political parties, government organizations and religious movements. Most of these organizations intend to spread a message or sway public opinion instead of trying to sell products or services, advertising can not only be found on social media, it is also evident on billboards, newspapers, magazines and even word of mouth. A hoax is something intended to deceive or defraud, when a newspaper or the news reports a fake story, it is known as a hoax. Misleading public stunts, scientific frauds, false bomb threats and business scams as hoaxes, a common aspect that hoaxes have is that they are all meant to deceive or lie. For something to become a hoax, the lie must have something more to offer and it must be outrageous, dramatic but also has to be believable and ingenious. Above all, it must be able to attract attention from the public, once it has done that then a hoax is in full effect. The word hoax became popular in the middle to late eighteenth century and it is thought to have come from the saying hocus pocus. Hocus pocus means meaningless talk which is designed to trick others or conceal the truth about a situation. The key word in something becoming a hoax is public, a lie or a deception only becomes a hoax when it is acknowledged by the public. A popular hoax that is evident in todays times would be the Microwave your spoon hoax and this hoax originated from a video which shows a metallic spoon being heated inside a microwave oven
17.
Media bias
–
Media bias is the bias or perceived bias of journalists and news producers within the mass media in the selection of events and stories that are reported and how they are covered. The term media bias implies a pervasive or widespread bias contravening the standards of journalism, the direction and degree of media bias in various countries is widely disputed. Practical limitations to media neutrality include the inability of journalists to report all available stories and facts, government influence, including overt and covert censorship, biases the media in some countries, for example North Korea and Burma. There are a number of national and international groups that report on bias in the media. The most commonly discussed forms of bias occur when the support or attack a particular political party, candidate. DAlessio and Allen list three forms of bias as the most widely studied, Coverage bias, when actors or issues are more or less visible in the news. Gatekeeping bias, when stories are selected or deselected, sometimes on ideological grounds and it is sometimes also referred to as agenda bias, when the focus is on political actors and whether they are covered based on their preferred policy issues. Statement bias, when coverage is slanted towards or against particular actors or issues. Other common forms of political and non-political media bias include, Advertising bias, concision bias, a tendency to report views that can be summarized succinctly, crowding out more unconventional views that take time to explain. Corporate bias, when stories are selected or slanted to please corporate owners of media, mainstream bias, a tendency to report what everyone else is reporting, and to avoid stories that will offend anyone. Sensationalism, bias in favor of the exceptional over the ordinary, giving the impression that rare events, such as crashes, are more common than common events. Structural bias, when an actor or issue receives more or less favorable coverage as a result of newsworthiness and media routines, not as the result of ideological decisions. Other forms of bias include reporting that favors or attacks a particular race, religion, gender, age, sexual orientation, ethnic group, or even person. Media bias in the United States occurs when the media in the United States systematically emphasizes one particular point of view in a way that contravenes the standards of professional journalism. Claims of media bias in the United States include claims of bias, conservative bias, mainstream bias. To combat this, a variety of groups that attempt to find the facts behind both biased reporting and unfounded claims of bias have been founded. Research about media bias is now a subject of scholarship in a variety of disciplines. Media bias is studied at schools of journalism, university departments, in the United States, many of these studies focus on issues of a conservative/liberal balance in the media
18.
Deception
–
Deception, beguilement, deceit, bluff, mystification, ruse, and subterfuge is the act of propagating beliefs in things that are not true, or not the whole truth. Deception can involve dissimulation, propaganda, and sleight of hand, as well as distraction, camouflage, there is also self-deception, as in bad faith. Deception is a relational transgression that often leads to feelings of betrayal. Deception violates relational rules and is considered to be a violation of expectations. Most people expect friends, relational partners, and even strangers to be truthful most of the time, if people expected most conversations to be untruthful, talking and communicating with others would require distraction and misdirection to acquire reliable information. A significant amount of deception occurs between romantic and relational partners, Deceit and dishonesty can also form grounds for civil litigation in tort, or contract law, or give rise to criminal prosecution for fraud. It also forms a part of psychological warfare in Denial. Deception includes several types of communications or omissions that serve to distort or omit the complete truth, examples of deception range from false statements to misleading claims in which relevant information is omitted, leading the receiver to infer false conclusions. Deception itself is intentionally managing verbal and/or nonverbal messages so that the receiver will believe in a way that the message sender knows is false. Intent is critical with regard to deception, intent differentiates between deception and an honest mistake. The Interpersonal Deception Theory explores the interrelation between communicative context and sender and receiver cognitions and behaviors in deceptive exchanges, some forms of deception include, Lies, making up information or giving information that is the opposite or very different from the truth. Equivocations, making an indirect, ambiguous, or contradictory statement, concealments, omitting information that is important or relevant to the given context, or engaging in behavior that helps hide relevant information. Exaggerations, overstatement or stretching the truth to a degree, understatements, minimization or downplaying aspects of the truth. Many people believe that they are good at deception, though this confidence is often misplaced, while it is difficult to deceive a partner over a long period of time, deception often occurs in day-to-day conversations between relational partners. Detecting deception is difficult because there are no completely reliable indicators of deception. Deception, however, places a significant cognitive load on the deceiver and he or she must recall previous statements so that his or her story remains consistent and believable. As a result, deceivers often leak important information both verbally and nonverbally, Deception and its detection is a complex, fluid, and cognitive process that is based on the context of the message exchange. A deceivers actions are interrelated to the message receivers actions and it is during this exchange that the deceiver will reveal verbal and nonverbal information about deceit
19.
Machiavellianism
–
Machiavellianism is the employment of cunning and duplicity in statecraft or in general conduct. The word comes from the Italian Renaissance diplomat and writer Niccolò Machiavelli, born in 1469 and it was in this context that the St. The English playwrights William Shakespeare and Christopher Marlowe were enthusiastic proponents of this view, the Anti-Machiavel is an 18th-century essay by Frederick the Great, King of Prussia and patron of Voltaire, rebutting The Prince, and Machiavellianism. It was first published in September 1740, a few months after Frederick became king, denis Diderot, the French philosopher, viewed Machiavellianism as an abhorrent type of politics and the art of tyranny. In the 1960s, Richard Christie and Florence L. Geis developed a test for measuring a persons level of Machiavellianism and their Mach - IV test, a twenty-statement personality survey, became the standard self-assessment tool of Machiavellianism. Using their scale, Christie and Geis conducted multiple experimental tests showed that the interpersonal strategies and behavior of High Machs. Their basic results have been widely replicated, measured on the Mach - IV scale, males are, on average, slightly more Machiavellian than females. A1992 review described Machiavellian motivation as related to cold selfishness and pure instrumentality, High Machs admitted to focusing on unmitigated achievement and winning at any cost. Due to their skill at interpersonal manipulation, there has often been an assumption that high Machs possess superior intelligence, however, research has firmly established that Machiavellianism is unrelated to IQ. Both empathy and emotion recognition have been shown to have negative correlations with Machiavellianism, additionally, research has shown that Machiavellianism is unrelated to a more advanced theory of mind, that is, the ability to anticipate what others are thinking in social situations. If high Machs actually are skilled at manipulating others this appears to be unrelated to any special abilities as such. Machiavellianism is one of the three personality traits referred to as the triad, along with narcissism and psychopathy. Machiavellianism has been found to be correlated with Agreeableness and Conscientiousness. However, Machiavellianism correlates more highly with the Honesty-humility dimension of the six-factor HEXACO model than any of the Big Five dimensions. Machiavellianism has also located within the interpersonal circumplex, which consists of the two independent dimensions of agency and communion. Agency refers to motivation to succeed and to individuate the self, whereas communion refers to motivation to merge with others, Machiavellianism lies in the quadrant of the circumplex defined by high agency and low communion. Machiavellianism has been found to lie diagonally opposite from a construct called self-construal. This suggests that high in Machiavellianism do not simply wish to achieve
20.
Mass media
–
The mass media is a diversified collection of media technologies that reach a large audience via mass communication. The technologies through which communication takes place include a variety of outlets. Broadcast media transmit information electronically, via such media as film, radio, recorded music, digital media comprises both Internet and mobile mass communication. Internet media comprise such services as email, social sites, websites. Print media transmit information via physical objects, such as books, comics, magazines, newspapers, event organizing and public speaking can also be considered forms of mass media. The organizations that control these technologies, such as studios, publishing companies. In the late 20th century, mass media could be classified into eight mass media industries, books, the Internet, magazines, movies, newspapers, radio, recordings, and television. The explosion of digital technology in the late 20th and early 21st centuries made prominent the question. For example, it is whether to include cell phones, computer games. In the 2000s, a called the seven mass media became popular. For example, the Internet includes blogs, podcasts, web sites, the sixth and seventh media, Internet and mobile phones, are often referred to collectively as digital media, and the fourth and fifth, radio and TV, as broadcast media. Some argue that video games have developed into a mass form of media. While a telephone is a communication device, mass media communicates to a large group. In addition, the telephone has transformed into a phone which is equipped with Internet access. A question arises whether this makes cell phones a mass medium or simply a device used to access a mass medium. There is currently a system by which marketers and advertisers are able to tap into satellites and this transmission of mass advertising to millions of people is another form of mass communication. Video games may also be evolving into a mass medium, video games provide a common gaming experience to millions of users across the globe and convey the same messages and ideologies to all their users. Users sometimes share the experience with one another by playing online, excluding the Internet however, it is questionable whether players of video games are sharing a common experience when they play the game individually
21.
Orwellian
–
Orwellian is an adjective describing a situation, idea, or societal condition that George Orwell identified as being destructive to the welfare of a free and open society. Nineteen Eighty-Four uses themes from life in the Soviet Union and wartime life in Great Britain as sources for many of its motifs, bibliography of George Orwell Mass surveillance National security Doublespeak Award Finding Orwell in Burma
22.
Persuasion
–
Persuasion is an umbrella term of influence. Persuasion can attempt to influence a persons beliefs, attitudes, intentions, motivations, Persuasion is also an often used tool in the pursuit of personal gain, such as election campaigning, giving a sales pitch, or in trial advocacy. Persuasion can also be interpreted as using ones personal or positional resources to change behaviors or attitudes. Systematic persuasion is the process through which attitudes or beliefs are leveraged by appeals to logic, heuristic persuasion on the other hand is the process through which attitudes or beliefs are leveraged by appeals to habit or emotion. Persuasion began with the Greeks, who emphasized rhetoric and elocution as the highest standard for a successful politician, all trials were held in front of the Assembly, and both the prosecution and the defense rested, as they often do today, on the persuasiveness of the speaker. Rhetoric was the ability to find the means of persuasion in any instance. Aristotles rhetorical proofs, ethos logos pathos Humans attempt to explain the actions of others through either dispositional attribution or situational attribution. Dispositional attribution, also referred to as attribution, attempts to point to a person’s traits, abilities, motives. A citizen claiming that a lack of progress is not a fault of the president. Fundamental attribution error occurs when people wrongly attribute either a shortcoming or accomplishment to internal factors, in general, people tend to make dispositional attributions more often than situational attributions when trying to explain or understand a person’s behavior. This happens when we are more focused on the individual because we do not know much about their situation or context. Conditioning plays a part in the concept of persuasion. It is more often about leading someone into taking certain actions of their own, in advertisements for example, this is done by attempting to connect a positive emotion to a brand/product logo. This is often done by creating commercials that make people laugh, using a sexual undertone, inserting uplifting images and/or music etc. great examples of this are professional athletes. The important thing for the advertiser is to establish a connection to the consumer and this conditioning is thought to affect how people view certain products, knowing that most purchases are made on the basis of emotion. Just like you sometimes recall a memory from a certain smell or sound, stefano DellaVigna and Matthew Gentzkow did a comprehensive study on the effects of persuasion in different domains. They discovered that persuasion has little or no effect on advertisement, however, leon Festinger originally proposed the theory of cognitive dissonance in 1957. He theorized that human beings strive for mental consistency
23.
Activism
–
Activism consists of efforts to promote, impede, or direct social, political, economic, and/or environmental reform or stasis with the desire to make improvements in society. One can also express activism through different forms of art, daily acts of protest such as not buying clothes from a certain clothing company because they exploit workers is another form of activism. One view holds that acknowledging privileges and oppressions on a daily basis ranks as a form of activism, research has begun to explore how activist groups use social media to facilitate civic engagement and collective action. The Online Etymology Dictionary records the English words activism and activist from 1920, Activists can function in roles as public officials, as in judicial activism. Arthur Schlesinger, Jr. introduced the term judicial activism in a January 1946 Fortune magazine article titled The Supreme Court,1947, some activists try to persuade people to change their behavior directly, rather than to persuade governments to change or not to change laws. Other activists try to persuade people to remain the same, in an effort to counter change, the cooperative movement seeks to build new institutions which conform to cooperative principles, and generally does not lobby or protest politically. Activism is not always an action by Activists, every year more than 100 environmental activists are killed, in 2014116 environmental activists were assassinated, in 2015185 activists were killed around this planet. Since the 1990s, the Internet has been a tool used by activists for mobilization and communication of causes, specific platforms like MoveOn. org, founded in 1998, allow individuals to establish petitions and movements for social change. Protesters in Seattle in 1999 used email to organize protests against the WTO Ministerial Conference, throughout the 2000s, protesters continued to use social media platforms to generate interest. The power of Internet Activism came into a lens with the Arab Spring protests. They use different means to political persecution, such as Tor Browser. The activism industry consists of organizations and individuals engaged in activism, Activism is often done full-time, as part of an organizations core business. Many organizations in the industry are either non profit organizations or non-governmental organizations. Most activist organizations do not manufacture goods, the term activism industry has often been used to refer to outsourced fundraising operations. However, activist organizations engage in activities as well. Lobbying, or the influencing of decisions made by government, is another activist tactic, many groups, including law firms, have designated staff assigned specifically for lobbying purposes. In the United States, lobbying is regulated by the federal government, many government systems encourage public support of non-profit organizations by granting various forms of tax relief for donations to charitable organizations. Governments may attempt to deny these benefits to activists by restricting the political activity of tax-exempt organizations, randy Shaw, The Activists Handbook, A Primer for the 1990s and Beyond
24.
Alternative media
–
Alternative media are media that differ from established or dominant types of media in terms of their content, production, or distribution. Alternative media take many forms including print, audio, video, alternative media challenge the dominant beliefs and values of a culture and have been described as counter-hegemonic by adherents of Antonio Gramscis theory of cultural hegemony. There are various definitions of alternative media, john Downing, for example, defines radical alternative media as media that express an alternative vision to hegemonic policies, priorities, and perspectives. One way of understanding alternative media is to consider their role in the process of democratic communication, philosopher Jürgen Habermas proposed that a healthy democratic community requires a space where rational debate can take place between engaged citizens. It is essential that the dialogue in this public sphere occurs outside the control of any authority so that citizens can exchange ideas as equals and this translates to the need for free speech and a free press. In Habermass idea of the sphere, participation is open to everyone, all participants are considered equal. However, this fails to note the inherent exclusion of women. The alternative media associated with these spheres are critical in developing the needs and identity of the group. Social movements are a type of collective action and they involve large, sometimes informal, groups or organizations which focus on specific political or social issues and instigate, resist or undo social change. Social movement media is how social movements use media, and oftentimes, due to the nature of social movements, communication is vital to the success of social movements. As a result, social movements often turn to media forms. An example of how the mainstream media problematically covers social movements is the Occupy movement, in comparing the mainstream news coverage of the Occupy movement against coverage from alternative press several trends emerge. First, mainstream media used confusion over the event as the dominant frame while alternative media focused on what the demonstrators were trying to accomplish. Second, the media placed the protesters at fault of any violence while the alternative media focused on the brutality of the police. For more information about social movements, and alternative media, see Social movement theory, Social movements in areas such as human rights, the environmental movement, and civil rights produce alternative media to further their goals, spread awareness, and inspire participation and support. An example of a human rights social movement using alternative media is the group WITNESS and they rely on video recordings using technology such as handheld camcorders and smart phones to capture the worlds attention and viscerally communicate human rights abuses. An example of an environment movement using alternative media is the group Green Peace and it uses direct action, lobbying, and research to achieve its goals, as well as alternative media. They use online tactics such as podcasts and blogs as well as performance art, an example of a civil rights movement group using alternative media was the Student Non-violent Coordinating Committee
25.
Boycott
–
The purpose of a boycott is to inflict some economic loss on the target, or to indicate a moral outrage, to try to compel the target to alter an objectionable behavior. Sometimes, a boycott can be a form of consumer activism, when a similar practice is legislated by a national government, it is known as a sanction. As harvests had been poor that year, Lord Erne offered his tenants a ten percent reduction in their rents, in September of that year, protesting tenants demanded a twenty five percent reduction, which Lord Erne refused. Boycott then attempted to evict eleven tenants from the land, while Parnells speech did not refer to land agents or landlords, the tactic was first applied to Boycott when the alarm was raised about the evictions. Despite the short-term economic hardship to those undertaking this action, Boycott soon found himself isolated – his workers stopped work in the fields and stables, local businessmen stopped trading with him, and the local postman refused to deliver mail. The concerted action taken against him meant that Boycott was unable to hire anyone to harvest the crops in his charge, eventually 50 Orangemen from Cavan and Monaghan volunteered to do the work. This protection ended up costing far more than the harvest was worth, after the harvest, the boycott was successfully continued. Within weeks Boycotts name was everywhere, the New York Tribune reporter, James Redpath, first wrote of the boycott in the international press. The Irish author, George Moore, reported, Like a comet the verb boycott appeared and it was used by The Times in November 1880 as a term for organized isolation. According to an account in the book The Fall of Feudalism in Ireland by Michael Davitt, john OMalley of County Mayo to signify ostracism applied to a landlord or agent like Boycott. The Times first reported on November 20,1880, The people of New Pallas have resolved to boycott them, the Daily News wrote on December 13,1880, Already the stoutest-hearted are yielding on every side to the dread of being Boycotted. By January of the year, the word was being used figuratively. She Boycotted London from Kew to Mile End, girlcott is a portmanteau of girl and boycott intended to focus on the rights or actions of women. The term was coined in 1968 by American track star Lacey ONeal during the 1968 Summer Olympics in Mexico City, speaking for black women athletes, she advised that the group would not girlcott the Olympic Games, because female athletes were still focused on being recognized. It also appeared in Time magazine in 1970, and was used by retired tennis player Billie Jean King in reference to Wimbledon. The term girlcott was revived in 2005 by women in Allegheny County, Pennsylvania protesting what they said were sexist, during the 1973 oil crisis, the Arab countries enacted a crude oil embargo against the West. The first Olympic boycott was in the 1956 Summer Olympics with several countries boycotting the games for different reasons, iran also has an informal Olympic boycott against participating against Israel, and Iranian athletes typically bow out or claim injuries when pitted against Israelis. A boycott is typically a one-time affair intended to correct a single wrong. g
26.
Civil disobedience
–
Civil disobedience is the active, professed refusal to obey certain laws, demands, and commands of a government, or of an occupying international power. Civil disobedience is a symbolic or ritualistic violation of the law, Civil disobedience is sometimes, though not always, defined as being nonviolent resistance. One of its earliest massive implementations was brought about by Egyptians against the British occupation in the 1919 Revolution, Civil disobedience is one of the many ways people have rebelled against what they deem to be unfair laws. She gives a speech in which she tells him that she must obey her conscience rather than human law. She is not at all afraid of the death he threatens her with and it is perhaps the first modern statement of the principle of nonviolent protest. A version was taken up by the author Henry David Thoreau in his essay Civil Disobedience, gandhis Satyagraha was partially influenced and inspired by Shelleys nonviolence in protest and political action. In particular, it is known that Gandhi would often quote Shelleys Masque of Anarchy to vast audiences during the campaign for a free India, Thoreaus 1848 essay Civil Disobedience, originally titled Resistance to Civil Government, has had a wide influence on many later practitioners of civil disobedience. The driving idea behind the essay is that citizens are morally responsible for their support of aggressors, in the essay, Thoreau explained his reasons for having refused to pay taxes as an act of protest against slavery and against the Mexican–American War. He writes, If I devote myself to other pursuits and contemplations, I must first see, at least, I must get off him first, that he may pursue his contemplations too. See what gross inconsistency is tolerated, public and typically peaceful resistance to public power would remain an integral tactic in modern American minority-rights politics. Henry David Thoreaus 1849 essay Resistance to Civil Government was eventually renamed Essay on Civil Disobedience, after his landmark lectures were published in 1866, the term began to appear in numerous sermons and lectures relating to slavery and the war in Mexico. Thus, by the time Thoreaus lectures were first published under the title Civil Disobedience, in 1866, four years after his death and it has been argued that the term civil disobedience has always suffered from ambiguity and in modern times, become utterly debased. Marshall Cohen notes, It has been used to everything from bringing a test-case in the federal courts to taking aim at a federal official. LeGrande writes that the formulation of a single all-encompassing definition of the term is extremely difficult, in reviewing the voluminous literature on the subject, the student of civil disobedience rapidly finds himself surrounded by a maze of semantical problems and grammatical niceties. Like Alice in Wonderland, he finds that specific terminology has no more meaning than the individual orator intends it to have. He encourages a distinction between lawful protest demonstration, nonviolent civil disobedience, and violent civil disobedience, the resistance to authority in South Africa was well advanced before I got the essay. When I saw the title of Thoreaus great essay, I began to use his phrase to explain our struggle to the English readers, but I found that even Civil Disobedience failed to convey the full meaning of the struggle. I therefore adopted the phrase Civil Resistance, often there is an expectation to be attacked or even beaten by the authorities
27.
Culture jamming
–
Culture jamming is a tactic used by many anti-consumerist social movements to disrupt or subvert media culture and its mainstream cultural institutions, including corporate advertising. It attempts to expose the methods of domination of a society to foster progressive change. Culture jamming is a form of subvertising, many culture jams are intended to expose questionable political assumptions behind commercial culture. Tactics include re-figuring logos, fashion statements, and product images as a means to challenge the idea of whats cool, Culture jamming often entails using mass media to produce ironic or satirical commentary about itself, commonly using the original mediums communication method. Culture jamming is employed as a reaction against social conformity, prominent examples of culture jamming include the adulteration of billboard advertising by the Billboard Liberation Front, and contemporary artists such as Ron English. Culture jamming may involve street parties and protests, the term was coined in 1984 by Don Joyce of the sound collage band Negativland, with the release of their album JamCon 84. The phrase culture jamming comes from the idea of radio jamming, in one of the tracks of the album, they stated, According to Vince Carducci, although the term was coined by Negativland, culture jamming can be traced as far back as the 1950s. One particularly influential group that was active in Europe was the Situationist International and was led by Guy Debord, the SI asserted that in the past humans dealt with life and the consumer market directly. They argued that this way of life was slowly deteriorating as a direct result of the new modern way of life. Through playful activity, individuals could create situations, the opposite of spectacles, the SI first compared its own activities to radio jamming in 1968, when it proposed the use of guerrilla communication within mass media to sow confusion within the dominant culture. In 1985, the Guerrilla Girls formed to expose discrimination and corruption in the artworld, for example, T-Mobile utilized the Liverpool street underground station to host a flashmob to sell their mobile services. Culture jamming is a form of disruption that plays on the emotions of viewers and bystanders, Jammers want to disrupt the unconscious thought process that takes place when most consumers view a popular advertising and bring about a détournement. Activists that utilize this tactic are counting on their meme to pull on the strings of people. The reactions that most cultural jammers are hoping to evoke are behavioral change, there are four emotions that activists often want viewers to feel. These emotions – shock, shame, fear, and anger – are believed to be the catalysts for social change, the basic unit in which a message is transmitted in culture jamming is the meme. Memes are condensed images that stimulate visual, verbal, musical, or behavioral associations that people can easily imitate and transmit to others. The term meme was coined and first popularized by geneticist Richard Dawkins, but later used by critics such as Douglas Rushkoff. Memes are seen as genes that can jump from outlet to outlet, Culture jammers will often use common symbols such as the McDonalds golden arches or Nike swoosh to engage people and force them to think about their eating habits or fashion sense
28.
Demonstration (protest)
–
Actions such as blockades and sit-ins may also be referred to as demonstrations. Demonstrations can be nonviolent or violent, or can begin as nonviolent, sometimes riot police or other forms of law enforcement become involved. In some cases this may be in order to try to prevent the protest from taking place at all, in other cases it may be to prevent clashes between rival groups, or to prevent a demonstration from spreading and turning into a riot. Demonstrations are a form of activism, usually taking the form of a gathering of people in a rally or walking in a march. Thus, the opinion is demonstrated to be significant by gathering in a associated with that opinion. Demonstrations can be used to show a viewpoint regarding a public issue, a demonstration is usually considered more successful if more people participate. There are many types of demonstrations, including a variety of elements and these may include, Marches, in which a parade demonstrate while moving along a set route. Rallies, in which people gather to listen to speakers or musicians, picketing, in which people surround an area. Nudity, in which they protest naked - here the antagonist may give in before the demonstration happens to avoid embarrassment, Demonstrations are sometimes spontaneous gatherings, but are also utilized as a tactical choice by movements. They often form part of a campaign of nonviolent resistance. Demonstrations are usually physical gatherings, but virtual or online demonstrations are certainly possible, topics of demonstrations often deal with political, economic, and social issues. Clashes between demonstrators and counter-demonstrators may turn violent, government-organized demonstrations are demonstrations which are organized by a government. The Islamic Republic of Iran, the Peoples Republic of China, Republic of Cuba, sometimes the date or location chosen for the demonstration is of historical or cultural significance, such as the anniversary of some event that is relevant to the topic of the demonstration. Locations are also chosen because of some relevance to the issue at hand. Protest marches and demonstrations are a nonviolent tactic. They are thus one tactic available to proponents of strategic nonviolence, some demonstrations and protests can turn, at least partially, into riots or mob violence against objects such as automobiles and businesses, bystanders and the police. Police and military authorities often use force or less-lethal weapons, such as tasers, rubber bullets, pepper spray. Sometimes violent situations are caused by the preemptive or offensive use of weapons which can provoke, destabilize
29.
Media activism
–
Media activism is a broad category of activism that utilizes media and communication technologies for social and political movements. Media activism can be used for different purposes. It is often employed by grassroots activists and anarchists to spread information not available via mainstream media or to share censored news stories, certain forms of politically motivated hacking and net-based campaigns are also considered media activism. Often, the focus of media activism is to change policies relating to media, social media is often used as a form of media activism. Because of the features and widespread adoption users can quickly disseminate information. Our ideas, our demands are discussed on Facebook, there are no meetings, no rules. Live streams applications or websites such as Livestream is a media form which can replace TV when there is a kind of censorship. The protests in Istanbul can be an example of this way of broadcasting in terms of the lack of the objectivity of the actual media, moreover, the usage of applications such as Whatsapp can increase the organisation of the protestors due to the group messages. YouTube is another efficient tool of spreading information and it is generally used with other social media forms such as Facebook and Twitter. The most important example to the media activism through YouTube can be the video of Kony which reached to one hundred million views in 6 days, manifesting by using videos allows protesters to reach the whole world easier than just publishing in a local language. Media activism has expanded its scope to include fields of such as journalism. Media activism additionally educates the audience to be producers of their own media, Media activism to be expanded to facilitate action through media production and involvement. Social Media has become an organizing tool for political and social movements globally. They serve to strengthen already existing networks of political and social relationships among activists offline, Media activism among youth can be linked to the way youth protest and create communities online over specific issues and social connections. Today nearly 32 percent of Venezuelan internet-users utilize social media on regular basis, social media was used to organize rallies and political platforms and affected campaign content. Opposition candidate Capriles used social media as an activist approach to drum up support and this form of media activism connected most dominantly in the Venezuelan youth population—a generation considered to be tech-savvy. The 2011 Arab Spring uprisings made extensive use of media activism within the countries of Tunisia, Libya. These nations concentrated on the ability of the society to operate social media, Arab youth population are described as opening societies through social media in places where governments are otherwise repressive
30.
Protest
–
A protest is an expression of bearing witness on behalf of an express cause by words or actions with regard to particular events, policies or situations. Protests can take different forms, from individual statements to mass demonstrations. Various forms of self-expression and protest are sometimes restricted by policy, economic circumstances, religious orthodoxy, social structures. One state reaction to protests is the use of riot police, observers have noted an increased militarization of protest policing, with police deploying armored vehicles and snipers against the protesters. A protest can itself sometimes be the subject of a counter-protest, in such a case, counter-protesters demonstrate their support for the person, policy, action, etc. that is the subject of the original protest. In some cases, these protesters can violently clash, unaddressed protests may grow and widen into civil resistance, dissent, activism, riots, insurgency, revolts, and political and/or social revolution. 2013 through Feb.2014 Black Lives Matter 2016 South Korean protests 2017 Jallikattu protests Dakota Access Pipeline protests A protest can take many forms, the Dynamics of Collective Action project and the Global Nonviolent Action Database are two of the leading data collection efforts attempting to capture protest events. Reference to speeches, speakers, singing, preaching, often verified by indication of sound equipment of PA, ordinarily will include worship services, speeches, briefings. March, Reference to moving from one location to another, to be distinguished from rotating or walking in a circle with picket signs which by definition, but also no reference to sound systems or to marches, it may well be a vigil. Most vigils have banners, placards, or leaflets so that people passing by, despite silence from participants, picket, The modal activity is picketing, there may be references to picket line, to informational picketing, holding signs, carrying signs and walking around in a circle). Symbolic display, e. g. Menorah, Creche Scene, graffiti, cross burnings, signs, standing displays Attack by instigators Ethnic group victim of physical attack, boundary motivating attack is other groups identity, as in gay-bashing, lynching. Can also include verbal attack and/or threats, too, Riot, melee, mob violence, Large-scale, use of violence by instigators against persons, property, police, or buildings separately or in combination, lasting several hours. Strike, slow down and sick-ins employee work protest of any kind, Regular air strike through failure of negotiations, boycott, Organized refusal to buy or use a product or service, rent strikes. Press conference, If specifically named as such in report, could involve disclosure of information to educate the public or influence various decision-makers. Organization formation announcement or meeting announcement, meeting or press conference to announce the formation of a new organization, conflict, attack or clash, no instigator, This includes any boundary conflict in which no instigator can be identified, i. e. black/white conflicts, abortion/anti-abortion conflicts. Lawsuit, legal maneuver by social movement organization or group The Global Nonviolent Action database uses Gene Sharps classification of 198 methods of nonviolent action, there is considerable overlap with the Dynamics of Collective Action repertoire, although the GNA repertoire includes more specific tactics. Together, the two projects help define tactics available to protesters and document instances of their use, thomas Ratliff and Lori Hall have devised a typology of six broad activity categories of the protest activities described in the Dynamics of Collective Action project. Literal, symbolic, aesthetic and sensory - Artistic, dramaturgical, use of images, objects, graphic arts, musical performances, or vocal/auditory exhibitions
31.
Youth activism
–
Youth activism is youth engagement in community organizing for social change. Youth participation in social change focuses more on issue-oriented activism than traditional partisan or electoral politics, technology and the use of digital media has changed the way youth participate in activism globally, and youth are more active in media than older generations. Teens are often out of participation in politics because adults dominate the discourse. However, youth are also concerned and informed citizens who can advocate for change within their communities and these may include politics, health, and social issues. Sociopolitical development is a process that covers the range of cognitions, skills, attitudes, worldviews. Social activism is the predominant form of youth today, as millions of young people around the world participate in social activism that is organized, informed, led. Many efforts, including education reform, childrens rights, and government reform call on youth to participate this way, Youth councils are an example of this. Youth-driven activism requires young people to be the primary movers within an adult-led movement, such is the case with the Sierra Club, where youth compel their peers to join and become active in the environmental movement. This is also true of many organizations that were founded by youth who became adults, such as SEAC, as the central beneficiaries of public schools, youth are also advocating for student-led school change and education reform through student activism and meaningful student involvement. There are structural inequalities that keep youth from engaging in political talk, school clubs require an adult adviser to make the club official, further adding to school hierarchies of adult power. Facebook has become a tool for youth to not only information, but broadcast events and activities, participate in activist groups. Twitter, although it is used to provide links to activism, is not regarded to be as useful because of the limitation of 140 characters, Twitter has also been used to spread awareness of social issues by using hashtags. Some of these movements included Kony 2012 and Trayvon Martin, video blogging is used as a tool by youth activist to reach out to their peers, gather support, establish a discourse and even to mobilize others. Youth use videos to articulate ideas and needs, organize resources and people and it has also led to the recognition of youth as political actors in the public domain. Youth activism in the Global South increased in the first years of the 2010s, people under the age of 18 comprise 46% of the global population, and these youth played a crucial role around the world during the first two decades of the twenty-first century. A classic example of youth engagement in political activism is the Soweto riots, to the people in South Africa, June 16 is a constant reminder of the political events that occurred in 1976. When teachers started instructing in Afrikaans, the language of their oppressors, the police reaction was brutal and that day at least twenty-five people were killed. The violence continued and spread all across the country, by the end of the year 575 people died and 2,389 were wounded
32.
Advertising
–
Advertising is an audio or visual form of marketing communication that employs an openly sponsored, nonpersonal message to promote or sell a product, service or idea. Sponsors of advertising are often businesses who wish to promote their products or services, Advertising is differentiated from public relations in that an advertiser usually pays for and has control over the message. It is differentiated from personal selling in that the message is nonpersonal, the actual presentation of the message in a medium is referred to as an advertisement or ad. Commercial ads often seek to generate increased consumption of their products or services through branding, on the other hand, ads that intend to elicit an immediate sale are known as direct response advertising. Non-commercial advertisers who spend money to advertise items other than a product or service include political parties, interest groups, religious organizations. Non-profit organizations may use free modes of persuasion, such as a service announcement. Advertising may also be used to reassure employees or shareholders that a company is viable or successful, in 2015, the world spent an estimate of US$592.43 billion on advertising. Its projected distribution for 2017 is 40. 4% on TV,33. 3% on digital, internationally, the largest advertising conglomerates are Interpublic, Omnicom, Publicis, and WPP. In Latin, ad vertere means to turn toward, egyptians used papyrus to make sales messages and wall posters. Commercial messages and political campaign displays have been found in the ruins of Pompeii, lost and found advertising on papyrus was common in ancient Greece and ancient Rome. Wall or rock painting for commercial advertising is another manifestation of an ancient advertising form, which is present to this day in many parts of Asia, Africa, the tradition of wall painting can be traced back to Indian rock art paintings that date back to 4000 BC. In ancient China, the earliest advertising known was oral, as recorded in the Classic of Poetry of bamboo flutes played to sell candy, advertisement usually takes in the form of calligraphic signboards and inked papers. Fruits and vegetables were sold in the city square from the backs of carts and wagons, the first compilation of such advertisements was gathered in Les Crieries de Paris, a thirteenth-century poem by Guillaume de la Villeneuve. In the 18th century advertisements started to appear in newspapers in England. However, false advertising and so-called quack advertisements became a problem, thomas J. Barratt from London has been called the father of modern advertising. Working for the Pears Soap company, Barratt created an advertising campaign for the company products. One of his slogans, Good morning, have you used Pears soap. was famous in its day and into the 20th century. Barratt introduced many of the ideas that lie behind successful advertising
33.
Billboard
–
A billboard is a large outdoor advertising structure, typically found in high-traffic areas such as alongside busy roads. Billboards present large advertisements to passing pedestrians and drivers, typically showing large, ostensibly witty slogans, and distinctive visuals, billboards are highly visible in the top designated market areas. The largest standard-size billboards, known as Bulletins, are located primarily on highways, expressways or principal arterials. Bulletins afford greatest visibility due not only to their size, but because they allow creative customizing through extensions, posters are the other common form of billboard advertising, located mostly along primary and secondary arterial roads. Posters are a smaller format than bulletins and are viewed principally by residents and commuter traffic, billboard advertisements are designed to catch a persons attention and create a memorable impression very quickly, leaving the reader thinking about the advertisement after they have driven past it. They have to be readable in a short time because they are usually read while being passed at high speeds. Thus there are only a few words, in large print. Some billboard designs spill outside the space given to them by the billboard. The sign depicted a giant cube of beef being pierced by a fork that extended to the ground. The scents were emitted between 7–10 a. m. and 4– to 7 pm from 28 May 2010 through 18 June 2010, almost all these billboards were painted in large studios. The image was projected on the series of panels that made up the billboard. Line drawings were done, then traced with a wheel that created perforated lines. The patterns were then pounced onto the board with a chalk filled pounce bag, using oil paints, artists would use large brushes to paint the image. Once the panels were installed using hydraulic cranes, artists would go up on the installed billboard and these large, painted billboards were especially popular in Los Angeles where historic firms such as Foster & Kleiser and Pacific Outdoor Advertising dominated the industry. Eventually, these painted billboards gave way to graphic reproduction, the Sunset Strip in Los Angeles is one area where hand-painted billboards can still be found, usually to advertise upcoming films or albums. A digital billboard is a billboard that is created from computer programs, digital billboards can be designed to display running text, display several different displays from the same company, and even provide several companies a certain time slot during the day. The constantly changing texts ensure maximum impact and wide exposure to target audiences, in May 2014, Becks Beer released a billboard poster that plays audio. Conductive ink linked to sensors and speakers means that when touched, the beer company claim it to be the worlds first playable music poster
_(8205957369).jpg)
