1.
East Smithfield
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East Smithfield is the name of a road in the London Borough of Tower Hamlets in east London, part of the A1203 road. It was historically part of the parish of St Botolph without Aldgate, the route of both the London Marathon and the London Triathlon pass along East Smithfield. The Royal Mint, Tower Bridge and the Tower of London are located in the vicinity, the strip of land to the north of Aldgate came to be Portsoken, an extramural ward of the City of London. The open ground south of Aldgate was known as East Smithfield — derived from smoothfield, later, Edward the Confessor confirmed the liberties upon the heirs, and these were again confirmed in the reign of William Rufus. By 1115, during the reign of Henry I, the soke, or liberty, was given to the church of Holy Trinity within Aldgate. The prior of the Abbey was then to sit as an ex officio Alderman of London, the gift was not without problems. The Constable of the Tower, Geoffrey de Mandeville had cultivated a piece of ground in East Smithfield, adjacent to the Tower and he refused to give it up and defended it with the garrison. The southern part of East Smithfield was given by Holy Trinity Priory as a site for the Hospital of St Katharine, founded by Matilda, further foundations were bestowed by Eleanor and Philippa. The importance of the hospital was such that the whole of East Smithfield came to be deemed within the Precinct of St Katharine. A Pentecost fair was granted in the district in 1229, between 1347–1351, the Black Death struck the City. Two cemeteries were opened in East Smithfield to take the dead from London, during the epidemic,200 bodies a day were buried, in mass graves, stacked five deep. In 2007, a study led by the University of Albany, NY exhumed and examined 490 skeletons – finding that the disease afflicted disproportionately the already weak, in 1442, the neighbourhood was constituted a Precinct free from jurisdiction civil or ecclesiastical, except that of the Lord Chancellor. With the Dissolution of the Monasteries by King Henry VIII in 1531, the became the property of the Crown. The hospital of St Katharine was not seized, but re-established as a Protestant house — with houses, foreign ships were not permitted to use the wharfs within the City, and St Katharines Quay came to be used extensively for unloading these, particularly Dutch ships. Many French settled here, after the loss of Calais, a large number were from the districts of Hammes and Guisnes, leading to a part of the Precinct becoming known as Hangmans Gains. With trade in the City regulated by the City, St Katharine became an area for foreign settlement. At the end of the 19th century, the quay was the terminus for boats arriving from northern Europe. Many settled around Whitechapel and Spitalfields, only a half–mile to the north, the Royal Mint moved from the Tower of London, to a site at the end of East Smithfield in 1809
2.
West Smithfield, North Carolina
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West Smithfield in an unincorporated community in Johnston County, North Carolina, United States. The population was 59 as of the 2000 census, at time it was erroneously listed as a census-designated place. West Smithfield is located at 35°32′22″N 78°22′36″W, according to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of 0.5 square miles, all of it land. As of the census of 2000, there were 59 people,21 households, the population density was 111.6 people per square mile. There were 23 housing units at a density of 43.5 per square mile. The racial makeup of the CDP was 42. 37% White,42. 37% African American,15. 25% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 20. 34% of the population. 19. 0% of all households were made up of individuals and 9. 5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.81 and the average family size was 3.25. In the CDP the population was out with 33. 9% under the age of 18,1. 7% from 18 to 24,25. 4% from 25 to 44,33. 9% from 45 to 64. The median age was 30 years, for every 100 females there were 96.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 95.0 males, the median income for a household in the CDP was $47,500, and the median income for a family was $56,071. Males had an income of $19,773 versus $50,556 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $22,834, none of the population and none of the families were below the poverty line
3.
Greater London
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London, or Greater London, is a region of England which forms the administrative boundaries of London. It is organised into 33 local government districts, the 32 London boroughs, the Greater London Authority, based in Southwark, is responsible for strategic local government across the region and consists of the Mayor of London and the London Assembly. The county of Greater London was created on 1 April 1965 through the London Government Act 1963, administratively, Greater London was first established as a sui generis council area under the Greater London Council between 1963 and 1986. The area was re-established as a region in 1994, and the Greater London Authority formed in 2000, the region covers 1,572 km2 and had a population of 8,174,000 at the 2011 census. In 2012, it had the highest GVA per capita in the United Kingdom at £37,232, the Greater London Built-up Area—used in some national statistics—is a measure of the continuous urban area of London, and therefore includes areas outside of the administrative region. The term Greater London has been and still is used to different areas in governance, statistics, history. In terms of ceremonial counties, London is divided into the small City of London, outside the limited boundaries of the City, a variety of arrangements has governed the wider area since 1855, culminating in the creation of the Greater London administrative area in 1965. The Greater London Arterial Road Programme was devised between 1913 and 1916, one of the larger early forms was the Greater London Planning Region, devised in 1927, which occupied 1,856 square miles and included 9 million people. The LCC pressed for an alteration in its boundaries soon after the end of the First World War, noting that within the Metropolitan, a Royal Commission on London Government was set up to consider the issue. The LCC proposed a vast new area for Greater London, with a boundary somewhere between the Metropolitan Police District and the home counties, protests were made at the possibility of including Windsor, Slough and Eton in the authority. The Commission made its report in 1923, rejecting the LCCs scheme, two minority reports favoured change beyond the amalgamation of smaller urban districts, including both smaller borough councils and a central authority for strategic functions. The London Traffic Act 1924 was a result of the Commission, Greater London originally had a two-tier system of local government, with the Greater London Council sharing power with the City of London Corporation and the 32 London Borough councils. The GLC was abolished in 1986 by the Local Government Act 1985 and its functions were devolved to the City Corporation and the London Boroughs, with some functions transferred to central government and joint boards. Greater London was used to form the London region of England in 1994, a referendum held in 1998 established a public will to recreate an upper tier of government to cover the region. The Greater London Authority, London Assembly and the directly elected Mayor of London were created in 2000 by the Greater London Authority Act 1999, in 2000, the outer boundary of the Metropolitan Police District was re-aligned to the Greater London boundary. The 2000 and 2004 mayoral elections were won by Ken Livingstone, the 2008 and 2012 elections were won by Boris Johnson. The 2016 election was won by Sadiq Khan, Greater London continues to include the most closely associated parts of the Greater London Urban Area and their historic buffers. Thus it includes, in five boroughs, significant parts of the Metropolitan Green Belt which protects designated greenfield land in a way to the citys parks
4.
City of London
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The City of London is a city and county within London. It constituted most of London from its settlement by the Romans in the 1st century AD to the Middle Ages, the City is now only a tiny part of the metropolis of London, though it remains a notable part of central London. Administratively, it one of the 33 local authority districts of Greater London, however, the City of London is not a London borough. The City of London is widely referred to simply as the City and is colloquially known as the Square Mile. Both of these terms are often used as metonyms for the United Kingdoms trading and financial services industries. The name London is now used for a far wider area than just the City. London most often denotes the sprawling London metropolis, or the 32 London boroughs and this wider usage of London is documented as far back as 1888, when the County of London was created. The local authority for the City, namely the City of London Corporation, is unique in the UK and has some unusual responsibilities for a local council and it is also unusual in having responsibilities and ownerships beyond its boundaries. The Corporation is headed by the Lord Mayor of the City of London, the current Lord Mayor, as of November 2016, is Andrew Parmley. The City is a business and financial centre. Throughout the 19th century, the City was the primary business centre. London came top in the Worldwide Centres of Commerce Index, published in 2008, the insurance industry is focused around the eastern side of the City, around Lloyds building. A secondary financial district exists outside of the City, at Canary Wharf,2.5 miles to the east, the City has a resident population of about 7,000 but over 300,000 people commute to and work there, mainly in the financial services sector. It used to be held that Londinium was first established by merchants as a trading port on the tidal Thames in around 47 AD. However, this date is only supposition, many historians now believe London was founded some time before the Roman conquest of Britain in 43 AD. They base this notion on evidence provided by both archaeology and Welsh literary legend, archaeologists have claimed that as much as half of the best British Iron Age art and metalwork discovered in Britain has been found in the London area. One of the most prominent examples is the famously horned Waterloo Helmet dredged from the Thames in the early 1860s and now exhibited at the British Museum. Also, according to an ancient Welsh legend, a king named Lud son of Heli substantially enlarged and improved a pre-existing settlement at London which afterwards came to be renamed after him, the same tradition relates how this Lud son of Heli was later buried at Ludgate
5.
Regions of England
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The regions are the highest tier of sub-national division in England. Between 1994 and 2011, nine regions had officially devolved functions within Government, while they no longer fulfil this role, they continue to be used for statistical and some administrative purposes. They define areas for the purposes of elections to the European Parliament, Eurostat also uses them to demarcate first level Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics regions within the European Union. The regions generally follow the boundaries of the former standard regions, the London region has a directly elected Mayor and Assembly. Six regions have local authority leaders boards to assist with correlating the headline policies of local authorities, the remaining two regions no longer have any administrative functions, having abolished their regional local authority leaders boards. In 1998, regional chambers were established in the eight regions outside of London, the regions also had an associated Government Office with some responsibility for coordinating policy, and, from 2007, a part-time regional minister within the Government. House of Commons regional Select Committees were established in 2009, Regional ministers were not reappointed by the incoming Coalition Government, and the Government Offices were abolished in 2011. Regional development agencies were public bodies established in all nine regions in 1998 to promote economic development and they had certain delegated functions, including administering European Union regional development funds, and received funding the central government as well. After about 500 AD, England comprised seven Anglo-Saxon territories – Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia, Essex, Kent, the boundaries of some of these, which later unified as the Kingdom of England, roughly coincide with those of modern regions. During Oliver Cromwells Protectorate in the 1650s, the rule of the Major-Generals created 10 regions in England, proposals for administrative regions within England were mooted by the British government prior to the First World War. In 1912 the Third Home Rule Bill was passing through parliament, the Bill was expected to introduce a devolved parliament for Ireland, and as a consequence calls were made for similar structures to be introduced in Great Britain or Home Rule All Round. On 12 September the First Lord of the Admiralty, Winston Churchill, within England, he suggested that London, Lancashire, Yorkshire, and the Midlands would make natural regions. While the creation of regional parliaments never became official policy, it was for a widely anticipated. In 1946 nine standard regions were set up, in central government bodies, statutory undertakings. However, these had declined in importance by the late 1950s, creation of some form of provinces or regions for England was an intermittent theme of post-Second World War British governments. The Redcliffe-Maud Report proposed the creation of eight provinces in England, one-fifth of the advisory councils would be nominees from central government. The boundaries suggested were the eight now existing for economic planning purposes, a minority report by Lord Crowther-Hunt and Alan T. Peacock suggested instead seven regional assemblies and governments within Great Britain, some elements of regional development and economic planning began to be established in England from the mid-1960s onwards
6.
Countries of the United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom comprises four countries, England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. Within the United Kingdom, a sovereign state, Northern Ireland, Scotland. England, comprising the majority of the population and area of the United Kingdom, England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales are not themselves listed in the International Organization for Standardization list of countries. However the ISO list of the subdivisions of the UK, compiled by British Standards, Northern Ireland, in contrast, is described as a province in the same lists. Each has separate governing bodies for sports and compete separately in many international sporting competitions. Northern Ireland also forms joint All-Island sporting bodies with the Republic of Ireland for most sports, the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man are dependencies of the Crown and are not part of the UK. Similarly, the British overseas territories, remnants of the British Empire, are not part of the UK, southern Ireland left the United Kingdom under the Irish Free State Constitution Act 1922. * Figures for GVA do not include oil and gas revenues generated beyond the UKs territorial waters, various terms have been used to describe England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales. Wales was described as the country, principality, and dominion of Wales, outside Wales, England was not given a specific name or term. The Laws in Wales Acts have subsequently been repealed, the Acts of Union 1707 refer to both England and Scotland as a part of a united kingdom of Great Britain The Acts of Union 1800 use part in the same way to refer to England and Scotland. The Northern Ireland Act 1998, which repealed the Government of Ireland Act 1920, the Interpretation Act 1978 provides statutory definitions of the terms England, Wales and the United Kingdom, but neither that Act nor any other current statute defines Scotland or Northern Ireland. Use of the first three terms in other legislation is interpreted following the definitions in the 1978 Act and this definition applies from 1 April 1974. United Kingdom means Great Britain and Northern Ireland and this definition applies from 12 April 1927. In 1996 these 8 new counties were redistributed into the current 22 unitary authorities, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland are regions in their own right while England has been divided into nine regions. The official term rest of the UK is used in Scotland, for example in export statistics and this term is also used in the context of potential Scottish independence to mean the UK without Scotland. The alternative term Home Nations is sometimes used in sporting contexts, the second, or civic group, contained the items about feeling British, respecting laws and institutions, speaking English, and having British citizenship. Contrariwise, in Scotland and Wales there was a much stronger identification with each country than with Britain, studies and surveys have reported that the majority of the Scots and Welsh see themselves as both Scottish/Welsh and British though with some differences in emphasis. The propensity for nationalistic feeling varies greatly across the UK, and can rise and it reported that 37% of people identified as British, whilst 29% identified as Irish and 24% identified as Northern Irish
7.
England
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England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
8.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
9.
London postal district
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The London postal district is the area in England of 241 square miles to which mail addressed to the LONDON post town is delivered. It was integrated by the Post Office into the national system of the United Kingdom during the early 1970s and corresponds to the N, NW, SW, SE, W, WC, E. The postal district has also known as the London postal area. The County of London was much smaller at 117 square miles, by the 1850s, the rapid growth of the metropolitan area meant it became too large to operate efficiently as a single post town. A Post Office inquiry into the problem had been set up in 1837, in 1854 Charles Canning, the Postmaster General, set up a committee at the Post Office in St. Martins Le Grand to investigate how London could best be divided for the purposes of directing mail. In 1856, of the 470 million items of mail sent in the United Kingdom during the year, approximately one fifth were for delivery in London, the General Post Office thus at the control of the Postmaster General devised the area in 1856 project-managed by Sir Rowland Hill. Hill produced an almost perfectly circular area of 12 miles radius from the central post office at St. Martins Le Grand, within the district it was divided into two central areas and eight compass points which operated much like separate post towns. Each was constituted London with a suffix indicating the area it covered, the system was introduced during 1857 and completed on 1 January 1858. The remaining eight letter prefixes have not changed, at the same time, the London postal district boundary was retracted in the east, removing places such as Ilford for good. In 1868 the S district was split between SE and SW, the NE and S codes have been re-used in the national postcode system and now refer to the NE postcode area around Newcastle upon Tyne and the S postcode area around Sheffield. In 1917, as a measure to improve efficiency, the districts were further subdivided with a number applied to each sub-district. Exceptionally and esoterically, W2 and SW11 are also head districts, the numbered sub-districts became the outward code of the postcode system as expanded into longer codes during the 1970s. Ad hoc changes have taken place to the organisation of the districts, subdivisions of postcode sub-districts Owing to heavier demand, seven high-density postcode districts in central London have been subdivided to create new, smaller postcode districts. This is achieved by adding a letter after the postcode district. Where such sub-districts are used such as on street signs and maps. The districts subdivided are E1, N1, EC SW1, W1, WC1, similarly, there are solely non-geographic suffixed sub-districts for PO boxes in NW1 and SE1. The London postal district has never been aligned with the London boundary, when the initial system was designed, the London boundary was restricted to the square mile of the small, ancient City of London. The wider metropolitan area covered parts of Middlesex, Surrey, Kent, Essex
10.
Postcodes in the United Kingdom
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Postal codes used in the United Kingdom are known as postcodes. They are alphanumeric and were adopted nationally between 11 October 1959 and 1974, having been devised by the GPO, a full postcode is known as a postcode unit and designates an area with a number of addresses or a single major delivery point. For example, the postcode of the University of Roehampton in London is SW15 5PU, the postcode of GCHQ is GL51 0EX, where GL signifies the postal town of Gloucester. The postal town refers to an area and does not relate to a specific town. GL51 is one of the postcodes for the town of Cheltenham which is where GCHQ is located, the London post town covers 40% of Greater London. On inception it was divided into ten districts, EC, WC, N, NE, E, SE, S, SW, W. The S and NE sectors were later abolished and these divisions changed little, usually only changed for operational efficiency. Some older road signs in Hackney still indicate the North East sector/district, following the successful introduction of postal districts in London, the system was extended to other large towns and cities. Liverpool was divided into Eastern, Northern, Southern and Western districts in 1864/65, in 1917 Dublin – then still part of the United Kingdom – was divided into numbered postal districts. These continue in use in a form by An Post. In 1923 Glasgow was divided in a way to London. In January 1932 the Postmaster General approved the designation of some urban areas into numbered districts. In November 1934 the Post Office announced the introduction of numbered districts in every town in the United Kingdom large enough to justify it. Pamphlets were issued to each householder and business in ten areas notifying them of the number of the district in which their premises lay, the pamphlets included a map of the districts, and copies were made available at local head post offices. The public were invited to include the district number in the address at the head of letters. A publicity campaign in the following year encouraged the use of the district numbers, the slogan for the campaign was For speed and certainty always use a postal district number on your letters and notepaper. A poster was fixed to every box in the affected areas bearing the number of the district. Every post office in the district was also to display this information
11.
EC postcode area
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The EC postcode area, also known as the London EC postal area, is a group of postcode districts in central London, England. It includes almost all of the City of London and parts of the London Boroughs of Islington, Camden, Hackney, Tower Hamlets, the area covered is of very high density development. Deliveries for the EC postcode area are made from Mount Pleasant Mail Centre, the current postcode districts are relatively recent divisions of the EC1, EC2, EC3 and EC4 districts established in 1917. Where the districts are used for other than the sorting of mail, such as use as a geographic reference and on street signs. Postcode Address File List of postcode areas in the United Kingdom London postal district Royal Mails Postcode Address File A quick introduction to Royal Mails Postcode Address File
12.
Telephone numbers in the United Kingdom
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Telephone numbers in the United Kingdom are administered by the UK governments Office of Communications. For this purpose Ofcom established a telephone numbering plan, known as the National Telephone Numbering Plan, since 28 April 2001, almost all geographic numbers and most non-geographic numbers have 9 or 10 national numbers after the 0 trunk code. All mobile telephone numbers have 10 national numbers after the 0 trunk code, regions with shorter area codes, typically large cities, permit the allocation of more telephone numbers as the local number portion has more digits. Local customer numbers are four to eight figures long, the total number of digits is ten, but in a very few areas the total may be nine digits. The area code is referred to as an STD or a dialling code in the UK. The code allocated to the largest population is for London, the code allocated to the largest area is for all of Northern Ireland. The UK Numbering Plan also applies to three British Crown dependencies—Jersey, Guernsey and the Isle of Man—even though they are not part of the UK itself. Possible number formats for UK telephone numbers are as follows, Number ranges starting 01 can have NSN length as 10 or 9 digits, the 0800 range can have NSN length as 10,9 or 7 digits. The 0845 range can have NSN length as 10 or 7 digits, the 0500 range has NSN length as 9 digits only. There are no numbers in the UK with an NSN length of 8 digits. Geographic telephone numbers in the UK always have nine or ten digits, four-digit area codes have either six-digit subscriber numbers or a mix of five- and six-digit subscriber numbers. Xxxxxx This is the used by most areas. It has an area code and a six digit subscriber number. These area codes were changed by adding a 1 directly after the zero as a part of PhONEday in 1995. Just short of 581 areas use this format, and the area range from 01200 to 01998. A small number of areas also have a few subscriber numbers that have only five digits. That is, almost all area codes now have only six digit local numbers, six of the four-digit area codes are known as mixed areas as they share those four digits with the twelve five-digit area codes. The numbers therefore have only nine digits after the initial zero trunk code and these area codes were changed by adding a 1 directly after the initial zero as a part of PhONEday in 1995
13.
City of London Police
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The City of London Police is the territorial police force responsible for law enforcement within the City of London, including the Middle and Inner Temples. The force responsible for law enforcement within the remainder of Greater London, outside of the City, is the Metropolitan Police Service, the City of London area has a resident population of around 9000. There is an influx of approximately 400,000 commuters into the City. The Commissioner since January 2016 is Ian Dyson, QPM, who was formerly the forces Assistant Commissioner, Policing in the City of London has existed since Roman times. Wood Street police station, also headquarters of the City Police, is built on part of the site of a Roman fortress, which may have housed some of the first police in the City. Prior to 1839, the responsibility for policing in the City was divided, from the medieval period, responsibilities were shared with the Aldermans officers the Ward Beadles who are now purely ceremonial. It was these officers responsibility for ensuring the Night Watch was maintained, Policing during the day eventually came under the City Patrol, which evolved into the City Day Police, which was modelled on the Metropolitan Police. In 1838, the Day Police and Night Watch were merged into a single organisation, the passing of the City of London Police Act 1839 gave statutory approval to the force as an independent police body, heading off attempts made to merge it with the Metropolitan Police. During 1842, the City Police moved its headquarters from Corporations Guildhall to 26 Old Jewry, a main challenge of policing in London prior to the 18th century was both gathering and transferring accurate information. Records were brought to court and often transferred between authorities, with one example being from the Guildhall bookhouse to Bridewell, the records were closely screened and had to otherwise remain in buildings like Guildhall bookhouse, to ensure the accuracy of the information being held. Aside from these records, information also traveled between officials through word of mouth. Constables were also an important part of police knowledge, within courtrooms, constables provided valuable information on specific criminals or neighborhoods. Even so, many cases counted on the reliability of individuals with knowledge in London, development of sophisticated investigative techniques would come later. The Agas map can be used to display connections between early London buildings such as Guildhall bookhouse and Bridewell, tracking the total number of Londoners also fell under pre-Victorian London policing duties. Beadles kept the names and surnames of householders in an effort to track this total and this allowed police to understand more about which areas of London were growing, the number of aliens in particular areas, and other valuable demographic information. In the twentieth century, after the Jack the Ripper murders in London, in 1902, Henry Jackson was the first British person to be convicted using fingerprinting techniques, a large change from knowledge gathering methods used centuries earlier. However, it was not until 1905 that fingerprinting began to hold as a procurement method. The Metropolitan Police has taken policing knowledge in London much further in modern times, however, when looking at formal policies on policing according to the Metropolitan Police, transference of knowledge, while easier, has become stricter
14.
Fire services in the United Kingdom
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The fire services in the United Kingdom operate under separate legislative and administrative arrangements in England and Wales, Northern Ireland, and Scotland. Emergency cover is provided by over fifty fire and rescue services, many FRS were previously known as brigades or county fire services, but almost all now use the standard terminology. They are distinct from and governed by an authority, which is the legislative, public and administrative body. Fire authorities in England and Wales, and therefore fire and rescue services, Scotland and Northern Ireland have centralised fire and rescue services, and so their authorities are effectively committees of the devolved parliaments. The total budget for services in 2014-15 was £2.9 billion. The devolved government in Scotland has an agency, HMFSI Scotland. This Act provided for centralised co-ordination of fire brigades in Great Britain,1947, Fire Services Act 1947 This Act transferred the functions of the National Fire Service to local authorities. Now repealed entirely in England and Wales by Schedule 2 of the Fire,1959, Fire Services Act 1959 This Act amended the 1947 Act, it dealt with pensions, staffing arrangements and provision of services by other authorities. It was repealed in England and Wales along with the 1947 Act,1999, Greater London Authority Act 1999 This act was necessary to allow for the formation of the Greater London Authority and in turn the London Fire and Emergency Planning Authority. In 2002, there was a series of fire strikes. In December 2002, the Independent Review of the Fire Service was published with the action still ongoing. Bains report ultimately led to a change in the relating to firefighting. 2002, Independent Review of the Fire Service published 2004, Fire and Rescue Services Act 2004, generally only applying to England and it came into force on 1 October 2006. The DfCLG has published a set of guides for non-domestic premises,2006, The Government of Wales Act 2006 gave the National Assembly for Wales powers to pass laws on Fire, promotion of fire safety otherwise than by prohibition or regulation. But does not prevent future legislation being passed by the UK government which applies to two or more constituent countries, There are further plans to modernise the fire service according to the Local Government Association. The fire service in England and Wales is scrutinised by a House of Commons select committee, in June 2006, the fire and rescue service select committee, under the auspices of the Communities and Local Government Committee, published its latest report. For example, where FRSs were historically inspected by HMFSI, much of this work is now carried out by the National Audit Office, Fire Control On 8 February 2010 the House of Commons Communities and Local Government Select Committee heard evidence on the Fire Control project. Called to give evidence were Cllr Brian Coleman and Cllr James Pearson from the Local Government Association, also giving evidence Matt Wrack from the Fire Brigades Union and John Bonney Chief Fire Officers Association
15.
London Fire Brigade
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The London Fire Brigade is the statutory fire and rescue service for London. It was formed by the Metropolitan Fire Brigade Act of 1865 under the leadership of superintendent Eyre Massey Shaw. Dany Cotton is the Commissioner for Fire and Emergency Planning, which includes the position of Chief Fire Officer, statutory responsibility for the running of the brigade lies with the London Fire and Emergency Planning Authority. In 2013/14 the LFB handled 171,067999 emergency calls, of the calls it actually mobilised to,20,934 were fires, including 10,992 that were of a serious nature, making it one of the busiest fire brigades in the world. In the same 12-month period, it received 3,172 hoax calls, the highest number of any UK fire service, in 2015/16 the LFB received 171,488 emergency calls. These consisted of,20,773 fires,30,066 special service callouts and it also conducts emergency planning and performs fire safety inspections and education. He introduced a uniform that, for the first time, included personal protection from the hazards of firefighting. With 80 firefighters and 13 fire stations, the unit was still a private enterprise, funded by the insurance companies, in 1904 it was renamed as the London Fire Brigade. The LFB moved into a new headquarters built by Higgs and Hill on the Albert Embankment in Lambeth in 1937, during the Second World War the countrys brigades were amalgamated into a single National Fire Service. The separate London Fire Brigade for the County of London was re-established in 1948, in 1986 the Greater London Council was disbanded and a new statutory authority, the London Fire and Civil Defence Authority, was formed to take responsibility for the LFB. The LFCDA was replaced in 2000 by the London Fire and Emergency Planning Authority, at the same time, the Greater London Authority was established to administer the LFEPA and coordinate emergency planning for London. Consisting of the Mayor of London and other elected members, the GLA also takes responsibility for the Metropolitan Police Authority, Transport for London, in 2007 the LFB vacated its Lambeth headquarters and moved to a site in Union Street, Southwark. In the same year, the Department for Communities and Local Government announced that LFB Commissioner Ken Knight had been appointed as the first Chief Fire, Knight was succeeded as Commissioner at that time by Ron Dobson, who served for almost ten years. Dany Cotton took over in 2017, becoming the brigades first female commissioner, dany Cotton is the current commissioner, having taken up the role on 1 January 2017. She holds the Queens Fire Service Medal, frank Jackson, CBE1938 to 1941, Cdr. Sir Aylmer Firebrace, CBE1933 to 1938, Maj. Cyril Morris 1918 to 1933, Arthur Reginald Dyer 1909 to 1918, sir Sampson Sladen 1903 to 1909, RAdm. James de Courcy Hamilton 1896 to 1903, Capt, lionel de Latour Wells 1891 to 1896, James Sexton Simmonds 1861 to 1891, Capt. Both divisions were divided into three districts, each under a Superintendent with his headquarters at a superintendent station, the superintendent stations themselves were commanded by District Officers, with the other stations under Station Officers
16.
Emergency medical services in the United Kingdom
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Emergency care including ambulance and emergency department treatment is free to everyone, regardless of immigration or visitor status. The NHS commissions most emergency services through the 14 NHS organisations with ambulance responsibility across the UK. As with other services, the public normally access emergency medical services through one of the valid emergency telephone numbers. This led to the formation of predominantly county based ambulance services, which gradually merged up and changed responsibilities until 2006, when there were 31 NHS ambulance trusts in England. Following further changes as part of the NHS foundation trust pathway, the commissioners in each region are responsible for contracting with a suitable organisation to provide ambulance services within their geographical territory. The primary contract for each area is held by a public NHS body, of which there are 11 in England. The service was operated before reorganisation in 1974 by the St Andrews’ Ambulance Association under contract to the Secretary of State for Scotland, the Northern Ireland Ambulance Service was established in 1995 by parliamentary order, and serves the whole of Northern Ireland. The Welsh Ambulance Service NHS Trust was established on 1 April 1998, there is a large market for private and voluntary ambulance services, with the sector being worth £800m to the UK economy in 2012. This places the voluntary providers in direct competition with private services, expenditure on private ambulances in England increased from £37m in 2011−12 to £67. 5m in 2013/4, rising in London from £796,000 to more than £8. 8m. In 2014−15, these 10 ambulance services spent £57.6 million on 333,329 callouts of private or voluntary services - an increase of 156% since 2010−11, in 2013, the CQC found 97% of private ambulance services to be providing good care. These private, registered services are represented by the Independent Ambulance Association, there are also a number of unregistered services operating, who do not provide ambulance transport, but only provide response on an event site. These firms are not regulated, and are not subject to the checks as the registered providers, although they may operate similar vehicles. There are a number of ambulance providers, sometimes known as Voluntary Aid Services or Voluntary Aid Societies, with the main ones being the British Red Cross. The history of the ambulance services pre-dates any government organised service. As they are in competition for work with the private ambulance providers. Voluntary organisations have also provided cover for the public when unionised NHS ambulance trust staff have taken industrial action, there are a number of smaller voluntary ambulance organisations, fulfilling specific purposes, such as Hatzola who provide emergency medical services to the orthodox Jewish community in some cities. These have however run into difficulties due to use of vehicles not legally recognised as ambulances, all emergency medical services in the UK are subject to a range of legal and regulatory requirements, and in many cases are also monitored for performance. This framework is largely statutory in nature, being mandated by government through a range of primary and secondary legislation and this requires all providers to register, to meet certain standards of quality, and to submit to inspection of those standards
17.
London Ambulance Service
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It is one of the busiest ambulance services in the world, and the busiest in the United Kingdom, providing care to more than 8.6 million people, who live and work in London. The service is currently under the leadership of chief executive Dr Fionna Moore MBE, the service employ around 4,500 staff. In exceptional cases, or where the service deems in necessary, specialist teams can be deployed from within the service, such as the Hazardous Area Response Team and these teams are specially trained and equipped to deal with incidents such as working at height or in confined spaces. It is one of 10 ambulance trusts in England providing emergency medical services, there is no charge to patients for use of the service, as every person in England has the right to the attendance of an ambulance in an emergency. The LAS responded to over 1.8 million calls for assistance, incidents rose by 20,000 in 2015/16, putting more pressure on the service. All 999 calls from the public are answered at the Emergency Operations Centre in Waterloo, to assist, the services command and control system is linked electronically with the equivalent system for Londons Metropolitan Police. This means that police updates regarding specific jobs will be updated directly on the computer-aided dispatch log, to be viewed by the EOC, the first became operational at The South Eastern Fever Hospital, Deptford, in October 1883. In all, six hospitals operated horse-drawn land ambulances, putting almost the whole of London within three miles of one of them, each ambulance station included accommodation for a married superintendent and around 20 drivers, horse keepers and attendants, nurses, laundry staff and domestic cleaners. At Deptford, in order to transfer patients between the hospitals at Joyce Green and Long Reach near Gravesend, a horse-drawn ambulance tramway was constructed in 1897, in 1902, the MAB introduced a steam driven ambulance and in 1904, their first motor ambulance. The last horse-drawn ambulances were used on 14 September 1912, although the MAB was legally supposed to be transporting only infectious patients, it increasingly also carried accident victims and emergency medical cases. Also in 1915, the MAB Ambulance Section were the first public body to women drivers. By July 1916 the London County Council Ambulance Corps was staffed entirely by women, the LCC also took control of the River Ambulance Service, but it was disbanded in 1932. During World War II, the London Auxiliary Ambulance Service was operated by over 10,000 auxiliaries, mainly women and they ran services from 139 Auxiliary Stations across London. A plaque at one of the last to close, Station 39 in Weymouth Mews, near Portland Place, in 1948 the National Health Service Act made it a requirement for ambulances to be available for anyone who needed them. On 1 April 1996, the LAS left the control of the South West Thames Regional Health Authority, as an NHS Trust, the LAS has a Trust Board consisting of 12 members. The board includes, a chairman, five of the Service’s executive directors. Special events in London are co-ordinated from the Services event control room, also located in east London, during mass casualty incidents, the command structure works on three levels, gold, silver and bronze. Silver control, tactical command, from a point in the vicinity of the incident, Bronze control
18.
London (European Parliament constituency)
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London is a constituency of the European Parliament. It currently elects 8 MEPs using the method of party-list proportional representation. The constituency corresponds to the Greater London region of England, in the south east of the United Kingdom, prior to 1999, London was represented by a number of single-member constituencies. The European Parliamentary Elections Act 1999 reduced this to a constituency returning a number of MEPs. Below are all the members since the creation of the London constituency, the number of seats allocated to London has been reduced from 10 to 8 between 1999 and 2009 due to EU enlargement. Members elected in 1999 who previously represented a London constituency were Pauline Green, elected candidates are shown in bold. Brackets indicate the number of votes per seat won, the 2014 results were delayed by Tower Hamlets, where there were recounts needed for six local election wards
19.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
20.
Farringdon Without
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Farringdon Without is a Ward in the City of London, the historic and financial centre of London. It covers the area of the City, including the Middle Temple, Inner Temple, Chancery Lane, Smithfield and St Bartholomews Hospital. The largest of the Citys 25 Wards, it was reduced in size considerably after a review in 2003. The Ward had been in the Faringdon family for 82 years at time, his father, William de Faringdon preceding him as Alderman in 1281. William de Faringdon was Lord Mayor in 1281-82 and also a Warden of the Goldsmiths Company, during the reign of King Edward I, as an Alderman and Goldsmith, William Faringdon was implicated in the arrest of English Jewry for treason. The Ward was split in two in 1394, Farringdon Without and Farringdon Within, without and Within denote whether the ward fell outside or within the London Wall — such designation also applied to the wards of Bridge Within and Without. As well as goldsmiths, in times the Fleet Ditch attracted many tanners and curriers to the Ward. As the City became more populous, these trades were banished to the suburbs and by the 18th century the River Fleet had been culverted and built over. In its later years, the Fleet became little more than an open sewer, the modern Farringdon Street was built over it, with the Fleet Market opening for the sale of meat, fish and vegetables in 1737. The air was perfumed with the stench of rotten leaves and faded fruit, the refuse of the butchers’ stalls and it was indispensable to most public conveniences in those days, that they should be public nuisances likewise, and Fleet Market maintained the principle to admiration. In 1829, it had become necessary to widen Farringdon Street, and this did not thrive, and its activities were moved to West Smithfield. On 27 January 1769, the radical MP John Wilkes was elected Alderman for this Ward, later, Wilkes was elected Lord Mayor of London. Other famous Aldermen include scions of the Childs, Hoares and Goslings banking families, Farringdon Without is one of 25 Wards in the City of London, each electing an Alderman to the Court of Aldermen and Commoners to the Court of Common Council of the City of London Corporation. The Ward is represented by Alderman Gregory Jones QC and 10 Common Councilman, Alderman Gregory Jones QC has appointed John Absalom as Deputy and Edward Lord OBE as Deputy. Freemen of the City of London are eligible to stand for election
21.
London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
22.
St Bartholomew's Hospital
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St Bartholomews Hospital, also known simply as Barts and later more formally as The Royal Hospital of St Bartholomew, is a hospital located at Smithfield in the City of London and founded in 1123. Today it forms part of Barts Health NHS Trust, Barts was founded in 1123 by Rahere, a favourite courtier of King Henry I. The Dissolution of the Monasteries did not affect the running of Barts as a hospital, the first Superintendent of the hospital was Thomas Vicary, sergeant-surgeon to King Henry, and an early writer on anatomy. In 1839 to 1872, the mortality reports show that surgical trauma, tuberculosis, however, remained the most fatal nontraumatic cause of death. Upon the creation of the National Health Service in 1948, it became known as St Bartholomews Hospital. The so-named Henry VIII entrance to the continues to be the main public entrance. Its main square was designed by James Gibbs in the 1730s, of the four original blocks only three survive, they include the block containing the Great Hall and two flanking blocks that contained wards. The first wing to be built was the North Wing, in 1732, which includes the Great Hall, the South Wing followed in 1740, the West in 1752 and finally the East Wing in 1769. In 1859, a fountain was placed at the centre with a small garden. St Bartholomews Hospital has existed on the site since its founding in the 12th century. Its museum, which is open Tuesdays to Fridays every week, shows how medical care has developed over this time, part-way around the exhibition is a door which opens on to the hospitals official entrance hall. On the walls of the staircase are two painted by William Hogarth, The Pool of Bethesda and The Good Samaritan. They can only be seen at close quarters on Friday afternoons, the room to which the staircase leads is the hospitals Great Hall, a double-height room in Baroque-style. St Barts-the-Less is the survivor of five chapels originally within the hospitals estate. Throughout the whole of the 19th century, the Hardwick family were benefactors of the hospital. Thomas Hardwick Jr. Philip Hardwick, and Philip Charles Hardwick were all architects/surveyors to Barts Hospital, Philip Hardwick, a Royal Academician, was also engaged in the rebuilding of the Church of St Bartholomew-the-Less in 1823 and donated the fountain in the hospitals courtyard. By 1872, Barts contained 676 beds, about 6,000 in-patients were admitted every year, as well as 101,000 out-patients. The average income of the hospital was £40,000 and the number of governors exceeded 300, in 1993 the controversial Tomlinson Review of London hospitals was published and concluded that there were too many hospitals in central London
23.
London Charterhouse
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The London Charterhouse is a historic complex of buildings in Smithfield, London, dating back to the 14th century. It occupies land to the north of Charterhouse Square, and lies within the London Borough of Islington, the Charterhouse began as a Carthusian priory, founded in 1371 and dissolved in 1537. Substantial fragments remain from this period, but the site was largely rebuilt after 1545 as a large courtyard house. Thus, today it conveys an impression of the type of large rambling 16th century mansion that once existed all round London. The Charterhouse was further altered and extended after 1611, when it became an almshouse and school, a chapel and hermitage were constructed, renamed New Church Haw, but in 1371, this land was granted for the foundation of the London Charterhouse, a Carthusian monastery. The twenty-five monks each had their own building and garden. Thomas More came to the monastery for spiritual recuperation, the name is derived as an Anglicisation of La Grande Chartreuse, whose order founded the monastery. The monastery was closed in 1537, in the Dissolution of the Monasteries in the English Reformation and they constitute the group known as the Carthusian Martyrs. But, in 1545, the site was bought by Sir Edward North. North demolished the church and built the Great Hall and adjoining Great Chamber, in 1558, during Norths occupancy, Queen Elizabeth I used the house during the preparations for her coronation. Following Norths death, the property was purchased by Thomas Howard, 4th Duke of Norfolk, in 1570, following his imprisonment in the Tower of London for scheming to marry Mary, Queen of Scots, Norfolk was placed under house arrest at the Charterhouse. He occupied his time by embellishing the house, and built a terrace in the garden leading to a tennis court. In 1571, Norfolks involvement in the Ridolfi plot was exposed after a letter from Mary, Queen of Scots was discovered under a doormat in the house. The property passed to Norfolks son, Thomas Howard, 1st Earl of Suffolk, during his occupancy, James I held court there on his first entrance into London in 1603. In May 1611 it came into the hands of Thomas Sutton of Knaith and his will was hotly contested but upheld in court, and the foundation was finally constituted to afford a home for eighty male pensioners, and to educate forty boys. Charterhouse early established a reputation for excellence in care and treatment, thanks in part to Henry Levett. Levett was widely esteemed for his writings, including an early tract on the treatment of smallpox. Levett was buried in Charterhouse Chapel, and his widow remarried Andrew Tooke, the school, Charterhouse School, developed beyond the original intentions of its founder, and now ranks among the most eminent public schools in England
24.
Livery company
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The livery companies of the City of London, currently 110 in number, comprise Londons ancient and modern trade associations and guilds, almost all of which are styled the Worshipful Company of. Their respective craft, trade or profession, Londons livery companies play a significant part in City life, not least by providing charitable-giving and networking opportunities. Liverymen retain voting rights for the civic offices, such as the Lord Mayor, Sheriffs and City of London Corporation. The term livery originated in the form of dress worn to retainers of a nobleman. Most livery companies retain their religious associations, although nowadays members are free to follow any faith or none. Most livery companies still maintain contacts with their trade, craft or professional roles. Some still exercise powers of regulation, inspection and enforcement, while others are awarding bodies for professional qualifications, several companies restrict membership only to those holding relevant professional qualifications, eg. the City of London Solicitors Company and the Worshipful Company of Engineers. Other companies, whose trade died out long ago, such as the Longbow Makers Company, have evolved into being primarily charitable foundations, after the Carmen received City livery status in 1746 no new companies were established in London for 180 years until the Master Mariners in 1926. Post-1926 creations are known as livery companies. The Worshipful Company of Arts Scholars, the newest, was granted status on 11 February 2014. The Honourable Company of Air Pilots is exceptional among Londons livery companies in having active overseas committees in Australia, Canada, Hong Kong, New Zealand and North America. Livery companies are governed by a Master, a number of Wardens, the Clerk to the Company is invariably its most senior permanent member of staff, who as chief executive officer runs its day-to-day activities. Membership generally falls into two categories, freemen and liverymen, most livery companies reserve the right to admit distinguished people, particularly in their sphere of influence, as honorary freemen. Freemen may advance to become liverymen, after obtaining the freedom of the City of London, only liverymen are eligible to vote in the annual election of the Lord Mayor of London, the Sheriffs and various other City civic offices, including the Ale Conners and Bridge Masters. The livery companies elect a majority of the members of the Livery Committee, the Committee oversees the elections of Sheriffs and the Lord Mayor, educates liverymen regarding the City and its activities, represents the livery companies in communications with the City. A liveryman is a member of their respective Company. When a Freeman becomes a liveryman, the candidate is said to be enclothed, indeed, thereafter only the master, wardens and assistants in companies are seen wearing these at company events. The masters wear them at the Citys formal events, e. g. the two Common Halls and the United Guilds Service, and Lord Mayors Show, wherever they may participate
25.
Worshipful Company of Butchers
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The Worshipful Company of Butchers is one of the Livery Companies of the City of London, England. Records indicate that an organisation of Butchers existed as early as 975, the Butchers Guild, the Butchers Guild was incorporated by Royal Charter centuries later, in 1605. The Butchers still, unlike other Livery Companies, continues to exist as an association for members of the industry. However, the Company does contribute, like all Livery Companies, the Company ranks twenty-fourth in the order of precedence of City Livery Companies. The Companys motto is, Omnia Subiecisti Sub Pedibus, Oves Et Boves, from the Book of Psalms and Latin for, Thou Hast Put All Things Under Mans Feet, All Sheep, the Companys headquarters is at Butchers Hall. The Butchers has had several halls throughout its history, the first was located in Monkwell Street, the next Hall near St Bartholomews Hospital was destroyed in the Great Fire of London of 1666, together with forty three other Livery Company Halls. Its successor in Pudding Lane was again burnt down, rebuilt in 1829-30, a new Hall was built at the present site in Bartholomew Close, which was bombed in both world wars,1915 and again in 1944. The Companys present Hall dates from 1960, following the Queen Mothers death in March 2002, her granddaughter, HRH the Princess Royal was admitted to the Honorary Freedom of the Company. Like the Queen Mother, the Princess Royal takes a keen interest in Company affairs, the Butchers Hall and St Bartholomews Hospital have also stood side by side for years, forging links that continue to this day. The Butchers also maintains relations with Commonwealth and international associations. For instance, the Australian High Commissioner and New Zealand High Commissioner are customarily granted the Honorary Freedom of the Company, St Bartholomew-the-Great is the Butchers adopted Church, and is where the Companys Annual Church Service takes place prior to Common Hall. The Honorary Chaplain to the Master Butcher is often the Rector of St Barts, Livery Company Smithfield Market St Bartholomew-the-Great The Butchers Company The Arms of Worshipful Company of Butchers
26.
Worshipful Company of Haberdashers
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The Worshipful Company of Haberdashers, one of the Great Twelve City Livery Companies, is an ancient merchant guild of London, England associated with the silk and velvet trades. The Haberdashers Company follows the Mercers Company in precedence, receiving its first Royal Charter in 1448, the formal name under which it is incorporated is The Master and Four Wardens of the Fraternity of the Art or Mystery of Haberdashers in the City of London. As an educational foundation, the Haberdashers Company maintains a tradition of supporting schools. It founded a school in Hoxton in 1690, and following redevelopment of the site, in June 1875, it reopened the school. At the same time, it opened a boys and girls school in Hatcham, the Hoxton Boys School moved to Hampstead, North London, and subsequently to Elstree in 1961 to become the Haberdashers Askes Boys School, Elstree. The Girls School, founded in Hoxton moved to Creffield Road, Acton, opening on 1st November 1989 with 47 Hoxton pupils and 12 new girls, working in a temporary iron building. In September 1974, it opened on its present site in Elstree as Haberdashers Askes School for Girls, in 1990, at Haberdashers School, Monmouth, the Glover Music School was established funded by Dr Jane Glover CBE, sister of the present Master. In keeping with its Christian tradition, the Haberdashers Company continues to present copies of the King James Bible to starters at all its schools, the company owns and takes an interest in the patronage of its eight parish church advowsons. The company is sole trustee of two educational charities, Haberdashers Askes Charity and the William Joness Schools Foundation. The company ranks eighth in the order of precedence of City livery companies and, as such, like other livery companies, it supports the work of the Lord Mayor, the City of London Corporation and the Sheriffs of London. HRH The Earl of Wessex currently serves on the Haberdashers Court of Assistants, the Haberdashers motto is Serve and Obey. The Haberdashers Company moved to its new hall at 18 West Smithfield on 15 April 2002, on 24 October 2002 Queen Elizabeth II was welcomed by the Master Haberdasher, Nicholas Lund, to formally declare its Hall open. On the south side of the property, the company has developed office space opens onto Hosier Lane. Within the hall, its cloisters to the side lead via a circular staircase to the first floor where its Court Room, Committee Room. The reception gallery leads to the hall, which has a high vaulted ceiling and is entirely oak-panelled. There are also offices for staff, facilities for catering staff with storage and cellars below the hall, together with accommodation for the Master. The Clerk to the Haberdashers Company, since 2013, is Commodore Philip Thicknesse RN, and the Revd Canon David Parrott serves as Honorary Chaplain. cityoflondon. gov. uk
27.
Meat market
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A meat market is, traditionally, a marketplace where meat is sold, often by a butcher. It is a wet market. The term is used to refer to a meat retail store or butchers shop. A butcher specializes in the preparation and sale of meat, butchers sometimes operate specialized shops selling meat, known as butchers shops, meat stores, meat markets or butcheries. Meat may also be sold in supermarkets, grocery stores, and fish markets, a slaughterhouse or abattoir is a facility that specializes in killing animals for meat. A meat cutter prepares primal cuts of meat into smaller portions for retail sale, london wholesale meat markets, Leadenhall Market Smithfield Market Melbourne Metropolitan Meat Market Queen Victoria Market Plaza Juan Ponce de León meat market, Puerto Rico The Shambles
28.
Wholesaling
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In general, it is the sale of goods to anyone other than a standard consumer. Wholesalers frequently physically assemble, sort and grade goods in large lots, break bulk, repack, while wholesalers of most products usually operate from independent premises, wholesale marketing for foodstuffs can take place at specific wholesale markets where all traders are congregated. Traditionally, wholesalers were closer to the markets they supplied than the source from which they got the products, however, with the advent of the internet and e-procurement there are an increasing number of wholesalers located nearer to the manufacturers in China, Taiwan, and Southeast Asia. Often, in the United States, wholesalers are not required to charge their buyers sales tax, the alternative to selling wholesale to distributors or retailers is to sell retail either through company owned stores or online. Advantages include receiving a slice of the price paid by the consumer. Top U. S wholesalers according to report in 2012. Cash and carry Distribution Jobbing house Retail Supply chain Supply network B2B
29.
Marketplace
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A market, or marketplace, is a location where people regularly gather for the purchase and sale of provisions, livestock, and other goods. In different parts of the world, a place may be described as a souk, bazaar. Some markets operate on most days, others may be once a week. The term, market comes from the Latin mercatus, the exact phrase was “Ic wille þæt markete beo in þe selue tun, ” which roughly translates as “I want to be at that market in the good town. ”Markets have existed since ancient times. Open air, public markets were known in ancient Babylonia and Assyria and these markets were typically situated in the towns centre where they were surrounded by alleyways occupied by skilled artisans, such as metal-workers and leather workers. These artisans may have sold wares directly from their premises, in ancient Greece markets operated within the agora, and in ancient Rome the forum. In the Graeco-Roman world, the market primarily served the local peasantry. They would sell small surpluses from their farming activities, purchase minor farm equipment. Major producers such as the estates were sufficiently attractive for merchants to call directly at their farm-gates. The very wealthy landowners managed their own distribution, which may have involved exporting, the nature of export markets in antiquity is well documented in ancient sources and archaeological case studies. At Pompeii multiple markets served the population of approximately 12,000, produce markets were located in the vicinity of the Forum, while livestock markets were situated on the citys perimeter, near the amphitheatre. A long narrow building at the north-west corner of the Forum was some type of market, on the opposite corner stood the macellum, thought to have been a meat and fish market. Market stall-holders paid a tax for the right to trade on market days. Some archaeological evidence suggests that markets and street vendors were controlled by local government, a graffito on the outside of a large shop documents a seven-day cycle of markets, Saturn’s day at Pompeii and Nuceria, Sun’s day at Atella and Nola, Moon’s day at Cumae. etc. The presence of an official commercial calendar suggests something of the importance to community life. Markets were also important centres of social life, in early Western Europe, markets developed close to monasteries, castles or royal residences. Priories and aristocratic manorial households created considerable demand for goods and services - both luxuries and necessities and these centres of trade attracted sellers and would stimulate the growth of the town. A charter would protect trading privileges in return for an annual fee, from the 11th and 12th century, the number of markets and fairs burgeoned
30.
Middle Ages
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In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or Medieval Period lasted from the 5th to the 15th century. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and merged into the Renaissance, the Middle Ages is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history, classical antiquity, the medieval period, and the modern period. The medieval period is subdivided into the Early, High. Population decline, counterurbanisation, invasion, and movement of peoples, the large-scale movements of the Migration Period, including various Germanic peoples, formed new kingdoms in what remained of the Western Roman Empire. In the seventh century, North Africa and the Middle East—once part of the Byzantine Empire—came under the rule of the Umayyad Caliphate, although there were substantial changes in society and political structures, the break with classical antiquity was not complete. The still-sizeable Byzantine Empire survived in the east and remained a major power, the empires law code, the Corpus Juris Civilis or Code of Justinian, was rediscovered in Northern Italy in 1070 and became widely admired later in the Middle Ages. In the West, most kingdoms incorporated the few extant Roman institutions, monasteries were founded as campaigns to Christianise pagan Europe continued. The Franks, under the Carolingian dynasty, briefly established the Carolingian Empire during the later 8th, the Crusades, first preached in 1095, were military attempts by Western European Christians to regain control of the Holy Land from Muslims. Kings became the heads of centralised nation states, reducing crime and violence, intellectual life was marked by scholasticism, a philosophy that emphasised joining faith to reason, and by the founding of universities. Controversy, heresy, and the Western Schism within the Catholic Church paralleled the conflict, civil strife. Cultural and technological developments transformed European society, concluding the Late Middle Ages, the Middle Ages is one of the three major periods in the most enduring scheme for analysing European history, classical civilisation, or Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the Modern Period. Medieval writers divided history into periods such as the Six Ages or the Four Empires, when referring to their own times, they spoke of them as being modern. In the 1330s, the humanist and poet Petrarch referred to pre-Christian times as antiqua, leonardo Bruni was the first historian to use tripartite periodisation in his History of the Florentine People. Bruni and later argued that Italy had recovered since Petrarchs time. The Middle Ages first appears in Latin in 1469 as media tempestas or middle season, in early usage, there were many variants, including medium aevum, or middle age, first recorded in 1604, and media saecula, or middle ages, first recorded in 1625. The alternative term medieval derives from medium aevum, tripartite periodisation became standard after the German 17th-century historian Christoph Cellarius divided history into three periods, Ancient, Medieval, and Modern. The most commonly given starting point for the Middle Ages is 476, for Europe as a whole,1500 is often considered to be the end of the Middle Ages, but there is no universally agreed upon end date. English historians often use the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485 to mark the end of the period
31.
St Bartholomew-the-Great
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The Priory Church of St Bartholomew the Great, sometimes abbreviated to Great St Barts, is an Anglican church in West Smithfield within the City of London. The building was founded as an Augustinian priory in 1123 and it adjoins St Bartholomews Hospital of the same foundation. It was founded in 1123 by Rahere, a prebendary of St Pauls Cathedral and his fabled miraculous return to good health contributed to the priory gaining a reputation for curative powers and with sick people filling its aisles, notably on 24 August. Its nave was pulled down up to the last bay but the crossing and choir survive largely intact from the Norman and later Middle Ages, from there to its west door, the church path leads along roughly where the south aisle of the nave formerly existed. Very little trace of its buildings now survive, although parts of the cloister now house a café. The two parish churches were reunited in 2012 under one benefice, having escaped the Great Fire of London of 1666 the church fell into disrepair, becoming occupied by squatters in the 18th century. W. G. Grace, however, was one famous congregant before its restoration in the late 19th century, during Canon Edwin Savages tenure as rector the church was further restored at the cost of more than £60,000. The Lady chapel at the east end had been used for commercial purposes. The north transept was formerly used as a blacksmiths forge in order to make ends meet. The Priory Church was one of the few City churches to escape damage during the Second World War and, in 1941, was where the 11th Duke of Devonshire, the poet and heritage campaigner Sir John Betjeman kept a flat opposite the churchyard on Cloth Fair. Betjeman considered the church to have the finest surviving Norman interior in London, in 2005 a memorial service was held for Sir William Wallace, on the 700th anniversary of the Scottish heros execution, organised by the historian David R. Ross. Charitable distributions in the churchyard on Good Friday continue, the church was designated a Grade I listed building on 4 January 1950. In April 2007 it became the first Anglican parish church to charge a fee to tourists not attending worship. The Rector of the parish of St Bartholomew the Great became rector of the united benefice. The boundary of the new parish incorporates precisely both former parishes, there is now a single PCC and churchwardens responsible for both buildings. The parish church is St Bartholomew the Great, while St Bartholomew the Less is a chapel of ease within the parish. The oriel window was installed inside St Bartholomew the Great in the early 16th century by Prior William Bolton, the symbol in the centre panel is a crossbow bolt passing through a tun, a rebus or pun on the name of the prior. The church served as the chapel of the Imperial Society of Knights Bachelor before the establishment of the permanent chapel in St Pauls Cathedral in 2005
32.
Sir William Wallace
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Sir William Wallace was a Scottish knight who became one of the main leaders during the Wars of Scottish Independence. Along with Andrew Moray, Wallace defeated an English army at the Battle of Stirling Bridge in September 1297 and he was appointed Guardian of Scotland and served until his defeat at the Battle of Falkirk in July 1298. Since his death, Wallace has obtained an iconic status far beyond his homeland and he is the protagonist of Blind Harrys 15th-century epic poem The Wallace and the subject of literary works by Sir Walter Scott and Jane Porter, and of the Academy Award-winning film Braveheart. William Wallace was a member of the nobility, but little is definitely known of his family history or even his parentage. This Alan Wallace may be the same as the one listed in the 1296 Ragman Rolls as a tenant in Ayrshire. However, Williams seal has given rise to a claim of Ellerslie in Ayrshire. There is no evidence linking him with either location, although both areas had connections with the wider Wallace family. Records show early members of the family as holding estates at Riccarton, Tarbolton, and Auchincruive in Kyle and they were vassals of James Stewart, 5th High Steward of Scotland as their lands fell within his territory. Wallaces brothers Malcolm and John are known from other sources, when Wallace was growing up, King Alexander III ruled Scotland. His reign had seen a period of peace and economic stability, on 19 March 1286, however, Alexander died after falling from his horse. The heir to the throne was Alexanders granddaughter, Margaret, Maid of Norway, as she was still a child and in Norway, the Scottish lords set up a government of guardians. Margaret fell ill on the voyage to Scotland and died in Orkney on 26 September 1290, the lack of a clear heir led to a period known as the Great Cause, with several families laying claim to the throne. With Scotland threatening to descend into civil war, King Edward I of England was invited in by the Scottish nobility to arbitrate, before the process could begin, he insisted that all of the contenders recognise him as Lord Paramount of Scotland. In early November 1292, at a great feudal court held in the castle at Berwick-upon-Tweed, Edward proceeded to reverse the rulings of the Scottish Lords and even summoned King John Balliol to stand before the English court as a common plaintiff. John was a king, known as Toom Tabard or Empty Coat. John renounced his homage in March 1296 and by the end of the month Edward stormed Berwick-upon-Tweed, in April, the Scots were defeated at the Battle of Dunbar in East Lothian and by July, Edward had forced John to abdicate. Edward then instructed his officers to receive homage from some 1,800 Scottish nobles. Some historians, such as Andrew Fisher, believe Wallace must have had some military experience in order to lead a successful military campaign in 1297
33.
Wat Tyler
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Walter Wat Tyler was a leader of the 1381 Peasants Revolt in England. He marched a group of rebels from Canterbury to the capital to oppose the institution of a tax and demand economic. While the brief rebellion enjoyed early success, Tyler was killed by officers loyal to King Richard II during negotiations at Smithfield, nothing is known of Wat Tylers early life. Born with the first name Walter, his surname was unknown It is thought that the name Tyler comes from his occupation as a roof tiler. Prior to the Peasants Revolt he lived in Kent, and has been represented as coming from Dartford, Deptford. The Peasants Revolt began in May 1381, triggered by a recently imposed poll tax of 12 pence from every adult, the revolt was not only about money. The peasants also sought increased liberty and other social reforms and they demanded that each labourer be allowed to work for the employer of his choice, and sought an end to serfdom and other rigid social demarcation. There were uprisings across England, with much of the unrest focused on Essex, the uprising represented a significant part of English society in those regions, including nobility and wealthy religious establishments. Many were inspired by the teachings of John Ball, a radical priest who preached that all humans should be treated equally, as descendants of Adam and Eve. How Wat Tyler became involved with the revolt is unknown, although a much later sixteenth-century source indicates that a man of similar name and this account suggests that a poll-tax collector had indecently assaulted John Tylers daughter. In revenge he killed the miscreant and triggered the insurgency, whatever the basis of that story, by June 1381, when groups of rebels from across the country began a coordinated assault on London, Wat Tyler had emerged as a leader of the Kentish forces. On 13 June, the reached the capital and crossed London Bridge. Once in the city, they attacked civil targets, destroying legal records, opening prisons, sacking homes, and killing individuals they thought were associated with the royal government. In response, the king, Richard II, met with the rebels on 14 June 1381 and agreed to make many concessions, while some of the rebels were satisfied by the kings promises and dispersed, Tyler and his followers were not. On 15 June 1381, Tyler and his Kentish forces met with King Richard at Smithfield, there, Tyler spoke personally with the king and put forward his demands. At first, the meeting seems to have gone well, with Tyler treating the king in a friendly, if overly-familiar, manner, sir John Newton insulted Tyler by calling him the greatest thief and robber in all Kent. Tyler attacked Newton, but was restrained and arrested by the Lord Mayor of London, Tyler then attempted to stab the mayor, who was saved by his armour. Walworth slashed his attacker across the neck and head with his sword, Tyler managed to ride thirty yards before he fell from his horse
34.
Peasants' Revolt
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The Peasants Revolt, also called Wat Tylers Rebellion or the Great Rising, was a major uprising across large parts of England in 1381. The final trigger for the revolt was the intervention of an official, John Bampton. His attempts to collect unpaid taxes in Brentwood ended in a violent confrontation. A wide spectrum of society, including many local artisans and village officials, rose up in protest, burning court records. The rebels sought a reduction in taxation, an end to the system of unfree labour known as serfdom, inspired by the sermons of the radical cleric John Ball, and led by Wat Tyler, a contingent of Kentish rebels advanced on London. They were met at Blackheath by representatives of the royal government, King Richard II, then aged 14, retreated to the safety of the Tower of London, but most of the royal forces were abroad or in northern England. The following day, Richard met the rebels at Mile End and acceded to most of their demands, meanwhile, rebels entered the Tower of London, killing the Lord Chancellor and the Lord High Treasurer, whom they found inside. On 15 June, Richard left the city to meet with Tyler, violence broke out, and Richards party killed Tyler. Richard defused the situation long enough for Londons mayor, William Walworth, to gather a militia from the city. Richard immediately began to order in London and rescinded his previous grants to the rebels. The revolt had spread into East Anglia, where the University of Cambridge was attacked. Unrest continued until the intervention of Henry le Despenser, who defeated an army at the Battle of North Walsham on 25 or 26 June. Troubles extended north to York, Beverley and Scarborough, and as far west as Bridgwater in Somerset, Richard mobilised 4,000 soldiers to restore order. Most of the leaders were tracked down and executed, by November. The Peasants Revolt has been studied by academics. Interpretations of the revolt have shifted over the years and it was once seen as a defining moment in English history, but modern academics are less certain of its impact on subsequent social and economic history. The revolt heavily influenced the course of the Hundred Years War, the Peasants Revolt was fed by the economic and social upheaval of the 14th century. Across much of England, production was organised around manors, controlled by local lords – including the gentry, population growth led to pressure on the available agricultural land, increasing the power of local landowners
35.
Listed building
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A listed building or listed structure, in the United Kingdom, is one that has been placed on the Statutory List of Buildings of Special Architectural or Historic Interest. The statutory bodies maintaining the list are Historic England in England, Cadw in Wales, Historic Scotland in Scotland, however, the preferred term in Ireland is protected structure. In England and Wales, an amenity society must be notified of any work to a listed building which involves any element of demolition. Owners of listed buildings are, in circumstances, compelled to repair and maintain them. When alterations are permitted, or when listed buildings are repaired or maintained, slightly different systems operate in each area of the United Kingdom, though the basic principles of the listing remain the same. It was the damage to caused by German bombing during World War II that prompted the first listing of buildings that were deemed to be of particular architectural merit. The listings were used as a means of determining whether a building should be rebuilt if it was damaged by bombing. Listing was first introduced into Northern Ireland under the Planning Order 1972, the listing process has since developed slightly differently in each part of the UK. In the UK, the process of protecting the historic environment is called ‘designation’. A heritage asset is a part of the environment that is valued because of its historic. Only some of these are judged to be important enough to have legal protection through designation. However, buildings that are not formally listed but still judged as being of heritage interest are still regarded as being a consideration in the planning process. Almost anything can be listed – it does not have to be a building, Buildings and structures of special historic interest come in a wide variety of forms and types, ranging from telephone boxes and road signs, to castles. Historic England has created twenty broad categories of structures, and published selection guides for each one to aid with assessing buildings and these include historical overviews and describe the special considerations for listing each category. Both Historic Scotland and Cadw produce guidance for owners, in England, to have a building considered for listing or delisting, the process is to apply to the secretary of state, this can be done by submitting an application form online to Historic England. The applicant does not need to be the owner of the building to apply for it to be listed, full information including application form guidance notes are on the Historic England website. Historic England assesses buildings put forward for listing or delisting and provides advice to the Secretary of State on the architectural, the Secretary of State, who may seek additional advice from others, then decides whether or not to list or delist the building. In England and Wales the authority for listing is granted to the Secretary of State by the Planning Act 1990, Listed buildings in danger of decay are listed on the Historic England Heritage at Risk Register
36.
Horace Jones (architect)
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Sir Horace Jones was an English architect particularly noted for his work as Architect and Surveyor to the City of London from 1864 until his death. He served as president of the Royal Institute of British Architects from 1882 until 1884 and his most recognised work, Tower Bridge, was completed posthumously. The son of David Jones, attorney, by Sarah Lydia Shephard, Jones was born at 15 Size Lane, Bucklersbury and he was articled to John Wallen, architect and surveyor, of 16 Aldermanbury, and subsequently in 1841-42 travelled to Italy and Greece studying ancient architecture. In 1843 he commenced practice as an architect at 16 Furnivals Inn, beginning with Cardiff Town Hall and Caversham Park, he designed and carried out many buildings of importance, soon concentrating on London. He was surveyor for the Duke of Buckinghams Tufnell Park estate, for the Barnard estate, on 26 February 1864 he was elected architect and surveyor to the City of London, succeeding James Bunstone Bunning. Jones completed projects begun by his predecessor, such as the City Lunatic Asylum at Dartford and he designed and built some of Londons most famous markets, in particular Smithfield, Billingsgate and Leadenhall. He also designed the memorial at Temple Bar, replacing Wrens arch which was a traffic obstacle. Jones final legacy is one of the most recognised buildings in the world and it was designed in collaboration with the civil engineer John Wolfe Barry, who was brought in as an expert to devise the mechanism for the bascule bridge. Following Jones death during the stages of construction, the execution lay in the hands of Barry. Jones became an associate of the Royal Institute of British Architects in 1842 and he was knighted on On 30 July 1886. He wasa freemason, and from 1882 until his death was Grand Superintendent of Works, Jones married Ann Elizabeth Patch, the daughter of John Patch, a barrister, on 15 April 1875. He died at 30 Devonshire Place, Portland Place, London, on 21 May 1887, a portrait of Jones by Walter William Ouless RA was exhibited at the Royal Academy Exhibition in 1887. All in London unless otherwise stated, marshall & Snelgroves department store, Oxford Street, 1850s. British and Irish Magnetic Telegraph Companys office, Threadneedle Street,1859, a contemporary account refers to the buildings rather fanciful, and very ornate French Renaiassance facade, crowned by a lofty clock-tower. Built in three stages, Central Meat Market, 1866–67, Poultry and Provision Market, 1873–5, Fruit and Vegetable Market, former Guildhall School of Music and Drama, John Carpenter Street, completed in 1886. Tower Bridge, approved design 1884, construction by John Wolfe Barry 1886-94, Jones stonework in the Baronial Style, supposed to be in harmony with the nearby Tower of London, is pure facade which disguises the thoroughly modern metal structure underneath. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Jones. Valerie Scott, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography,2004 Sir Horace Jones, biography at the Tower Bridge Restoration website
37.
City of London Corporation
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In 2006 the name was changed from Corporation of London to avoid confusion with the wider London local government, the Greater London Authority. The Corporation is probably the worlds oldest continuously-elected local government authority, the corporations structure includes the Lord Mayor, the Court of Aldermen, the Court of Common Council, and the Freemen and Livery of the City. In Anglo-Saxon times, consultation between the Citys rulers and its citizens took place at the Folkmoot, administration and judicial processes were conducted at the Court of Husting and the non-legal part of the courts work evolved into the Court of Aldermen. Numerous subsequent Royal Charters over the centuries confirmed and extended the citizens rights, around 1189, the City gained the right to have its own mayor, later being advanced to the degree and style of Lord Mayor of London. The individual commissioners were nominated by the Corporation, but it was a separate body. Local government legislation often makes special provision for the City to be treated as a London borough, the Chief Executive of the administrative side of the Corporation holds the ancient office of Town Clerk of London. The Chamberlain, the City Treasurer and Finance Officer, the City Remembrancer, who is responsible for protocol, ceremonial, security issues as well as legislative matters that may affect the Corporation and is legally qualified. The Comptroller and City Solicitor, legal officer. e, former Lord Mayors, and the junior Aldermen. The Common Serjeant, the senior judge at the Central Criminal Court Old Bailey. C) The Ward Beadles, responsible to a specific Ward from which they are elected, largely ceremonial support to their respective Aldermen, and also perform a formal role at Ward Motes. In 1801, the City had a population of about 130,000 and it has risen slightly to around 9,000 since, largely due to the development of the Barbican Estate. As it has not been affected by other municipal legislation over the period of time since then, therefore, the non-residential vote, abolished in the rest of the country in 1969, became an increasingly large part of the electorate. The non-residential vote system used disfavoured incorporated companies, the City of London Act 2002 greatly increased the business franchise, allowing many more businesses to be represented. In 2009, the vote was about 24,000. Each body or organisation, whether unincorporated or incorporated, whose premises are within the City of London may appoint a number of based on the number of workers it employs. Limited liability partnerships fall into this category, though workers count as part of a workforce regardless of nationality, only certain individuals may be appointed as voters. The City of London is divided into twenty-five Wards, each of which is a division, electing one Alderman. The numbers below reflect the changes caused by the City of London Act, there are over one hundred livery companies in London
38.
Urban planning
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Urban planning is also referred to as urban and regional planning, regional planning, town planning, city planning, rural planning or some combination in various areas worldwide. It takes many forms and it can share perspectives and practices with urban design, urban planning guides orderly development in urban, suburban and rural areas. Practitioners of urban planning are concerned with research and analysis, strategic thinking, architecture, urban design, public consultation, policy recommendations, implementation and management. Urban planners work with the fields of architecture, landscape architecture, civil engineering. Early urban planners were often members of these cognate fields, today urban planning is a separate, independent professional discipline. The discipline is the category that includes different sub-fields such as land-use planning, zoning, economic development, environmental planning. There is evidence of planning and designed communities dating back to the Mesopotamian, Indus Valley, Minoan. Archeologists studying the ruins of cities in these areas find paved streets that were out at right angles in a grid pattern. The idea of a planned out urban area evolved as different civilizations adopted it, beginning in the 8th century BCE, Greek city states were primarily centered on orthogonal plans. The ancient Romans, inspired by the Greeks, also used orthogonal plans for their cities, city planning in the Roman world was developed for military defense and public convenience. The spread of the Roman Empire subsequently spread the ideas of urban planning, as the Roman Empire declined, these ideas slowly disappeared. However, many cities in Europe still held onto the planned Roman city center, cities in Europe from the 9th to 14th centuries, often grew organically and sometimes chaotically. But many hundreds of new towns were built according to preconceived plans. Most of these were realized from the 12th to 14th centuries, from the 15th century on, much more is recorded of urban design and the people that were involved. In this period, theoretical treatises on architecture and urban planning start to appear in which questions are addressed and designs of towns. During the Enlightenment period, several European rulers ambitiously attempted to redesign capital cities, during the Second French Republic, Baron Georges-Eugène Haussmann, under the direction of Napoleon III, redesigned the city of Paris into a more modern capital, with long, straight, wide boulevards. Planning and architecture went through a shift at the turn of the 20th century. The industrialized cities of the 19th century grew at a tremendous rate, the pace and style of this industrial construction was largely dictated by the concerns of private business
39.
Woodcut map of London
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The Woodcut map of London, formally titled Civitas Londinum, and often referred to as the Agas map of London, is one of the earliest true maps of the City of London and its environs. The original map probably dated from the early 1560s, but it only in later. It was printed from woodcut blocks on eight sheets, and in its present state measures approximately 2 feet 4 inches high by 6 feet wide. The Woodcut map is a slightly smaller-scale, cruder and lightly modified copy of the so-called Copperplate map, the Woodcut map was traditionally attributed to the surveyor and cartographer Ralph Agas, but this attribution is no longer upheld. Three impressions of the Woodcut map survive in its earliest known state of c.1633 and they are held in London Metropolitan Archives, the Pepys Library at Magdalene College, Cambridge, and The National Archives at Kew. The three early copies of the map are dated by an inscription to c.1633, however, it is evident that the map in this form has been updated from an earlier state. Similarly, the Royal Exchange appears on the map, but is clearly an insertion. The Woodcut map is now dated with a reasonable degree of probability to the 1560s. A reference in the Stationers Register for 1562–3 to the Carde of London may possibly refer to it. It is therefore closer to a view of the City, seen from an imaginary viewpoint above the south bank of the Thames. Stephen Powys Marks suggests that this adjustment may be an indication of an appeal to a sophisticated public than that which would buy the fine copper engraving. The Woodcut map was traditionally attributed to the surveyor and cartographer Ralph Agas and this attribution has its roots in a claim made by Agas in 1588 to the effect that for ten years past he had been hoping to undertake a survey of London. Nevertheless, the map is often referred to as the Agas map. Reproductions of the map have been published on several occasions in modern times, an edition based on the pewter copy was published by Taperell & Innes in 1849. A facsimile of the Woodcut map was published in 1874, with an introduction by W. H. Overall. A zoomable online digitised version is published by British History Online, the Map of Mid Sixteenth Century London. Prockter, Adrian, Taylor, Robert, Fisher, John, the A to Z of Elizabethan London. Tudor London, a map and a view, Map of Early Modern London, The Agas Map
40.
Pasture
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Pasture is land used for grazing. Pasture lands in the narrow sense are enclosed tracts of farmland, grazed by domesticated livestock, such as horses, cattle, the vegetation of tended pasture, forage, consists mainly of grasses, with an interspersion of legumes and other forbs. Pasture is typically grazed throughout the summer, in contrast to meadow which is ungrazed or used for grazing only after being mown to make hay for animal fodder. Pasture in a wider sense additionally includes rangelands, other unenclosed pastoral systems, soil type, minimum annual temperature, and rainfall are important factors in pasture management. Sheepwalk is an area of grassland where sheep can roam freely, the productivity of sheepwalk is measured by the number of sheep per area. This is dependent, among other things, on the underlying rock, sheepwalk is also the name of townlands in County Roscommon, Ireland and County Fermanagh, Northern Ireland. Unless factory farming, which entails in its most intensive form entirely trough-feeding, in more humid regions, pasture grazing is managed across a large global area for free range and organic farming. Grassland Heathland Machair Maquis Moorland Potrero Prairie Rangeland Rough pasture Savanna Steppe Wood pasture Veld Transhumance
41.
London Wall
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It is now the name of a road in the City of London running along part of the course of the old wall between Wormwood Street and the Rotunda junction where St. Martins Le Grand meets Aldersgate Street. Until the later Middle Ages the wall defined the boundaries of the City of London, although the exact reason for the walls construction is unknown, the wall appears to have been built in the late 2nd or early 3rd century. This was around 80 years after the construction in 120AD of the fort, whose north. It continued to be developed until at least the end of the 4th century, reasons for its construction may have been connected to the invasion of northern Britain by Picts who overran Hadrians Wall in the 180s. After a struggle with his rival, Septimius Severus, Albinus was defeated in 197AD at the Battle of Lugdunum, the economic stimulus provided by the wall and Septimiuss subsequent campaigns in Scotland improved Londiniums financial prosperity in the early 3rd century. The walls gateways coincided with their alignment to the British network of Roman roads, the original gates, clockwise from Ludgate in the west to Aldgate, in the east were, Ludgate, Newgate, Cripplegate, Bishopsgate and Aldgate. Aldersgate, between Newgate and Cripplegate, was added around 350AD, the length and size of the wall made it one of the biggest construction projects in Roman Britain. The completed wall, which had gateways, towers and defensive ditches, was built from Kentish ragstone and it was 2 mi long enclosing an area of about 330 acres. It 2.5 m to 3 m wide and up to 6 m ) high, the ditch or fossa in front of the outer wall was 2 m deep and up to 5 m wide. There were at least 22 towers spaced about 64 m apart on the section of the wall. After Londinium was raided on several occasions by Saxon pirates in the late 3rd century, with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, Londinium ceased to be the capital of Britannia although Romano-British culture continued in the St Martin-in-the-Fields area until around 450. From around 500, an Anglo-Saxon settlement known as Lundenwic developed in the area slightly to the west of the old abandoned Roman city. But by about 680, London had revived sufficiently to become a major Saxon port, however, the upkeep of the wall was not maintained and London fell victim to two successful Viking assaults in 851 and 886 AD. Within the eastern and northern part of England with its boundary roughly stretching from London to Chester, in the same year, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle recorded that London was refounded by Alfred. Archaeological research shows that this abandonment of Lundenwic and a revival of life. This was part Alberts policy of building an in-depth defence of the Kingdom of Wessex against the Vikings as well as creating a strategy against the Vikings who controlled Mercia. The Burghal Hidage of Southwark was also was created on the southbank of the River Thames during this time, the city walls of London were repaired as the city slowly grew until about 950 when urban activity increased dramatically. A large Viking army that attacked the London burgh was defeated in 994, by the 11th century, London was beyond all comparison the largest town in England
42.
River Fleet
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The River Fleet is the largest of Londons subterranean rivers. Its headwaters are two streams on Hampstead Heath, each of which was dammed into a series of ponds, the Hampstead Ponds, at the southern edge of Hampstead Heath these descend underground as sewers and join in Camden Town. The waters flow 4 mi from the ponds to the River Thames, the river gives its name to Fleet Street, the eastern end of which is at what was historically the crossing over the river known as Fleet Bridge, and is now the site of Ludgate Circus. The Fleet arises on Hampstead Heath as two sources, which flow on the surface as the Hampstead Ponds and the Highgate Ponds. Then they go underground, pass under Kentish Town, join in Camden Town, Kings Cross was originally named Battle Bridge, referring to an ancient bridge over the Fleet where Boudicas army is said to have fought an important battle against the Romans. The river then flows down Farringdon Road and Farringdon Street, the rivers name is derived from the Anglo-Saxon flēot tidal inlet. In Anglo-Saxon times, the Fleet served as a dock for shipping, the higher reaches of the river were known as the Holbourne, whence Holborn derived its name. The river gives its name to Fleet Street which runs from Ludgate Circus to Temple Bar at the Strand, in the 1970s, a London Underground tube line was planned to lie under the line of Fleet Street, provisionally named the Fleet line. However, it was renamed the Jubilee line in 1977, and plans for the part of the route though the City subsequently abandoned, in Roman times, the Fleet was a major river, with its estuary possibly containing the oldest tidal mill in the world. In Anglo-Saxon times, the Fleet was still a body of water. Many wells were built along its banks, and some on springs and St Brides Well, were reputed to have healing qualities, the small lane at the south-west end of New Bridge Street is called Watergate because it was the river entrance to Bridewell Palace. By the 13th century, it was considered polluted, and the area characterised by poor-quality housing, the flow of the river was reduced greatly by increasing industry. As London grew, the river became increasingly a sewer, following the Great Fire of London in 1666, Christopher Wrens proposal for widening the river was rejected. Rather, the Fleet was converted into the New Canal, completed in 1680 under the supervision of Robert Hooke, newcastle Close and Old Seacoal Lane recall the wharves that used to line this canal, especially used by the coastal coal trade from the North East of England. The upper canal, unpopular and unused, was from 1737 enclosed between Holborn and Ludgate Circus to form the Fleet Market. The lower part, the section from Ludgate Circus to the Thames, had been covered by 1769 for the opening of the new Blackfriars Bridge and was consequently named New Bridge Street. The development of the Regents Canal and urban growth covered the river in Kings Cross and Camden from 1812. The Fleet, or rather the sewer that now follows its route, can be heard through a grating in Ray Street, Clerkenwell in front of the Coach and Horses pub, just off Farringdon Road
43.
Grazing
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Grazing is a method of feeding in which a herbivore feeds on plants such as grasses, or other multicellular organisms such as algae. In agriculture, grazing is one method used whereby domestic livestock are used to convert grass and other forage into meat, milk, many small selective herbivores follow larger grazers, who skim off the highest, tough growth of plants, exposing tender shoots. For terrestrial animals, grazing is normally distinguished from browsing in that grazing is eating grass or forbs, Grazing differs from true predation because the organism being grazed upon is not generally killed. Grazing differs from parasitism as the two live together in a constant state of physical externality. Water animals that feed for example on algae found on stones are called grazers-scrapers, grazers-scrapers feed also on microorganisms and dead organic matter on various substrates. Grazing is a method of feeding in which a herbivore feeds on such as grasses. In zoology, graminivory is a form of grazing, a graminivore is an herbivorous animal that feeds primarily on grass. The word is derived from Latin graminis, meaning grass, and vorare, horses, cattle, capybara, hippopotamuses, grasshoppers, geese, and giant pandas are examples of graminivores. Some carnivores, such as dogs and cats, are known to eat grass occasionally, giant pandas have evolved to be obligate bamboo grazers, and 99% of their diet consists of sub-alpine bamboo species. Rabbits are herbivores that feed by grazing on grass, forbs and they graze heavily and rapidly for about the first half-hour of a grazing period, followed by about half an hour of more selective feeding. If the environment is relatively non-threatening, the rabbit will remain outdoors for many hours and their diet contains large amounts of cellulose, which is hard to digest. Rabbits solve this problem by using a form of hindgut fermentation and they pass two distinct types of feces, hard droppings and soft black viscous pellets, the latter of which are known as caecotrophs and are immediately eaten. Rabbits reingest their own droppings to digest their food further and extract sufficient nutrients, capybara are herbivores that graze mainly on grasses and aquatic plants, as well as fruit and tree bark. As with other grazers, they can be selective and will feed on the leaves of one species. They eat a variety of plants during the dry season. While they eat grass during the wet season, they have to switch to more abundant reeds during the dry season, the capybaras jaw hinge is not perpendicular and therefore they chew food by grinding back-and-forth rather than side-to-side. Capybara are coprophagous, as a source of gut flora, to help digest the cellulose in the grass that forms their normal diet. They may also regurgitate food to masticate again, similar to cud-chewing by a cow, as with other rodents, the front teeth of capybara grow continually to compensate for the constant wear from eating grasses, their cheek teeth also grow continuously
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Water supply
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Water supply is the provision of water by public utilities commercial organisations, community endeavors or by individuals, usually via a system of pumps and pipes. However, about 14% did not have access to a water source and had to use unprotected wells or springs, canals. A clean water supply - in particular water that is not polluted with fecal matter from lack of sanitation - is the single most important determinant of public health. Destruction of water supply and/or sanitation infrastructure after major catastrophes poses the threat of severe epidemics of waterborne diseases. Water supply systems get water from a variety of locations after appropriate treatment, including groundwater, surface water, the water treatment steps include, in most cases, purification, disinfection through chlorination and sometimes fluoridation. Treated water then flows by gravity or is pumped to reservoirs. In the U. S, the single family home uses about 69.3 gallons of water per day. This includes toilet use, washing machine use, showers, baths, tap use, many of the 3.5 billion people having access to piped water receive a poor or very poor quality of service, especially in developing countries where about 80% of the world population lives. Water supply service quality has many dimensions, continuity, water quality, pressure, and it is estimated that about half of the population of developing countries receives water on an intermittent basis. Drinking water quality has a micro-biological and a physico-chemical dimension, there are thousands of parameters of water quality. For more details, please see the entries on water quality, water treatment. Water pressures vary in different locations of a distribution system, Water mains below the street may operate at higher pressures, with a pressure reducer located at each point where the water enters a building or a house. In poorly managed systems, water pressure can be so low as to only in a trickle of water or so high that it leads to damage to plumbing fixtures. Typical UK pressures are 4–5 bar for an urban supply, however, some people can get over eight bars or below one bar. A single iron main pipe may cross a valley, it will have the same nominal pressure. So people at the bottom of a 100-foot hill will get about 3 bars more than those at the top, the effective pressure also varies because of the pressure loss due to supply resistance even for the same static pressure. An urban consumer may have 5 metres of 15 mm pipe running from the main, so the kitchen tap flow will be fairly unrestricted. A rural consumer may have a kilometre of rusted and limed 22 mm iron pipe, for this reason, the UK domestic water system has traditionally employed a cistern feed system, where the incoming supply is connected to the kitchen sink and also a header/storage tank in the attic
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