1.
Urban planning
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Urban planning is also referred to as urban and regional planning, regional planning, town planning, city planning, rural planning or some combination in various areas worldwide. It takes many forms and it can share perspectives and practices with urban design, urban planning guides orderly development in urban, suburban and rural areas. Practitioners of urban planning are concerned with research and analysis, strategic thinking, architecture, urban design, public consultation, policy recommendations, implementation and management. Urban planners work with the fields of architecture, landscape architecture, civil engineering. Early urban planners were often members of these cognate fields, today urban planning is a separate, independent professional discipline. The discipline is the category that includes different sub-fields such as land-use planning, zoning, economic development, environmental planning. There is evidence of planning and designed communities dating back to the Mesopotamian, Indus Valley, Minoan. Archeologists studying the ruins of cities in these areas find paved streets that were out at right angles in a grid pattern. The idea of a planned out urban area evolved as different civilizations adopted it, beginning in the 8th century BCE, Greek city states were primarily centered on orthogonal plans. The ancient Romans, inspired by the Greeks, also used orthogonal plans for their cities, city planning in the Roman world was developed for military defense and public convenience. The spread of the Roman Empire subsequently spread the ideas of urban planning, as the Roman Empire declined, these ideas slowly disappeared. However, many cities in Europe still held onto the planned Roman city center, cities in Europe from the 9th to 14th centuries, often grew organically and sometimes chaotically. But many hundreds of new towns were built according to preconceived plans. Most of these were realized from the 12th to 14th centuries, from the 15th century on, much more is recorded of urban design and the people that were involved. In this period, theoretical treatises on architecture and urban planning start to appear in which questions are addressed and designs of towns. During the Enlightenment period, several European rulers ambitiously attempted to redesign capital cities, during the Second French Republic, Baron Georges-Eugène Haussmann, under the direction of Napoleon III, redesigned the city of Paris into a more modern capital, with long, straight, wide boulevards. Planning and architecture went through a shift at the turn of the 20th century. The industrialized cities of the 19th century grew at a tremendous rate, the pace and style of this industrial construction was largely dictated by the concerns of private business
2.
Transportation planning
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Transportation planning is the process of defining future policies, goals, investments and designs to prepare for future needs to move people and goods to destinations. As practiced today, it is a process that incorporates the input of many stakeholders including various government agencies. Transportation planners apply a multi-modal and/or comprehensive approach to analyzing the wide range of alternatives, Transportation planning is also commonly referred to as transport planning internationally, and is involved with the evaluation, assessment, design and siting of transport facilities. Other models for planning include rational actor, transit oriented development, satisficing, incremental planning, organizational process, collaborative planning, planners are increasingly expected to adopt a multi-disciplinary approach, especially due to the rising importance of environmentalism. For example, the use of psychology to persuade drivers to abandon their automobiles. The role of the planner is shifting from technical analysis to promoting sustainability through integrated transport policies. For example, in Hanoi the increasing number of motorcycles is responsible not only for environmental damage, in the long run the plan is to reduce traffic through a change in urban planning. Through economic incentives and attractive alternatives experts hope to lighten traffic in the short run, in the United Kingdom transport planning has traditionally been a branch of civil engineering. In the 1950s and 1960s it was believed that the motor car was an important element in the future of transport as economic growth spurred on car ownership figures. The role of the transport planner was to match motorway and rural road capacity against the demands of economic growth, Urban areas would need to be redesigned for the motor vehicle or else impose traffic containment and demand management to mitigate congestion and environmental impacts. These policies were popularised in a 1963 government publication, Traffic in Towns, the contemporary Smeed Report on congestion pricing was initially promoted to manage demand but was deemed politically unacceptable. In more recent times this approach has been caricatured as predict and provide – to predict future transport demand and provide the network for it and this attempt to reverse decades of underinvestment in the transport system has resulted in a severe shortage of transport planners. It was estimated in 2003 that 2,000 new planners would be required by 2010 to avoid jeopardising the success of the Transport Ten Year Plan, the UK Treasury recognises and has published guidance on the systematic tendency for project appraisers to be overly optimistic in their initial estimates. More so, it places an emphasis on passenger rail networks. CSS principles have since adopted as guidelines for highway design in federal legislation. In recent years, there has been a movement to complete transportation corridors under the complete streets movement. In response to design of transportation networks, complete streets encompass all users. The complete streets movement entails many of the CSS principles as well as pedestrian, bicycle, in response an advanced form of certification - the Advanced Specialty Certification in Transportation Planning was developed by the American Planning Association thereafter in 2011
3.
Urban sprawl
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In addition to describing a particular form of urbanization, the term also relates to the social and environmental consequences associated with this development. In Continental Europe the term peri-urbanisation is often used to denote similar dynamics and phenomena, There is widespread disagreement about what constitutes sprawl and how to quantify it. For example, some commentators measure sprawl only with the number of residential units per acre in a given area. But others associate it with decentralization, discontinuity, segregation of uses, the term urban sprawl is highly politicized, and almost always has negative connotations. It is criticized for causing environmental degradation, and intensifying segregation and undermining the vitality of existing urban areas, due to the pejorative meaning of the term, few openly support urban sprawl as such. The term has become a cry for managing urban growth. Definitions of sprawl vary, researchers in the field acknowledge that the term lacks precision and he argued that a better way to identify sprawl was to use indicators rather than characteristics because this was a more flexible and less arbitrary method. He proposed using accessibility and functional space as indicators. Ewings approach has been criticized for assuming that sprawl is defined by negative characteristics, what constitutes sprawl may be considered a matter of degree and will always be somewhat subjective under many definitions of the term. The following characteristics are associated with sprawl, This refers to a situation where commercial, residential, institutional and industrial areas are separated from one another. Consequently, large tracts of land are devoted to a use and are segregated from one another by open space, infrastructure. The degree to which different land uses are mixed together is used as an indicator of sprawl in studies of the subject. Job sprawl is another land use symptom of urban sprawl and car-dependent communities, spatial mismatch is related to job sprawl and economic environmental justice. Job sprawl has been documented and measured in various ways and it has been shown to be a growing trend in Americas metropolitan areas. The Brookings Institution has published articles on the topic. In 2005, author Michael Stoll defined job sprawl simply as jobs located more than 5-mile radius from the CBD, and measured the concept based on year 2000 U. S. Census data. These two authors used three geographic rings limited to a 35-mile radius around the CBD,3 miles or less,3 to 10 miles and this compares to the year 1998 -23. 3%,34. 2%, and 42. 5% in those respective rings. The study shows CBD employment share shrinking, and job growth focused in the suburban and exurban outer metropolitan rings, Sprawl is often characterized as consisting of low-density development
4.
Transit-oriented development
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In urban planning, a transit-oriented development is a type of urban development that maximizes the amount of residential, business and leisure space within walking distance of public transport. A TOD typically includes a transit stop surrounded by a high-density mixed-use area. A TOD is also designed to be more walkable than other built-up areas, through using smaller block sizes. Many of the new towns created after World War II in Japan, Sweden, in the United States, a half-mile-radius circle has become the de facto standard for rail-transit catchment areas for TODs. A half mile corresponds to the distance someone can walk in 10 minutes at 3 mph and is an estimate for the distance people will walk to get to a rail station. The half-mile ring is a more than 500 acres in size. Another key feature of transit-oriented development that differentiates it from transit-proximate development is reduced amounts of parking for personal vehicles, many cities throughout the world are developing TOD policy. One of the earliest and most successful examples of TOD is Curitiba, Curitiba was organized into transport corridors very early on in its history. Over the years, it has integrated its zoning laws and transportation planning to place high-density development adjacent to high-capacity transportation systems, the source of innovation in Curitiba has been a unique form of participatory city planning that emphasizes public education, discussion and agreement. This is simultaneously being implemented along with a bus transit system called Transmetro. Calgary is home to a very successful TOD community called The Bridges, the Bridges is home to a diverse range of condos, shops, services, and parks. Some other TODs currently being constructed are London and Westbrook, both high rise condo and retail communities in areas of the City. The City continues to create TOD policy for other Calgary communities, Calgary City Council has allocated funding for the creation of six Station Area Plans around the city, to guide increasing development pressure around some of the light rail transit stations. On June 9,2008, Calgary City Council approved the first station area plan in Calgarys history, most of the suburban high rises were not along major rail lines like other cities until recently, when there has been incentive to do so. Century Park is a growing community in southern Edmonton at the south end of Edmontons LRT. It will include low to high rise condos, recreational services, shops, restaurants, Edmonton is also looking into some new TODs in various parts of the city. In the northeast, there are plans to redevelop underutilized land at two sites around existing LRT, Fort Road and Stadium Station, according to the Metropolitan Development and Planning Regulation of late 2011, 40% of new households will be built as TOD neighbourhoods. Toronto has a policy of encouraging new construction along the route of its primary Yonge Street subway line
5.
Walkability
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Walkability is a measure of how friendly an area is to walking. Walkability has health, environmental, and economic benefits, Walkability is an important concept in sustainable urban design. One proposed definition for walkability is, The extent to which the environment is friendly to the presence of people living, shopping, visiting, enjoying or spending time in an area. Walkability is also examined based on the built environment. Reid Ewing and Robert Cerveros five Ds of the environment, density, diversity, design, destination accessibility. Combinations of these influence a individuals decision to walk. Before cars and bicycles were mass-produced, walking was the way to travel. It was the way to get from place to place for much of human history. In the 1930s, economic growth led to increased automobile manufacturing, cars were also becoming more affordable, leading to the rise of the automobile during the Post–World War II economic expansion. The detrimental effects of automobile emissions soon led to concern over pollution. Alternatives, including improved public transportation and walking infrastructure, have attracted attention from planners and policymakers. Walkability indices have been found to correlate with both Body Mass Index and physical activity of local populations, physical activity can prevent chronic diseases, such as cardiovascular disease, diabetes, hypertension, obesity, depression, and osteoporosis. A further justification for walkability is founded upon evolutionary and philosophical grounds, after millennia of human development firmly based upon gait, the modern city has separated walking from thinking. Because there are cars, less walking is detracting from human progress. One of most important benefits of walkability is the decrease of the footprint in the community. Carbon emissions can be reduced if more people choose to walk rather than drive or use public transportation, the benefits of less emissions include improved health conditions and quality of life, less smog, and less of a contribution to global climate change. The benefits of walkability are best guaranteed if the system of public corridors is walkable - not limited to certain specialized routes. More sidewalks and increased walkability can promote tourism and increase property value, in recent years, the demand for housing in a walkable urban context has increased
6.
Bicycle-friendly
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Bicycle-friendly policies and practices help some people feel more comfortable about traveling by bicycle with other traffic. The level of bicycle-friendliness of an environment can be influenced by many factors resulting from town planning and cycling infrastructure decisions, if urban form influences these issues, then compact and circular settlement patterns as in Elizabeth, NJ may promote cycling. Alternatively, the low-density, non-circular settlement patterns characteristic of urban sprawl as in nearby Downtown Newark tends to discourage cycling, in 1990, the Dutch adopted the ABC guidelines, specifically limiting developments that are major attractants to locations that are readily accessible by non-car users. The manner in which the roads network is designed, built. Settlements that provide a dense roads network consisting of interconnected streets tend to encourage cycling. A community’s infrastructure can affect its citizens’ health, especially in regard to obesity, cities that incorporate bicycle routes have a higher percentage of bicycle commuters. Studies have shown even moderate increases in physical activity can have a substantial effect on health. Bicycling to work has shown to decrease mortality by as much as 40%. Bicycling is often used as an alternative to travel by car, when infrastructure is built to allow consumers to choose between automobile and other forms of travel, it reduces a communitys automobile dependency and allows for more efficient land usage. The British tourist board award holiday accommodation providers who are friendly with a Cycle Friendly award. Websites such as Beds for Cyclists allow you to search through these, after the League of American Bicyclists designated New Orleans as a Bicycle Friendly City in 2011, bike tour companies like French Quarter Bike Tours subsequently became popular
7.
Mixed-use development
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Mixed-use development can take the form of a single building, a city block, or entire neighbourhoods. Traditionally, human settlements have developed in mixed-use patterns, in the United States, the heyday of separate-use zoning was after World War II, but since the 1990s, mixed-use zoning has once again become desirable as the benefits are recognized. Walking was the way that people and goods were moved about. Most people dwelt in buildings that were places of work as well as domestic life, people lived at very high densities because the amount of space required for daily living and movement between different activities was determined by walkability and the scale of the human body. This was particularly true in cities, and the floor of buildings was often devoted to some sort of commercial or productive use. This historical mixed-used pattern of development declined during industrialisation in favor of separation of manufacturing. This period saw massive migrations of people from areas to cities drawn by work in factories. These influxes of new workers needed to be accommodated and many new urban districts arose at this time with domestic housing being their primary function, thus began a separating out of land uses that previously had occurred in the same spaces. Furthermore, many factories produced substantial pollution of various kinds, distance was required to minimize adverse impacts from noise, dirt, noxious fumes and dangerous substances. Even so, at time, most industrialized cities were of a size that allowed people to walk between the different areas of the city. These factors were important in the push for Euclidean or single-use zoning premised on the compartmentalization of land uses into like functions, in the United States, another impetus for Euclidean zoning was the birth of the skyscraper. Fear of buildings blocking out the sun led many to call for zoning regulations, Zoning regulations, first put into place in the 1916 Zoning Resolution, not only called for limits on building heights, but eventually called for separations of uses. This was largely meant to people from living next to polluted industrial areas. This separation, however, was extended to commercial uses as well and this type of zoning was widely adopted by municipal zoning codes. However, it has been the post-second World War dominance of the automobile, throughout the late 20th century, it began to become apparent to many urban planners and other professionals that mixed-use development had many benefits and should be promoted again. As American, British, Canadian and Australian cities deindustrialized, the need to separate residences from hazardous factories became less important, completely separate zoning created isolated islands of each type of development. In 1961, Jane Jacobs influential The Death and Life of Great American Cities argued that a mixture of uses is vital, Zoning laws have been revised accordingly and increasingly attempt to address these problems by using mixed-use zoning. Mixed-use guidelines often result in buildings with streetfront commercial space
8.
Urban density
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Urban density is a term used in urban planning and urban design to refer to the number of people inhabiting a given urbanized area. As such it is to be distinguished from other measures of population density, Urban density is considered an important factor in understanding how cities function. Research related to urban density occurs across diverse areas, including economics, health, innovation, psychology and it is commonly asserted that higher density cities are more sustainable than low density cities. However, the link between urban density and aspects of sustainability remains an area of planning theory. Jan Gehl, prominent Urban Designer and expert on sustainable urbanism, argues that low-density, a minority, such as Randy OToole of the Libertarian Cato Institute, counter that raising densities results in more expensive real estate, greater road congestion and more localized air pollution. Others counter that traffic congestion is a result not of population density, Urban density is a very specific measurement of the population of an urbanized area, excluding non-urban land-uses. Non-urban uses include regional open space, agriculture and water-bodies, weighted density - a density metric which measures the density at which the average citizen lives. It is determined by calculating the density of each census tract, assigning each a weight equal to its share of the total population. Island Press ISBN 1-55963-660-2 Pont, Meta Y.19, nr,1, pg. 66-76 MIT Density Atlas Urban Density and Energy Consumption
9.
Sustainability
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In ecology, sustainability is the property of biological systems to remain diverse and productive indefinitely. Long-lived and healthy wetlands and forests are examples of biological systems. In more general terms, sustainability is the endurance of systems, the organizing principle for sustainability is sustainable development, which includes the four interconnected domains, ecology, economics, politics and culture. Sustainability science is the study of development and environmental science. Sustainability can also be defined as a process characterized by the pursuit of a common ideal. An ideal is by definition unattainable in a time and space. However, by persistently and dynamically approaching it, the results in a sustainable system. Healthy ecosystems and environments are necessary to the survival of humans, ways of reducing negative human impact are environmentally-friendly chemical engineering, environmental resources management and environmental protection. Information is gained from green chemistry, earth science, environmental science, Ecological economics studies the fields of academic research that aim to address human economies and natural ecosystems. Moving towards sustainability is also a challenge that entails international and national law, urban planning and transport, local and individual lifestyles. The name sustainability is derived from the Latin sustinere, sustain can mean “maintain, support, or endure”. ”The 2005 World Summit on Social Development identified sustainable development goals, such as economic development, social development and environmental protection. This view has been expressed as an illustration using three overlapping ellipses indicating that the three pillars of sustainability are not mutually exclusive and can be mutually reinforcing, in fact, the three pillars are interdependent, and in the long run none can exist without the others. The three pillars have served as a ground for numerous sustainability standards and certification systems in recent years. Standards which today explicitly refer to the bottom line include Rainforest Alliance, Fairtrade. Some sustainability experts and practitioners have illustrated four pillars of sustainability, one such pillar is future generations, which emphasizes the long-term thinking associated with sustainability. There is also an opinion that considers resource use and financial sustainability as two pillars of sustainability. Sustainable development consists of balancing local and global efforts to meet human needs without destroying or degrading the natural environment. The question then becomes how to represent the relationship between those needs and the environment, a study from 2005 pointed out that environmental justice is as important as sustainable development
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Sustainable development
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The desirable end result is a state of society where living conditions and resource use continue to meet human needs without undermining the integrity and stability of the natural systems. As the concept developed, it has shifted to more on economic development, social development. The concept of development has been — and still is — subject to criticism. What, exactly, is to be sustained in sustainable development, Sustainable development ties together concern for the carrying capacity of natural systems with the social, political, and economic challenges faced by humanity. Sustainability science is the study of the concepts of sustainable development, there is an additional focus on the present generations responsibility to regenerate, maintain and improve planetary resources for use by future generations. Sustainable development has its roots in ideas about sustainable forest management which were developed in Europe during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. In 1713 Hans Carl von Carlowitz, a mining administrator in the service of Elector Frederick Augustus I of Saxony published Sylvicultura oeconomica. Building upon the ideas of Evelyn and French minister Jean-Baptiste Colbert and his work influenced others, including Alexander von Humboldt and Georg Ludwig Hartig, eventually leading to the development of a science of forestry. Two years later, the United Nations World Charter for Nature raised five principles of conservation by which human conduct affecting nature is to be guided and judged. In 1987 the United Nations World Commission on Environment and Development released the report Our Common Future, the report included what is now one of the most widely recognised definitions of sustainable development. In 1992, the UN Conference on Environment and Development published the Earth Charter, which outlines the building of a just, sustainable and it emphasises that in sustainable development everyone is a user and provider of information. Furthermore, Agenda 21 emphasises that broad public participation in making is a fundamental prerequisite for achieving sustainable development. Broadly defined, sustainable development is an approach to growth and development and to manage natural, produced. A2013 study concluded that sustainability reporting should be reframed through the lens of four interconnected domains, ecology, economics, politics, the goals are to be implemented and achieved in every country from the year 2016 to 2030. Sustainable development, or sustainability, has described in terms of three spheres, dimensions, domains or pillars, i. e. the environment, the economy. The three-sphere framework was proposed by the economist René Passet in 1979. It has also been worded as economic, environmental and social or ecology, economy and this has been expanded by some authors to include a fourth pillar of culture, institutions or governance. The ecological stability of human settlements is part of the relationship between humans and their natural, social and built environments, also termed human ecology, this broadens the focus of sustainable development to include the domain of human health
11.
Land development
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In an economics context, land development is also sometimes advertised as land improvement or land amelioration. It refers to investments making land more usable by humans, for accounting purposes it refers to any variety of projects that increase the value of the property. Most are depreciable, but some improvements are not able to be depreciated because a useful life cannot be determined. Home building and containment are two of the most common and the oldest types of development and this profit enhancement means identifying and developing the best scheme for the local marketplace, whilst satisfying the local planning process. Development Analysis puts development prospects and the development process itself under the microscope, development analysis can add significantly to the value of land and development, and as such is a crucial tool for landowners and developers. It is a step in Kevin A. Lynchs 1960 book The Image of the City. The landowner can share in additional planning gain via an awareness of the development potential. This is done via a residual development appraisal or residual valuation, the residual appraisal calculates the sale value of the end product, and hypothetically deducts costs, including planning and construction costs, finance costs and developers profit. The residue, or leftover proportion, represents the land value, therefore, in maximising the GDV, land value is concurrently enhanced. Land value is highly sensitive to supply and demand, build costs, planning and affordable housing contributions, understanding the intricacies of the development system and the effect of value drivers can result in massive differences in the landowners sale value. Land improvement in the economic sense can often lead to degradation from the ecological perspective. Land development and the change in land value does not usually take into account changes in the ecology of the developed area, new creation of farmland will rely on the conversion and development of previous forests, savannas or grassland. Recreation of farmland from wasteland, deserts or previous impervious surfaces is considerably less frequent because of the degraded or missing fertile soil in the latter, starting from forests, land is made arable by assarting or slash-and-burn. Agricultural development furthermore includes, Hydrological measures Soil improvement, road construction Because the newly created farmland is more prone to erosion than soil stabilized by tree roots, such a conversion may mean irreversible crossing of an ecological threshold. The resulting deforestation is not easily compensated for by reforestation or afforestation. Examples of land restoration/land rehabilitation counted as land development in the strict sense are still rare, however, renaturation, reforestation, stream restoration may all contribute to a healthier environment and quality of life, especially in densely populated regions. The same is true for planned vegetation like parks and gardens, but restoration plays a particular role, because it reverses previous conversions to built and agricultural areas
12.
NIMBY
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The residents are often called Nimbys and their state of mind is called Nimbyism. The NIMBY concept may also be applied to people who advocate some proposal, the claimed reasons against these developments vary, and some are given below. Increased traffic, More jobs, more housing or more stores correlates to increased traffic on local streets, industrial facilities such as warehouses, factories, or landfills often increase the volume of truck traffic. This can lead to excessive costs, or to loss of respected local businesses. Loss of residential property value, Homes near an undesirable development may be desirable for potential buyers. The lost revenue from property taxes may, or may not, especially facilities assumed to smell might cause objections. Light pollution, Projects that operate at night, or that include security lighting, noise pollution, In addition to the noise of traffic, a project may inherently be noisy. Visual blight and failure to blend in with the architecture, The proposed project might be ugly or particularly large. Disproportionate benefit to non-locals, The project appears to benefit distant people, additionally, certain types of projects, such as pubs or medical marijuana dispensaries, might be perceived as directly increasing the amount of crime in the area. Risk of an disaster, such as with drilling operations, chemical industry, dams, generally, many NIMBY objections are guessed or feared, because objections are more likely to be successful before the construction start. It is often too late to object to the project after its completion, as hinted by the list, protests can occur for opposite reasons. A new road or shopping center can cause increased traffic and work opportunities for some, people in an area affected by plans sometimes form an organization which can collect money and organize the objection activities. NIMBYists can hire a lawyer to do formal appeals, and contact media to public support for their case. The concept behind the term, that of locally organized resistance to unwanted land uses, is likely to have originated earlier, one suggestion is it emerged in the 1950s. In the 1980s, the term was popularized by British politician Nicholas Ridley, comedian George Carlin used the term in a comedy skit, implying that people had already heard of it. NIMBY and its derivative terms NIMBYism, NIMBYs, and NIMBYists, as such, their use is inherently contentious. The term is applied to opponents of a development, implying that they have narrow, selfish. The term Not in My Neighborhood is also frequently used, Opposition to certain developments as inappropriate anywhere in the world is characterised by the acronym NIABY
13.
Urban growth boundary
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If the area affected by the boundary includes multiple jurisdictions a special urban planning agency may be created by the state or regional government to manage the boundary. In a rural context, the town boundary, village curtilage or village envelope may be used to apply the same constraining principles. Some jurisdictions refer to the area within an urban growth boundary as a growth area. While the names are different, the concept is the same, another term used is urban service area. Opposition to unregulated urban growth and ribbon development began to grow towards the end of the 19th century in England, the campaign group Campaign to Protect Rural England was formed in 1926 and exerted environmentalist pressure. Implementation of the notion dated from Herbert Morrisons 1934 leadership of the London County Council, new provisions for compensation in the 1947 Town and Country Planning Act allowed local authorities around the country to incorporate green belt proposals in their first development plans. In the United States, the first urban growth boundary was established in 1958, around the city of Lexington, lexingtons population was expanding, and city leaders were concerned about the survival of the surrounding horse farms closely tied to the citys cultural identity. The first statewide urban growth boundary policy was implemented in Oregon, under then governor Tom McCall, Tom McCall and his allies convinced the Oregon Legislature in 1973 to adopt the nations first set of statewide land use planning laws. The new goals and guidelines required every city and county in Oregon to have a plan addressing future growth that meets both local and statewide goals. Albania maintains the yellow line system hailing from its Socialist Regime - limiting urban development beyond a boundary for all municipalities. After the release of Melbourne 2030 in October 2002, the government of Victoria legislated an urban growth boundary to limit urban sprawl. Since then, the growth boundary has been significantly increased a number of times. In Canada, Vancouver, Toronto, Ottawa and Waterloo, Ontario have boundaries to restrict growth, in Montréal and in the rest of the province of Québec, an agricultural protection law serves a similar purpose, restricting urban development to white zones and forbidding it on green zones. They are notably absent from such as Calgary, Edmonton. In France, Rennes décided in the 60s to maintain a green belt after its ring road and this green belt is named Ceinture verte. In the plan of new towns, green belts are included. In addition a majority of new towns are surrounded by country parks, over the past two decades, greater Auckland has been subject to a process of growth management facilitated through various strategic and legislative documents. An overarching objective has been to manage the growth of Auckland in a higher density, effect is given to this strategy through a series of layers of control including the Local Government Amendment Act, the Regional Policy Statement and then via District Plans
14.
New Urbanism
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New Urbanism is an urban design movement which promotes environmentally friendly habits by creating walkable neighborhoods containing a wide range of housing and job types. It arose in the United States in the early 1980s, and has influenced many aspects of real estate development, urban planning. These ideas can all be circled back to two concepts, building a sense of community and the development of ecological practices, the organizing body for New Urbanism is the Congress for the New Urbanism, founded in 1993. They believe their strategies can reduce congestion by encouraging the population to ride bikes, walk. They also hope that this set up will increase the supply of affordable housing, the Charter of the New Urbanism also covers issues such as historic preservation, safe streets, green building, and the re-development of brownfield land. The ten Principles of Intelligent Urbanism also phrase guidelines for new urbanist approaches, architecturally, new urbanist developments are often accompanied by New Classical, postmodern, or vernacular styles, although that is not always the case. Until the mid 20th century, cities were generally organized into, but with the advent of cheap automobiles and favorable government policies, attention began to shift away from cities and towards ways of growth more focused on the needs of the car. This new system of development, with its rigorous separation of uses, arose after World War II, the majority of U. S. citizens now live in suburban communities built in the last fifty years, and automobile use per capita has soared. Although New Urbanism as a movement would only arise later. Social philosopher and historian Lewis Mumford criticized the development of post-war America. The French architect François Spoerry has developed in the 60s the concept of architecture that he applied to Port Grimaud. The success of project had a considerable influence and led to many new projects of soft architecture like Port Liberté in New Jersey or Le Plessis Robisson in France. The term new urbanism itself started being used in context in the mid-1980s. Named the Ahwahnee Principles, the presented the principles to about one hundred government officials in the fall of 1991. Calthorpe, Duany, Moule, Plater-Zyberk, Polyzoides, and Solomon founded the Chicago-based Congress for the New Urbanism in 1993, the CNU has grown to more than three thousand members, and is the leading international organization promoting New Urbanist design principles. It holds annual Congresses in various U. S. cities, the Canons are a set of operating principles for human settlement that reestablish the relationship between the art of building, the making of community, and the conservation of our natural world. They promote the use of heating and cooling solutions, the use of locally obtained materials, and in general. New Urbanism is a movement that spans a number of different disciplines
15.
Sustainable transport
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Components for evaluating sustainability include the particular vehicles used for road, water or air transport, the source of energy, and the infrastructure used to accommodate the transport. Another component for evaluation is pipelines for transporting liquid or gas materials, Transport operations and logistics as well as transit-oriented development are also involved in evaluation. Transportation sustainability is largely being measured by transportation system effectiveness and efficiency as well as the environmental, the entire life cycle of transport systems is subject to sustainability measurement and optimization. Sustainable transport systems make a contribution to the environmental, social. The advantages of increased mobility need to be weighed against the environmental, social, Transport systems have significant impacts on the environment, accounting for between 20% and 25% of world energy consumption and carbon dioxide emissions. The majority of the emissions, almost 97%, came from burning of fossil fuels. Greenhouse gas emissions from transport are increasing at a faster rate than any other energy using sector, road transport is also a major contributor to local air pollution and smog. The United Nations Environment Programme estimates that each year 2.4 million premature deaths from air pollution could be avoided. The social costs of transport include road crashes, air pollution, physical inactivity, time taken away from the family while commuting, many of these negative impacts fall disproportionately on those social groups who are also least likely to own and drive cars. Traffic congestion imposes economic costs by wasting time and by slowing the delivery of goods. Traditional transport planning aims to improve mobility, especially for vehicles, communities which are successfully improving the sustainability of their transport networks are doing so as part of a wider programme of creating more vibrant, livable, sustainable cities. There are many definitions of the transport, and of the related terms sustainable transportation. Is Affordable, operates fairly and efficiently, offers a choice of transport mode, Sustainability extends beyond just the operating efficiency and emissions. A Life-cycle assessment involves production, use and post-use considerations, a cradle-to-cradle design is more important than a focus on a single factor such as energy efficiency. Most of the tools and concepts of sustainable transport were developed before the phrase was coined, walking, the first mode of transport, is also the most sustainable. Public transport dates back at least as far as the invention of the bus by Blaise Pascal in 1662. The first passenger tram began operation in 1807 and the first passenger service in 1825. Pedal bicycles date from the 1860s and these were the only personal transport choices available to most people in Western countries prior to World War II, and remain the only options for most people in the developing world
16.
Triple bottom line
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Triple bottom line is an accounting framework with three parts, social, environmental and financial. Many organizations have adopted the TBL framework to evaluate their performance in a perspective to create greater business value. The term was coined by John Elkington in 1994, in traditional business accounting and common usage, the bottom line refers to either the profit or loss, which is usually recorded at the very bottom line on a statement of revenue and expenses. Over the last 50 years, environmentalists and social justice advocates have struggled to bring a broader definition of line into public consciousness by introducing full cost accounting. The triple bottom line adds two more bottom lines”, social and environmental concerns, with the ratification of the United Nations and ICLEI TBL standard for urban and community accounting in early 2007, this became the dominant approach to public sector full cost accounting. Similar UN standards apply to capital and human capital measurement to assist in measurements required by TBL. The TBL seems to be widespread in South African media. The organization earns a profit, which is controlled by a volunteer Board, the social benefit is the meaningful employment of disadvantaged citizens, and the reduction in the societys welfare or disability costs. The environmental benefit comes from the recycling accomplished, in the private sector, a commitment to Corporate social responsibility implies a commitment to transparent reporting about the business material impact for good on the environment and people. Triple bottom line is one framework for reporting this material impact and this is distinct from the more limited changes required to deal only with ecological issues. The triple bottom line has also extended to encompass four pillars. The fourth pillar denotes a future-oriented approach and it is a long-term outlook that sets sustainable development and sustainability concerns apart from previous social, environmental, and economic considerations. The challenges of putting the TBL into practice relate to the measurement of social and ecological categories, despite this, the TBL framework enables organizations to take a longer-term perspective and thus evaluate the future consequences of decisions. Sustainable development was defined by the Brundtland Commission of the United Nations in 1987, Triple bottom line accounting expands the traditional reporting framework to take into account social and environmental performance in addition to financial performance. In 1981, Freer Spreckley first articulated the triple bottom line in a publication called Social Audit - A Management Tool for Co-operative Working, in this work, he argued that enterprises should measure and report on financial performance, social wealth creation, and environmental responsibility. The phrase triple bottom line was articulated more fully by John Elkington in his 1997 book Cannibals with Forks, a Triple Bottom Line Investing group advocating and publicizing these principles was founded in 1998 by Robert J. Rubinstein. In this case, stakeholders refers to anyone who is influenced, either directly or indirectly, According to the stakeholder theory, the business entity should be used as a vehicle for coordinating stakeholder interests, instead of maximizing shareholder profit. A growing number of financial institutions incorporate a triple bottom line approach in their work and it is at the core of the business of banks in the Global Alliance for Banking on Values, for example
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Massachusetts
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It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the east, the states of Connecticut and Rhode Island to the south, New Hampshire and Vermont to the north, and New York to the west. The state is named for the Massachusett tribe, which inhabited the area. The capital of Massachusetts and the most populous city in New England is Boston, over 80% of Massachusetts population lives in the Greater Boston metropolitan area, a region influential upon American history, academia, and industry. Originally dependent on agriculture, fishing and trade, Massachusetts was transformed into a manufacturing center during the Industrial Revolution, during the 20th century, Massachusetts economy shifted from manufacturing to services. Modern Massachusetts is a leader in biotechnology, engineering, higher education, finance. Plymouth was the site of the first colony in New England, founded in 1620 by the Pilgrims, in 1692, the town of Salem and surrounding areas experienced one of Americas most infamous cases of mass hysteria, the Salem witch trials. In 1777, General Henry Knox founded the Springfield Armory, which during the Industrial Revolution catalyzed numerous important technological advances, in 1786, Shays Rebellion, a populist revolt led by disaffected American Revolutionary War veterans, influenced the United States Constitutional Convention. In the 18th century, the Protestant First Great Awakening, which swept the Atlantic World, in the late 18th century, Boston became known as the Cradle of Liberty for the agitation there that led to the American Revolution. The entire Commonwealth of Massachusetts has played a commercial and cultural role in the history of the United States. Before the American Civil War, Massachusetts was a center for the abolitionist, temperance, in the late 19th century, the sports of basketball and volleyball were invented in the western Massachusetts cities of Springfield and Holyoke, respectively. Many prominent American political dynasties have hailed from the state, including the Adams, both Harvard University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, also in Cambridge, have been ranked among the most highly regarded academic institutions in the world. Massachusetts public school students place among the top nations in the world in academic performance, the official name of the state is the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. While this designation is part of the official name, it has no practical implications. Massachusetts has the position and powers within the United States as other states. Massachusetts was originally inhabited by tribes of the Algonquian language family such as the Wampanoag, Narragansett, Nipmuc, Pocomtuc, Mahican, and Massachusett. While cultivation of crops like squash and corn supplemented their diets, villages consisted of lodges called wigwams as well as longhouses, and tribes were led by male or female elders known as sachems. Between 1617 and 1619, smallpox killed approximately 90% of the Massachusetts Bay Native Americans, the first English settlers in Massachusetts, the Pilgrims, arrived via the Mayflower at Plymouth in 1620, and developed friendly relations with the native Wampanoag people. This was the second successful permanent English colony in the part of North America that later became the United States, the event known as the First Thanksgiving was celebrated by the Pilgrims after their first harvest in the New World which lasted for three days
18.
Urban village
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Urban villages are seen to provide an alternative to recent patterns of urban development in many cities, especially decentralization and urban sprawl. Following pressure from the UVG, the concept was prioritized in British national planning policy between 1997 and 1999, urban villages also come in the form of suburbs of metropolitan areas that are politically designated as villages. Urban village ideals have been applied to new greenfield and brownfield developments, the concept has been widely adopted in many countries and used by both government development agencies as well as private enterprise as a guiding concept for many projects. The ideas of the urban commentator Jane Jacobs are widely regarded as having had the largest influence on the village concept. Proponents believe that urban villages provide an alternative to the social ills that characterize modernism in cities, such as freeways. Another strong impetus for urban villages has been growing disenchantment with the sprawl that has characterized the development of many cities since World War II. Urban villages are seen to create self-contained communities that reduce the need to travel large distances, the decline of noxious industry and the emergence of the service economy allows the mixing of employment and residential activities without detriment to residents. This is in contrast to the single-use zoning that helped fuel urban sprawl during the industrial, through more consolidated development, urban villages can reduce the intrusion of urban growth on the countryside. These environmental consequences of urban sprawl have come to dominate discussion promoting urban villages in recent years, urban villages are widely seen to provide a solution to the demise of community that is often associated with modernism and sprawl. The concept uses the social and physical morphology of the rural village as an inspiration for creating better functioning communities. The urban village movement has influenced by Ebenezer Howard’s Garden City ideals which also emphasize environmental determinism in relation to community. Urban design techniques such as space and pedestrianization are employed to facilitate the development of community by encouraging human interaction. This philosophy shares many attributes with the new school of thought. Many urban village developments, both Government and privately initiated, have seen to depart from the original ideals of the concept. Private developments often use the ‘urban village’ label as a pitch or to win Government support for their project. Many developments, although intended to create an urban village form, have not achieved their objectives. Some planners question whether a genuine urban village has actually been built, the objectives of urban villages are often criticized as unrealistic because they ignore broader social and economic realities. The ability to create self-contained villages is questionable as employment and activity patterns continue to more complex
19.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
20.
United States Environmental Protection Agency
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The EPA was proposed by President Richard Nixon and began operation on December 2,1970, after Nixon signed an executive order. The order establishing the EPA was ratified by committee hearings in the House, the agency is led by its Administrator, who is appointed by the president and approved by Congress. The current administrator is Scott Pruitt, the EPA is not a Cabinet department, but the administrator is normally given cabinet rank. The EPA has its headquarters in Washington, D. C. regional offices for each of the ten regions. The agency conducts environmental assessment, research, and education and it has the responsibility of maintaining and enforcing national standards under a variety of environmental laws, in consultation with state, tribal, and local governments. It delegates some permitting, monitoring, and enforcement responsibility to U. S. states, EPA enforcement powers include fines, sanctions, and other measures. The agency also works with industries and all levels of government in a variety of voluntary pollution prevention programs. In 2016, the agency had 15,376 full-time employees, more than half of EPAs employees are engineers, scientists, and environmental protection specialists, other employees include legal, public affairs, financial, and information technologists. Beginning in the late 1950s and through the 1960s, Congress reacted to increasing concern about the impact that human activity could have on the environment. Senator James E. Murray introduced a bill, the Resources and Conservation Act of 1959, the 1962 publication of Silent Spring by Rachel Carson alerted the public about the detrimental effects on the environment of the indiscriminate use of pesticides. In the years following, similar bills were introduced and hearings were held to discuss the state of the environment, in the colloquium, some members of Congress expressed a continuing concern over federal agency actions affecting the environment. The National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 was modeled on RCA, President Nixon signed NEPA into law on January 1,1970. The law created the Council on Environmental Quality in the Executive Office of the President, NEPA required that a detailed statement of environmental impacts be prepared for all major federal actions significantly affecting the environment. The detailed statement would ultimately be referred to as an impact statement. On July 9,1970, Nixon proposed a reorganization that consolidated many environmental responsibilities of the federal government under one agency. After conducting hearings during that summer, the House and Senate approved the proposal, the agency’s first administrator, William Ruckelshaus, took the oath of office on December 4,1970. In May 2013, Congress renamed the EPA headquarters as the William Jefferson Clinton Federal Building, the EPA is led by an Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency. As of 2017 Scott Pruitt is the 14th administrator, each EPA regional office is responsible within its states for implementing the Agencys programs, except those programs that have been specifically delegated to states
21.
Traffic congestion
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Traffic congestion is a condition on transport networks that occurs as use increases, and is characterized by slower speeds, longer trip times, and increased vehicular queueing. The most common example is the use of roads by vehicles. When traffic demand is great enough that the interaction between vehicles slows the speed of the stream, this results in some congestion. As demand approaches the capacity of a road, extreme traffic congestion sets in, when vehicles are fully stopped for periods of time, this is colloquially known as a traffic jam or traffic snarl-up. Traffic congestion can lead to becoming frustrated and engaging in road rage. Mathematically, congestion is usually looked at as the number of vehicles that pass through a point in a window of time, Congestion flow lends itself to principles of fluid dynamics. Traffic congestion occurs when a volume of traffic or modal split generates demand for greater than the available street capacity. About half of U. S. traffic congestion is recurring, Traffic research still cannot fully predict under which conditions a traffic jam may suddenly occur. It has been found that individual incidents may cause ripple effects which then spread out and create a traffic jam when, otherwise. Some traffic engineers have attempted to apply the rules of fluid dynamics to traffic flow, Traffic scientists liken such a situation to the sudden freezing of supercooled fluid. However, unlike a fluid, traffic flow is affected by signals or other events at junctions that periodically affect the smooth flow of traffic. Alternative mathematical theories exist, such as Boris Kerners three-phase traffic theory, because of the poor correlation of theoretical models to actual observed traffic flows, transportation planners and highway engineers attempt to forecast traffic flow using empirical models. These models are typically calibrated by measuring actual traffic flows on the links in the network. That discovery enabled the team to solve traffic-jam equations that were first theorized in the 1950s, congested roads can be seen as an example of the tragedy of the commons. Privatization of highways and road pricing have both proposed as measures that may reduce congestion through economic incentives and disincentives. Congestion can also happen due to non-recurring highway incidents, such as a crash or roadworks, economist Anthony Downs argues that rush hour traffic congestion is inevitable because of the benefits of having a relatively standard work day. In a capitalist economy, goods can be allocated either by pricing or by queueing and they determined that the number of vehicle-kilometers traveled increases in direct proportion to the available lane-kilometers of roadways. The implication is that new roads and widening existing ones only results in additional traffic that continues to rise until peak congestion returns to the previous level
22.
Urban decay
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Urban decay is the process whereby a previously functioning city, or part of a city, falls into disrepair and decrepitude. Since the 1970s and 1980s, urban decay has been associated with Western cities, especially in North America, since then, major structural changes in global economies, transportation, and government policy created the economic and then the social conditions resulting in urban decay. In contrast, North American and British cities often experience population flights to the suburbs and exurb commuter towns, another characteristic of urban decay is blight—the visual, psychological, and physical effects of living among empty lots, buildings and condemned houses. Such desolate properties are socially dangerous to the community because they attract criminals and street gangs, however, subsequent economic change left many cities economically vulnerable. Changes in means of transport, from the public to the private—specifically, the manufacturing sector has been a base for the prosperity of major cities. When the industries have relocated outside of cities, some have experienced population loss with associated urban decay, cut backs on police and fire services may result, while lobbying for government funded housing may increase. Increased city taxes encourage residents to move out, rent controls are often enacted due to public pressure and complaint regarding the cost of living. Proponents of rent controls argue that rent controls combat inflation, stabilize the economic characteristics of a population, prevent rent gouging. Rent control contributes to urban blight by reducing new construction and investment in housing and deincentivizing maintenance, if a landlords costs to perform maintenance consume too large a proportion of revenue from rent, the landlord will feel pressure to drastically reduce or eliminate maintenance entirely. This effect has been observed in New York City as 29% of rent-controlled buildings were categorized as either deteriorated or dilapidated in contrast with 8% of non-rent-controlled housing, some historians differentiate between the first Great Migration, numbering about 1. Between 1910 and 1970, Blacks moved from 14 states of the South, especially Alabama, Louisiana, Mississippi, more townspeople with urban skills moved during the second migration. By the end of the Second Great Migration, African Americans had become an urbanized population, more than 80 percent lived in cities. A majority of 53 percent remained in the South, while 40 percent lived in the North and 7 percent in the West. Later urban centers were drained further through the advent of car ownership, the marketing of suburbia as a location to move to. In North America this shift manifested itself in strip malls, suburban retail and employment centers, large areas of many northern cities in the United States experienced population decreases and a degradation of urban areas. Inner-city property values declined and economically disadvantaged populations moved in, in the U. S. the new inner-city poor were often African-Americans that migrated from the South in the 1920s and 1930s. As they moved into traditional neighborhoods, ethnic frictions served to accelerate flight to the suburbs. Britain experienced severe urban decay in the 1970s and 1980s exemplified by The Specials 1981 hit single Ghost Town, some seaside resort towns have also experienced urban decay towards the end of the 20th Century, due to the popularity of Package holidays to the continent
23.
Green belt
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A green belt or greenbelt is a policy and land use designation used in land use planning to retain areas of largely undeveloped, wild, or agricultural land surrounding or neighbouring urban areas. Similar concepts are greenways or green wedges which have a linear character, in essence, a green belt is an invisible line designating a border around a certain area, preventing development of the area and allowing wildlife to return and be established. The green belt has many benefits for people, Walking, camping, contiguous habitat network for wild plants, animals and wildlife. Cleaner air and water Better land use of areas within the bordering cities, the effectiveness of green belts differs depending on location and country. The Old Testament outlines a proposal for a belt around the Levite towns in the Land of Israel. Moses Maimonides expounded that the plan from the Old Testament referred to all towns in ancient Israel. In the 7th century, Muhammad established a green belt around Medina and he did this by prohibiting any further removal of trees in a 12-mile long strip around the city. In 1580 Elizabeth I of England banned new building in a 3-mile wide belt around the City of London in an attempt to stop the spread of plague, however, this was not widely enforced and it was possible to buy dispensations which reduced the effectiveness of the proclamation. Green belt policy was then pioneered in the United Kingdom, various proposals were put forward from 1890 onwards but the first to garner widespread support was put forward by the London Society in its Development Plan of Greater London 1919. Alongside the CPRE they lobbied for a belt to prevent urban sprawl. There are fourteen green belt areas, in the UK covering 16,716 km², or 13% of England, other notable examples are the Ottawa Greenbelt and Golden Horseshoe Greenbelt in Ontario, Canada. Ottawas 20,350 hectare greenbelt is managed by the National Capital Commission, the more general term in the United States is green space or greenspace, which may be a very small area such as a park. The dynamic Adelaide Park Lands, measuring approximately 7.6 km², on the fringe of the eastern suburbs, an expansive natural greenbelt in the Adelaide Hills acts as a growth boundary for Adelaide, cooling the region in the hottest months. The European Commissions COST Action C11 is undertaking Case studies in Greenstructure Planning involving 15 European countries. An act of the Swedish parliament from 1994 has declared a series of parks in Stockholm, the stated motivation and benefits of the green belt might be well-intentioned, but these benefits do not accrue as intentioned or claimed. Examples commonly cited are the Ottawa suburbs of Kanata and Orleans and this leads to other problems, as residents of these areas have a longer commute to work places in the city and worse access to public transport. It also means people have to commute through the green belt, not only is the merit of a green belt subverted, but the green belt may heighten the problem and make the city unsustainable. There are many examples whereby the actual effect of green belts is to act as a reserve for future freeways
24.
Air pollution
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Air pollution occurs when harmful substances including particulates and biological molecules are introduced into Earths atmosphere. It may cause diseases, allergies or death in humans, it may cause harm to other living organisms such as animals and food crops. Human activity and natural processes can both generate air pollution, indoor air pollution and poor urban air quality are listed as two of the worlds worst toxic pollution problems in the 2008 Blacksmith Institute Worlds Worst Polluted Places report. According to the 2014 WHO report, air pollution in 2012 caused the deaths of around 7 million people worldwide, an air pollutant is a substance in the air that can have adverse effects on humans and the ecosystem. The substance can be particles, liquid droplets, or gases. A pollutant can be of natural origin or man-made, pollutants are classified as primary or secondary. Primary pollutants are usually produced from a process, such as ash from a volcanic eruption, other examples include carbon monoxide gas from motor vehicle exhaust, or the sulfur dioxide released from factories. Secondary pollutants are not emitted directly, rather, they form in the air when primary pollutants react or interact. Ground level ozone is a prominent example of a secondary pollutant, some pollutants may be both primary and secondary, they are both emitted directly and formed from other primary pollutants. Substances emitted into the atmosphere by human activity include, Carbon dioxide - Debate continues over whether carbon dioxide should be classified as an atmospheric pollutant, because of its role as a greenhouse gas it has been described as the leading pollutant and the worst climate pollution. Against this it is argued that carbon dioxide is a component of the atmosphere, essential for plant life. This question of terminology has practical effects, for example as determining whether the U. S. Clean Air Act is deemed to regulate CO2 emissions, CO2 increase in earths atmosphere has been accelerating. Sulfur oxides - particularly sulfur dioxide, a compound with the formula SO2. SO2 is produced by volcanoes and in industrial processes. Coal and petroleum often contain sulfur compounds, and their combustion generates sulfur dioxide, further oxidation of SO2, usually in the presence of a catalyst such as NO2, forms H2SO4, and thus acid rain. This is one of the causes for concern over the impact of the use of these fuels as power sources. Nitrogen oxides - Nitrogen oxides, particularly nitrogen dioxide, are expelled from high temperature combustion and they can be seen as a brown haze dome above or a plume downwind of cities. Nitrogen dioxide is a compound with the formula NO2
25.
United States Department of Energy
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The United States Department of Energy is a Cabinet-level department of the United States Government concerned with the United States policies regarding energy and safety in handling nuclear material. It also directs research in genomics, the Human Genome Project originated in a DOE initiative, DOE sponsors more research in the physical sciences than any other U. S. federal agency, the majority of which is conducted through its system of National Laboratories. Former Governor of Texas Rick Perry is the current Secretary of Energy and he was confirmed by a 62 to 37 vote in the United States Senate on March 2,2017. In 1942, during World War II, the United States started the Manhattan Project, after the war in 1946, the Atomic Energy Commission was created to control the future of the project. The 1973 oil crisis called attention to the need to consolidate energy policy, on August 4,1977, President Jimmy Carter signed into law The Department of Energy Organization Act of 1977, which created the Department of Energy. Former Secretary of Defense James Schlesinger, who served under Presidents Nixon, a DOE spokesperson denied that phrases had been banned. In December 1999, the FBI was investigating how China obtained plans for a nuclear device. Wen Ho Lee was accused of stealing nuclear secrets from Los Alamos National Laboratory for the Peoples Republic of China, Federal officials, including then-Energy Secretary Bill Richardson, publicly named Lee as a suspect before he was charged with a crime. The U. S. Congress held hearings to investigate the Department of Energys mishandling of his case, republican senators thought that an independent agency should be in charge of nuclear weapons and security issues, not the Department of Energy. All but one of the 59 charges against Lee were eventually dropped because the investigation proved that the plans the Chinese obtained could not have come from Lee. Lee filed suit and won a $1.6 million settlement against the federal government, the department is under the control and supervision of a United States Secretary of Energy, a political appointee of the President of the United States. The Energy Secretary is assisted in managing the department by a United States Deputy Secretary of Energy, also appointed by the president, the department also has three under secretaries, each appointed by the president, who oversee the major areas of the departments work. The president also appoints seven officials with the rank of Assistant Secretary of Energy who have line management responsibility for major elements of the Department. The Energy Secretary assigns their functions and duties. S.4 billion budget request for DOE for fiscal year 2010, including $2.3 billion for the DOE Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy. The budget aims to expand the use of renewable energy sources while improving energy transmission infrastructure. It also makes significant investments in hybrids and plug-in hybrids, in smart grid technologies, most of the stimulus spending was in the form of grants and contracts. The contractor guarantees the energy improvements will generate savings, and after the contract ends, in loan guarantees, a conditional commitment requires to meet an equity commitment, as well as other conditions, before the loan guarantee is completed. The DOE budget includes $280 million to fund eight Energy Innovation Hubs, yet another hub will develop smart materials that will allow the electrical grid to adapt and respond to changing conditions
26.
Zoning
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Zoning describes the control by authority which designates legal areas in a municipality to permit and prohibit land uses. Zoning may specify a variety of outright and conditional uses of land and it may also indicate the size and dimensions of land area as well as the form and scale of buildings. These guidelines are set in order to guide urban growth and development, areas of land are divided by appropriate authorities into zones within which various uses are permitted. Thus, zoning is a technique of land-use planning as a tool of urban planning used by governments in most developed countries. The word is derived from the practice of designating mapped zones which regulate the use, form, design, legally, a zoning plan is usually enacted as a by-law with the respective procedures. Canada or Germany, zoning plans must comply with upper-tier planning, similar urban planning methods have dictated the use of various areas for particular purposes in many cities from ancient times. The primary purpose of zoning is to segregate uses that are thought to be incompatible, in practice, zoning also is used to prevent new development from interfering with existing uses and/or to preserve the character of a community. However, it has not always been a method for achieving this goal. In Australia, land under the control of the Commonwealth government is not subject to state planning controls, the United States and other federal countries are similar. Zoning and urban planning in France and Germany are regulated by national or federal codes, in the case of Germany this code includes contents of zoning plans as well as the legal procedure. In Germany, zoning includes an assessment with very specific greenspace and compensation regulations. The details of how individual planning systems incorporate zoning into their regulatory regimes varies though the intention is always similar, most zoning systems have a procedure for granting variances, usually because of some perceived hardship caused by the particular nature of the property in question. The origins of zoning districts can be traced back to antiquity, the ancient walled city was the predecessor for classifying and regulating land based on use. Outside the city walls were the functions, which were usually based on noise and smell. The space between the walls is where unsanitary and dangerous activities occurred such as butchering, waste disposal, within the wall were civic and religious places, and where the majority of people lived. Beyond the simple distinction between urban and non-urban land, most ancient cities further classified land type and use inside their walls. This was practiced in regions of the world – for example, in China during the Zhou Dynasty, in India during the Vedic Era. One legal form for enforcing this was the caste system and this meant that residential areas also functioned as places of labour, production and commerce
27.
Affordable housing
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Affordable housing is housing which is deemed affordable to those with a median household income as rated by country, State, region, or municipality by a recognized Housing Affordability Index. In the United Kingdom affordable housing includes social rented and intermediate housing, the notion of housing affordability became widespread in the 1980s in Europe and North America. Housing choice is a response to a complex set of economic, social. For example, some households may choose to spend more on housing because they feel they can afford to, the Median Multiple indicator, recommended by the World Bank and the United Nations, rates affordability of housing by dividing the median house price by gross annual median household income). A common measure of affordability is the number of homes that a household with a certain percentage of median income can afford. 50% affordability for the median home indicates a balanced market, determining housing affordability is complex and the commonly used housing-expenditure-to-income-ratio tool has been challenged. In the United States and Canada, a commonly accepted guideline for housing affordability is a housing cost that does not exceed 30% of a gross income. Canada, for example, switched to a 25% rule from a 20% rule in the 1950s, in the 1980s this was replaced by a 30% rule. One of the greatest strengths of the HAI developed by MIT is its ability to capture the Total Cost of Ownership of individuals housing choices, in computing the index the obvious cost of rents and mortgage payments are modified by the hidden costs of those choices. Income is the primary factor—not price and availability, that housing affordability. In a market economy the distribution of income is the key determinant of the quantity and quality of housing obtained, therefore, understanding affordable housing challenges requires understanding trends and disparities in income and wealth. Housing is often the single biggest expenditure of low and middle income families, for low and middle income families, their house is also the greatest source of wealth. The most common approach to measure the affordability of housing has been to consider the percentage of income that a household spends on housing expenditures, another method of studying affordability looks at the regular hourly wage of full-time workers who are paid only the minimum wage. The hope is that workers will be able to afford at least a small apartment in the area where they work. Some countries look at those living in poverty, which is usually defined as making less than 60% of the median household income. In their policy reports, they consider the presence or absence of housing for people making 60% of the median income, Housing affordability can be measured by the changing relationships between house prices and rents, and between house prices and incomes. There has been an increase among policy makers in affordable housing as the price of housing has increased creating a crisis in affordable housing. Since 2000 the world experienced an unprecedented house price boom in terms of magnitude and duration, never before had house prices risen so fast, for so long, in so many countries
28.
House
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Houses use a range of different roofing systems to keep precipitation such as rain from getting into the dwelling space. Houses may have doors or locks to secure the dwelling space, most conventional modern houses in Western cultures will contain one or more bedrooms and bathrooms, a kitchen or cooking area, and a living room. A house may have a dining room, or the eating area may be integrated into another room. Some large houses in North America have a recreation room, in traditional agriculture-oriented societies, domestic animals such as chickens or larger livestock may share part of the house with humans. The social unit that lives in a house is known as a household, most commonly, a household is a family unit of some kind, although households may also be other social groups, such as roommates or, in a rooming house, unconnected individuals. Some houses only have a space for one family or similar-sized group. A house may be accompanied by outbuildings, such as a garage for vehicles or a shed for gardening equipment, a house may have a backyard or frontyard, which serve as additional areas where inhabitants can relax or eat. The English word house derives directly from the Old English Hus meaning dwelling, shelter, home, house, the house itself gave rise to the letter B through an early Proto-Semitic hieroglyphic symbol depicting a house. The symbol was called bayt, bet or beth in various related languages, and became beta, ideally, architects of houses design rooms to meet the needs of the people who will live in the house. Such designing, known as design, has become a popular subject in universities. Feng shui can also mean the aura in or around a dwelling, making it comparable to the real-estate sales concept of indoor-outdoor flow, the square footage of a house in the United States reports the area of living space, excluding the garage and other non-living spaces. The square metres figure of a house in Europe reports the area of the enclosing the home. The number of floors or levels making up the house can affect the square footage of a home, many houses have several large rooms with specialized functions and several very small rooms for other various reasons. These may include an area, a sleeping area, and separate or combined washing. Some larger properties may also feature such as a spa room, indoor pool, indoor basketball court. In traditional agriculture-oriented societies, domestic animals such as chickens or larger livestock often share part of the house with human beings, most conventional modern houses will at least contain a bedroom, bathroom, kitchen or cooking area, and a living room. Little is known about the earliest origin of the house and its interior, roman architect Vitruvius theories have claimed the first form of architecture as a frame of timber branches finished in mud, also known as the primitive hut. Philip Tabor later states the contribution of 17th century Dutch houses as the foundation of houses today, as far as the idea of the home is concerned, the home of the home is the Netherlands
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Strip malls
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A strip mall is an open-air shopping mall where the stores are arranged in a row, with a sidewalk in front. Strip malls are developed as a unit and have large parking lots in front. They face major traffic arterials and tend to be self-contained with few connections to surrounding neighborhoods. In the U. S. and Canada, strip malls usually range in size from 5,000 square feet to over 100,000 square feet. The smaller variety is common and often located at the intersection of major streets in residential areas. This type of mall is found in nearly every city or town in the U. S. In the past, pharmacies were often located next to the grocery stores, gas stations, banks, and other businesses also may have their own free-standing buildings in the parking lot of the strip center. The other variety of strip mall in the U. S. is usually anchored on one end by a big box retailer, such as Wal-Mart, Kohls or Target, and/or by a large supermarket on the other. They are usually referred to as power centers in the estate development industry because they attract. The categories of retailers may vary widely, from stores to bookstores to home improvement stores, dollar stores. There are typically only a few of type of strip malls in a city. Retailers vary from center to center, ranging from three or four large retailers to a dozen or more, some strip malls are hybrids of these types. Strip malls are ubiquitous throughout the United States and outnumber traditional large shopping malls by a huge margin, as The New York Times pointed out in 2013, the United States has 685 class-A, super-regional malls and 65,840 strip malls. Strip malls vary widely in architecture, older strip malls tend to have plain architecture with the stores arranged in a straight row, though L-shaped configurations are not uncommon. Newer strip malls are built with elaborate architecture to blend in with the neighborhood. In some cases, strip malls are broken up into smaller buildings to establish an appropriate sense of scale. A current trend with the purpose of screening the parking lot from the street, some stores may allow for entrances from both the street sidewalk and the parking lot. Retail park, a UK term for a grouping of retail stores, types of retail outlets Localcenters – Commercial Strip Mall Reference Site
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Parking
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Parking is the act of stopping and disengaging a vehicle and leaving it unoccupied. Parking on one or both sides of a road is permitted, though sometimes with restrictions. Some buildings have parking facilities for use of the buildings users, countries and local governments have rules for design and use of parking spaces. In the U. S. after the first public parking garage for vehicles was opened in Boston, May 24,1898. In cities of the Eastern US, many former livery stables, with lifts for carriages, the following terms give regional variations. All except carport refer to outdoor multi-level parking facilities, in some regional dialects, some of these phrases refer also to indoor or single-level facilities. Elsewhere, the ramp would apply to the inclines between floors of a parking garage, but not to the entire structure itself. Multi-storey car park Car park Parking structure Parking garage Parking building Carport Cycle park Parkade In addition to basic car parking/parking lots variations of serviced parking types exist. Common serviced parking types are, Park and ride Valet Parking Airport Parking Meet and Greet Parking Park, Parking lots specifically for bicycles are becoming more prevalent in many countries. These may include bicycle parking racks and locks, as well as modern technologies for security. For instance, one parking lot in Tokyo has an automated parking system. Urban parking spaces can have a value where the price of land is high. In Boston in 2009 a single parking space sold for $300,000, in congested urban areas parking of motor vehicles is time-consuming and often expensive. Urban planners who are in a position to override market forces must consider whether, the costs or subsidies of such parking accommodations can become a heated point in local politics. For example, in 2006 the San Francisco Board of Supervisors considered a controversial zoning plan to limit the number of vehicle parking spaces available in new residential developments. Heated social discourse sometimes revolves around the sense of ownership that informally arises, many use parking chairs and other markers, usually without approval of municipal authorities. For example, during the winter of 2005 in Boston, the practice of some people saving convenient roadway for themselves became controversial. At that time, many Boston districts had a convention that if a person shoveled the snow out of a roadspace
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Park
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A park is an area of natural, semi-natural, or planted space set aside for human enjoyment and recreation or for the protection of wildlife or natural habitats. It may consist of areas, rocks, soil, and trees. In North America, many parks have fields for playing such as soccer, baseball and football. Many parks have trails for walking, biking and other activities, some parks are built adjacent to bodies of water or watercourses and may comprise a beach or boat dock area. Often, the smallest parks are in areas, where a park may take up only a city block or less. Urban parks often have benches for sitting and may contain picnic tables, the largest parks can be vast natural areas of hundreds of thousands of square kilometres, with abundant wildlife and natural features such as mountains and rivers. In many large parks, camping in tents is allowed with a permit, many natural parks are protected by law, and users may have to follow restrictions. Large national and sub-national parks are typically overseen by a ranger or a park warden. Large parks may have areas for canoeing and hiking in the months and, in some northern hemisphere countries. The first parks were English deer parks, land set aside for hunting by royalty and they had walls or thick hedges around them to keep game animals in and people out. It was strictly forbidden for commoners to hunt animals in these deer parks and these game preserves evolved into landscaped parks set around mansions and country houses from the sixteenth century onwards. These may have served as hunting grounds but they also proclaimed the owners wealth, an aesthetic of landscape design began in these stately home parks where the natural landscape was enhanced by landscape architects such as Capability Brown. As cities became crowded, the hunting grounds became places for the public. With the Industrial revolution parks took on a new meaning as areas set aside to preserve a sense of nature in the cities, sporting activity came to be a major use for these urban parks. Areas of outstanding natural beauty were also set aside as national parks to prevent their being spoiled by uncontrolled development, in some parks or time periods with high pollen counts, parks tend to be avoided. Park design is influenced by the purpose and audience, as well as by the available land features. A park intended to provide recreation for children may include a playground, a park primarily intended for adults may feature walking paths and decorative landscaping. Specific features, such as riding trails, may be included to support specific activities, the design of a park may determine who is willing to use it
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Sustainable architecture
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Sustainable architecture uses a conscious approach to energy and ecological conservation in the design of the built environment. The idea of sustainability, or ecological design, is to ensure that our actions and decisions today do not inhibit the opportunities of future generations, Energy efficiency over the entire life cycle of a building is the most important goal of sustainable architecture. Architects use many different passive and active techniques to reduce the energy needs of buildings, one of the keys to exploit local environmental resources and influence energy-related factors such as daylight, solar heat gains and ventilation is the use of site analysis. Numerous passive architectural strategies have developed over time. An important and cost-effective element of an efficient heating, ventilating, a more efficient building requires less heat generating or dissipating power, but may require more ventilation capacity to expel polluted indoor air. Significant amounts of energy are flushed out of buildings in the water, air, off the shelf, on-site energy recycling technologies can effectively recapture energy from waste hot water and stale air and transfer that energy into incoming fresh cold water or fresh air. Recapture of energy for other than gardening from compost leaving buildings requires centralized anaerobic digesters. HVAC systems are powered by motors, copper, versus other metal conductors, helps to improve the electrical energy efficiencies of motors, thereby enhancing the sustainability of electrical building components. Site and building orientation have some effects on a buildings HVAC efficiency. Passive solar building design allows buildings to harness the energy of the sun efficiently without the use of any active solar mechanisms such as cells or solar hot water panels. Typically passive solar building designs incorporate materials with high mass that retain heat effectively. Low energy designs also requires the use of shading, by means of awnings, blinds or shutters, to relieve the solar heat gain in summer. In addition, low energy buildings typically have a low surface area to volume ratio to minimize heat loss. This means that sprawling multi-winged building designs are avoided in favor of more centralized structures. Traditional cold climate buildings such as American colonial saltbox designs provide a historical model for centralized heat efficiency in a small-scale building. Windows are placed to maximize the input of heat-creating light while minimizing the loss of heat through glass, in the northern hemisphere this usually involves installing a large number of south-facing windows to collect direct sun and severely restricting the number of north-facing windows. Certain window types, such as double or triple glazed insulated windows with gas filled spaces and low emissivity coatings, preventing excess solar gain by means of solar shading devices in the summer months is important to reduce cooling needs. Deciduous trees are planted in front of windows to block excessive sun in summer with their leaves
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New Classical architecture
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New Classical architecture is a contemporary movement in architecture that continues the practice of classical and traditional architecture. At the beginning of the 20th century, historicism and Jugendstil were still dominant styles in Germany, as early as the first major modernist movements like Werkbund and Bauhaus gained momentum in Germany, the desire to continue and develop classical styles sprouted. From 1904 until around 1955 the Heimatschutz style prospered in Germany, examples of this early new classical style are the Hamburg Museum, the Prinzipalmarkt in Münster and the market square of Freudenstadt. In Britain, architect Raymond Erith continued to design classical houses into the late 1960s, quinlan Terry, a New Classical Architect who continues to practice, was an employee, later a partner and now the successor of the late Raymond Erith. In the late 1970s several young architects in Europe began challenging modernist proposals in architecture and it received a boost from the sponsorship of Charles, Prince of Wales, especially with The Princes Foundation for Building Community. In the US, MIT and Cornell were the first, created in the mid-1970s, followed by Columbia, Berkeley, in these years postmodern architecture developed a critique of modernist architectural aesthetics. A broad spectrum of more than two dozen architects, theorists, and historians presented other alternatives to modernism. M, Stern, who practice both in post modern as well as classical modes. Some postmodernist firms, such as Stern and Albert, Righter, & Tittman, thomas Gordon Smith, the 1979 Rome Prize laureate from the American Academy in Rome, was a devotee of Charles Moore. Alongside these academic and scholarly developments, a populist and professional manifestation of new classicism has existed and continues to develop. The 1963 demolition of McKim, Meade and Whites Pennsylvania Railroad Station in New York City provoked the formation of Classical America and its chapters, led by Henry Hope Reed. In 2002, the then-named Institute of Classical Architecture merged with Classical America to form the Institute of Classical Architecture & Classical America. The ICAA publishes The Classicist, a peer-reviewed journal exclusively dedicated to the theory and practice of contemporary classicism in architecture, urbanism, the ICAA offers educational programs to architecture and design professionals, many of which follow the methodologies of the École des Beaux-Arts. In 2003, Chicago philanthropist Richard H. Awarded by the University of Notre Dame School of Architecture, Classical buildings also always account for the differences between the public and the private realms in addressing the urban and rural conditions where they are built. New classical architects also emphasize the awareness of sustainability, the aim is to create long-lasting, well-crafted buildings of great quality, some of these are, In India Tirumala S. V. Previously, this was taught in the undegraduate program, a Vision of Britain, A Personal View of Architecture. Architecture in America, A Battle of Styles, Classical Architecture, An Introduction to Its Vocabulary and Essentials, with a Select Glossary of Terms. The Art of Classical Details, Theory, Design and Craftsmanship, New Classicism, The Rebirth of Traditional Architecture. Classical Architecture for the Twenty-first Century, An Introduction to Design, matrana, Marc R. Lost Plantations of the South
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Vernacular architecture
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Vernacular architecture is an architectural style that is designed based on local needs, availability of construction materials and reflecting local traditions. At least originally, vernacular architecture did not use formally-schooled architects, however, since the late 19th century many professional architects have worked in versions of this style. It tends to evolve over time to reflect the environmental, cultural, technological, economic and this article also covers the term traditional architecture, which exists somewhere between the two extremes yet still is based upon authentic themes. The term vernacular is derived from the Latin vernaculus, meaning domestic, native, indigenous, from verna, the word probably derives from an older Etruscan word. In linguistics, vernacular refers to use particular to a time. In architecture, it refers to type of architecture which is indigenous to a specific time or place. It is most often applied to residential buildings, the terms vernacular, folk, traditional, and popular architecture are sometimes used synonymously. Traditional architecture is architecture is passed down from person to person, generation to generation, particularly orally, noble discourages use of the term primitive architecture as having a negative connotation. The term popular architecture is used more in eastern Europe and is synonymous with folk or vernacular architecture, ronald Brunskill has defined the ultimate in vernacular architecture as. The function of the building would be the dominant factor, aesthetic considerations, though present to some small degree, local materials would be used as a matter of course, other materials being chosen and imported quite exceptionally. The vernacular architecture is not to be confused with so-called traditional architecture, Traditional architecture also includes buildings which bear elements of polite design, temples and palaces, for example, which normally would not be included under the rubric of vernacular. The Encyclopedia of Vernacular Architecture of the World defines vernacular architecture as. comprising the dwellings, related to their environmental contexts and available resources they are customarily owner- or community-built, utilizing traditional technologies. All forms of architecture are built to meet specific needs, accommodating the values, economies. Architecture designed by professional architects is not considered to be vernacular. Indeed, it can be argued that the process of consciously designing a building makes it not vernacular. Oliver also offers the simple definition of vernacular architecture, the architecture of the people, and by the people. Frank Lloyd Wright described vernacular architecture as Folk building growing in response to actual needs, since at least the Arts and Crafts Movement, many modern architects have studied vernacular buildings and claimed to draw inspiration from them, including aspects of the vernacular in their designs. In 1946, the Egyptian architect Hassan Fathy was appointed to design the town of New Gourna near Luxor, having studied traditional Nubian settlements and technologies, he incorporated the traditional mud brick vaults of the Nubian settlements in his designs
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Classical architecture
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Different styles of classical architecture have arguably existed since the Carolingian Renaissance, and prominently since the Italian Renaissance. Although classical styles of architecture can vary greatly, they can in all be said to draw on a common vocabulary of decorative and constructive elements. The term classical architecture also applies to any mode of architecture that has evolved to a highly refined state, such as classical Chinese architecture and it can also refer to any architecture that employs classical aesthetic philosophy. The term might be used differently from traditional or vernacular architecture, for contemporary buildings following authentic classical principles, the term New Classical Architecture may be used. Classical architecture is derived from the architecture of ancient Greece and ancient Rome, with the collapse of the western part of the Roman empire, the architectural traditions of the Roman empire ceased to be practised in large parts of western Europe. In the Byzantine Empire, the ancient ways of building lived on, the first conscious efforts to bring back the disused language of form of classical antiquity into Western architecture can be traced to the Carolingian Renaissance of the late 8th and 9th centuries. In general, therefore, they are not considered classical architectural styles in a strict sense, nonetheless, the classical architecture of the Renaissance from the outset represents a highly specific interpretation of the classical ideas. Most of the styles originating in post-renaissance Europe can be described as classical architecture and this broad use of the term is employed by Sir John Summerson in The Classical Language of Architecture. The elements of architecture have been applied in radically different architectural contexts than those for which they were developed. For example, Baroque or Rococo architecture are styles which, although classical at root, during these periods, architectural theory still referred to classical ideas but rather less sincerely than during the Renaissance. Neoclassical architecture held a strong position on the architectural scene c. With the advent of Modernism during the early 20th century, classical architecture arguably almost completely ceased to be practised, as noted above, classical styles of architecture dominated Western architecture for a very long time, roughly from the Renaissance until the advent of Modernism. That is to say, that classical antiquity at least in theory was considered the source of inspiration for architectural endeavours in the West for much of Modern history. Furthermore, it can even be argued that styles of architecture not typically considered classical, like Gothic, therefore, a simple delineation of the scope of classical architecture is difficult to make. The more or less defining characteristic can still be said to be a reference to ancient Greek or Roman architecture, and the architectural rules or theories that derived from that architecture. In the grammar of architecture, the word petrification is often used when discussing the development of sacred structures, such as temples, during the Archaic and early Classical periods, the architectural forms of the earliest temples had solidified and the Doric emerged as the predominant element. And not everyone within the reach of Mediterranean civilization made this transition. Nor was it the lack of knowledge of working on their part that prevented them from making the transition from timber to dressed stone
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Modern architecture
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Modern architecture or modernist architecture is a term applied to a group of styles of architecture which emerged in the first half of the 20th century and became dominant after World War II. The revolution in materials came first, with the use of cast iron, plate glass, the cast plate glass process was invented in 1848, allowing the manufacture of very large windows. The Crystal Palace by Joseph Paxton at the Great Exhibition of 1851 was an example of iron and plate glass construction, followed in 1864 by the first glass. These developments together led to the first steel-framed skyscraper, the ten-story Home Insurance Building in Chicago, the iron frame construction of the Eiffel Tower, then the tallest structure in the world, captured the imagination of millions of visitors to the 1889 Paris Universal Exposition. French industrialist François Coignet was the first to use iron-reinforced concrete, in 1853 Coignet built the first iron reinforced concrete structure, a four story house in the suburbs of Paris. Another important technology for the new architecture was electric light, which reduced the inherent danger of fires caused by gas in the 19th century. This break with the past was particularly urged by the architectural theorist, for each function its material, for each material its form and its ornament. This book influenced a generation of architects, including Louis Sullivan, Victor Horta, Hector Guimard, at the end of the 19th century, a few architects began to challenge the traditional Beaux Arts and Neoclassical styles that dominated architecture in Europe and the United States. The Glasgow School of Art 1896-99) designed by Charles Rennie MacIntosh, had a facade dominated by large bays of windows. The Art Nouveau style was launched in the 1890s by Victor Horta in Belgium and Hector Guimard in France, it introduced new styles of decoration, based on vegetal and floral forms. In 1903-1904 in Paris Auguste Perret and Henri Sauvage began to use reinforced concrete, previously used for industrial structures. Between 1910 and 1913, Auguste Perret built the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées, because of the concrete construction, no columns blocked the spectators view of the stage. Otto Wagner, in Vienna, was another pioneer of the new style, in his book Moderne Arkchtekture he had called for a more rationalist style of architecture, based on modern life. Wagner declared his intention to express the function of the building in its exterior, the reinforced concrete exterior was covered with plaques of marble attached with bolts of polished aluminum. The interior was purely functional and spare, an open space of steel, glass. The Viennese architect Adolf Loos also began removing any ornament from his buildings and his Steiner House, in Vienna, was an example of what he called rationalist architecture, it had a simple stucco rectangual facade with square windows and no ornament. The fame of the new movement, which known as the Vienna Secession spread beyond Austria. Josef Hoffmann, a student of Wagner, constructed a landmark of early modernist architecture and this residence, built of brick covered with Norwegian marble, was composed of geometric blocks, wings and a tower
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International Style (architecture)
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A visually weightless quality engendered by the use of cantilever construction. Glass and steel, in combination with usually less visible reinforced concrete, are the materials of the construction. Commissioned in 1931 by the director of the Museum of Modern Art, Alfred H. Barr Jr. The original exhibition catalogue was then followed up immediately by the book titled The International Style, the aesthetics-based definition of The International Style identified, categorized and expanded upon characteristics said to be common to Modernism across the world and its stylistic aspects. Hitchcock and Johnson identified three principles, the expression of volume rather than mass, the emphasis on rather than preconceived symmetry. The aim of Hitchcock and Johnson was to define a style that would encapsulate this modern architecture, all the works in the 1932 Museum of Modern Art exhibition were carefully selected, only displaying those that strictly followed these rules. Many Modernists disliked the term, believing that they had arrived at an approach to architecture that transcended style, the British architectural historian Sir Nikolaus Pevsner commented, To me what had been achieved in 1914 was the style of the century. It never occurred to me to look beyond, here was the one and only style which fitted all those aspects which mattered, aspects of economics and sociology, of materials and function. It seems folly to think anybody would wish to abandon it. The exhibition Modern Architecture, International Exhibition opened on February 9,1932, at the Museum of Modern Art, in the Heckscher Building at Fifth Avenue and 56th Street in New York. In the largest exhibition space, Room C, were works by Le Corbusier, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, Room B was a section titled Housing, presenting the need for a new domestic environment” as it had been identified by historian and critic Lewis Mumford. In Room D were works by Raymond Hood and Richard Neutra, among these works was shown Alvar Aaltos Turun Sanomat newspaper offices building in Turku, Finland. The exhibition is significant for its approach to the architectural exhibition. Highly curated in nature, the 1932 exhibition was driven by a desire to promote and consolidate the theory of international modernism, as such, the exhibition featured prominently the work of the core of the modernist group. With Van Der Rohe, Corbusier, Oud, and Gropius at the forefront, moMAs then director Alfred H. Barr hired art historians Philip Johnson and Henry-Russell Hitchcock to curate the museums first architectural exhibition. In 1929, Johnson attended the ceremony of his sister in Wellesley College, where he met Barr. In one month, Barr would be interviewed by Abby Aldrich Rockefeller for the position of the director of the MOMA, Barr added Johnson to MOMAs Junior Advisory Committee. Hitchcock graduated in 1924 after having completed his studies in three years and spending his senior year in architecture
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Housing estate
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A housing estate is a group of homes and other buildings built together as a single development. The exact form may vary from country to country, accordingly, a housing estate is usually built by a single contractor, with only a few styles of house or building design, so they tend to be uniform in appearance. In the British Isles, the term is quite broad, and can include anything from high rise government-subsidised housing, right through to more upmarket, developer-led suburban tract housing. Housing estates are the form of residential design used in new towns. Such estates are designed to minimise through-traffic flows, and to provide recreational space in the form of parks. The use of the term may have arisen from an area of housing being built on what had been an estate as towns and cities expanded in. Reduction of the phrase to mere estate is common in the United Kingdom and Ireland, bahria Town is largest private housing society in Asia. Bahria has been featured by international magazines and news agencies such as GlobalPost, Newsweek, Los Angeles Times and Emirates 24/7, gated communities in Pakistan are targeted towards upper middle class and upper class, and are mostly immune from problems of law enforcement. Housing estates were produced by local corporations or by private developers. The former tended to be a means of producing public housing leading to monotenure estates full of houses often known as council estates. The latter can refer to higher end tract housing for the middle class, in addition, the problems incurred by the early attempts at high density tower-block housing turned people away from this style of living. The resulting demand for land has many towns and cities increase enormously in size for only moderate increases in population. This has been largely at the expense of rural and greenfield land, nevertheless, the demand for housing continues to rise, and in the UK at least has precipitated a significant housing crisis. In the UK, some of the post war new towns were constructed en masse from housing estates rather than as organic growth from a population centre, in the former Czechoslovakia during the Communist era a construction of large housing estates was an important part of then urban planning. The government wanted to provide large quantities of affordable housing and to slash costs by employing uniform designs over the whole country and they also sought to foster a collectivistic nature in the people. Large housing estates of concrete panel buildings now dominate the suburbs of Prague, Bratislava, the largest such suburb in the former Czechoslovakia and central Europe can be found in Petržalka, a part of the Slovak capital of Bratislava. They may vary in scale, and are located in the remote or less accessible parts of the territory. Although some units are destined exclusively for rental, some of the flats within each development are earmarked for sale at prices which are lower than for private developments
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Transportation demand management
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In transport, as in any network, managing demand can be a cost-effective alternative to increasing capacity. A demand management approach to transport also has the potential to better environmental outcomes, improved public health, stronger communities. TDM techniques link with and support community movements for sustainable transport, the concepts of TDM borrowed from mainstream transport planning in Europe, which had never been based on assumptions that the private car was the best or only solution for urban mobility. Because vehicle travel was increasing rapidly from 1980–2000, it follows that the techniques of management were not widely or successfully applied during this period. Small-scale projects to provide alternatives to single occupant commuter travel were common, however many of the techniques in the demand management toolbox were developed during this period. The British Governments White Paper on Transport marked a change in direction, in the introduction to the White Paper, Prime Minister Tony Blair stated that We recognise that we cannot simply build our way out of the problems we face. It would be environmentally irresponsible - and would not work, TDM practitioners have found that TDM is far more effective when framed as a philosophical approach which over time becomes a cornerstone of sustainable urban transport systems. A new paradigm in transport planning, internationally recognised as TDM, appears to be emerging which embraces concepts such as mobility management and active travel management under its umbrella. It appears that managing travel demand has largely been compartmentalized as a set of “soft measures” to promote sustainable travel options or programs to promote, demand management means different things to different disciplines. The concept has become confused as each discipline has tried to mold the concept to their set of tools and this “silo” thinking inhibits the kind of policy integration that is needed to develop a sustainable urban transport solution strategy. There remains much confusion as to what a sustainable transport system would comprise and it is helpful therefore to consider different approaches to sustainable transport along a spectrum of viewpoints, ranging from weak to strong sustainability. Generally efforts to address the impact of transport on climate change to date have been focused on technology. The impact of this approach has been very limited in the transport sector. TDM has the potential to move the transport sector from a position of weak to strong sustainability by combining behavior-change with technology improvements, in this context transport demand management is understood as a much broader concept. It is the philosophy of TDM, not specific measures associated with it. This philosophy of managing demand accepts that meeting unfettered demand for travel is impractical, the need to manage travel demand has now become urgent for a number of converging reasons. Oil prices have now passed the peak in 1980. Vehicle travel in the United States, which has been rising steadily since records began, part of this decline is likely to be people making fewer trips, with potentially far-reaching economic and social consequences
