1.
E. F. Schumacher
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His ideas became popularised in much of the English-speaking world during the 1970s. He is best known for his critique of Western economies and his proposals for human-scale, decentralised and appropriate technologies. According to The Times Literary Supplement in 1995, his 1973 book Small Is Beautiful and it was soon translated into many languages, bringing him international fame. Schumachers basic development theories have been summed up in the catch-phrases Intermediate Size, in 1977 he published A Guide for the Perplexed as a critique of materialist scientism and as an exploration of the nature and organisation of knowledge. Together with long-time friends and associates like Professor Mansur Hoda, Schumacher founded the Intermediate Technology Development Group in 1966, Schumacher was born in Bonn, Germany in 1911. His father was a professor of political economy and he then worked in business, farming and journalism. His sister, Elizabeth, was the wife of the physicist Werner Heisenberg, Schumacher moved back to England before World War II, as he had no intention of living under Nazism. For a period during the War, he was interned on an isolated English farm as an enemy alien. In these years, Schumacher captured the attention of John Maynard Keynes with a paper entitled Multilateral Clearing that he had written between sessions working in the fields of the internment camp. Keynes recognised the young Germans understanding and abilities, and he was able to have Schumacher released from internment, Schumacher helped the British government mobilise economically and financially during World War II, and Keynes found a position for him at Oxford University. After the War, Schumacher worked as an advisor to, and later Chief Statistician for, the British Control Commission. From 1950 to 1970 he was Chief Economic Adviser to the National Coal Board, one of the worlds largest organisations, in this position, he argued that coal, not petroleum, should be used to supply the energy needs of the worlds population. It is generally thought that his farsighted planning contributed to Britains post-war economic recovery, Schumacher predicted the rise of OPEC and many of the problems of nuclear power. In 1955 Schumacher travelled to Burma as an economic consultant, while there, he developed the set of principles he called Buddhist economics, based on the belief that individuals need good work for proper human development. He also proclaimed that production from local resources for local needs is the most rational way of economic life and he travelled throughout many Third World countries, encouraging local governments to create self-reliant economies. He founded the Intermediate Technology Development Group in 1966 and his theories of development have been summed up for many in catch phrases such as intermediate size, and intermediate technology. He was a trustee of Scott Bader Commonwealth and in 1970 the president of the Soil Association, E F Schumacher was greatly influenced by Mahatma Gandhi and J. C. Kumarappa and Gandhis concepts of Economy of Permanence and appropriate technology, Schumacher wrote on economics for Londons The Times and became one of the papers chief editorial writers
2.
Hardcover
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A hardcover or hardback book is one bound with rigid protective covers. It has a flexible, sewn spine which allows the book to lie flat on a surface when opened, following the ISBN sequence numbers, books of this type may be identified by the abbreviation Hbk. Hardcover books are printed on acid-free paper, and are much more durable than paperbacks. Hardcover books are more costly to manufacture. If brisk sales are anticipated, an edition of a book is typically released first. Some publishers publish paperback originals if slow hardback sales are anticipated, for very popular books these sales cycles may be extended, and followed by a mass market paperback edition typeset in a more compact size and printed on shallower, less hardy paper. In the past the release of an edition was one year after the hardback. It is very unusual for a book that was first published in paperback to be followed by a hardback, an example is the novel The Judgment of Paris by Gore Vidal, which had its revised edition of 1961 first published in paperback, and later in hardcover. Hardcover books are sold at higher prices than comparable paperbacks. Hardcovers typically consist of a block, two boards, and a cloth or heavy paper covering. The pages are sewn together and glued onto a flexible spine between the boards, and it too is covered by the cloth, a paper wrapper, or dust jacket, is usually put over the binding, folding over each horizontal end of the boards. On the folded part, or flap, over the front cover is generally a blurb, the back flap is where the biography of the author can be found. Reviews are often placed on the back of the jacket, bookbinding Paperback How to make a simple Hardcover book
3.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
4.
OCLC
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The Online Computer Library Center is a US-based nonprofit cooperative organization dedicated to the public purposes of furthering access to the worlds information and reducing information costs. It was founded in 1967 as the Ohio College Library Center, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat, the largest online public access catalog in the world. OCLC is funded mainly by the fees that libraries have to pay for its services, the group first met on July 5,1967 on the campus of the Ohio State University to sign the articles of incorporation for the nonprofit organization. The group hired Frederick G. Kilgour, a former Yale University medical school librarian, Kilgour wished to merge the latest information storage and retrieval system of the time, the computer, with the oldest, the library. The goal of network and database was to bring libraries together to cooperatively keep track of the worlds information in order to best serve researchers and scholars. The first library to do online cataloging through OCLC was the Alden Library at Ohio University on August 26,1971 and this was the first occurrence of online cataloging by any library worldwide. Membership in OCLC is based on use of services and contribution of data, between 1967 and 1977, OCLC membership was limited to institutions in Ohio, but in 1978, a new governance structure was established that allowed institutions from other states to join. In 2002, the structure was again modified to accommodate participation from outside the United States. As OCLC expanded services in the United States outside of Ohio, it relied on establishing strategic partnerships with networks, organizations that provided training, support, by 2008, there were 15 independent United States regional service providers. OCLC networks played a key role in OCLC governance, with networks electing delegates to serve on OCLC Members Council, in early 2009, OCLC negotiated new contracts with the former networks and opened a centralized support center. OCLC provides bibliographic, abstract and full-text information to anyone, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat—the OCLC Online Union Catalog, the largest online public access catalog in the world. WorldCat has holding records from public and private libraries worldwide. org, in October 2005, the OCLC technical staff began a wiki project, WikiD, allowing readers to add commentary and structured-field information associated with any WorldCat record. The Online Computer Library Center acquired the trademark and copyrights associated with the Dewey Decimal Classification System when it bought Forest Press in 1988, a browser for books with their Dewey Decimal Classifications was available until July 2013, it was replaced by the Classify Service. S. The reference management service QuestionPoint provides libraries with tools to communicate with users and this around-the-clock reference service is provided by a cooperative of participating global libraries. OCLC has produced cards for members since 1971 with its shared online catalog. OCLC commercially sells software, e. g. CONTENTdm for managing digital collections, OCLC has been conducting research for the library community for more than 30 years. In accordance with its mission, OCLC makes its research outcomes known through various publications and these publications, including journal articles, reports, newsletters, and presentations, are available through the organizations website. The most recent publications are displayed first, and all archived resources, membership Reports – A number of significant reports on topics ranging from virtual reference in libraries to perceptions about library funding
5.
Dewey Decimal Classification
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The Dewey Decimal Classification, or Dewey Decimal System, is a proprietary library classification system first published in the United States by Melvil Dewey in 1876. It has been revised and expanded through 23 major editions, the latest issued in 2011 and it is also available in an abridged version suitable for smaller libraries. It is currently maintained by the Online Computer Library Center, a cooperative that serves libraries. OCLC licenses access to a version for catalogers called WebDewey. The Decimal Classification introduced the concepts of relative location and relative index which allow new books to be added to a library in their location based on subject. Libraries previously had given books permanent shelf locations that were related to the order of acquisition rather than topic, the classifications notation makes use of three-digit Arabic numerals for main classes, with fractional decimals allowing expansion for further detail. Using Arabic numerals for symbols, it is flexible to the degree that numbers can be expanded in linear fashion to cover aspects of general subjects. A library assigns a number that unambiguously locates a particular volume in a position relative to other books in the library. The number makes it possible to find any book and to return it to its place on the library shelves. The classification system is used in 200,000 libraries in at least 135 countries, the major competing classification system to the Dewey Decimal system is the Library of Congress Classification system created by the U. S. Melvil Dewey was an American librarian and self-declared reformer and he was a founding member of the American Library Association and can be credited with the promotion of card systems in libraries and business. He developed the ideas for his classification system in 1873 while working at Amherst College library. He applied the classification to the books in library, until in 1876 he had a first version of the classification. In 1876, he published the classification in pamphlet form with the title A Classification and Subject Index for Cataloguing and Arranging the Books and he used the pamphlet, published in more than one version during the year, to solicit comments from other librarians. It is not known who received copies or how many commented as only one copy with comments has survived, in March 1876, he applied for, and received copyright on the first edition of the index. The edition was 44 pages in length, with 2,000 index entries, comprised 314 pages, with 10,000 index entries. Editions 3–14, published between 1888 and 1942, used a variant of this same title, Dewey modified and expanded his system considerably for the second edition. In an introduction to that edition Dewey states that nearly 100 persons hav contributed criticisms, one of the innovations of the Dewey Decimal system was that of positioning books on the shelves in relation to other books on similar topics
6.
Library of Congress Classification
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The Library of Congress Classification is a system of library classification developed by the Library of Congress. It is used by most research and academic libraries in the U. S. the Classification is also distinct from Library of Congress Subject Headings, the system of labels such as Boarding schools and Boarding schools—Fiction that describe contents systematically. The classification was invented by Herbert Putnam in 1897, just before he assumed the librarianship of Congress, with advice from Charles Ammi Cutter, it was influenced by his Cutter Expansive Classification, the Dewey Decimal System, and the Putnam Classification System. It was designed specifically for the purposes and collection of the Library of Congress to replace the fixed location system developed by Thomas Jefferson, by the time Putnam departed from his post in 1939, all the classes except K and parts of B were well developed. LCC has been criticized for lacking a theoretical basis, many of the classification decisions were driven by the practical needs of that library rather than epistemological considerations. Although it divides subjects into broad categories, it is essentially enumerative in nature and that is, it provides a guide to the books actually in one librarys collections, not a classification of the world. In 2007 the Wall Street Journal reported that in the countries it surveyed most public libraries, the National Library of Medicine classification system uses the initial letters W and QS–QZ, which are not used by LCC. Some libraries use NLM in conjunction with LCC, eschewing LCCs R for Medicine, others use LCCs QP–QR schedules and include Medicine R. Subclass AC – Collections. Collected works Subclass AE – Encyclopedias Subclass AG – Dictionaries and other reference works Subclass AI – Indexes Subclass AM – Museums. Collectors and collecting Subclass AN – Newspapers Subclass AP – Periodicals Subclass AS – Academies, directories Subclass AZ – History of scholarship and learning. The humanities Subclass B – Philosophy Subclass BC – Logic Subclass BD – Speculative philosophy Subclass BF – Psychology Subclass BH – Aesthetics Subclass BJ – Ethics Subclass BL – Religions, rationalism Subclass BM – Judaism Subclass BP – Islam. Seals Subclass CE – Technical Chronology, calendar Subclass CJ – Numismatics Subclass CN – Inscriptions. Former Soviet Republics – Poland Subclass DL – Northern Europe, maps Subclass GA – Mathematical geography. Cartography Subclass GB – Physical geography Subclass GC – Oceanography Subclass GE – Environmental Sciences Subclass GF – Human ecology, anthropogeography Subclass GN – Anthropology Subclass GR – Folklore Subclass GT – Manners and customs Subclass GV – Recreation. Leisure Subclass H – Social sciences Subclass HA – Statistics Subclass HB – Economic theory, demography Subclass HC – Economic history and conditions Subclass HD – Industries. Labor Subclass HE – Transportation and communications Subclass HF – Commerce Subclass HG – Finance Subclass HJ – Public finance Subclass HM – Sociology Subclass HN – Social history, Social reform Subclass HQ – The family. Marriage, Women and Sexuality Subclass HS – Societies, secret, benevolent, races Subclass HV – Social pathology. Municipal government Subclass JV – Colonies and colonization, International migration Subclass JX – International law, see JZ and KZ Subclass JZ – International relations Subclass K – Law in general
7.
Leopold Kohr
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For almost twenty years, he was Professor of Economics and Public Administration at the University of Puerto Rico. He described himself as a philosophical anarchist and his most influential work was The Breakdown of Nations. Kohr grew up in the town of Oberndorf near Salzburg. He often commented on the fact that the Christmas carol Silent Night was written and he earned doctorate degrees in law, at the University of Innsbruck, Austria, and political science, at the University of Vienna. He also studied economics and political theory at the London School of Economics and he became a close friend of journalist George Orwell and shared offices with correspondents Ernest Hemingway and André Malraux. Kohr fled Austria in 1938 after it was annexed by Nazi Germany and he later became an American citizen. Kohr taught economics and political philosophy at Rutgers University, in the U. S. state of New Jersey and he also advised the independence movement of the nearby island of Anguilla. After many rejections by American and British publishers, Kohrs first book, in 1973, Kohr moved from Puerto Rico to Wales, where he taught political philosophy at the University College of Wales, Aberystwyth. The project of Welsh independence, founded on the ideal of cymdeithas was dear to him, and Kohr became a mentor to Plaid Cymru, after retiring from teaching, Kohr divided his time between Gloucester, England, and Hellbrunn, outside Salzburg. In 1983, in Stockholm, Sweden, Kohr received the Right Livelihood Award, in 1984, Salzburg created the Leopold Kohr Academy and Cultural Association Tauriska to put his theories of regional autonomy into practice. Kohr was planning to return to his hometown of Oberndorf to live when he died in 1994 and his ashes were buried in Oberndorf. Salzburg journalist Gerald Lehner completed a biography of Kohr, based in part on long audiotaped interviews, Kohr was a charming conversationalist and a witty, elegant debunker of popular assumptions. Author Ivan Illich describes him as a funny bird—meek, fey, droll, Kohr described himself as a philosophical anarchist. Kohr protested the cult of bigness and economic growth and promoted the concept of human scale and he argued that massive external aid to poorer nations stifled local initiatives and participation. His vision called for a dissolution of centralized political and economic structures in favor of local control and he called for the breakup of Europe into hundreds of city states. Kohr developed his ideas in a series of books, including The Breakdown of Nations, Development without Aid, from Leopold Kohrs most popular work The Breakdown of Nations, there seems to be only one cause behind all forms of social misery, bigness. Oversimplified as this may seem, we find the idea more easily acceptable if we consider that bigness. It appears to be the one and only problem permeating all creation, whenever something is wrong, something is too big
8.
Appropriate technology
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It was originally articulated as intermediate technology by the economist Dr. Ernst Friedrich Fritz Schumacher in his work Small is Beautiful. Both Schumacher and many proponents of appropriate technology also emphasize the technology as people-centered. Appropriate technology has been used to address issues in a range of fields. OSAT has been proposed as a new model of enabling innovation for sustainable development, however, appropriate technology movements can be found in both developing and developed countries. In developed countries, the appropriate technology movement grew out of the crisis of the 1970s and focuses mainly on environmental. The facets are connected through robustness and sustainable living, history of technology, the development over time of systematic techniques for making and doing things. The term technology, a combination of the Greek technē, art, craft, with logos, word, speech, meant in Greece a discourse on the arts, both fine and applied. When it first appeared in English in the 17th century, it was used to mean a discussion of the applied arts only, by the early 20th century, the term embraced a growing range of means, processes, and ideas in addition to tools and machines. By mid-century, technology was defined by such phrases as the means or activity by which man seeks to change or manipulate his environment, even such broad definitions have been criticized by observers who point out the increasing difficulty of distinguishing between scientific inquiry and technological activity. The plan followed in the present article is primarily chronological, tracing the development of technology through phases that succeed each other in time, obviously, the division between phases is to a large extent arbitrary. Indian ideological leader Mahatma Gandhi is often cited as the father of the appropriate technology movement, though the concept had not been given a name, Gandhi advocated for small, local and predominantly village-based technology to help Indias villages become self-reliant. He disagreed with the idea of technology that benefited a minority of people at the expense of the majority or that put out of work to increase profit. In 1925 Gandhi founded the All-India Spinners Association and in 1935 he retired from politics to form the All-India Village Industries Association, both organizations focused on village-based technology similar to the future appropriate technology movement. China also implemented policies similar to technology during the reign of Mao Zedong. During the Cultural Revolution, development policies based on the idea of walking on two legs advocated the development of both large-scale factories and small-scale village industries, despite these early examples, Dr. Ernst Friedrich Fritz Schumacher is credited as the founder of the appropriate technology movement. However it was his work with developing countries, such as India and Burma, Schumacher had been developing the idea of intermediate technology for several years prior to the Planning Commission report. In addition to Buddhism, Schumacher also credited his ideas to Gandhi, initially, Schumachers ideas were rejected by both the Indian government and leading development economists. Later that year, a Schumacher article published in the Observer garnered significant attention, in 1967, the group published the Tools for Progress, A Guide to Small-scale Equipment for Rural Development and sold 7,000 copies
9.
1973 oil crisis
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The 1973 oil crisis began in October 1973 when the members of the Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries proclaimed an oil embargo. The embargo occurred in response to United States support for Israel during the Yom Kippur War, by the end of the embargo in March 1974, the price of oil had risen from US$3 per barrel to nearly $12 globally, US prices were significantly higher. The embargo caused an oil crisis, or shock, with many short- and long-term effects on global politics and it was later called the first oil shock, followed by the 1979 oil crisis, termed the second oil shock. The embargo was a response to American involvement in the 1973 Yom Kippur War, six days after Egypt and Syria launched a surprise military campaign against Israel, the US supplied Israel with arms. In response to this, the Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries announced an oil embargo against Canada, Japan, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, the crisis had a major impact on international relations and created a rift within NATO. Some European nations and Japan sought to disassociate themselves from United States foreign policy in the Middle East to avoid being targeted by the boycott, Arab oil producers linked any future policy changes to peace between the belligerents. To address this, the Nixon Administration began multilateral negotiations with the combatants and they arranged for Israel to pull back from the Sinai Peninsula and the Golan Heights. By January 18,1974, US Secretary of State Henry Kissinger had negotiated an Israeli troop withdrawal from parts of the Sinai Peninsula, the promise of a negotiated settlement between Israel and Syria was enough to convince Arab oil producers to lift the embargo in March 1974. The embargo occurred at a time of rising petroleum consumption by industrialized countries and coincided with an increase in oil imports by the worlds largest oil consumer. In the aftermath, targeted countries initiated a variety of policies to contain their future dependency. The 1973 oil price shock, with the accompanying 1973–74 stock market crash, was regarded as the first discrete event since the Great Depression to have a persistent effect on the US economy, the embargos success demonstrated Saudi Arabias diplomatic and economic power. It was the largest oil exporter and a politically and religiously conservative kingdom, in 1970, US oil production started to decline, exacerbating the embargos impact. Following this, Nixon named James E. Akins as US Ambassador to Saudi Arabia to audit US production capacity, the confidential results were alarming—no spare capacity was available and production could only decrease. The oil embargo had little effect on supply, according to Akins. OPEC was organized to resist pressure by the Seven Sisters to reduce oil prices, at first, OPEC operated as an informal bargaining unit for resource-rich third-world countries. OPEC confined its activities to gaining a share of the profits generated by oil companies. In the early 1970s it began to exert economic and political strength, on August 15,1971, the United States unilaterally pulled out of the Bretton Woods Accord. The US abandoned the Gold Exchange Standard whereby the value of the dollar had been pegged to the price of gold and all other currencies were pegged to the dollar, shortly thereafter, Britain followed, floating the pound sterling
10.
Globalization
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Globalization or globalisation is the action or procedure of international integration arising from the interchange of world views, products, ideas, and other aspects of culture. Advances in transportation and in telecommunications infrastructure have been factors in globalization, generating further interdependence of economic. Large-scale globalization began in the 1820s, in the late 19th century and early 20th century, the connectivity of the worlds economies and cultures grew very quickly. The term globalization is recent, only establishing its current meaning in the 1970s, further, environmental challenges such as global warming, cross-boundary water and air pollution, and overfishing of the ocean are linked with globalization. Globalizing processes affect and are affected by business and work organization, economics, socio-cultural resources, academic literature commonly subdivides globalization into three major areas, economic globalization, cultural globalization, and political globalization. The term globalization is derived from the word globalize, which refers to the emergence of a network of economic systems. One of the earliest known usages of the term as a noun was in a 1930 publication entitled Towards New Education, a related term, corporate giants, was coined by Charles Taze Russell in 1897 to refer to the largely national trusts and other large enterprises of the time. By the 1960s, both began to be used as synonyms by economists and other social scientists. Economist Theodore Levitt is widely credited with coining the term in an article entitled Globalization of Markets, However, the term globalization was in use well before this and had been used by other scholars as early as 1981. Levitt can be credited with popularizing the term and bringing it into the mainstream audience in the later half of the 1980s. Due to the complexity of the concept, research projects, articles, sociologists Martin Albrow and Elizabeth King define globalization as all those processes by which the people of the world are incorporated into a single world society. Globalization can be located on a continuum with the local, national and regional, without reference to such expansive spatial connections, there can be no clear or coherent formulation of this term. A satisfactory definition of globalization must capture each of these elements, extensity, intensity, velocity and it pertains to the increasing ease with which somebody on one side of the world can interact, to mutual benefit, with somebody on the other side of the world. The ideological dimension, according to Steger, is filled with a range of norms, claims, beliefs and they have also argued that four different forms of globalization can be distinguished that complement and cut across the solely empirical dimensions. According to James, the oldest dominant form of globalization is embodied globalization, a second form is agency-extended globalization, the circulation of agents of different institutions, organizations, and polities, including imperial agents. Object-extended globalization, a form, is the movement of commodities. He calls the transmission of ideas, images, knowledge, and information across world-space disembodied globalization and he asserted that the pace of globalization was quickening and that its impact on business organization and practice would continue to grow. Economist Takis Fotopoulos defined economic globalization as the opening and deregulation of commodity, capital and he used political globalization to refer to the emergence of a transnational elite and a phasing out of the nation-state
11.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
12.
Economy
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An economy is an area of the production, distribution, or trade, and consumption of goods and services by different agents in a given geographical location. Economic agents can be individuals, businesses, organizations, or governments, Economic transactions occur when two parties agree to the value or price of the transacted good or service, commonly expressed in a certain currency. Monetary transactions only account for a part of the economic domain. Economic activity is spurred by production which uses resources, labor. It has changed over time due to technology, innovation such as that which produces intellectual property and these factors give context, content, and set the conditions and parameters in which an economy functions. In other words, the domain is a social domain of human practices. A command-based economy is where political agents directly control what is produced and how it is sold, a green economy is low-carbon, resource efficient, and socially inclusive. Today the range of fields of the examining the economy revolve around the social science of economics, but may include sociology, history, anthropology. All professions, occupations, economic agents or economic activities, contribute to the economy, consumption, saving, and investment are variable components in the economy that determine macroeconomic equilibrium. There are three sectors of economic activity, primary, secondary, and tertiary. Alternate and long-standing terminology distinguishes measures of an economy expressed in real values, such as real GDP, the English words economy and economics can be traced back to the Greek word οἰκονόμος, a composite word derived from οἶκος and νέμω by way of οἰκονομία. The first recorded sense of the economy is in the phrase the management of œconomic affairs. Economy is later recorded in more senses, including thrift. The most frequently used current sense, denoting the system of a country or an area. As long as someone has been making, supplying and distributing goods or services, there has some sort of economy, economies grew larger as societies grew. The Babylonians and their city state neighbors developed forms of economics comparable to currently used civil society concepts and they developed the first known codified legal and administrative systems, complete with courts, jails, and government records. The ancient economy was based on subsistence farming. The Shekel referred to an ancient unit of weight and currency, the first usage of the term came from Mesopotamia circa 3000 BC. and referred to a specific mass of barley which related other values in a metric such as silver, bronze, copper etc
13.
Natural resources
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Natural resources are resources that exist without actions of humankind. This includes all valued characteristics such as magnetic, gravitational, on earth it includes, sunlight, atmosphere, water, land along with all vegetation and animal life that naturally subsists upon or within the heretofore identified characteristics and substances. Particular areas such as the rainforest in Fatu-Hiva are often characterized by the biodiversity and geodiversity existent in their ecosystems, Natural resources may be further classified in different ways. Natural resources are materials and components that can be found within the environment, every man-made product is composed of natural resources. Some natural resources such as sunlight and air can be found everywhere, however, most resources only occur in small sporadic areas, and are referred to as localised resources. There are very few resources that are considered inexhaustible – these are solar radiation, geothermal energy, the vast majority of resources are theoretically exhaustible, which means they have a finite quantity and can be depleted if managed improperly. There are various methods of categorizing natural resources, these include source of origin, stage of development, fossil fuels such as coal and petroleum are also included in this category because they are formed from decayed organic matter. Abiotic – Abiotic resources are those that come from non-living, non-organic material, examples of abiotic resources include land, fresh water, air and heavy metals including ores such as gold, iron, copper, silver, etc. For example, petroleum occurs with sedimentary rocks in various regions, Actual resources — Actual resources are those that have been surveyed, their quantity and quality determined and are being used in present times. The development of a resource, such as wood processing depends upon the technology available. Reserve resources — The part of a resource which can be developed profitably in the future is called a reserve resource. Stock resources — Stock resources are those that have been surveyed, renewability is a very popular topic and many natural resources can be categorized as either renewable or non-renewable, Renewable resources — Renewable resources can be replenished naturally. Some of these resources, like sunlight, air, wind, water, etc. are continuously available, though many renewable resources do not have such a rapid recovery rate, these resources are susceptible to depletion by over-use. Non-renewable resources – Non-renewable resources either form slowly or do not naturally form in the environment, minerals are the most common resource included in this category. Some resources actually naturally deplete in amount without human interference, the most notable of these being radio-active elements such as uranium, of these, the metallic minerals can be re-used by recycling them, but coal and petroleum cannot be recycled. Once they are used they take millions of years to replenish. Resource extraction involves any activity that withdraws resources from nature and this can range in scale from the traditional use of preindustrial societies, to global industry. Extractive industries are, along with agriculture, the basis of the sector of the economy
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Fossil fuel
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Fossil fuels are fuels formed by natural processes such as anaerobic decomposition of buried dead organisms, containing energy originating in ancient photosynthesis. The age of the organisms and their resulting fossil fuels is typically millions of years, Fossil fuels contain high percentages of carbon and include petroleum, coal, and natural gas. Other commonly used derivatives include kerosene and propane, Fossil fuels range from volatile materials with low carbon, hydrogen ratios like methane, to liquids like petroleum, to nonvolatile materials composed of almost pure carbon, like anthracite coal. Methane can be found in hydrocarbon fields either alone, associated with oil, non-fossil sources in 2006 included nuclear 8. 5%, hydroelectric 6. 3%, and others amounting to 0. 9%. World energy consumption was growing about 2. 3% per year, the use of fossil fuels raises serious environmental concerns. The burning of fossil fuels produces around 21.3 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide per year and it is estimated that natural processes can only absorb about half of that amount, so there is a net increase of 10.65 billion tonnes of atmospheric carbon dioxide per year. Carbon dioxide is a gas that increases radiative forcing and contributes to global warming. A global movement towards the generation of energy is underway to help reduce global greenhouse gas emissions. Over geological time, this matter, mixed with mud. Despite these heat driven transformations, the energy is still photosynthetic in origin. There is a range of organic, or hydrocarbon, compounds in any given fuel mixture. The specific mixture of hydrocarbons gives a fuel its characteristic properties, such as boiling point, melting point, density, viscosity, some fuels like natural gas, for instance, contain only very low boiling, gaseous components. Others such as gasoline or diesel contain much higher boiling components, terrestrial plants, on the other hand, tend to form coal and methane. Many of the coal fields date to the Carboniferous period of Earths history, terrestrial plants also form type III kerogen, a source of natural gas. Fossil fuels are of importance because they can be burned. The use of coal as a fuel predates recorded history, coal was used to run furnaces for the melting of metal ore. Semi-solid hydrocarbons from seeps were also burned in ancient times, commercial exploitation of petroleum, largely as a replacement for oils from animal sources, for use in oil lamps began in the 19th century. Natural gas, once flared-off as an byproduct of petroleum production, is now considered a very valuable resource
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Income
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Income is the consumption and savings opportunity gained by an entity within a specified timeframe, which is generally expressed in monetary terms. However, for households and individuals, income is the sum of all the wages, salaries, profits, interests payments, rents, in a given period of time. In the field of economics, the term may refer to the accumulation of both monetary and non-monetary consumption ability, with the former being used as a proxy for total income. Income per capita has been increasing steadily in almost every country, many factors contribute to people having a higher income such as education, globalisation and favorable political circumstances such as economic freedom and peace. Increase in income tends to lead to people choosing to work less hours. Developed countries have higher incomes as opposed to developing countries tending to have lower incomes, from labor services, as well as ownership of land and capital. In consumer theory income is another name for the budget constraint, the basic equation for this is Y = P x ⋅ x + P y ⋅ y This equation implies two things. First buying one unit of good x implies buying P x P y less units of good y. So, P x P y is the price of a unit of x as to the number of units given up in y. Second, if the price of x falls for a fixed Y, the usual hypothesis is that the quantity demanded of x would increase at the lower price, the law of demand. The generalization to more than two goods consists of modelling y as a composite good, the theoretical generalization to more than one period is a multi-period wealth and income constraint. For example, the person can gain more productive skills or acquire more productive income-earning assets to earn a higher income. In the multi-period case, something might happen to the economy beyond the control of the individual to reduce the flow of income. Changing measured income and its relation to consumption over time might be modeled accordingly, full income refers to the accumulation of both the monetary and the non-monetary consumption-ability of any given entity, such as a person or a household. According to what the economist Nicholas Barr describes as the definition of income, income may be defined as the. Sum of the value of rights exercised in consumption and the change in the value of the store of property rights. Since the consumption potential of non-monetary goods, such as leisure, cannot be measured, as such, however, it is criticized for being unreliable, i. e. failing to accurately reflect affluence of any given agent. It omits the utility a person may derive from non-monetary income and, on a macroeconomic level, according to Barr, in practice money income as a proportion of total income varies widely and unsystematically
16.
Capital (economics)
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In economics, capital goods, real capital, or capital assets are already-produced, durable goods or any non-financial asset that is used in production of goods or services. Adam Smith defines capital as That part of a stock which he expects to afford him revenue. The term stock is derived from the Old English word for stump or tree trunk and it has been used to refer to all the moveable property of a farm since at least 1510. In Middle Ages France contracted leases and loans bearing interest specified payment, how a capital good is maintained or returned to its pre-production state varies with the type of capital involved. In most cases capital is replaced after a period as newer forms of capital make continued use of current capital non profitable. It is also possible that advances make a form of capital practical again. Capital is distinct from land in that capital can be increased by human labor, at any given moment in time, total physical capital may be referred to as the capital stock. Capital is an input in the production function, homes and personal autos are not usually defined as capital but as durable goods because they are not used in a production of saleable goods and services. In Marxist political economy, capital is used to buy something only in order to sell it again to realize a financial profit. In more contemporary schools of economics, this form of capital is referred to as financial capital and is distinguished from capital goods. Classical and neoclassical economics regard capital as one of the factors of production, all other inputs to production are called intangibles in classical economics. This includes organization, entrepreneurship, knowledge, goodwill, or management and this is what makes it a factor of production, The good is not used up immediately in the process of production unlike raw materials or intermediate goods. The good can be produced or increased and these distinctions of convenience have carried over to contemporary economic theory. There was the clarification that capital is a stock. As such, its value can be estimated at a point in time, by contrast, investment, as production to be added to the capital stock, is described as taking place over time, thus a flow. Since at least the 1960s economists have increasingly focused on forms of capital. These terms lead to questions and controversies discussed in those articles. It is in the form of assets, traded in financial markets
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Pollution
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Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that cause adverse change. Pollution can take the form of chemical substances or energy, such as noise, pollutants, the components of pollution, can be either foreign substances/energies or naturally occurring contaminants. Pollution is often classed as point source or nonpoint source pollution, Air pollution has always accompanied civilizations. Pollution started from prehistoric times when man created the first fires, metal forging appears to be a key turning point in the creation of significant air pollution levels outside the home. The burning of coal and wood, and the presence of horses in concentrated areas made the cities the cesspools of pollution. The Industrial Revolution brought an infusion of untreated chemicals and wastes into local streams that served as the water supply, king Edward I of England banned the burning of sea-coal by proclamation in London in 1272, after its smoke became a problem. But the fuel was so common in England that this earliest of names for it was acquired because it could be carted away from some shores by the wheelbarrow and it was the industrial revolution that gave birth to environmental pollution as we know it today. London also recorded one of the extreme cases of water quality problems with the Great Stink on the Thames of 1858. Pollution issues escalated as population growth far exceeded view ability of neighborhoods to handle their waste problem, reformers began to demand sewer systems, and clean water. In 1870, the conditions in Berlin were among the worst in Europe. There were no toilets in the streets or squares. Visitors, especially women, often became desperate when nature called, in the public buildings the sanitary facilities were unbelievably primitive. As a metropolis, Berlin did not emerge from a state of barbarism into civilization until after 1870. Chicago and Cincinnati were the first two American cities to enact laws ensuring cleaner air in 1881, as historian Martin Melosi notes, The generation that first saw automobiles replacing the horses saw cars as miracles of cleanliness. By the 1940s, however, automobile-caused smog was an issue in Los Angeles. Other cities followed around the country early in the 20th century. Extreme smog events were experienced by the cities of Los Angeles and Donora, Pennsylvania in the late 1940s, Air pollution would continue to be a problem in England, especially later during the industrial revolution, and extending into the recent past with the Great Smog of 1952. Awareness of atmospheric pollution spread widely after World War II, with fears triggered by reports of fallout from atomic warfare. Then a non-nuclear event, The Great Smog of 1952 in London and this prompted some of the first major modern environmental legislation, The Clean Air Act of 1956
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Sustainable development
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The desirable end result is a state of society where living conditions and resource use continue to meet human needs without undermining the integrity and stability of the natural systems. As the concept developed, it has shifted to more on economic development, social development. The concept of development has been — and still is — subject to criticism. What, exactly, is to be sustained in sustainable development, Sustainable development ties together concern for the carrying capacity of natural systems with the social, political, and economic challenges faced by humanity. Sustainability science is the study of the concepts of sustainable development, there is an additional focus on the present generations responsibility to regenerate, maintain and improve planetary resources for use by future generations. Sustainable development has its roots in ideas about sustainable forest management which were developed in Europe during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. In 1713 Hans Carl von Carlowitz, a mining administrator in the service of Elector Frederick Augustus I of Saxony published Sylvicultura oeconomica. Building upon the ideas of Evelyn and French minister Jean-Baptiste Colbert and his work influenced others, including Alexander von Humboldt and Georg Ludwig Hartig, eventually leading to the development of a science of forestry. Two years later, the United Nations World Charter for Nature raised five principles of conservation by which human conduct affecting nature is to be guided and judged. In 1987 the United Nations World Commission on Environment and Development released the report Our Common Future, the report included what is now one of the most widely recognised definitions of sustainable development. In 1992, the UN Conference on Environment and Development published the Earth Charter, which outlines the building of a just, sustainable and it emphasises that in sustainable development everyone is a user and provider of information. Furthermore, Agenda 21 emphasises that broad public participation in making is a fundamental prerequisite for achieving sustainable development. Broadly defined, sustainable development is an approach to growth and development and to manage natural, produced. A2013 study concluded that sustainability reporting should be reframed through the lens of four interconnected domains, ecology, economics, politics, the goals are to be implemented and achieved in every country from the year 2016 to 2030. Sustainable development, or sustainability, has described in terms of three spheres, dimensions, domains or pillars, i. e. the environment, the economy. The three-sphere framework was proposed by the economist René Passet in 1979. It has also been worded as economic, environmental and social or ecology, economy and this has been expanded by some authors to include a fourth pillar of culture, institutions or governance. The ecological stability of human settlements is part of the relationship between humans and their natural, social and built environments, also termed human ecology, this broadens the focus of sustainable development to include the domain of human health
19.
Third World
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The term Third World arose during the Cold War to define countries that remained non-aligned with either NATO, or the Communist Bloc. This terminology provided a way of categorizing the nations of the Earth into three groups based on political and economic divisions. The Third World was normally seen to many countries with colonial pasts in Africa, Latin America. It was also taken as synonymous with countries in the Non-Aligned Movement. Due to the history of evolving meanings and contexts, there is no clear or agreed-upon definition of the Third World. Some countries in the Communist Bloc, such as Cuba, were regarded as Third World. Historically, some European countries were non-aligned and a few of these were and are very prosperous, including Ireland, Austria, Sweden, Finland, and Switzerland. However, this usage and the concept itself has become outdated in recent years as the term represents the current political or economic state of the world. Sauvy wrote, This third world ignored, exploited, despised like the third estate also wants to be something and he conveyed the concept of political non-alignment with either the capitalist or communist bloc. The Three Worlds Theory developed by Mao Zedong is different from the Western theory of the Three Worlds or Third World, Third Worldism is a political movement that argues for the unity of third-world nations against first-world influence and the principle of non-interference in other countries domestic affairs. The notion has been criticized as providing a fig leaf for human-rights violations, most Third World countries are former colonies. Having gained independence, many of countries, especially smaller ones, were faced with the challenges of nation-. Due to this background, many of these nations were developing in economic terms for most of the 20th century. This term, used today, generally denotes countries that have not developed to the levels as OECD countries. In the 1980s, economist Peter Bauer offered a definition for the term Third World. He claimed that the attachment of Third World status to a country was not based on any stable economic or political criteria. An argument could also be made for how parts of the U. S. are more like the Third World, the only characteristic that Bauer found common in all Third World countries was that their governments demand and receive Western aid, the giving of which he strongly opposed. Thus, the aggregate term Third World was challenged as misleading even during the Cold War period, during the Cold War, unaligned countries of the Third World were seen as potential allies by both the First and Second World
20.
World-systems theory
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World-systems theory, is a multidisciplinary, macro-scale approach to world history and social change which emphasizes the world-system as the primary unit of social analysis. World-system refers to the inter-regional and transnational division of labor, which divides the world into core countries, semi-periphery countries, Core countries focus on higher skill, capital-intensive production, and the rest of the world focuses on low-skill, labor-intensive production and extraction of raw materials. This constantly reinforces the dominance of the core countries, nonetheless, the system has dynamic characteristics, in part as a result of revolutions in transport technology, and individual states can gain or lose their core status over time. This structure is unified by the division of labour and it is a world-economy rooted in a capitalist economy. Immanuel Wallerstein has developed the best-known version of world-systems analysis, beginning in the 1970s, Wallerstein traces the rise of the capitalist world-economy from the long 16th century. The rise of capitalism, in his view, was an outcome of the protracted crisis of feudalism. Though other commentators refer to Wallersteins project as world-systems theory, he rejects that term. For Wallerstein, then, world-systems analysis is a movement that seeks to discern the totality of what has been paraded under the labels of the. Human sciences and indeed well beyond and we must invent a new language, Wallerstein insists, to transcend the illusions of the three supposedly distinctive arenas of society, economy and politics. Many other scholars have contributed significant work in this knowledge movement, world-systems theory traces emerged in the 1970s. Its roots can be found in sociology, but it has developed into a highly interdisciplinary field, there are three major predecessors of world-systems theory, the Annales school, the Marxist tradition, and the dependence theory. The Annales School tradition influenced Wallerstein to focusing on long-term processes, world-systems theory was also significantly influenced by dependency theory, a neo-Marxist explanation of development processes. Other influences on the world-systems theory come from such as Karl Polanyi, Nikolai Kondratiev. Wallerstein sees the development of the capitalist world economy as detrimental to a proportion of the worlds population. Wallerstein views the period since the 1970s as an age of transition that will give way to a world system whose configuration cannot be determined in advance. Hall, Kunibert Raffer, Theotonio dos Santos, Dale Tomich, in sociology, a primary alternative perspective is World Polity Theory, as formulated by John W. Meyer. World-systems analysis builds upon but also differs fundamentally from dependency theory, while accepting world inequality, the world market and imperialism as fundamental features of historical capitalism, Wallerstein broke with orthodox dependency theorys central proposition. For Wallerstein, core countries do not exploit poor countries for two basic reasons, during the Industrial Revolution, for example, English capitalists exploited slaves in the cotton zones of the American South, a peripheral region within a semiperipheral country, United States
21.
A Guide for the Perplexed
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A Guide for the Perplexed is a short book by E. F. Schumacher, published in 1977. The title is a reference to Maimonidess The Guide for the Perplexed and his daughter wrote that her father handed her the book on his deathbed, five days before he died and he told her this is what my life has been leading to. As the Chicago Tribune wrote, A Guide for the Perplexed is really a statement of the underpinnings that inform Small is Beautiful. Schumacher describes his book as being concerned with how humans live in the world and it is also a treatise on the nature and organisation of knowledge and is something of an attack on what Schumacher calls materialistic scientism. Schumacher argues that the current philosophical maps that dominate western thought, however, this book is only in small part a critique. Schumacher put forward what he considers to be the four truths of philosophical map making. The Principle of Adequateness determines human ability to perceive the world. Human learning relates to four fields of knowledge, the art of living requires an understanding of two types of problem, convergent and divergent. Schumacher believed that this originated in the writings of Descartes and Francis Bacon. He makes a distinction between the descriptive and instructional sciences, instructional science is primarily based on evidence gained from experimentation. Materialistic scientism is based on the methodology of the instructional sciences, as Schumacher sees it, knowledge gained about the higher levels of being, while far harder to get and far less certain, is all the more valuable. He uses the term scientism because he argues that people, including some philosophers of science, have misunderstood the theory behind instructional science. But the instructional sciences are based on induction, and as David Hume famously points out induction is not the same as truth, but this does not mean that an alternative instruction set wont work, or indeed an alternative instruction set based on quite different principles. For Schumacher, instructional sciences therefore produce theories which are useful, by contrast, Schumacher argues that the descriptive sciences are interested in the truth in the wider sense of the word. He argues that materialistic scientism follows a policy of leaving something out if it is in doubt, such an approach, Schumacher argues, provides a grey, limited, utilitarian worldview without room for vitally important phenomena like beauty and meaning. He observes that the mention of spirituality and spiritual phenomena in academic discussion is seen as a sign of mental deficiency among scientists. Schumacher argues that there is near total agreement a subject becomes effectively dead. Schumacher believes in contrast to science that what is in doubt should be shown prominently
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Distributism
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In the early 21st century, some observers speculated on Pope Franciss position on distributism after his denouncement of unfettered capitalism in his apostolic exhortation Evangelii gaudium. Distributism, therefore, advocates a society marked by widespread property ownership, co-operative economist Race Mathews argues that such a system is key to bringing about a just social order. Distributism has often described in opposition to both socialism and capitalism, which distributists see as equally flawed and exploitive. Thomas Storck argues, both socialism and capitalism are products of the European Enlightenment and are thus modernizing and anti-traditional forces, further, some distributists argue that socialism is the logical conclusion of capitalism as capitalisms concentrated powers eventually capture the state, resulting in a form of socialism. In contrast, distributism seeks to subordinate economic activity to human life as a whole, to our life, our intellectual life. Particularly influential in the development of distributist theory were Catholic authors G. K, Chesterton and Hilaire Belloc, the Chesterbelloc, two of distributisms earliest and strongest proponents. The mid-to-late 19th century witnessed an increase in popularity of political Catholicism across Europe, according to historian Michael A. Riff, a common feature of these movements was opposition not only to secularism, but also to both capitalism and socialism. Common and government property ownership was expressly dismissed as a means of helping the poor, around the start of the 20th century, G. K. In the United States in the 1930s, distributism was treated in numerous essays by Chesterton, Belloc and others in The American Review, pivotal among Bellocs and Chestertons other works regarding distributism are The Servile State, and Outline of Sanity. It also influenced the thought behind the Antigonish Movement, which implemented cooperatives and its practical implementation in the form of local cooperatives has recently been documented by Race Mathews in his 1999 book Jobs of Our Own, Building a Stakeholder Society. The position of distributists when compared to other political philosophies is somewhat paradoxical, but there was a rosy time of innocence when I believed in Liberals. While converging with certain elements of traditional Toryism, especially an appreciation of the Middle Ages and organic society, much of Dorothy L. Sayers writings on social and economic matters has affinity with distributism. Under such a system, most people would be able to earn a living without having to rely on the use of the property of others to do so. Examples of people earning a living in this way would be farmers who own their own land and related machinery, plumbers who own their own tools, software developers who own their own computer, etc. The cooperative approach advances beyond this perspective to recognise that such property and equipment may be co-owned by local communities larger than a family, Chesterton in his 1910 book What’s Wrong with the World. Chesterton believes that whilst God has limitless capabilities, man has limited abilities in terms of creation, as such, man therefore is entitled to own property and to treat it as he sees fit. He states “Property is merely the art of the democracy and it means that every man should have something that he can shape in his own image, as he is shaped in the image of heaven. But because he is not God, but only an image of God, his self-expression must deal with limits, properly with limits that are strict and even small. ”Chesterton summed up his distributist views in the phrase Three acres
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Simple living
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Simple living or voluntary simplicity encompasses a number of different voluntary practices to simplify ones lifestyle. These may include reducing ones possessions, generally referred to as minimalism, or increasing self-sufficiency, Simple living may be characterized by individuals being satisfied with what they have rather than want. Although asceticism generally promotes living simply and refraining from luxury and indulgence, Simple living is distinct from those living in forced poverty, as it is a voluntary lifestyle choice. Simple living can also be a reaction to materialism and conspicuous consumption, some cite socio-political goals aligned with the anti-consumerist or anti-war movements, including conservation, degrowth, social justice, and tax resistance. A number of religious and spiritual traditions encourage simple living, early examples include the Sramana traditions of Iron Age India, Gautama Buddha, and biblical Nazirites. The biblical figure Jesus is said to have lived a simple life and he is said to have encouraged his disciples to take nothing for their journey except a staff—no bread, no bag, no money in their belts—but to wear sandals and not put on two tunics. Diogenes of Sinope, a figure in the ancient Greek philosophy of Cynicism, claimed that a simple life was necessary for virtue. Plain people are Christian groups who have for centuries practiced lifestyles in which forms of wealth or technology are excluded for religious or philosophical reasons. Groups include the Shakers, Mennonites, Amish, Hutterites, Amana Colonies, Bruderhof, Old German Baptist Brethren, Harmony Society, there is a Quaker belief called Testimony of Simplicity that a person ought to live her or his life simply. Jean-Jacques Rousseau strongly praised the life in many of his writings, especially in his Discourse on the Arts and Sciences. Epicureanism, based on the teachings of the Athens-based philosopher Epicurus, epicureanism upheld the untroubled life as the paradigm of happiness, made possible by carefully considered choices. Specifically, Epicurus pointed out that troubles entailed by maintaining an extravagant lifestyle tend to outweigh the pleasure of partaking in it. Henry David Thoreau, an American naturalist and author, is considered to have made the classic secular statement advocating a life of simple and sustainable living in his book Walden. Thoreau conducted a two-year experiment living a plain and simple life on the shores of Walden Pond, in Victorian Britain, Henry Stephens Salt, an admirer of Thoreau, popularised the idea of Simplification, the saner method of living. Other British advocates of the life included Edward Carpenter, William Morris. C. R. Ashbee and his followers also practiced some of these ideas, British novelist John Cowper Powys advocated the simple life in his 1933 book A Philosophy of Solitude. John Middleton Murry and Max Plowman practised a simple lifestyle at their Adelphi Centre in Essex in the 1930s, irish poet Patrick Kavanagh championed a right simplicity philosophy based on ruralism in some of his work. George Lorenzo Noyes, a naturalist, mineralogist, development critic, writer and he lived a wilderness lifestyle, advocating through his creative work a simple life and reverence for nature
24.
The New York Times
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The New York Times is an American daily newspaper, founded and continuously published in New York City since September 18,1851, by The New York Times Company. The New York Times has won 119 Pulitzer Prizes, more than any other newspaper, the papers print version in 2013 had the second-largest circulation, behind The Wall Street Journal, and the largest circulation among the metropolitan newspapers in the US. The New York Times is ranked 18th in the world by circulation, following industry trends, its weekday circulation had fallen in 2009 to fewer than one million. Nicknamed The Gray Lady, The New York Times has long been regarded within the industry as a newspaper of record. The New York Times international version, formerly the International Herald Tribune, is now called the New York Times International Edition, the papers motto, All the News Thats Fit to Print, appears in the upper left-hand corner of the front page. On Sunday, The New York Times is supplemented by the Sunday Review, The New York Times Book Review, The New York Times Magazine and T, some other early investors of the company were Edwin B. Morgan and Edward B. We do not believe that everything in Society is either right or exactly wrong, —what is good we desire to preserve and improve, —what is evil, to exterminate. In 1852, the started a western division, The Times of California that arrived whenever a mail boat got to California. However, when local California newspapers came into prominence, the effort failed, the newspaper shortened its name to The New-York Times in 1857. It dropped the hyphen in the city name in the 1890s, One of the earliest public controversies it was involved with was the Mortara Affair, the subject of twenty editorials it published alone. At Newspaper Row, across from City Hall, Henry Raymond, owner and editor of The New York Times, averted the rioters with Gatling guns, in 1869, Raymond died, and George Jones took over as publisher. Tweed offered The New York Times five million dollars to not publish the story, in the 1880s, The New York Times transitioned gradually from editorially supporting Republican Party candidates to becoming more politically independent and analytical. In 1884, the paper supported Democrat Grover Cleveland in his first presidential campaign, while this move cost The New York Times readership among its more progressive and Republican readers, the paper eventually regained most of its lost ground within a few years. However, the newspaper was financially crippled by the Panic of 1893, the paper slowly acquired a reputation for even-handedness and accurate modern reporting, especially by the 1890s under the guidance of Ochs. Under Ochs guidance, continuing and expanding upon the Henry Raymond tradition, The New York Times achieved international scope, circulation, in 1910, the first air delivery of The New York Times to Philadelphia began. The New York Times first trans-Atlantic delivery by air to London occurred in 1919 by dirigible, airplane Edition was sent by plane to Chicago so it could be in the hands of Republican convention delegates by evening. In the 1940s, the extended its breadth and reach. The crossword began appearing regularly in 1942, and the section in 1946
25.
Barter
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Barter is a system of exchange where goods or services are directly exchanged for other goods or services without using a medium of exchange, such as money. It is distinguishable from gift economies in many ways, one of them is that the exchange is immediate. It is usually bilateral, but may be multilateral and, in most developed countries, usually only exists parallel to monetary systems to a very limited extent. Barter, as a replacement for money as the method of exchange, is used in times of monetary crisis, examples include the Owenite socialists, the Cincinnati Time store, and more recently Ithaca HOURS and the LETS system. Adam Smith, the father of economics, sought to demonstrate that markets pre-existed the state. He argued that money was not the creation of governments, markets emerged, in his view, out of the division of labour, by which individuals began to specialize in specific crafts and hence had to depend on others for subsistence goods. These goods were first exchanged by barter, specialization depended on trade, but was hindered by the double coincidence of wants which barter requires, i. e. for the exchange to occur, each participant must want what the other has. To complete this hypothetical history, craftsmen would stockpile one particular good, be it salt or metal and this is the origin of money according to Smith. Money, as a universally desired medium of exchange, allows each half of the transaction to be separated, Barter is characterized in Adam Smiths The Wealth of Nations by a disparaging vocabulary, higgling, haggling, swapping, dickering. It has also characterized as negative reciprocity, or selfish profiteering. Anthropologists have argued, in contrast, that something resembling barter does occur in stateless societies it is almost always between strangers. Barter occurred between strangers, not fellow villagers, and hence cannot be used to explain the origin of money without the state. Since most people engaged in trade knew each other, exchange was fostered through the extension of credit, everyday exchange relations in such societies are characterized by generalized reciprocity, or a non-calculative familial communism where each takes according to their needs, and gives as they have. Barter is an option to those who cannot afford to store their small supply of wealth in money, the limitations of barter are often explained in terms of its inefficiencies in facilitating exchange in comparison to money. It is said that barter is inefficient because, There needs to be a coincidence of wants For barter to occur between two parties, both parties need to have what the other wants. Difficulty in storing wealth If a society relies exclusively on perishable goods, however, some barter economies rely on durable goods like pigs or cattle for this purpose. Other anthropologists have questioned whether barter is typically between total strangers, a form of known as silent trade. Silent trade, also called silent barter, dumb barter, or depot trade, is a method by which traders who cannot speak each language can trade without talking
26.
DIY ethic
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DIY ethic refers to the ethic of self-sufficiency through completing tasks without the aid of a paid expert. Literally meaning do it yourself, the DIY ethic promotes the idea that anyone is capable of performing a variety of rather than relying on paid specialists. The DIY ethic requires that the adherent seeks out the required to complete a given task. The term can refer to a variety of disciplines, including home improvement, rather than belittling or showing disdain for those who engage in manual labor or skilled crafts, DIY champions the average individual seeking such knowledge and expertise. In the punk subculture, the DIY ethic is tied to punk ideology and it espouses the rejection of consumer culture, using existing systems or existing processes that would foster dependence on established societal structures. According to the aesthetic, one can express oneself and produce moving. Arguably the earliest example of this attitude was the music scene of the 1970s. Since many venues tend to shy away from experimental music, houses. Riot Grrrl, associated with feminism, also adopted the core values of the DIY punk ethic by leveraging creative ways of communication through zines. Adherents of the DIY punk ethic can also work collectively, for example, punk impresario David Fergusons CD Presents was a DIY concert production, recording studio, and record label network. The German punk band Mono für Alle, perfected the mass production of the self-made DIY album. Their album included a wooden cover and sold over 6000 units from their website. The DIY punk ethic also applies to simple living, such as. Sewing, repairing, or modifying clothing rather than buying new clothes, reclaiming recyclable products by dumpster diving. Some educators also engage in DIY teaching techniques, sometimes referred to as Edupunk, DIY music has its origins in the mid 1970s punk rock scene. It developed as a way to circumnavigate the mainstream music industry, in 2014, speaking about the 80s and 90s, Steve Albini told of the difficulties of getting record and played on the radio, saying So these independent bands had to be resourceful. They’d built their own infrastructure of independent clubs, promoters, fanzines, DIY music bands do everything themselves or with independent collaborators, from album production to marketing and communication. This choice primarily reflects a need to emphasize its independence in relation to big record labels, advances in technology and lowering costs have progressively made it easier for bands to be independent
27.
Dry toilet
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A composting toilet is a type of dry toilet or micro-flush toilet system that uses a predominantly aerobic process to treat human excreta by composting or managed aerobic decomposition. These toilets generally use little to no water and may be used as an alternative to flush toilets that are coupled with septic systems or city sewer systems and they have found use in situations where no suitable water supply or sewer system and sewage treatment plant is available. They are in use in many facilities and national parks in Sweden, Canada, US, UK. They are used in holiday homes in Sweden and Finland. The human excreta is usually mixed with sawdust, coconut coir or peat moss to facilitate processing, liquid absorption. Most composting toilets use slow, cold composting conditions, sometimes connected to a secondary external composting step, Composting toilets produce a compost that may be used for horticultural or agricultural soil enrichment if the local regulations allow this. A secondary stage is often needed to allow mesophilic composting to further reduce potential pathogens, the term composting toilet is used quite loosely, and its meaning may vary by country. For example, in English-speaking countries, the term composting is used. In Germany and Scandinavian countries, composting always refers to an aerobic process. This aerobic composting may take place with an increase in temperature due to microbial action, if earth worms are used then there is also no increase in temperature. They also differ from urine-diverting dry toilets where pathogen reduction is achieved through dehydration, Composting toilets target a certain degree of moisture in the composting chamber. Composting toilets usually do not divert urine, offering a waterless urinal in addition to the toilet can help keep excess amounts of urine out of the composting chamber. Composting toilets can be used to implement an ecological sanitation approach for resource recovery, however, this is not recommended as the two terms are not identical. Composting toilets have also been called sawdust toilets, which can be if the amount of aerobic composting taking place in the toilets container is very limited. The Clivus multrum is a type of composting toilet which has a large composting chamber below the toilet seat, Composting toilets can be suitable in areas such as a rural area or a park that lacks a suitable water supply, sewers and sewage treatment. They can also increase the resilience of existing sanitation systems in the face of possible natural disasters such as climate change. Composting toilets can reduce or perhaps eliminate the need for a tank system to reduce environmental footprint. These types of toilets can be used for recovery by reusing sanitized feces and urine as fertilizer
28.
Forest gardening
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Making use of companion planting, these can be intermixed to grow in a succession of layers, to build a woodland habitat. Forest gardening is a method of securing food in tropical areas. In the 1980s, Robert Hart coined the term forest gardening after adapting the principles, Forest gardens are probably the worlds oldest form of land use and most resilient agroecosystem. They originated in prehistoric times along jungle-clad river banks and in the wet foothills of monsoon regions, in the gradual process of families improving their immediate environment, useful tree and vine species were identified, protected and improved whilst undesirable species were eliminated. Eventually superior foreign species were selected and incorporated into the gardens and these are also called agroforests and, where the wood components are short-statured, the term shrub garden is employed. Forest gardens have been shown to be a significant source of income, Robert Hart adapted forest gardening for the United Kingdoms temperate climate during the 1980s. His theories were developed by Martin Crawford from the Agroforestry Research Trust and various permaculturalists such as Graham Bell, Patrick Whitefield, Dave Jacke. Forest gardens, or home gardens, are common in the tropics, using intercropping to cultivate trees, crops, in Kerala in south India as well as in northeastern India, the home garden is the most common form of land use and is also found in Indonesia. One example combines coconut, black pepper, cocoa and pineapple and these gardens exemplify polyculture, and conserve much crop genetic diversity and heirloom plants that are not found in monocultures. Forest gardens have been compared to the religious concept of the Garden of Eden. This was also explored in the bestselling book 1491 by author Charles C. Mann, since the 1970s, numerous geoglyphs have also been discovered on deforested land in the Amazon rainforest, furthering the evidence about Pre-Columbian civilizations. On the Yucatán Peninsula, much of the Maya food supply was grown in orchard-gardens, the system takes its name from the low wall of stones that characteristically surrounds the gardens. Most well known are the Chaga or Chagga gardens on the slopes of Mt. Kilimanjaro in Tanzania and these are an excellent example of an agroforestry system. In many countries, women are the actors in home gardening. In North-Africa, oasis layered gardening with palm trees, fruit trees and vegetables is a type of forest garden. The term “home garden” is often considered synonymous to the kitchen garden, however, they differ in terms of function, size, diversity, composition and features. In Nepal, 72% of households have home gardens of an area 2–11% of the land holdings. Because of their size, the government has never identified home gardens as an important unit of food production and they thereby remain neglected from research
29.
Freeganism
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Freeganism is a practice and ideology of limited participation in the conventional economy and minimal consumption of resources, particularly through recovering wasted goods like food. The word freegan is a derived from free and vegan. The pamphlet Why Freegan. —written by former Against Me, the first organized group of self-described freegans formed in 2003 as an offshoot of the Wetlands Preserve nightclub and associated Activism Center in New York City. We came to realize that the problem isn’t just a few bad corporations, from 2005, freegan. info organized regular events including sewing and bicycle workshops, wild food foraging expeditions, and trash tours—public dumpster dives open to the public and to media. S. The majority of groups are now inactive, however, and many people. Studies usually find that most people that participate in practices associated with freeganism, dumpster diving for food, Freegan practices in theory reject the commoditization of basic necessities, the imperative of economic growth, and an economy based on money exchange rather than free gifting or sharing. Freegan organizations also often use consensus-based decision-making, popularized by the anti-globalization movement, the word freegan originated as a play on the label veganism and research on freegan. info in New York found that most participants were vegetarian or vegan prior to becoming freegan. In many cases, though, freegans critique vegans by arguing that vegans ignore the environmental and labor impacts of the products they buy, in some instances, one-time vegans return to eating animal products if found from the dumpster, sometimes referred to as meaganism. Freegans rejection of veganism is often tied to their discovery of food waste, estimated as up to 40% of the supply in the United States. Some freegans associate themselves with back-to-the-landers or anarcho-primitivism, the latter of which asserts that human beings should not only capitalism. With some exceptions, though, freeganism is an urban or suburban phenomenon. However, dumpster diving is not limited to rummaging for food, freegans report recovering clothing, books, appliances, bicycles and these events attracted significant media coverage, particularly between 2005 and 2009, from outlets such as The New York Times, Oprah, and MSNBC. Instead of buying conventionally grown foods, wild foragers find and harvest food, some freegans participate in guerrilla or community gardens, with the stated aim of rebuilding community and reclaiming the capacity to grow ones own food. Sharing is also presented as a common practice, associated with the anarchist idea of a gift economy. For example, Food Not Bombs recovers food that would go to waste to serve warm meals on the street to anyone who wants them. Really, Really Free Markets are free social events in which freegans can share goods instead of discarding them, share skills, give presents, a free store is a temporary market where people exchange goods and services outside of a money-based economy. In New York City, freegan. info often distributes recovered food items for free in an ad-hoc manner after trash tours, freegans also advocate sharing travel resources. Internet-based ridesharing or hitchhiking reduces but does not eliminate use of cars and all the resources needed to maintain
30.
Gift economy
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A gift economy, gift culture, or gift exchange is a mode of exchange where valuables are not traded or sold, but rather given without an explicit agreement for immediate or future rewards. This contrasts with an economy or a market economy, where goods. Social norms and custom govern gift exchange, Gifts are not given in an explicit exchange of goods or services for money or some other commodity. The nature of gift economies forms the subject of a debate in anthropology. Anthropological research into gift economies began with Bronisław Malinowskis description of the Kula ring in the Trobriand Islands during World War I. The Kula trade appeared to be gift-like since Trobrianders would travel great distances over dangerous seas to give what were considered valuable objects without any guarantee of a return. According to anthropologists Maurice Bloch and Jonathan Parry, it is the relationship between market and non-market exchange that attracts the most attention. Gift economies are said, by some, to communities. Gift ideology in highly commercialized societies differs from the typical of non-market societies. Gift economies must also be differentiated from several closely related phenomena, such as common property regimes, however, he claims that anthropologists, through analysis of a variety of cultural and historical forms of exchange, have established that no universal practice exists. Gift exchange is frequently embedded in political, kin, or religious institutions, gift-giving is a form of transfer of property rights over particular objects. The nature of property rights varies from society to society, from culture to culture. The nature of gift-giving is thus altered by the type of property regime in place, property is not a thing, but a relationship amongst people about things. According to Chris Hann, property is a relationship that governs the conduct of people with respect to the use. Anthropologists analyze these relationships in terms of a variety of actors bundle of rights over objects, an example is the current debates around intellectual property rights. Hann and Strangelove both give the example of a book, over which the author retains a copyright. The gifts given in Kula exchange still remain, in some respects, in the example used above, copyright is one of those bundled rights that regulate the use and disposition of a book. Gift-giving in many societies is complicated because private property owned by an individual may be limited in scope
31.
Local currency
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In economics, a local currency is a currency that can be spent in a particular geographical locality at participating organisations. A regional currency is a form of local currency encompassing a larger geographical area, a local currency acts as a complementary currency to a national currency, rather than replacing it, and aims to encourage spending within a local community, especially with locally-owned businesses. The currency may not be backed by a government or be legal tender. About 300 complementary currencies, including local currencies, are listed in the Complementary Currency Resource Center worldwide database, local currency - a complementary currency used in a locality. Regional currency - a local currency where the locality is a larger region, auxiliary currency, microcurrency, Eco-Money - less common synonyms for community or local currency. Private currency - a currency issued by an individual, business or non-governmental organization, Complementary currencies are a type of private currency. Sectoral currency - a complementary currency used within one economic sector, the Wörgl experiment illustrates some of the common characteristics and major benefits of local currencies. Local currencies with negative interest rate or demurrage tend to much more rapidly than national currencies. The same amount of currency in circulation is employed more times and it produces greater benefit per unit. The higher velocity of money is a result of the negative interest rate which encourages people to spend the more quickly. Local currencies enable the community to fully utilize its existing productive resources, especially unemployed labor. They are based on the premise that the community is not fully utilizing its productive capacities, the alternative currency is utilized to increase demand, resulting in a greater exploitation of productive resources. Since local currencies are accepted within the community, their usage encourages the purchase of locally produced and locally-available goods. Thus, for any level of activity, more of the benefit accrues to the local community. For instance, construction work undertaken with local currencies employs local labor, the enhanced local effect becomes an incentive for the local population to accept and utilize the scrips. Some forms of currency can promote fuller utilization of resources over a much wider geographic area. The Fureai kippu system in Japan issues credits in exchange for assistance to senior citizens, family members living far from their parents can earn credits by offering assistance to the elderly in their local community. The credits can then be transferred to their parents and redeemed by them for local assistance, airline frequent flyer miles are a form of complementary currency that promotes customer-loyalty in exchange for free travel
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Low-impact development (UK)
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Low-impact development has been defined as development which through its low negative environmental impact either enhances or does not significantly diminish environmental quality. These LIDs often strive to be self-sufficient in terms of management, energy. There are numerous examples of LIDs throughout the UK, and local and national authorities have come to recognise the need for the concept to be incorporated into planning strategies, fairlie later wrote, Neither the term nor the concept was new. People have been living low impact lifestyles in low impact buildings for centuries, others have expanded on the definition. Residents will be allocated from the housing needs register. Findhorn Ecovillage has won a number of international awards, steve Jamess Straw House, Dumfries was built for £4,000. The House of the Future, Cardiff, completed in 2000, was originally a showcase of the latest green building technologies, in West Wales, Lammas Ecovillage is a community of independent, off-grid households begun in 2009. That Roundhouse was granted planning permission in 2008 with a review in 3 years, substantial research has concluded that LID represents some of the most innovative and sustainable development in the UK. LID has also shown a capacity to local biodiversity and public access to local space. This has been attributed to lift-sharing, to greater use of public transport, walking and cycling. As the Welsh Assembly Government has noted, such. Development therefore is not just describing a physical development and it is describing a way of living differently where there is a symbiotic relationship between people and land, making a reduction in environmental impacts possible. Over the years, there have been various struggles with planning authorities over LID in the UK, Tony Wrench spent over a decade fighting the planning authorities until he was granted planning permission for That Roundhouse. Similarly, since 1986 Tir Penrhos Isaf has tried several times to get planning permission and only succeeded in December 2006, the residents of Tir Penrhos Isaf consider, that current planning and building legislation represent some of the greatest obstacles to developing sustainable systems in Britain. The extensive research interest in LID, backed up by the examples of the existing LIDs, has led to a growing number of planning policies in the UK designed to allow for LIDs. The first development to receive permanent planning permission under the One Planet scheme was Nant-y-Cwm, the criteria for OPD in Wales include the requirement that 65% of all subsistence, or 30% of food and 35% of livelihood, come from the land. Degrowth Diggers and Dreamers Ecovillage Radical Routes Bird, Chris, local Sustainable Homes – How to make them happen in your community. Green Books,2010 ISBN9781900322768 Cotterell, Jane & Dadeby, the Passivhaus Handbook, A practical guide to constructing and retrofitting buildings for ultra-low-energy performance. ISBN9780857840196 Evans, Ianto, Smith, Michael, Smiley, the Hand Sculpted House, A Practical and Philosophical Guide to Building a Cob Cottage
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Minimalism
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In visual arts, music, and other mediums, minimalism is a style that uses pared-down design elements. Minimalism began in post–World War II Western art, most strongly with American visual arts in the 1960s, prominent artists associated with minimalism include Donald Judd, John McCracken, Agnes Martin, Dan Flavin, Robert Morris, Anne Truitt, and Frank Stella. It derives from the reductive aspects of modernism and is interpreted as a reaction against abstract expressionism. Minimalism in music often features repetition and iteration such as those of the compositions of La Monte Young, Terry Riley, Steve Reich, Philip Glass, the term minimalist often colloquially refers to anything that is spare or stripped to its essentials. It has accordingly been used to describe the plays and novels of Samuel Beckett, the films of Robert Bresson, the stories of Raymond Carver, and the automobile designs of Colin Chapman. The word was first used in English in the early 20th century to describe a 1913 composition by the Russian painter Kasimir Malevich of a square on a white ground. Guggenheim Museum curated by Lawrence Alloway also in 1966 that showcased Geometric abstraction in the American art world via Shaped canvas, Color Field, in the wake of those exhibitions and a few others the art movement called minimal art emerged. Minimal art is inspired in part by the paintings of Barnett Newman, Ad Reinhardt, Josef Albers, and the works of artists as diverse as Pablo Picasso, Marcel Duchamp, Giorgio Morandi. Minimalism was also a reaction against the painterly subjectivity of Abstract Expressionism that had been dominant in the New York School during the 1940s and 1950s. The philosopher or art historian who can envision me—or anyone at all—arriving at aesthetic judgments in this way reads shockingly more into himself or herself than into my article. They very explicitly stated that their art was not about self-expression, in general, minimalisms features included geometric, often cubic forms purged of much metaphor, equality of parts, repetition, neutral surfaces, and industrial materials. Robert Morris, a theorist and artist, wrote a three part essay, Notes on Sculpture 1-3, originally published across three issues of Artforum in 1966. In these essays, Morris attempted to define a conceptual framework and formal elements for himself and these essays paid great attention to the idea of the gestalt - parts. Bound together in such a way that create a maximum resistance to perceptual separation. Morris later described an art represented by a marked lateral spread, the general shift in theory of which this essay is an expression suggests the transition into what would later be referred to as postminimalism. Stellas decisions about structures on the front surface of the canvas were therefore not entirely subjective, in the show catalog, Carl Andre noted, Art excludes the unnecessary. Frank Stella has found it necessary to paint stripes, there is nothing else in his painting. Because of a tendency in art to exclude the pictorial, illusionistic and fictive in favor of the literal, there was a movement away from painterly
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No frills
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A no-frills or no frills service or product is one for which the non-essential features have been removed to keep the price low. The term frills originally refers to a style of fabric decoration, something offered to customers for no additional charge may be designated as a frill - for example, free drinks on airline journeys, or a radio installed in a rental car. No-frills businesses operate on the principle that by removing luxurious additions, most common products and services for which no-frills brands exist include budget airlines, supermarkets, vacations and pre-owned vehicles. No-frills supermarkets are recognisable by their design and business model. They do not decorate aisles and sometimes dont even fill shelves. In this case, pallets of the products on offer are simply parked alongside the aisles, when all items on a pallet have been sold, they are replaced. Prices are given on plain labels, queueing at the checkout is relatively common, as staffing levels reflect average demand rather than peak demand. At actual peak times, customers often have to wait, shopping bags are charged for, as they are seen as a frill. They somewhat employ the Pareto principle when choosing which goods to offer, meaning that in most supermarkets, therefore, they only stock the most commonly sold products. They only take cash and debit cards and they only open at peak times, e. g.9 am to 6 pm Monday to Saturday, although some stores are open 24 hours. They often do not sell branded items, except in the case of special purchases, instead, they sell generic or private label products. Products are sold in one size, which is usually the best selling size of that product, the shopping carts have a coin-operated slot, to ensure that the trolleys are kept on site. They usually lack butcher, bakery and deli counters, No in-store background music, although some use Satellite Radio. Examples of no-frills supermarkets are, *Dia, Minipreço and Ed are all part of the Dia Group, in the United States, a no-frills automobile model typically has a minimum of convenience equipment, a less powerful engine and spartan trim. Frequently, these represent the lowest-priced version of a larger selection of more lavishly equipped and trimmed models of that same car. Often, the models are sold with a manual transmission and have a shorter options list. Early 1950s American examples include the Chevrolet 150 and Kaiser-Frazer Henry J and these were larger cars than those produced in the US in the 1940s gasoline rationing period by Crosley, who shut down in 1952. One of the more famous no-frills cars was the Studebaker Scotsman, buyers were allowed to buy only a low-cost heater and a few other trim and convenience items from a short options list, a radio was not offered as an option on this model
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Off-the-grid
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Off-the-grid is a system and lifestyle designed to help people function without the support of remote infrastructure, such as an electrical grid. In electricity, off-grid can be stand-alone power system or mini-grids typically to provide a community with electricity. Off-grid electrification is an approach to access electricity used in countries and areas with access to electricity. The term off-the-grid can refer to living in a self-sufficient manner without reliance on one or more public utilities, people who adopt this lifestyle are called off-gridders. Off-the-grid homes are autonomous, they do not rely on water supply, sewer, natural gas, electrical power grid. A true off-grid house is able to operate independently of all traditional public utility services. The idea has been popularized by certain celebrities including Ed Begley. Electrical power can be generated on-site with renewable sources such as solar, wind, micro hydro, geothermal, with a generator or Micro combined heat. Such a system is called a power system or sometimes referred to as a Hybrid power system. In addition, it is possible to simply eliminate electric power such as in Old Order Amish, on-site water sources can include a well, stream, tank, or lake. Depending on the source, this may include pumps and/or filtration. Filters can be advanced running off a source of boiling. Assuming the same rate of growth, there would be a quarter million off-grid households in the United States by late 2007, because many Third World citizens have never had the chance to go on the grid, current estimates are that 1.7 billion people live off-grid worldwide. A wave of TV shows and articles came out after the publication of Off the Grid, Inside the Movement for More Space, Less Government, the concept of a sustainable off-grid community must take into consideration the basic needs of all who live in the community. To become truly self-sufficient, the community would need to all of its own electrical power, food. Using renewable energy, a water source, sustainable agriculture. A recent concept design by Eric Wichman shows a multi-family community, to grow the community you simply add neighborhoods using the same model as the first. A self-sustained community reduces its impact on the environment by controlling its waste, the State of California is encouraging solar and wind power generation that is connected to the electrical grid to avoid the use of toxic lead acid batteries for night time storage
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Permaculture
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Permaculture is a system of agricultural and social design principles centered on simulating or directly utilizing the patterns and features observed in natural ecosystems. Permaculture was developed, and the term coined by Bill Mollison, smith saw the world as an inter-related whole and suggested mixed systems of trees and crops underneath. This book inspired many individuals intent on making agriculture more sustainable, the definition of permanent agriculture as one that can be sustained indefinitely was supported by Australian P. A. Yeomans in his 1964 book Water for Every Farm. Yeomans introduced an approach to land use in Australia in the 1940s. Stewart Brand’s works were an early influence noted by Holmgren, in the late 1960s, Bill Mollison and David Holmgren started developing ideas about stable agricultural systems on the southern Australian island state of Tasmania. This was a result of the danger of the growing use of industrial-agricultural methods. A design approach called permaculture was their response and was first made public with the publication of their book Permaculture One in 1978, by the early 1980s, the concept had broadened from agricultural systems design towards sustainable human habitats. After Permaculture One, Mollison further refined and developed the ideas by designing hundreds of sites and writing more detailed books, notably Permaculture. Mollison lectured in over 80 countries and taught his two-week Permaculture Design Course to many hundreds of students, Mollison encouraged graduates to become teachers themselves and set up their own institutes and demonstration sites. This multiplier effect was critical to permaculture’s rapid expansion, the three core tenets of permaculture are, Care for the earth, Provision for all life systems to continue and multiply. This is the first principle, because without a healthy earth, Care for the people, Provision for people to access those resources necessary for their existence. Return of surplus, Reinvesting surpluses back into the system to provide for the first two ethics and this includes returning waste back into the system to recycle into usefulness. The third ethic is sometimes referred to as Fair Share to reflect each of us should take no more than what we need before we reinvest the surplus. Permaculture design emphasizes patterns of landscape, function, and species assemblies and it determines where these elements should be placed so they can provide maximum benefit to the local environment. The central concept of permaculture is maximizing useful connections between components and synergy of the final design, Permaculture design therefore seeks to minimize waste, human labor, and energy input by building systems with maximal benefits between design elements to achieve a high level of synergy. The design principles which are the foundation of permaculture were derived from the science of systems ecology. Permaculture draws from several disciplines including organic farming, agroforestry, integrated farming, sustainable development, catch and store energy, By developing systems that collect resources at peak abundance, we can use them in times of need. Obtain a yield, Ensure that you are getting truly useful rewards as part of the work that you are doing, apply self-regulation and accept feedback, We need to discourage inappropriate activity to ensure that systems can continue to function well
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Subsistence agriculture
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Subsistence agriculture is self-sufficiency farming in which the farmers focus on growing enough food to feed themselves and their families. The output is mostly for local requirements with little or no surplus trade, the typical subsistence farm has a range of crops and animals needed by the family to feed and clothe themselves during the year. Planting decisions are made principally with an eye toward what the family will need during the coming year, tony Waters writes, Subsistence peasants are people who grow what they eat, build their own houses, and live without regularly making purchases in the marketplace. Subsistence agriculture also emerged independently in Mexico where it was based on cultivation. Subsistence agriculture was the dominant mode of production in the world until recently, Subsistence horticulture may have developed independently in South East Asia and Papua New Guinea. Subsistence farming continues today in parts of rural Africa, and parts of Asia. Many of the items, as well as occasional services from physicians, veterinarians, blacksmiths. In Central and Eastern Europe subsistence and semi-subsistence agriculture reappeared within the economy since about 1990. In this type of agriculture, a patch of forest land is cleared by a combination of felling and burning, and crops are grown. After 2-3 years the fertility of the soil begins to decline, the land is abandoned, while the land is left fallow the forest regrows in the cleared area and soil fertility and biomass is restored. After a decade or more, the farmer may return to the first piece of land, shifting cultivation is called Dredd in India, Ladang in Indonesia and Milpa in Central America and Mexico. However, such farmers often recognize the value of such compost and they also may irrigate part of such fields if they are near a source of water. In some areas of tropical Africa, at least, such smaller fields may be ones in which crops are grown on raised beds, thus farmers practicing slash and burn agriculture are often much more sophisticated agriculturalists than the term slash and burn subsistence farmers suggest. In this type of farming people migrate along with their animals from one place to another in search of fodder for their animals, generally they rear cattle, sheep, goats, camels and/or yaks for milk, skin, meat and wool. This way of life is common in parts of central and western Asia, India, east and south-west Africa, examples are the nomadic Bhotiyas and Gujjars of the Himalayas. In Intensive subsistence agriculture, the farmer cultivates a small plot of land using simple tools, climate, with large number of days with sunshine and fertile soils permits growing of more than one crop annually on the same plot. Farmers use their land holdings to produce enough, for their local consumption. It results in more food being produced per acre compared to other subsistence patterns
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Sustainable living
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Sustainable living is a lifestyle that attempts to reduce an individuals or societys use of the earths natural resources and personal resources. Practitioners of sustainable living often attempt to reduce their footprint by altering methods of transportation, energy consumption. The practice and general philosophy of living is highly interrelated with the overall principles of sustainable development. Lester R. Sustainable living is fundamentally the application of sustainability to lifestyle choice, another broader conception describes sustainable living in terms of four interconnected social domains, economics, ecology, politics and culture. In the first conception, sustainable living can be described as living within the carrying capacities defined by these factors. Sustainable design and sustainable development are critical factors to sustainable living, Sustainable design encompasses the development of appropriate technology, which is a staple of sustainable living practices. Sustainable development in turn is the use of technologies in infrastructure. Sustainable architecture and agriculture are the most common examples of this practice,1954 The publication of Living the Good Life by Helen and Scott Nearing marked the beginning of the modern day sustainable living movement. The publication paved the way for the movement in the late 1960s. 1962 The publication of Silent Spring by Rachel Carson marked another milestone for the sustainability movement. 1972 Donella Meadows wrote the international bestseller The Limits to Growth, which reported on a study of global trends in population, economics. It sold millions of copies and was translated into 28 languages,1973 E. F. Schumacher published a collection of essays on shifting towards sustainable living through the appropriate use of technology in his book Small is Beautiful. 1992–2002 The United Nations held a series of conferences, which focused on increasing sustainability within societies to conserve the Earths natural resources, the Earth Summit conferences were held in 1992,1972 and 2002. 2007 the United Nations published Sustainable Consumption and Production, Promoting Climate-Friendly Household Consumption Patterns, on a global scale, shelter is associated with about 25% of the greenhouse gas emissions embodied in household purchases and 26% of households land use. Sustainable homes are built using sustainable methods, materials, and facilitate green practices and their construction and maintenance have neutral impacts on the Earth. Sometimes, they are off-the-grid homes that do not require any energy, water. If not off-the-grid, sustainable homes may be linked to a grid supplied by a plant that is using sustainable power sources. Additionally, sustainable homes may be connected to a grid, but generate their own electricity through renewable means, there are two common methods to approaching this option, net metering and double metering
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Sustainable sanitation
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Sustainable sanitation is a type of sanitation system which strives to be sustainable in all respects. Sustainable sanitation, defined in this way, may or may not have an emphasis on reuse of excreta and this approach to sanitation requires a systems approach, rather than only focussing on the toilet itself. The experience of the user, waste collection methods, transportation or conveyance of waste, waste treatment, the Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation of the WHO and UNICEF was responsible for monitoring progress towards the Millennium Development Goal for drinking water and sanitation. For reasons of simplicity — being able to monitor the situation with household surveys — the JMP had to find a simple differentiation between improved sanitation and unimproved sanitation. In some circumstances improved sanitation facilities can be regarded as not sustainable and this is because it depends on the sanitation system, of which the toilet is only one part. In comparison, ecological sanitation has a focus on the reuse of excreta. The main objective of a system is to protect and promote human health by providing a clean environment. The topic also covers such as hygiene, nutrition and the improvement of livelihood achieved by the application of a certain sanitation system. Technology and operation aspects incorporate the functionality and the ease with which the system can be constructed, operated and monitored using the human resources. It also concerns the suitability to achieve an efficient substance flow management from a point of view. Financial and economic issues relate to the capacity of households and communities to pay for sanitation, including the construction, maintenance and depreciation of the system. Most sanitation systems have been designed with the five aspects in mind, in line with good governance principles, decision-making should involve participation of all stakeholders, especially the consumers and providers of services. Waste should be considered a resource, and its management should be holistic and form part of integrated water resource, nutrient flow, the domain in which environmental sanitation problems are resolved should be kept to the minimum practicable size. These planning guidelines have been revised further and are now used in training courses for urban planners. Simple urinals with separate collector systems could be installed instead of using toilets, greywater could be source-separated from the blackwater from toilets thus simplifying its treatment and providing opportunities for reuse. Cess pits e. g. from pour-flush toilets could be equipped with a safety zone of additional material to prevent contamination of ground water. Above ground dry toilets with urine diversion could be installed in dry areas lacking water, rocky areas where pits are expensive to dig and areas with water tables. With respect to the other sustainability factors, key areas of attention the creation of an environment, market development
