1.
Revolver
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A revolver is a repeating handgun that has a revolving cylinder containing multiple chambers and at least one barrel for firing. Revolvers might be regarded as a subset of pistols, or as a subset of handguns. Though the term revolver usually only refers to handguns, other firearms may also have a revolving chamber and these include some models of grenade launchers, shotguns, and rifles. Most revolvers contain five or six rounds in the cylinder, though the original name was revolving gun, the short-hand revolver is universally used. The revolver allows the user to fire multiple rounds without reloading, each time the user cocks the hammer, the cylinder revolves to align the next chamber and round with the hammer and barrel, which gives this type of firearm its name. In a single-action revolver, the user pulls the back with his free hand or thumb. In a double-action revolver, pulling the trigger moves the back, then releases it. Loading and unloading a double-action revolver requires the operator to swing out the cylinder and insert the proper ammunition, the first guns with multichambered cylinders that revolved to feed one barrel were made in the late 16th century in Europe. They were expensive and rare curiosities, not until the 19th century would revolvers become common weapons of industrial production. One of the first was a flintlock revolver patented by Elisha Collier in 1814, the first percussion revolver was made by Lenormand of Paris in 1820 and the first percussion cap revolver was invented by the Italian Francesco Antonio Broccu in 1833. He received a prize of 300 francs for his invention, although he did not patent it, however, in 1835 a similar handgun was patented by Samuel Colt, who would go on to make the first mass-produced revolver. The first cartridge revolvers were produced around 1854 by Eugene Lefaucheux, revolvers soon became standard for nearly all uses. In the early 20th century, semi-automatic pistols were developed, which can hold more rounds, Automatic pistols also have a flat profile, more suitable for concealed carry. Automatic pistols have almost completely replaced revolvers in military and law enforcement use, revolvers still remain popular as back-up and off-duty handguns among American law enforcement officers and security guards. Also, revolvers are still common in the American private sector as defensive, in the development of firearms, an important limiting factor was the time it took to reload the weapon after it was fired. While the user was reloading, the weapon was useless, several approaches to the problem of increasing the rate of fire were developed, the earliest being multi-barrelled weapons which allowed two or more shots without reloading. Later weapons featured multiple barrels revolving along a single axis, the earliest examples of what today is called a revolver were made in Germany in the late 16th century. These weapons featured a barrel with a revolving cylinder holding the powder
2.
Gun barrel
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A gun barrel is a part of firearms and artillery pieces. The hollow interior of the barrel is called the bore, a gun barrel must be able to hold in the expanding gas produced by the propellants to ensure that optimum muzzle velocity is attained by the projectile as it is being pushed out by the expanding gas. Modern small arms barrels are made of known and tested to withstand the pressures involved. Artillery pieces are made by various techniques providing reliably sufficient strength, early firearms were muzzle-loading, with powder, and then shot loaded from the muzzle, capable of only a low rate of fire. During the 19th century effective mechanical locks were invented that sealed a breech-loading weapon against the escape of propellant gases, the early Chinese, the inventors of gunpowder, used bamboo, a naturally tubular stalk, as the first barrels in gunpowder projectile weapons. Early European guns were made of iron, usually with several strengthening bands of the metal wrapped around circular wrought iron rings. The Chinese were the first to master cast-iron cannon barrels, early cannon barrels were very thick for their caliber. Bore evacuator Bore snake Cannon Muzzle Polygonal rifling Rifling Slug barrel Smoothbore
3.
Cartridge (firearms)
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Military and commercial producers continue to pursue the goal of caseless ammunition. A cartridge without a bullet is called a blank, One that is completely inert is called a dummy. Some artillery ammunition uses the same concept as found in small arms. In other cases, the shell is separate from the propellant charge. In popular use, the bullet is often misused to refer to a complete cartridge. The cartridge case seals a firing chamber in all directions excepting the bore, a firing pin strikes the primer and ignites it. The primer compound deflagrates, it does not detonate, a jet of burning gas from the primer ignites the propellant. Gases from the burning powder pressurize and expand the case to seal it against the chamber wall and these propellant gases push on the bullet base. In response to pressure, the bullet will move in the path of least resistance which is down the bore of the barrel. After the bullet leaves the barrel, the pressure drops to atmospheric pressure. The case, which had been expanded by chamber pressure. This eases removal of the case from the chamber, brass is a commonly used case material because it is resistant to corrosion. A brass case head can be work-hardened to withstand the pressures of cartridges. The neck and body portion of a case is easily annealed to make the case ductile enough to allow reforming so that it can be reloaded many times. Steel is used in some plinking ammunition, as well as in military ammunition. Steel is less expensive than brass, but it is not feasible to reload, Military forces typically consider small arms cartridge cases to be disposable, one-time-use devices. However, case weight affects how much ammunition a soldier can carry, conversely, steel is more susceptible to contamination and damage so all such cases are varnished or otherwise sealed against the elements. One downside caused by the strength of steel in the neck of these cases is that propellant gas can blow back past the neck
4.
.357 Magnum
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The.357 S&W Magnum, or simply.357 Magnum, is a revolver cartridge with a. 357-inch bullet diameter. It was created by Elmer Keith, Phillip B, Wesson of firearms manufacturers Smith & Wesson and Winchester. It is based upon Smith & Wessons earlier.38 Special cartridge, the.357 Magnum cartridge was introduced in 1934, and its use has since become widespread. This cartridge started the Magnum era of handgun ammunition, the.357 Magnum cartridge is notable for its stopping power. The.357 Magnum was collaboratively developed over a period in the early to mid-1930s by a group of individuals in a response to Colts.38 Super Automatic. Tests at the revealed that those vests defeated any handgun cartridge traveling at less than about 1,000 feet per second. Colts.38 Super Automatic just edged over that velocity and was able to penetrate car doors and vests that bootleggers and gangsters were employing as cover. Though.38 and.357 would seem to be different diameter chamberings, they are in fact identical, the.38 Special nomenclature relates to the previous use of heeled bullets, which were the same diameter as the case. Thus, the only difference in the two cartridges is a slight difference in length, solely for safety purposes. Much credit for the. 357s early development is given to hunter and experimenter Elmer Keith, the. 38-44 HV load used the. 38-Special cartridge loaded to a much higher velocity than standard. 38-Special ammunition. The. 38-44 revolvers were made by using a.44 Special size gun with the barrel bored to accept. 357-caliber bullets, since the frame, cylinder, and barrel were much stronger than the standard.38 Special components, it was capable of withstanding much higher pressures. The. 38-44 HV round, while no longer available, was in most cases the equal of the later.357 Magnum, which works at more than double the pressure of standard.38 Special. Elmer Keith also contributed the Keith-style bullet, which increased the mass of bullet located outside the cartridge, the Keith bullet also employed a large, flat meplat, thus enabling rapid energy transfer for greater wounding properties. At the same time, this design does not deform like a hollow point. These characteristics of the Keith bullet make it suitable for hunting applications as well as for target shooting. In order to reassert itself as the leading law-enforcement armament provider, Smith & Wesson developed the.357 Magnum, Wesson leading the effort within Smith & Wesson, along with considerable technical assistance from Phillip B. Sharpe, a member of the Technical Division staff of the National Rifle Association, the new round was developed from Smith & Wessons existing.38 Special round. It used a different powder load, and ultimately the case was extended by 1⁄8 inch, the case extension was more a matter of safety than of necessity
5.
.38 Special
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The.38 Smith & Wesson Special is a rimmed, centerfire cartridge designed by Smith & Wesson. It is most commonly used in revolvers, although some semi-automatic pistols, in other parts of the world, it is known by its metric designation of 9×29. 5mmR or 9. 1×29mmR. Noted for its accuracy and manageable recoil, the.38 Special remains the most popular cartridge in the world more than a century after its introduction. It is used for shooting, formal target competition, personal defense. Despite its name, the caliber of the.38 Special cartridge is actually. 357–.358 inches, except for case length, the.38 Special is identical to the.38 Short Colt.38 Long Colt, and.357 Magnum. This allows the.38 Special round to be fired in revolvers chambered for the.357 Magnum. Upon its introduction, the.38 Special was originally loaded with black powder and this.38 Special variant incorporated a 200 grains round-nosed lead Lubaloy bullet, the.38 Super Police. Remington-Peters also introduced a similar loading, testing revealed that the longer, heavier 200 grains. 357-calibre bullet fired at low velocity tended to keyhole or tumble upon impact, providing more shock effect against unprotected personnel. This cartridge was called the.38 S&W Super Police or the. 38/200, britain would later adopt the. 38/200 as its standard military handgun cartridge. In 1930, Smith & Wesson introduced a large frame.38 Special revolver with a 5-inch barrel and fixed sights intended for police use, the following year, a new high-power loading called the. That same year, Colt Firearms announced that their Colt Official Police would also handle high-speed.38 Special loadings, the. 38/44 high-speed cartridge came in three bullet weights,158 grains,150 and 110 grains, with either coated lead or steel jacket, metal-piercing bullets. The media attention gathered by the. 38/44 and its ammunition eventually led Smith & Wesson to develop a new cartridge with a longer case length in 1934—this was the.357 Magnum. During World War II, some U. S. aircrew were issued.38 Special S&W Victory revolvers as sidearms in the event of a forced landing, the new military.38 Special loading propelled its 158 grains bullet at a standard 850 ft/s from a 4-inch revolver barrel. During the war, many U. S. naval and marine aircrew were also issued red-tipped.38 Special tracer rounds using either a 120 or 158 gr bullet for emergency signaling purposes. In 1956, the U. S. Air Force adopted the Cartridge, Caliber.38, Ball M41, a military variant of the.38 Special cartridge designed to conform to the rules of land warfare. By 1961, a slightly revised M41.38 cartridge specification known as the Cartridge, Caliber.38 Ball, Special, a variant of the standard M41 cartridge with a semi-pointed, unjacketed lead bullet was later adopted for CONUS police and security personnel. At the same time.38 tracer cartridges were reintroduced by the US Navy, Marines, tracer cartridges in.38 Special caliber of different colors were issued, generally as part of a standard aircrew survival vest kit. A request for more powerful.38 Special ammunition for use by Air Police and security personnel resulted in the Caliber.38 Special, Ball, in 1972, the Federal Bureau of Investigation introduced a new.38 +P loading that became known as the FBI Load
6.
Caliber
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In guns, particularly firearms, caliber or calibre is the approximate internal diameter of the barrel, or the diameter of the projectile it fires, in hundredths or sometimes thousandths of an inch. For example, a 45 caliber firearm has a diameter of.45 of an inch. Barrel diameters can also be expressed using metric dimensions, as in 9mm pistol, when the barrel diameter is given in inches, the abbreviation cal can be used. Good performance requires a bullet to closely match the diameter of a barrel to ensure a good seal. While modern cartridges and cartridge firearms are referred to by the cartridge name. Firearm calibers outside the range of 17 to 50 exist, but are rarely encountered. Larger calibers, such as.577.585.600.700, the.950 JDJ is the only known cartridge beyond 79 caliber used in a rifle. Referring to artillery, caliber is used to describe the length as multiples of the bore diameter. A 5-inch 50 calibre gun has a diameter of 5 in. The main guns of the USS Missouri are 1650 caliber, makers of early cartridge arms had to invent methods of naming the cartridges, since no established convention existed then. One of the early established cartridge arms was the Spencer repeating rifle, later various derivatives were created using the same basic cartridge, but with smaller-diameter bullets, these were named by the cartridge diameter at the base and mouth. The original No.56 became the. 56-56, and the smaller versions. 56-52. 56-50, the. 56-52, the most common of the new calibers, used a 50-cal bullet. Optionally, the weight in grains was designated, e. g. 45-70-405. Variations on these methods persist today, with new cartridges such as the.204 Ruger, metric diameters for small arms refer to cartridge dimensions and are expressed with an × between the bore diameter and the length of the cartridge case, for example,7. 62×51 NATO. This indicates that the diameter is 7. 62mm, loaded in a case 51mm long. Similarly, the 6. 5×55 Swedish cartridge has a diameter of 6.5 mm. An exception to rule is the proprietary cartridge used by U. S. maker Lazzeroni. The following table lists commonly used calibers where both metric and imperial are used as equivalents
7.
Action (firearms)
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In firearms terminology, an action is the mechanism that handles the ammunition or the method by which that mechanism works. Breech-loading weapons have actions, actions are not present on muzzleloaders. The mechanism that fires a muzzle-loader is called the lock, actions can be categorized in several ways, including single action versus double action, break action versus bolt action, and others. The term action can also short, long, and magnum if it is in reference to the length of the rifle’s receiver. The short action rifle usually can accommodate a cartridge length of 2.8 in or smaller, the long action rifle can accommodate a cartridge of 3.34 in, and the magnum action rifle can accommodate cartridges of 3.6 in, or longer in length. Manual operation is a term describing any type of firearm action that is loaded one shot at a time by the user rather than automatically. For example, break action is a form of operation using a simple hinge mechanism that is manually unlatched by the operator. These are actions wherein the breechblock lowers or drops into the receiver to open the breech, there are two principal types of dropping block, the tilting block and the falling block. In a tilting or pivoting block action, the breechblock is hinged on a pin mounted at the rear, when the lever is operated, the block tilts down and forward, exposing the chamber. The best-known pivoting block designs are the Peabody, the Peabody–Martini, the original Peabody rifles, manufactured by the Providence Tool Company, used a manually cocked side-hammer. The 1871 Martini–Henry which replaced the trapdoor Snider–Enfield was the standard British Army rifle of the later Victorian era, charles H. Ballards self-cocking tilting-block action was produced by the Marlin Firearms Company from 1875, and earned a superlative reputation among long-range Creedmoor target shooters. Surviving Marlin Ballards are today highly prized by collectors, especially those mounted in the elaborate Swiss-style Schützen stocks of the day. A falling-block action is a firearm action in which a solid metal breechblock slides vertically in grooves cut into the breech of the weapon. Examples of firearms using the falling block action are the Sharps rifle, in a rolling block action the breechblock takes the form of a part-cylinder, with a pivot pin through its axis. The operator rotates or rolls the block to open and close the breech, it is a simple, rugged, a break action is a type of firearm where the barrel are hinged and can be broken open to expose the breech. The earliest metallic-cartridge breechloaders designed for military issue began as conversions of muzzle-loading rifle-muskets. The upper rear portion of the barrel was filed or milled away, an internal angled firing pin allowed the re-use of the rifles existing side-hammer. The Allin action made by Springfield Arsenal in the US hinged forward, france countered in 1866 with its superior Chassepot rifle, also a paper-cartridge bolt action
8.
Trigger (firearms)
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A trigger is a mechanism that actuates the firing sequence of a firearm or crossbow, a trigger may also start another mechanism such as a trap or a quick release. A small amount of energy applied to the causes the release of much more energy. In double action firearm designs, the trigger is used to cock the firearm -. Firearms use triggers to initiate the firing of a cartridge in the chamber of the weapon. This is accomplished by actuating a striking device through a combination of spring and kinetic energy operating through a pin to strike. There are two types of striking mechanisms, hammers and strikers. Hammers are spring-tensioned masses of metal that pivot on a pin when released, strikers are, essentially, spring-loaded firing pins that travel on an axis in-line with the cartridge eliminating the need for a separate hammer. The connection between the trigger and the hammer is generally referred to as the sear surface, variable mechanisms will have this surface directly on the trigger and hammer or have separate sears or other connecting parts. There are numerous types of action, where action refers to the mechanism or to the logic of how it is built and they are categorized according to which functions the trigger is to perform. Most modern firearms use the trigger to deactivate passive safeties but this does not change how they are identified, a single-action trigger is the earliest and mechanically simplest of trigger types. Almost all rifles and shotguns use this type of trigger, the term single-action wasnt in use until weapons with double-action triggers were invented, which didnt occur until the mid-19th century, before that, all triggers were single-action. Although these weapons dont require the user to physically cock the hammer, manually cocked hammers lasted a while longer in some break-action shotguns, and in dangerous game rifles, where the hunter didnt want to rely on an unnecessarily complex or fragile weapon. In modern usage, the terms single-action and double-action almost always refer to handguns, while a single-action revolver or semi-automatic must always be cocked prior to firing, most double-action handguns are capable of firing in both single- and double-action modes. Only double-action only weapons are incapable of firing from a cocked hammer. Thereafter, every time a round is fired, the hammer is recocked by the cycling slide, after the first shot, they would fire as single-actions. These double action, or double action, pistols rapidly gained popularity. A double-action/single-action firearm combines the features of both mechanisms, and is called traditional double-action. In simple terms, double-action refers to a gun trigger mechanism that both cocks the hammer and then releases the sear, thus performing two actions, hence double action
9.
Smith & Wesson
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Smith & Wesson is a manufacturer of firearms in the United States. The corporate headquarters are based in Springfield, Massachusetts, founded in 1852, Smith & Wessons pistols and revolvers have become standard issue to police and armed forces throughout the world, in addition to their popularity among sport shooters. Apart from firearms, Smith & Wesson has been known for the types of ammunition it has introduced over the years. Wesson founded the Smith & Wesson Company in Norwich, Connecticut in 1852 to develop the Volcanic rifle, Smith developed a new Volcanic Cartridge, which he patented in 1854. The Smith & Wesson Company was renamed Volcanic Repeating Arms in 1855, Smith left the company and returned to his native Springfield, Massachusetts, Wesson stayed on as plant manager with Volcanic Repeating Arms. As Samuel Colts patent on the revolver was set to expire in 1856 and his research pointed out that a former Colt employee named Rollin White held the patent for a Bored-through cylinder, a component he would need for his invention. Wesson reconnected with Smith and the two partners approached White to manufacture a newly designed revolver-and-cartridge combination, rather than make White a partner in their company, Smith and Wesson paid him a royalty of $0.25 on every revolver that they made. It would become Whites responsibility to defend his patent in any court cases which led to his financial ruin. The orders for the Smith & Wesson Model 1 revolver outpaced the production capabilities. In 1860 demand was so great that Smith & Wesson expanded into a new facility, at the same time, the companys design was being infringed upon by other manufacturers which led to numerous lawsuits filed by Rollin White. In many of these part of the restitution came in the form of the offender being forced to stamp Manufactured for Smith & Wesson on the revolvers in question. Whites vigorous defense of his patent caused a problem for armsmakers in the United States at the time as they could not manufacture cartridge revolvers, at the end of the war the US Government charged White with causing the retardation of arms development in America. Demand for revolvers declined at the close of the Civil War, in 1870 the company introduced a large frame revolver in heavier calibers than the pocket sized revolvers it had been making. The design was known as the Smith & Wesson Model 3, after an organized campaign by the NRA and NSSF, thousands of retailers and tens of thousands of firearms consumers boycotted Smith & Wesson. On 11 May 2001, Saf-T-Hammer Corporation acquired Smith & Wesson Corp. from Tomkins plc for US$15 million, Saf-T-Hammer assumed US$30 million in debt, bringing the total purchase price to US$45 million. The acquisition of Smith & Wesson was chiefly brokered by Saf-T-Hammer President Bob Scott, after the purchase, Scott became the president of Smith & Wesson to guide the 157-year-old company back to its former standing in the market. On 15 February 2002, the name of the newly formed entity was changed to Smith & Wesson Holding Corporation, about 2006 Smith & Wesson refocused its marketing on big box retailers, according to Smith & Wesson CEO Mike Golden in a 2008 conference call with investors. In December 2014, Smith & Wesson Holding announced it was paying $130.5 million for Battenfeld Technologies, the company made the acquisition with the eventual intent to merge all its existing Smith & Wesson, M&P and Thompson Center Arms accessories into a single division
10.
.38 Super
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The.38 Super or.38 Super Automatic is a pistol cartridge that fires a 0. 356-inch-diameter bullet. The Super was introduced in the late 1920s as a higher pressure loading of the.38 ACP or.38 Auto, the old.38 ACP propelled a 130-grain bullet at 1,050 ft/s. The improved.38 Super Auto pushed the same 130-grain bullet at 1,280 ft/s, the.38 Super has gained distinction as the caliber of choice for many top pistol match competitors, it remains one of the dominant calibers in IPSC competition. The cartridge was designed for use in the M1911 pistol and was capable of penetrating the body armor, when the.357 Magnum was introduced in 1934, this advantage of the.38 Super was no longer enough to lure police departments and officers from the traditional revolver. The.38 Super retains the original dimensions of the.38 ACP case, the cartridge was originally designed to headspace on the semi-rim, which worked in the Colt M1900 due to the design of the feed ramp. When the.38 Auto became the.38 Super, in the 1911A1, as a result of this, observed accuracy of the.38 Super suffered until Irv Stone of Bar-Sto barrels re-designed the chamber to allow headspacing on the case mouth. Since then, all new production.38 Super pistols headspace on the case mouth, the semi-rimmed case is known to cause feeding problems in some magazines, especially double stack magazines, and led to the development of new variants with reduced rims. In 1974 the industry added the +P headstamp to the.38 Super to further distinguish it from the lower-pressure.38 ACP, most current ammunition manufacturers label ammunition for the Super as.38 Super +P. Since the.38 Super is dimensionally the same as the.38 ACP, the weakness, in the Colt M1900, M1902 and others derived from that design, comes from the assembly wedge at the front of the slide. If the wedge comes out, or the slide cracks at the wedge, the 1911 and 1911A1, having a slide that is solid on front, cannot come off the frame that way. The.38 Super has 1.14 ml cartridge case capacity.38 Super maximum C. I. P. The common rifling twist rate for this cartridge is 406 mm,6 grooves, ø lands =8.79 mm, ø grooves =9.02 mm, land width =3.07 mm, specify a bullet diameter of 0.356 inches. Guidelines the.38 Super case can handle up to 230 MPa piezo pressure, regulated countries every pistol cartridge combo has to be proofed at 130% of this maximum C. I. P. pressure to certify for sale to consumers. The SAAMI pressure limit for the.38 ACP or.38 Auto is set at 182.72 MPa, the SAAMI pressure limit for the.38 Super +P is set at 251.66 MPa, piezo pressure. The C. I. P. and SAAMI specified.38 Super has a cartridge case. In recent years, cases such as the.38 Supercomp.38 Super Lapua.38 Super RL and these rimless cases are somewhat of a misnomer, due to the case rim not retaining the same diameter as the case wall just forward of the extractor groove. A common example is the.38 Supercomp case, which has a semi-rim extending only. 003-.004 per side, the nearly rimless cases improve feeding reliability in these pistols but are intended to be used in firearms that headspace on the case mouth. Other improvements found in some of cases are modified extractor groves
11.
Air-gap flash
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An air-gap flash is a photographic light source capable of producing sub-microsecond light flashes, allowing for high-speed photography. This is achieved by an electric discharge between two electrodes over the surface of a quartz tube. The distance between the electrodes is such that a discharge does not occur. To start the discharge a high-voltage pulse is applied on an electrode inside the quartz tube, the flash can be triggered electronically by being synchronised with an electronic detection device such as a microphone or an interrupted laser beam in order to illuminate a fast event. A sub-microsecond flash is fast enough to stop even a supersonic bullet in flight without noticeable motion blur. The person credited with popularising the flash is Harold Eugene Edgerton, william Henry Fox Talbot is said to have created the first spark-based flash photo, using a Leyden jar, the original form of the capacitor. Edgerton was one of the founders of EG&G company who sold an air-gap flash under the name Microflash 549, there are several commercial flashes available today. The aim of a flash is to be very fast. An air-gap flash system typically consists of a capacitor that is discharged through a gas, the speed of a flash is mainly determined by the time it takes to discharge the capacitor through the gas. This time is proportional to t d i s c h a r g e ∝ L C, in which L is the inductance, to be fast, both L and C must be kept small. The brightness of the flash is proportional to the energy stored in the capacitor, E = C V22 and this shows that high brightness calls for a large capacitance and a high voltage. Typical values are 0.05 µF capacitance,0.02 µH inductance,10 J energy,0.5 µs duration, air is preferred as a gas because it is fast. Xenon has a higher efficiency in turning energy into light. The spark is guided over a surface to improve the light output and benefit from the cooling capacity. This has an effect in the form of quartz erosion because of high energy discharge. Since the spark gap discharges in air generating a plasma, the spectrum shows both a continuum and spectral lines, mainly of nitrogen since air is 79% nitrogen, the spectrum is rich in UV but covers the entire visible range down to infra-red. When a quartz tube is used as ignition tube, it shows a clear phosphorescence in blue after the flash, amateur air-gap flash for ultra-high-speed photography by Niels Noordhoek MIT Edgerton center Scientific American article on air-gap flash
12.
Muzzle brake
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A muzzle brake or recoil compensator is a device connected to the muzzle of a firearm or cannon that redirects propellant gases to counter recoil and unwanted rising of the barrel during rapid fire. They have been used in forms for rifles and pistols to help control recoil. They are used on pistols for practical pistol competitions, and are usually called compensators in this context, the interchangeable terms muzzle rise, muzzle flip, or muzzle climb refer to the tendency of a handheld firearms front end to rise after firing. Firearms with less height from the line to the barrel centerline tend to experience less muzzle rise. The muzzle rises primarily because, for most firearms, the centerline of the barrel is above the center of contact between the shooter and the grip and stock. The reactive forces from the bullet and propellant gases exiting the muzzle act directly down the centerline of the barrel. If that line of force is above the center of the points, this creates a moment or torque rotational force that makes the firearm rotate. The M1946 Sieg automatic rifle had a muzzle brake that made the rifle climb downward. Muzzle brakes are simple in concept, such as the one employed on the 90 mm M3 gun used on the M47 Patton tank and this consists of a small length of tubing mounted at right angles to the end of the barrel. Brakes most often utilize slots, vents, holes, baffles, the strategy of a muzzle brake is to redirect and control the burst of combustion gases that follows the departure of a projectile. All muzzle brake designs share a basic principle, they partially divert combustion gases at a sideways angle. The momentum of the diverted gases thus does not add to the recoil, the angle toward which the gases are directed will fundamentally affect how the brake behaves. If gases are directed upward, they exert a downward force. Construction of a brake or compensator can be as simple as a diagonal cut at the muzzle end of the barrel to direct some of the escaping gas upward. On the AKM assault rifle, the brake also angles slightly to the right to counteract the movement of the rifle under recoil. Another simple method is porting, where holes or slots are machined into the barrel near the muzzle to allow the gas to escape, more advanced designs use baffles and expansion chambers to slow escaping gases. This is the principle behind a linear compensator. Ports are often added to the chambers, producing the long
13.
S&W Model 581
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The Smith & Wesson Model 586, is a six- or seven-shot double-action revolver chambered for the.357 Magnum cartridge. It is essentially the same weapon as the S&W Model 686, also, since the 586 was directed more to law enforcement, most have shorter barrels than the 686. It will chamber and fire.38 Special cartridges, as the.357 Magnum was developed from the.38 Special, the magnum case is slightly longer to prevent magnum rounds from being chambered and fired in handguns chambered for the.38 Special. The Model 586 uses S & Ws L revolver frame, with a K-Frame sized grip mated to a larger diameter cylinder, during the 1980s, Smith & Wesson developed its L-Frame line of.357 Magnums, the Model 581, Model 586, Model 681 and Model 686. The Model 581 had a fixed notch type rear sight, whereas the 586 used a target style adjustable rear sight and these handguns had a major effect on both law enforcement and sporting markets. The 586 was introduced in 1980 and the 581 was discontinued in 1988, according to Jim Supica and Richard Nahas in their book Standard Catalog of Smith & Wesson, 3rd Edition The K-frame.357 magnum revolvers became immensely popular as police revolvers. However some felt that extensive firing of full power.357 ammunition in the relatively light framed guns was wearing on both gun and shooter. There appeared to be a demand for a.357 that handled like a K frame but offered the heft, the L frame was introduced as this compromise size, with design input from Roy Jinks, and quickly established itself in the law enforcement and hunting markets. L frames also feature a full-length under-barrel lug, which adds recoil-absorbing weight to the gun. It was manufactured in blue or nickel-plated versions. A stainless steel version exists as the Model 686, other variations, such as the Model 686+, chambered for 7 rounds, are available. In the late 1990s, Smith & Wesson discontinued production of all but a few blued revolvers, thus the Model 686, in 2012, Smith & Wesson brought back the 586 in its 4-in. and 6-in. Barrel lengths as part of its Classic line of revolvers, the 586-8 features a redesigned and improved yoke. 586,1981 Intro 586-1,1986 Radius stud package, floating hand, 586-2,1987 Change hammer nose and associated parts. 586-M,1987 Product warning by S&W, M overstamp to indicate factory mod 586-3,1988 New yoke retention system,1992 Delete 8 3/8 barrel and four-position front site. 1992 Delete nickel finish 586-41994 Drill and tap, synthetic grips, change rear sight,1997 Delete 8 3/8 barrel, change to MIM thumb piece. 586-5,1998 Change design to eliminate cylider stop stud, Change to MIM hammer with floating firing pin, change to MIM trigger, change internal lockworks. 586-8,2012 Reintroduced under Smith & Wessons Classic lineup, the Smith & Wesson Model 686 is a stainless-steel version of the post-1980 L-frame revolver.357 Magnum ammunition for L-frame revolvers manufactured before August 1987
14.
Smith & Wesson Model 586
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The Smith & Wesson Model 586, is a six- or seven-shot double-action revolver chambered for the.357 Magnum cartridge. It is essentially the same weapon as the S&W Model 686, also, since the 586 was directed more to law enforcement, most have shorter barrels than the 686. It will chamber and fire.38 Special cartridges, as the.357 Magnum was developed from the.38 Special, the magnum case is slightly longer to prevent magnum rounds from being chambered and fired in handguns chambered for the.38 Special. The Model 586 uses S & Ws L revolver frame, with a K-Frame sized grip mated to a larger diameter cylinder, during the 1980s, Smith & Wesson developed its L-Frame line of.357 Magnums, the Model 581, Model 586, Model 681 and Model 686. The Model 581 had a fixed notch type rear sight, whereas the 586 used a target style adjustable rear sight and these handguns had a major effect on both law enforcement and sporting markets. The 586 was introduced in 1980 and the 581 was discontinued in 1988, according to Jim Supica and Richard Nahas in their book Standard Catalog of Smith & Wesson, 3rd Edition The K-frame.357 magnum revolvers became immensely popular as police revolvers. However some felt that extensive firing of full power.357 ammunition in the relatively light framed guns was wearing on both gun and shooter. There appeared to be a demand for a.357 that handled like a K frame but offered the heft, the L frame was introduced as this compromise size, with design input from Roy Jinks, and quickly established itself in the law enforcement and hunting markets. L frames also feature a full-length under-barrel lug, which adds recoil-absorbing weight to the gun. It was manufactured in blue or nickel-plated versions. A stainless steel version exists as the Model 686, other variations, such as the Model 686+, chambered for 7 rounds, are available. In the late 1990s, Smith & Wesson discontinued production of all but a few blued revolvers, thus the Model 686, in 2012, Smith & Wesson brought back the 586 in its 4-in. and 6-in. Barrel lengths as part of its Classic line of revolvers, the 586-8 features a redesigned and improved yoke. 586,1981 Intro 586-1,1986 Radius stud package, floating hand, 586-2,1987 Change hammer nose and associated parts. 586-M,1987 Product warning by S&W, M overstamp to indicate factory mod 586-3,1988 New yoke retention system,1992 Delete 8 3/8 barrel and four-position front site. 1992 Delete nickel finish 586-41994 Drill and tap, synthetic grips, change rear sight,1997 Delete 8 3/8 barrel, change to MIM thumb piece. 586-5,1998 Change design to eliminate cylider stop stud, Change to MIM hammer with floating firing pin, change to MIM trigger, change internal lockworks. 586-8,2012 Reintroduced under Smith & Wessons Classic lineup, the Smith & Wesson Model 686 is a stainless-steel version of the post-1980 L-frame revolver.357 Magnum ammunition for L-frame revolvers manufactured before August 1987
15.
Hardwood
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Hardwood is wood from dicot angiosperm trees. The term may also be used for the trees from which the wood is derived, in temperate and boreal latitudes they are mostly deciduous, but in tropics and subtropics mostly evergreen. Hardwood should not be confused with the heartwood, which can be from hardwood or softwood. Hardwoods are produced by trees that reproduce by flowers, and have broad leaves. Hardwood from deciduous species, such as oak, normally shows annual growth rings, hardwoods have a more complex structure than softwoods and are often much slower growing as a result. The dominant feature separating hardwoods from softwoods is the presence of pores, the vessels may show considerable variation in size, shape of perforation plates, and structure of cell wall, such as spiral thickenings. As the name suggests, the wood from trees is generally harder than that of softwoods. Solid hardwood joinery tends to be compared to softwood. In the past, tropical hardwoods were easily available, but the supply of some species, such as Burma teak, cheaper hardwood doors, for instance, now consist of a thin veneer bonded to a core of softwood, plywood or medium-density fibreboard. Hardwoods may be used in a variety of objects, but are most frequently seen in furniture or musical instruments because of their density which adds to durability, appearance, different species of hardwood lend themselves to different end uses or construction processes. This is due to the variety of characteristics apparent in different timbers, including density, grain, pore size, growth and fibre pattern, flexibility and ability to be steam bent. For example, the grain of elm wood makes it suitable for the making of chair seats where the driving in of legs. There is a correlation between density and calories/volume, list of woods Hardwood flooring Softwood Janka hardness test Brinell scale Schweingruber, F. H. Anatomie europäischer Hölzer—Anatomy of European woods. Eidgenössische Forschungsanstalt für Wald, Schnee und Landscaft, Birmensdorf, finnish Museum of Natural History, University of Helsinki. The Anatomy of Wood, Its Diversity and variability
16.
United States Customs Service
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The United States Customs Service was an agency of the U. S. federal government that collected import tariffs and performed other selected border security duties. Border Patrol and former INS inspectors, together with border agriculture inspectors, to form U. S. Customs and Border Protection, a single, unified border agency for the U. S. The United States Customs Service had three missions, collecting tariff revenue, protecting the U. S. economy from smuggling and illegal goods. Four weeks later, on July 31, the act of Congress established the United States Customs Service. As part of new government agency, a new role was created for government officials which was known as Customs Collector. In this role, one person would have responsibility to supervise the collection of duties in a particular city or region. For over 100 years after its birth, the U. S. Customs Service was the source of funds for the entire government. Purchases include the Louisiana and Oregon territories, Florida and Alaska, funding the National Road and the Transcontinental Railroad, building many of the nations lighthouses, military and Naval academies, and Washington, D. C. The original design had the Customs Service seal that was an eagle with three arrows in his left talon, a branch in his right and surrounded by an arc of 13 stars. In 1951, this was changed to the eagle depicted on the Great Seal of the United States and its actual name is the Revenue Ensign, as it was flown by ships of the Revenue Cutter Service, later the Coast Guard, and at customs houses. In 1910, President William Howard Taft issued an order to add an emblem to the flag flown by ships from the one flown on land at customs houses, the version with the badge continues to be flown by Coast Guard vessels. Until 2003, the version was flown at all United States ports of entry. The U. S. Customs Service employed a number of law enforcement officers throughout the 19th and 20th centuries. Customs Special Agents investigated smuggling and other violations of customs, narcotics, Customs Inspectors were uniformed officers at airports, seaports and land border ports of entry who inspected people and vehicles entering the U. S. for contraband and dutiable merchandise. Customs Patrol Officers conducted uniformed and plainclothes patrol of the borders on land, sea and air to deter smuggling, in the 20th century, as international trade and travel increased dramatically, the Customs Service transitioned from an administrative bureau to a federal law enforcement agency. S. Postal Inspection Service, U. S. Immigration and Naturalization Service, Border Patrol—to investigate cases often far from international airports, bridges and land crossings. With the passage of the Homeland Security Act, the U. S. Customs Service passed from under jurisdiction of the Treasury Department to the Department of Homeland Security, on March 1,2003, parts of the U. S. S. The Federal Protective Service, along with the arms of the U. S. Customs Service
17.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
18.
GIGN
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Groupe dintervention de la Gendarmerie nationale, commonly abbreviated GIGN, is the elite law enforcement and special operations unit of the French National Gendarmerie. Its missions include counter-terrorism, hostage rescue, surveillance of national threats, protection of government officials, GIGN was established in 1974 following the Munich massacre. GIGN shares jurisdiction of French territory with the National Police special-response units, GIGN is headquartered in Versailles-Satory near Paris. Although most of its operations take place in France, the unit, as a component of the French Armed Forces, many of its missions are secret, and members are not allowed to be publicly photographed. Since its formation, GIGN has been involved in over 1,800 missions and rescued more than 600 hostages, the unit came into prominence following its successful assault on a hijacked Air France flight at Marseille Marignane airport in December 1994. GIGN was formed in 1973 in the wake of the Munich massacre and it became operational in March 1974, under the command of then-lieutenant Christian Prouteau and performed its first mission ten days later. Another unit was created simultaneously within the Gendarmerie parachute squadron in Mont-de-Marsan in southwest France, gIGNs initial complement was 15, later increased to 32 in 1976,78 by 1986, and 120 by 2005. On 1 September 2007, a reorganization took place. In effect, GSIGN was renamed GIGN and its former components became forces of the new GIGN which now reached a total complement of 380 operators. More than a simple name swap, the new organization aimed at, reinforcing command and control functions providing better integration through common selection, common training, improving the units capability to handle complex situations such as mass hostage-takings similar to the Beslan crisis. In 2009, the Gendarmerie, while remaining part of the French Armed Forces, was attached to the Ministry of the interior, under the new command structure, GIGN gendarmes can still be engaged in military operations outside of France due to their military status. Coordination between GIGN and RAID, the police elite team, is handled by a joint organization called Ucofi. A leader/follower protocol has been established for use when both units need to be engaged jointly, leadership belonging to the operating in its primary areas of responsibility. Since its creation, the group has taken part in over 1800 operations, liberated over 600 hostages and arrested over 1500 suspects, the two fatalities in action were sustained when dealing with armed deranged persons. Arrest of dangerous or deranged armed persons, surveillance and observation of criminals and terrorists. GIGN is currently organized in six forces, under two headquarters, Intervention force, Approx,100 men, serving as the main assault unit of the GIGN. It is divided into four platoons (French, sections, two of which are on permanent alert and these platoons are further divided into individual teams of operators. Two of the sections are specialized in high altitude jumps
19.
Norway
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The Antarctic Peter I Island and the sub-Antarctic Bouvet Island are dependent territories and thus not considered part of the Kingdom. Norway also lays claim to a section of Antarctica known as Queen Maud Land, until 1814, the kingdom included the Faroe Islands, Greenland, and Iceland. It also included Isle of Man until 1266, Shetland and Orkney until 1468, Norway has a total area of 385,252 square kilometres and a population of 5,258,317. The country shares a long border with Sweden. Norway is bordered by Finland and Russia to the north-east, Norway has an extensive coastline, facing the North Atlantic Ocean and the Barents Sea. King Harald V of the Dano-German House of Glücksburg is the current King of Norway, erna Solberg became Prime Minister in 2013, replacing Jens Stoltenberg. A constitutional monarchy, Norway divides state power between the Parliament, the Cabinet and the Supreme Court, as determined by the 1814 Constitution, the kingdom is established as a merger of several petty kingdoms. By the traditional count from the year 872, the kingdom has existed continuously for 1,144 years, Norway has both administrative and political subdivisions on two levels, counties and municipalities. The Sámi people have an amount of self-determination and influence over traditional territories through the Sámi Parliament. Norway maintains close ties with the European Union and the United States, the country maintains a combination of market economy and a Nordic welfare model with universal health care and a comprehensive social security system. Norway has extensive reserves of petroleum, natural gas, minerals, lumber, seafood, the petroleum industry accounts for around a quarter of the countrys gross domestic product. On a per-capita basis, Norway is the worlds largest producer of oil, the country has the fourth-highest per capita income in the world on the World Bank and IMF lists. On the CIAs GDP per capita list which includes territories and some regions, from 2001 to 2006, and then again from 2009 to 2017, Norway had the highest Human Development Index ranking in the world. It also has the highest inequality-adjusted ranking, Norway ranks first on the World Happiness Report, the OECD Better Life Index, the Index of Public Integrity and the Democracy Index. Norway has two names, Noreg in Nynorsk and Norge in Bokmål. The name Norway comes from the Old English word Norðrveg mentioned in 880, meaning way or way leading to the north. In contrasting with suðrvegar southern way for Germany, and austrvegr eastern way for the Baltic, the Anglo-Saxon of Britain also referred to the kingdom of Norway in 880 as Norðmanna land. This was the area of Harald Fairhair, the first king of Norway, and because of him
20.
Norwegian Police Service
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The Norwegian Police Service is the Norwegian civilian police agency. It consists of a central National Police Directorate, seven specialty agencies, the government agency is subordinate to the Ministry of Justice and Public Security and has 13,000 employees, of which 8,000 are police officers. The police service dates to the 13th century when the first sheriffs were appointed, as the first city in Norway to do so, Trondheim had a chief of police appointed in 1686, and Oslo established a uniformed police corps in 1859. The directorate is led by National Police Commissioner Odd Reidar Humlegård, Police districts were introduced in 1894, with the current structure dating from 2003. Each police district is led by a chief of police and is subdivided into several police stations in towns and cities, the Governor of Svalbard acts as chief of police for Svalbard. Norwegian police officers do not carry firearms, but keep their Heckler & Koch MP5 submachine guns, the Norwegian Prosecuting Authority is partially integrated with the police. Several other national responsibilities are under the command of Oslo Police District, such as the Emergency Response Unit, the Police Security Service is separate from the National Police Directorate. The police force in Norway was established during the 13th century, originally the 60 to 80 sheriffs were predominantly used for writ of execution and to a less degree police power. In the cities the duties were taken care of by a gjaldker. The sheriffs were originally subordinate to the sysselmann, but from the 14th century they became subordinate to the bailiff. In the cities the police authority was transferred directly to the bailiff, by the mid-17th century there were between 300 and 350 sheriffs. With the introduction of the monarchy in 1660 and subsequent strengthening of the civil service. The bailiffs as such part of the police structure, with their superiors. The first titled chief of police was hired in Trondheim in 1686, thus creating the first police district, chiefs of police were hired in Bergen in 1692, Christiania in 1744 and Christianssand in 1776. From the 19th century, deputies were hired in larger areas to assist the sheriffs, following the democratization in 1814, the Ministry of Justice was created in 1818 and has since had the primary responsibility for organizing the police force. The 19th century saw an increase in the number of chiefs of police. Christiania established the countrys first uniformed corps of constables in 1859, similar structures were soon introduced in many other cities. From 1859 the municipalities would finance the wages of the deputies and constables, the first organized education of police officers started in Christiania in 1889
21.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
22.
Immigration and Naturalization Service
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The United States Immigration and Naturalization Service was an agency of the U. S. Department of Justice from 1933 to 2003. Referred to by some as former INS and by others as legacy INS, the agency ceased to exist under that name on March 1,2003, prior to 1933, there were separate offices administering immigration and naturalization matters. The INS was established on June 10,1933, merging these previously separate areas of administration, reflecting changing governmental concerns, immigration was transferred to the purview of the United States Department of Commerce and Labor after 1903 and the Department of Labor after 1913. In 1940, with increasing concern about security, immigration and naturalization was organized under the authority of the Department of Justice. S. The investigative and enforcement functions of the INS were combined with the U. S. Customs investigators to create U. S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement. The border functions of the INS, which included the Border Patrol and INS Inspectors, were combined with U. S. Customs Inspectors to create U. S. Customs, the INS also adjudicated applications for permanent residency, change of status, naturalization, and similar matters. At the head of the INS was an appointed by the President who reported to the Attorney General in the Department of Justice. The INS worked closely with the United Nations, the Department of State, the INS was a very large and complex organization that had four main divisions—Programs, Field Operations, Policy and Planning, and Management—that were responsible for operations and management. The operational functions of the INS included the Programs and Field Operations divisions, the Field Operations division was responsible for overseeing INS many offices operating throughout the country and the world. The Field Operations division implemented policies and handled tasks for its three offices, which in turn oversaw 33 districts and 21 border areas throughout the country. Internationally, the Field Operations division oversaw the Headquarters Office of International Affairs which in turn oversaw 16 offices outside the country, managerial functions of the INS included the Policy and Planning and Management divisions. The Office of Policy and Planning coordinated all information for the INS and communicated with other cooperating government agencies, the office was divided into three areas, the Policy Division, the Planning Division, and the Evaluation and Research Center. These duties were handled by the offices of Information Resources Management, Finance, Human Resources and Administration, and Equal Employment Opportunity. Shortly after the U. S. Civil War, some started to pass their own immigration laws. The Immigration Act of 1891 established an Office of the Superintendent of Immigration within the Treasury Department and this office was responsible for admitting, rejecting, and processing all immigrants seeking admission to the United States and for implementing national immigration policy. Immigrant Inspectors, as they were called then, were stationed at major U. S. ports of entry collecting manifests of arriving passengers and its largest station was located on Ellis Island in New York harbor. Among other things, a tax of fifty cents was collected on each immigrant. This made immigration more a matter of commerce than revenue. S, each year, the U. S. State Department issued a limited number of visas, only those immigrants who could present valid visas were permitted entry
23.
Luxembourg
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Luxembourg /ˈlʌksəmbɜːrɡ/, officially the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, is a landlocked country in western Europe. It is bordered by Belgium to the west and north, Germany to the east and its culture, people and languages are highly intertwined with its neighbours, making it essentially a mixture of French and Germanic cultures. It comprises two regions, the Oesling in the north as part of the Ardennes massif. With an area of 2,586 square kilometres, it is one of the smallest sovereign states in Europe, Luxembourg had a population of 524,853 in October 2012, ranking it the 8th least-populous country in Europe. As a representative democracy with a monarch, it is headed by a Grand Duke, Henri, Grand Duke of Luxembourg. Luxembourg is a country, with an advanced economy and the worlds highest GDP per capita. Luxembourg is a member of the European Union, OECD, United Nations, NATO, and Benelux, reflecting its political consensus in favour of economic, political. The city of Luxembourg, which is the capital and largest city, is the seat of several institutions. Luxembourg served on the United Nations Security Council for the years 2013 and 2014, around this fort, a town gradually developed, which became the centre of a state of great strategic value. In the 14th and early 15th centuries, three members of the House of Luxembourg reigned as Holy Roman Emperors, in the following centuries, Luxembourgs fortress was steadily enlarged and strengthened by its successive occupants, the Bourbons, Habsburgs, Hohenzollerns and the French. After the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, Luxembourg was disputed between Prussia and the Netherlands and this arrangement was revised by the 1839 First Treaty of London, from which date Luxembourgs full independence is reckoned. In 1842 Luxembourg joined the German Customs Union, the King of the Netherlands remained Head of State as Grand Duke of Luxembourg, maintaining a personal union between the two countries until 1890. At the death of William III, the throne of the Netherlands passed to his daughter Wilhelmina and this allowed Germany the military advantage of controlling and expanding the railways there. In August 1914, Imperial Germany violated Luxembourgs neutrality in the war by invading it in the war against France and this allowed Germany to use the railway lines, while at the same time denying them to France. Nevertheless, despite the German occupation, Luxembourg was allowed to maintain much of its independence, in 1940, after the outbreak of World War II, Luxembourgs neutrality was again violated when the Wehrmacht of Nazi Germany entered the country, entirely without justification. A government in exile based in London supported the Allies, sending a group of volunteers who participated in the Normandy invasion. Luxembourg was liberated in September 1944, and became a member of the United Nations in 1945. Luxembourgs neutral status under the constitution formally ended in 1948, in 2005, a referendum on the EU treaty establishing a constitution for Europe was held
24.
Grand Ducal Police
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The Grand Ducal Police is the primary law enforcement agency in the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg. The police is under the control of the Minister for the Interior of Luxembourg, although they operate in the name, day-to-day executive control is exercised by the Director-General. The Grand Ducal Police has existed in its current form since January 1,2000, the Grand Ducal Police is responsible for ensuring Luxembourgs internal security, maintaining law and order, border control and enforcing all laws and Grand Ducal decrees. It is also responsible for assisting the military in its internal operations, the Grand Ducal Polices operations are divided into six regions, which are under the command of a regional director. The director is responsible for primary intervention centres, secondary intervention centres, local police stations, the region headquarters are in Capellen, Diekirch, Esch-sur-Alzette, Grevenmacher, Luxembourg City, and Mersch. The primary intervention centres are the most capable and best equipped police stations to address emergencies, the CIPs also serve as the headquarters for the region, providing administrative support for the regions other operation centres. The CIPs jurisdictions cover their respective regions, under the six CIPs are thirteen secondary intervention centre. As the CIPs perform the role of the CISs, as well as their own functions, there are seven dedicated CISs, located in Differdange, Dudelange, Echternach, Redange, Remich, Troisvierges, and Wiltz. Local police stations operate separately from the CISs and CIPs, but are under the control of the regional director. In addition to the thirteen CIPs and CISs, which perform the role of CPs, there are thirty-eight dedictated local stations, distributed across the main towns, eight of these dedicated CPs are in Luxembourg City, in addition to the CIP. A special police division at Luxembourg – Findel Airport is directly responsible for border control, the regional police forces are also directly responsible for policing the roads, criminal investigation, and providing aid to victims of crime. Important, On June 22nd 2015, the government of Luxembourg announced an overhaul of that organization structure. As a consequence, this chapter has to be revised, once the new structure will be in place, the head of the Grand Ducal Police is the Director-General. There have been four Directors-General since the creation of the Grand Ducal Police in 2000 and it is either the CISs or the CIPs that one contacts in the event of an emergency, as they are the only police stations that are open 24/7. The emergency telephone number for the police is 113, as opposed to 112 for all emergency services. Grand Ducal Police official website Musée International dEffets de Gendarmerie et Police Luxembourg website
25.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
26.
Popular Mechanics
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Popular Mechanics is a classic magazine of popular science and technology. First published by Henry Haven Windsor, January 11,1902, there are nine international editions, including a now-defunct Latin American version that had been published for decades, and a newer South African edition. The Russian edition of Popular Mechanics has been issued since 2002, in 2013, the US edition changed from twelve to ten issues per year. Popular Mechanics features regular sections on automotive, home, outdoors, science, a recurring column is Jay Lenos Garage featuring observations by the famed late-night talk show host and vehicle enthusiast. Popular Mechanics was established in 1902, the first issue appeared on January 11,1902. The magazine was originally self-published by the Popular Mechanics Company but in 1958 became a subsidiary of the Hearst Corporation, a nearly complete archive of Popular Mechanics issues from 1905 through 2005 is available through Google Books. Popular Mechanics Show is the weekly podcast of Popular Mechanics magazine. Enthusiasts and Innovators, Possible Dreams and the Innovation Station at the Henry Ford Museum, society for the History of Technology. Possible Dreams, Enthusiasm for Technology in America, Henry Ford Museum and Greenfield Village
27.
Smith & Wesson Model 1
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The Smith & Wesson Model 1 was the first firearm manufactured by Smith & Wesson, with production spanning the years 1857 through 1882. It was the first commercially successful revolver to use rimfire cartridges instead of powder, musket ball. It is a single-action, tip-up revolver holding seven.22 Short black powder cartridges, as Samuel Colts patent on the night revolver was set to expire in 1856, Horace Smith and Daniel B. Wesson were researching a prototype for a cartridge revolver. Rather than make White a partner in their company, Smith and it would become Whites responsibility to defend his patent in any court cases which eventually led to his financial ruin, but was very advantageous for the new Smith & Wesson Company. The Model 1 had three issues or major variants, with each subsequent issue introducing significant technical changes, the 1st Issue of the Model 1 was the first major iteration, with approximately 12,000 produced over a three year period. There are six variations of the Model 1, first identified in an article by John Kountz in the April 1956 issue of The Gun Report. In this article, Kountz noted specific differences in the shield, the barrel latch. Serial numbers were issued sequentially for the Model 1 1st Issues ranging from 1 through approximately 12,000, the 2nd Issue of the Model 1 looked similar to the 1st Issue, with several notable differences. The side plate on the 2nd Issue was much larger and irregularly shaped, the profile of the frame was flatter, and the hammer was now made in one piece. Model 1 2nd Issues still had the flared, square cornered shaped grip and the octagonal tip-up style frame, there are several variations of the 2nd Issue guns. Variants between serial numbers 12,000 through to about 20,000 involve the shape of the plate, the design of the trigger spring. There was also a decrease in the size of the barrel roll stamps at around serial number 95,000, 2nd Issue marked 2D QUALTY are also seen occasionally. There were approximately 110,000 2nd Issues produced from 1860 through 1868, the Model 1, 3rd Issue represented a substantial redesign for the Model 1, with a fluted cylinder, a round barrel and a rounded birds head style grip. Finishes included full nickel plating, full blued steel, and a half plate nickel/blue combo, variants include the square and triangular top strap design that changed around serial number 9,500. The 3rd Issue guns were produced from 1868 through 1882 with serial numbers from 1 through approximately 131,000 and this popularity led to numerous knockoffs and patent infringements by other armsmakers. Rolin White and S&W brought infringement cases against Manhattan Firearms Company, Ethan Allen, Merwin & Bray, National Arms Company, the courts mostly allowed these manufacturers to continue production runs, with a royalty on each revolver paid to White. In some cases, Smith & Wesson bought the back to remark and sell
28.
Smith & Wesson Model 1 1/2
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Chambered in.32 Rimfire, its cylinder held 5 shots. It was produced in three varieties from 1865 through 1892, with production exceeding 223,000. The Model 1 1/2 had three issues, the first issue of the Model 1 1/2 can be identified by its smooth cylinder, and the square shape of the grip butt. Models were available in blued or nickel-plated finishes, and the majority were produced with 3 1⁄2-inch barrels, a less common 4-inch barrel variety was also sold. Serial numbers range from 1 through to approximately 26,300, the second issue of the Model 1 1/2 can be identified by its fluted barrel and the rounded shape of the grip butt. Like the 1st Issue, it was produced in blued steel and nickel-plated varieties. 2nd Issue guns were numbered consecutively after the 1st Issue. There is also a transitional model 2nd issue that uses the unfluted 1st issue barrels, the serial numbers for these transitional models span approximately 27,200 through 28,800. The third issue of the Model 1 1/2 is known as the Model No.1 1/2 Single Action Revolver and it differs substantially from the first two issues by breaking at the top, consistent with the design of the Safety Hammerless or S&W.38 Single Action. The grip is rounded at the butt, and is similar in appearance to that on the 2nd Issue and this revolver marked the debut of the.32 S&W centerfire cartridge. Serial numbers ranged from 1 to approximately 97,500
29.
Smith & Wesson Model 3
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Schofield, who made his own modifications to the Model 3 to meet his perceptions of the Cavalrys needs. Smith & Wesson incorporated these modifications into an 1875 design they named after the Major, the S&W Model 3 was originally chambered for the.44 S&W American and.44 Russian cartridges, and typically did not have the cartridge information stamped on the gun. Model 3 revolvers were produced in an assortment of calibers, including.44 Henry Rimfire. 44-40. 32-44. 38-44. The design would influence the smaller S&W.38 Single Action that is referred to as the Model 2. Smith & Wesson produced large numbers of the Model 3, in three models, for the Russian Empire by special order. The Russian and European copies of the S&W Model 3 revolver were generally of high quality. This led to the Imperial government cancelling the order for significant quantities of Smith & Wesson–made revolvers, and delaying payment for the handguns that had already been delivered. The U. S. Army adopted the.44 S&W American caliber Smith & Wesson Model 3 revolver in 1870, most military pistols until that point were black powder cap and ball revolvers, which were slow, complicated, and susceptible to the effects of wet weather. Smith & Wesson instead developed their own, slightly shorter.45 caliber round, when it became obvious in the field that the two cartridges would not work interchangeably in the Schofield, the U. S. Government adopted the shorter.45 Schofield cartridge as the standard cartridge. Despite the change, old stocks of the longer.45 Colt rounds in the line caused the Army to drop most of the Schofields. Many of the S&W Model 3 Schofield revolvers saw service in the Indian Wars, the Smith & Wesson No.3 revolver was famously used by Wyatt Earp during the OK Corral Gunfight with the Clanton Gang. While the standard length was 7, many Schofields were purchased as surplus by distributors, and had the barrels shortened to 5. After the Spanish–American War of 1898, the US Army sold off all their surplus Schofield revolvers and these revolvers were then inspected by the Wells Fargo armorer and uniquely stamped W. F. Lieutenant Colonel Schofield shot himself on December 17,1882, with a S&W Schofield revolver after suffering a bout of illness, stress. The Schofield was produced in various versions, the First Model Schofield has a latch configuration that is rather pointed at the top and has a circle around the screw head at the bottom. The Second Model latch has a raised circle at the top of the latch. In the previous engineering, the posts of the frame would wear out after heavy usage, Schofields improvement called for heat treated, replaceable components at this sensitive wear area of the catch and latch. The serial number range also will give an indication of whether it is First or Second Model, in 1877, S&W discontinued production of its other Model 3s such as the American, Russian, and Schofield—in favor a new improved design called the New Model Number Three
30.
Smith & Wesson Safety Hammerless
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The Smith & Wesson Safety Hammerless or Smith & Wesson New Departure is a double-action revolver that was produced from 1887 to 1940 by Smith & Wesson. The revolver incorporated an internal hammer and a grip safety on its backstrap. It was chambered in.32 S&W and.38 S&W calibers, the grip safety made a brief return to Smith & Wessons revolvers in 1952 with the release of the Models 40 and 42. The Smith & Wesson.38 Safety Hammerless models were produced from 1887 to just before World War II and they were chambered in either.32 S&W or.38 S&W with a five-shot cylinder. They were most often produced with a 2-inch, 3-inch, or 3. 5-inch barrels and these top-break revolvers were designed for fast reloading and concealed carry as the hammer was internal and would not snag on drawing the revolver from a pocket. They were known as The New Departure to reflect the new approach to designing revolvers. Minor design changes were made to these revolvers over the years, resulting in different design models. The first model was manufactured between 1887-1902, the 38 was based on S&Ws medium frame, while the 32 was based on the smaller sized 1½ frame. In 1952 the safety hammerless concept was applied to Smith & Wessons J-frame, the finished product became the Model 40 and 42 chambered in.38 Special and is alternately known as the Centennial as it was produced in the 100th anniversary of the founding of Smith & Wesson. While few competitors replicated the grip safety, the hammer or hammerless design proved popular with other manufacturers such as Iver Johnson and Harrington & Richardson. The concept is still maintained by numerous modern double-action revolver manufacturers
31.
Smith & Wesson Model 30
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The Smith & Wesson Model 30 is a small-frame, six-shot, double-action revolver chambered for the.32 Long cartridge. It was based on the Smith & Wesson Hand Ejector Model of 1903 and it was a round butt I-frame and was produced from 1948 to 1976. From 1948 to 1957, this model was known as the Model.32 Hand Ejector and was built on the 5-screw I-Frame, in 1958 the frame was redesigned to use four screws and a coiled mainspring as opposed to a flat or leaf spring and called the Improved I-Frame. Three years later in 1961, the I-Frame was discontinued and the slightly longer 3-screw J-Frame replaced it. A square butt version first known as the Model.32 Regulation Police was made during the time period as the Model.32 Hand Ejector and was eventually replaced by the Model 31 in 1958. The Model 31 followed the path as the Model 30 with regard to production dates.32 Long Smith & Wesson
32.
Smith & Wesson Model 36
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The Smith & Wesson Model 36 is a revolver chambered for.38 Special. It is one of models of J-frame Smith & Wesson revolvers. It was introduced in 1950, and is still in production, the Model 36 was designed in the era just after World War II, when Smith & Wesson stopped producing war materials and resumed normal production. For the Model 36, they sought to design a revolver that could fire the more powerful.38 Special round in a small, since the older I-frame was not able to handle this load, a new frame was designed, which became the Smith & Wesson J-frame. The new design was introduced at the International Association of Chiefs of Police convention in 1950, a vote was held to name the new revolver, and the name Chiefs Special won. A three-inch barreled version of this went into production immediately. It was available in either a blued or nickel-plated finish and it was produced as the Chiefs Special until 1957, when it then became the Model 36. The Chiefs Special continued to be manufactured as a separate variant, in 1951, Smith & Wesson introduced the Airweight Model 37, which was basically the Model 36 design with an aluminum frame and cylinder. The aluminum cylinders proved to be problematic and were abandoned in favor of a steel cylinder, in 1989, Smith & Wesson introduced the LadySmith variant of the Model 36. This was available with a 2-inch or 3 inch barrel and blued finish and this model also featured special grips designed specifically for women, and had LADYSMITH engraved on the frame. Approximately 615 Model 36-6 Target variations were produced and this variant had a 3-inch full lug barrel with adjustable sights and a blued glass finish. In 2002, Smith & Wesson reintroduced the Model 36 with gold features, the gold color was actually titanium nitride. In 2005, Smith & Wesson produced the Texas Hold Em variant and this was produced with a blued finish, imitation ivory grips, and 24k gold plate engraving. A large number of Model 37 variants with a ring attached were made for Japan. Part of this contract was cancelled, resulting in a number of these being sold to a wholesaler. These entered the market in 2001. In 2006, the Model 37 was dropped from Smith & Wessons catalog, serial number 337 was shipped to J. Edgar Hoover and is engraved with his name. In 1958, Spanish manufacturer Astra developed a high quality revolver line based on this weapon, under the name of Astra Cadix, Astra 250, designed to be small and compact, the Model 36 is available with a 1.875 inch barrel
33.
Smith & Wesson Bodyguard
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The Smith & Wesson Bodyguard is a family of small J-frame revolvers with shrouded hammers manufactured by Smith & Wesson. They are available chambered in either.38 Special or.357 Magnum, the Model 38 is aluminum-framed, has a carbon steel cylinder with a five round capacity and barrel. The Model 49 is a revolver chambered in.38 Special. The Model 638 is aluminum-framed with stainless steel cylinder and barrel, the Model 649 is an all stainless-steel framed revolver. The M&P Bodyguard 38, introduced in 2014, is the latest incarnation of a Smith & Wesson revolver using the Bodyguard moniker and it is a polymer framed revolver chambered in.38 Special, and is only available with a Crimson Trace laser sight integrated in to the grip. Like previous Bodyguard models, it has a five round cylinder and a hammer but unlike the previous models. The lockwork is different than any other Smith & Wesson revolver, chambered in.38 special, it is only available with a Crimson Trace red-dot laser sight integrated in to the grip. It is most closely related to the Centennial models, clyde A. Tolson, special assistant to FBI chief J. Edgar Hoover, owned a Model 38 Airweight, serial number 512236, with his name engraved on the side. Nguyễn Ngọc Loan, South Vietnams chief of National Police, was photographed using a Model 38 Bodyguard to execute a Viet Cong prisoner, Nguyễn Văn Lém, the picture, which earned photographer Eddie Adams a Pulitzer Prize, is credited with increasing public antipathy towards the Vietnam War. On December 22,1984, Bernhard Goetz used a Model 38 Airweight in the shooting on a New York subway train of four men who he believed were about to rob him.357 Magnum Smith & Wesson Bodyguard 380
34.
Smith & Wesson Model 60
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The Smith & Wesson Model 60 revolver is a 5-shot revolver that is chambered in either.38 Special or.357 Magnum calibers. It was the first revolver produced from stainless steel, the Model 60 has a swing-out cylinder, and features an exposed hammer. It has been in production since 1965, and holds the distinction of being the first regular production all stainless steel revolver ever made, the 1965 models stainless steel production proved so popular that there was a waiting list at gunshops for up to six months to purchase one. At that time the Model 60 featured a 1.875 barrel and was chambered solely for the.38 Special, in 1996, the stronger J-Magnum frame was introduced and the cylinder was lengthened to support the.357 Magnum round. The new model replaced the.38 Special-only version and is available in either a 2.125 or a 3 barrel, with a 5 barrel introduced in 2005. Older versions of the Model 60 were produced with only fixed sights, modern productions are made with an adjustable rear sight
35.
Smith & Wesson Model 317 kit gun
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The Smith & Wesson Model 317 Kit Gun is the current version of over 60 years of the companys kit gun line. The current version is a light, versatile, eight-shot, double-action revolver chambered for the.22 Long Rifle cartridge, manufactured by Smith & Wesson. Due to its low weight, it can be carried for hiking or camping and used for recreational shooting, due to this light weight and small size, the Model 317 is quite easily concealed. With this in mind, an area of the butt of the gun is hollowed out, a transverse pin allows the use of a lanyard to carry the Model 317 under clothing. The 317 was designed to be lighter than previous Smith & Wesson kit guns carried for outdoor activities, steel was replaced by titanium and aluminum for this purpose. Between World War I and World War II, the kit bags carried by hunters, hikers, campers and these kit bags carried many of the necessary items one might need when alone in the open country or forest. In 1935, the.357 Magnum was released by Smith & Wesson and it was said to be “The World’s Most Powerful Revolver. ”After this came the more compact. 22/.32 Target I-frame revolvers. The. 22/.32 Kit Gun was so named because it was intended to be carried in a kit bag, the Kit Gun line began as an I-Frame.22 caliber 6-shot revolver in 1953, and its model designation at the time was Model of 1953. This is sometimes called the pre-34, in 1958, S&W renamed it as the Model 34 and began stamping the models thus. This production continued till the early 1960s, when the pistol was redesigned using the larger J-frame J-frame and marketed as the model 34-1. Due to the popularity of stainless steel revolvers, the. 22/.32 Model 63 Kit Gun was released in 1977, the.22 WMR Model 651 in 1983. There was a Kit Gun Airweight and a Kit Gun chambered in.22 Winchester Magnum Rimfire, all three were available with adjustable sights. The Model 34 continued to be manufactured until 1991, but Model 43 and 51 production stopped in 1974, the model 63 stainless was replaced by the significantly lighter model 317 in the late 2000s. Older Kit Guns have been replaced, and though some come in larger calibers and this is due to advances in titanium and aluminum construction. There is the Model 317.22 Long Rifle AirLite Kit Gun, the Model 337.38 Special AirLite Kit Gun, and a.44 Special Kit Gun and these revolvers have aluminum alloy frames and cylinders made of titanium. While titanium is considerably lighter than steel, it is just as strong, the aluminum barrels have a steel liner. The Smith & Wesson Model 317 is the lighter, shorter version of the Model 317 Kit Gun and it is extremely light at just 10.8 oz /306.2 g. The model 63 stainless also comes in a 8-shot, 3-inch-barrel version, http, //www. smith-wesson. com Guns Magazine, Oct,2000 http, //www. gunblast. com
36.
Smith & Wesson Model 340PD
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The Smith & Wesson 340PD is an ultra-light J-frame five shot snubnosed revolver chambered for.357 Magnum. It has a constructed of scandium enhanced aluminum alloy, a titanium alloy cylinder. Unloaded it weighs only 12 ounces and when loaded remains under 1 pound, with no external hammer it operates double action only. A variant of the Model 340 is the M&P340, part of Smith & Wessons M&P line of handguns and it features a PVD coating and stainless steel cylinder. It has XS Sights® 24/7 Tritium Night sights and weighs 13.3 ounces and it is available with or without an internal lock. Another warning in the manual is recoil may pull the cases of unfired rounds in the cylinder rearward with enough force to unseat the bullets. It has also said that accuracy is compromised in these types of ultra-light revolvers since the barrel is a steel sleeve liner rather than a single solid piece of steel
37.
Smith & Wesson Centennial
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S&W Centennial is a family of revolvers made by Smith & Wesson on the J-Frame. Depending upon caliber, the cylinder holds either 5,6,7, or 8, centennials feature a fully enclosed hammer, which makes them Double Action Only firearms. Like all other J-frame Smith & Wesson revolvers, they have a swing-out cylinder, the Smith & Wesson Model 40 originally debuted as the Centennial in 1952 and was renamed the Model 40 in 1957. The Model 40 is chambered in.38 special and has a five-round capacity and it is a snub-nose revolver with a 1 7/8-inch barrel. It is built on Smith & Wessons J-frame and weighs 21 oz. empty, the revolver was made with a grip safety as some shooters could not get used to the idea of firing a revolver without cocking the hammer. Smith & Wesson reintroduced this model in 2007 as a piece with some models featuring a case hardened finish by Doug Turnbull. The Model 42 came out in 1952 as the Airweight Centennial but was changed in 1957 to the Model 42, the gun was the same design as the Model 40 except the frame was made of an aluminum alloy, resulting in a lower weight than the Model 40. The Model 42 was discontinued in 1974, the Model 640 revolver has been in production since 1990 and was chambered for.38 Special. It was fitted with a barrel of 1-7/8 inch length. The second model had a heavier and longer barrel of 2-1/8 inch length. A3 barreled version was offered until 1993, when it was dropped from production, in 1996 S&W began chambering the 640 in.357 Magnum. Because of the power of the.357 magnum cartridge, the frame is strengthened just in front of the release on those models. The 442 has a frame and blued carbon steel cylinder. The 642 has a frame and stainless steel cylinder. In 1993 S&W introduced the Model 940, similar in appearance to the 640, in 1996 the 940 was dropped from production. In 2001 a Scandium framed version was introduced in.357 Magnum designated as the Model 340. The model M&P342 was introduced in 2001 as a run of revolvers that are identical to a Model 340. Another warning in the manual is that recoil may pull the cases of unfired rounds in the cylinder rearward with enough force to unseat the bullets causing the cylinder to jam
38.
Smith & Wesson Model 640
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The Smith & Wesson Model 640 revolver is a 5-shot snubnosed revolver that is chambered in either.38 Special or.357 Magnum caliber introduced in 1990. Like other J-frame Smith & Wesson revolvers, it has a cylinder, but this model features a concealed hammer. The first model was chambered in.38 Special and fitted with a barrel of 1-7/8 inch length. The second model had a heavier and longer barrel of 2-1/8 inch length. The gun was constructed entirely of stainless steel, in 1995 the model 642 was introduced which was made in aluminium and designated airweight. A3 barreled version was offered until 1993, when it was dropped from production and that same year S&W introduced the Model 940, similar in appearance, but chambered in 9mm Luger. In 1996 the 940 was dropped and S&W began chambering the 640 in.357 Magnum, because of the power of the.357 magnum cartridge, the frame is strengthened just in front of the cylinder release on those models. In 2001 a Scandium framed version was introduced in.357 Magnum designated as the Model 340, in spite of its small frame and short barrel the revolver is durable and fairly accurate. Firearms writer Joe Gorman fired 500 full power rounds through the revolver and it survived still tight, the Model 640 is an approved off-duty/back-up weapon for the New York City Police Department
39.
Smith & Wesson Model 10
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In production since 1899, it is a six-shot double-action revolver with fixed sights. Over its long run it has been available with barrel lengths of 2 in,3 in,4 in,5 in. Barrels of 2.5 inches are also known to have made for special contracts. Some 6,000,000 of the type have been produced over the years, making it the most popular centerfire revolver of the 20th century. In 1899, the United States Army and Navy placed orders with Smith & Wesson for two to three thousand Model 1899 Hand Ejector revolvers chambered for the M1892.38 Long Colt U. S, in 1902 the.38 Military & Police was introduced, featuring substantial changes. These included major modification and simplification of the internal lockwork and the addition of a locking underlug on the barrel to engage the previously free-standing ejector rod, barrel lengths were 4,5,6, and 6.5 inches with a rounded butt. Serial numbers for the Military & Police ranged from number 1 in the series to 20,975, most of the early M&P revolvers chambered in.38 Special appear to have been sold to the civilian market. By 1904, S&W was offering the.38 M&P with a rounded or square butt, and 4-, 5-, heat treating of cylinders began in 1919. The S&W Model 10 military revolvers produced from 1942 to 1944 had serial numbers with a V prefix and it is noteworthy that early Victory Models did not always have the V prefix. Most Victory Models sent to Britain were fitted with 4-inch or 5-inchbarrels, the Victory Model was used by United States forces during World War II, being chambered in the well-known and popular.38 Special cartridge. Some of these remained in service well into the 1990s with units of the United States Armed Forces. Until the introduction of the Beretta M9 9mm pistol in 1990, U. S. Army helicopter crew members, criminal Investigation Division agents were issued.38 caliber revolvers with two inch barrels. The Victory Model remained in use with Air National Guard tanker, rechambering of. 38-200 cylinders to.38 Special results in oversized chambers, which may cause problems. Lee Harvey Oswald was carrying a re-chambered Victory Model when he was apprehended on November 22,1963, other distinguishing features of the Victory Model revolver are the lanyard loop at the bottom of the grip frame, and the use of smooth walnut grip panels. However some early models did use a grip, most notably the pre-1942 manufacture. After World War II, Smith & Wesson returned to manufacturing the M&P series, in 1957, Smith & Wesson adopted the convention of using numeric designations to distinguish their various models of handguns, and the M&P was renamed the Model 10. The M&P/Model 10 has been available in blued steel finish and nickel finish for most of its production run. The model has also offered throughout the years with both the round butt and square butt, i. e. grip patterns
40.
Smith & Wesson Model 12
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The Smith & Wesson Model 12 is.38 Special revolver on Smith & Wessons medium-sized K-frame. It is an aluminium alloy-frame version of the Model 10 and it was made from 1953 to 1986 in both two- and four-inch barrel configurations. Early models used a cylinder as well as frame.38 Special. Some 40,000 Smith & Wesson M13 revolvers were produced, a civilian model of the M13 was released in 1953, called the Military & Police Airweight. This designation was changed in 1957 to the Model 12 Airweight, the Military & Police Airweight initially used both an aluminum cylinder and frame, and weighed only 14.5 ounces. The Model 12 variants 12-1, 12-2, and 12-3 used a hammer and had an aluminum grip frame that was 0. 08-inch narrower than the standard steel K-frame. The final version, the Model 12-4, used the standard frame dimension of the other K-frames and it also featured a rounded butt. Pre-Model 12 - predates model number markings and it has an alloy cylinder and will be a 5 screw design with 4 sideplate screws and a screw in front of the trigger guard. This is apparent when the primers have elongated firing pin marks, very early versions have aluminum cylinders and should not be fired. The two-inch barrel Model 12 is also called a snub-nose and it is also a proven performer as a back-up pistol for some officers, who carry a larger caliber pistol at their waist. The Model 12 is most often found to have some wear on its due to age. An important earmark is the factory stamp Mod-12 on the frame inside the yoke, also on the inside of the yoke is the revolvers serial number, which is repeated verbatim on the base of the butt. The Model 12 holds its market value nicely and is highly collectible, as with most older revolvers, a reputable gunsmith should check its functioning prior to purchase
41.
Smith & Wesson Model 13
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The Smith & Wesson Model 13 is a.357 Magnum revolver designed for military and police use. It is based on Smith & Wessons K-frame—specifically, it is a.357 Magnum version of the variant of the.38 Special Model 10. This is a revolver with a capacity of six rounds. Barrel lengths are 3-inch and 4-inch with fixed sights, both round-butt and square-butt versions were produced. The Model 19 is essentially the same gun with adjustable sights, the M13 has a blued finish, the Model 65 is a variant in matte finish stainless steel. The Model 13 was manufactured from 1974 to 1998, the Model 65 was manufactured from 1972 to 2004. The original Model 13 used no designation and was known as the Air Crewman Model 13. Alternate generations of the model 13 are as follows, 1st Gen. -1974- Introduced, 2nd Gen. -1977- Change back to gas ring on cylinder, both models were issued by police agencies and federal law enforcement agencies in the United States. The Model 13 was requested by the New York State Police in order to have a.357 Magnum revolver to replace their.38 Special Model 10, the Model 65 in stainless steel came about at the request of the Oklahoma Highway Patrol. The FBI issued the Model 13 with round butt and 3 heavy barrel shortly before switching to semi-automatic pistols, the Model 65 is used by the Texas Department of Criminal Justice. Netbook of Modern Firearms entry S&W Model Changes
42.
Smith & Wesson Model 14
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The Smith & Wesson Model K-38 Target Masterpiece Revolver Model 14 is a six-shot, double-action revolver with adjustable open sights built on the medium-size K frame. It is chambered for the.38 Special cartridge, and most were fitted with a 6 in or 8 3⁄8 in barrel, a small batch were made with 4 in barrels, and even fewer were made with 5 in barrels. First produced in 1947 and originally known as the K-38 Target Masterpiece and it is built on the same medium-sized frame as the seminal Smith & Wesson Model 10 revolver. The K-38 model was authorized for duty with the Los Angeles Police Department in the 1960s, the Model 14 Masterpiece Single-Action was available in 1961 and 1962. It came with a 6 in barrel and functioned in single-action only and it was otherwise identical to the rest of the Model 14s. Smith & Wesson also released a Model 14 in their Classics line, a nickel-plated version has since been discontinued, but the blued-steel version is still available. Other than the finishes, the revolvers were identical with 6 in barrels, a pinned Patridge front sight, a rear sight. Smith & Wesson Model 15 Smith & Wesson Model 17 List of firearms
France - Used by GIGN during amphibious operations.[3]
Norway - The 3"-barreled version with Goncalo alves hardwood-grip was used as a sidearm in the alien immigrant-branches of the Norwegian Police Service by individual plainclothes officers during the early 90's.
United States -Used by U. S. Border Patrol.[4] Used by legacy U.S. Customs Service.[5] Used by the legacy U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service[6] Used by U.S. Navy Special Operations during waterborne missions.[7] Used by some smaller police departments and by individual officers in larger departments, especially in marine environments.[8]
Luxembourg - Used by the Luxemburg Grand Ducal Police as duty weapon.[citation needed]
