1.
Montreal-style smoked meat
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Montreal-style smoked meat, Montreal smoked meat or simply smoked meat in Montreal, is a type of kosher-style deli meat product made by salting and curing beef brisket with spices. The brisket is allowed to absorb the flavours over a week, and is then hot smoked to cook through, the recipe for Montreal steak seasoning is based on the seasoning mixture for Montreal smoked meat. Montreal smoked meat is made with brisket, whereas pastrami is more commonly made with the fat-marbled navel/plate cut. Montreal smoked meat is served in the form of a light-rye bread sandwich accompanied with yellow mustard. While some Montreal smoked meat is brine-cured like corned beef, with spices applied later, many smoked meat establishments prefer dry-curing directly with salt, the origins of Montreal smoked meat are uncertain and likely unresolvable. However, many have laid claims to the creation or introduction of smoked meat into Montreal, according to the Kravitz family, he used a brisket-curing method he recalled being practiced by Lithuanian farmers. His first smoked meat sandwiches were made and sold from his wifes fruit, in another claim by Bill Brownstein, the smoked meat was brought over in 1902 by Itzak Rudman, who was an accomplished salami and smoked meat maker who had a shop on de Bullion Street. Warm Montreal smoked meat is sliced by hand to maintain its form. Whole briskets are kept steaming and sliced up on demand when ordered in the restaurant to maintain its temperature, the meat should be around 3 mm thick, cut slightly on a bias, and across the grain of the brisket. Even when hand-cut, Montreal smoked meat produces a lot of broken bits when sliced and these pieces are gathered together and commonly served with French fries, cheese curds, and gravy as smoked meat poutine or served over spaghetti with bolognese sauce or even pizza. Montreal-style smoked meat sandwiches are built with seedless rye bread and piled with hand-sliced smoked meat about 2 inches high with yellow prepared mustard, the customer can specify the amount of fat in the smoked meat, Lean, The lean and less flavourful end. Medium and medium fat, The most popular cuts from the middle of the brisket, occasionally, a sliced mix of lean and fat meats. Old-Fashioned, A cut between Medium and Fatty and often cut a bit thicker, fat, From the fat end of the brisket. Fires the fat taste receptors, but may be an acquired taste, speck, Consists solely of the spiced subcutaneous fat from the whole brisket without meat. Schwartzs, one of the most popular Montreal delis, is considered a pot for Montreal where all cultures converge. Current and former residents and tourists make a point of visiting Montreals best-known smoked meat establishments, despite the foods origins in, and association with, Montreals Jewish community, and contrary to what is sometimes asserted, these delis are not certified as kosher. Montreal smoked meat is offered in many diners and fast food restaurant chains throughout Montreal, Quebec, most restaurant chains and delis deals with meat processing plants for the preparation of beef briskets. The largest processing plant specializing in smoked meat located on the island of Montreal is Levitts Foods in LaSalle
2.
Chum salmon
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The chum salmon is a species of anadromous fish in the salmon family. It is a Pacific salmon, and may also be known as dog salmon or keta salmon, the name chum salmon comes from the Chinook Jargon term tzum, meaning spotted or marked, while keta in the scientific name comes from the Evenki language of Eastern Siberia via Russian. The body of the salmon is deeper than most salmonid species. In common with species found in the Pacific, the anal fin has 12 to 20 rays. Chum have a coloration of silvery blue green with some indistinct spotting in a darker shade. When they move into fresh water the color changes to olive green. When adults are near spawning, they have purple blotchy streaks near the caudal peduncle, spawning males typically grow an elongated snout or kype, their lower fins become tipped with white and they have enlarged teeth. Some researchers speculate these characteristics are used to compete for mates, most chum salmon spawn in small streams and intertidal zones. Some chum travel more than 3,200 km up the Yukon River, Chum fry migrate out to sea from March through July, almost immediately after becoming free swimmers. They spend one to three years traveling very long distances in the ocean and these are the last salmon to spawn in some regions. In Alaska they are the first to spawn in June and August and are followed by pink. They die about two weeks after they return to the freshwater to spawn, the female lays eggs in the redd, the male sprays milt on the eggs, and the female covers the eggs with gravel. The female can lay up to 4000 eggs, Chum live for an average of 3 to 4 years, and chum in Alaska mature at the age of 4 years. Adult chum usually weigh from 4.4 to 10.0 kg with a length of 60 cm. The record for chum is 19 kg and 112 cm and was caught at Edie Pass in British Columbia. Chum salmon have the largest natural range of any Pacific salmon, in lesser numbers they migrate thousands of kilometres up the Mackenzie River. Chum are found around the north Pacific, in the waters of Korea, Japan, and the Okhotsk and Bering seas, British Columbia in Canada, in Arctic Ocean they are found in limited numbers from the Laptev Sea to the Beaufort Sea. Juvenile chum eat zooplankton and insects, recent studies show that they also eat comb jellies
3.
Seasoning
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Seasoning is the process of adding salt, herbs, or spices to food to enhance the flavor. Seasonings include herbs and spices, which are frequently referred to as seasonings. However, Larousse Gastronomique states that to season and to flavour are not the thing, insisting that seasoning includes a large or small amount of salt being added to a preparation. Salt may be used to draw out water, or to magnify a natural flavor of a food making it richer or more delicate and this type of procedure is akin to curing. For instance, sea salt is rubbed into chicken, lamb, other seasonings like black pepper and basil transfer some of their flavor to the food. A well designed dish may combine seasonings that complement each other, in addition to the choice of herbs and seasoning, the timing of when flavors are added will affect the food that is being cooked. In some cultures, meat may be seasoned by pouring sauce over the dish at the table, a variety of seasoning techniques exist in various cultures. Infused oils are used for seasoning. There are two methods for doing an infusion—hot and cold, olive oil makes a good infusion base for some herbs, but tends to go rancid more quickly than other oils. Infused oils should be kept refrigerated, in Le Guide culinaire, Auguste Escoffier divides seasoning and condiments into the following groups, Saline seasonings—Salt, spiced salt, saltpeter. Acid seasonings—Plain vinegar, or same aromatized with tarragon, verjuice, lemon, hot seasonings—Peppercorns, ground or coarsely chopped pepper, or mignonette pepper, paprika, curry, cayenne, and mixed pepper spices. The pungents—onions, shallots, garlic, chives, and horseradish, fatty substances—Most animal fats, butter, vegetable greases. Condiment Flavor List of culinary herbs and spices List of spice mixes Popcorn seasoning
4.
Food preservation
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Food preservation is to prevent the growth of bacteria, fungi, or other micro-organisms, as well as slowing the oxidation of fats that cause rancidity. Food preservation may also include processes that inhibit visual deterioration, such as the enzymatic browning reaction in apples after they are cut during food preparation, many processes designed to preserve food involve more than one food preservation method. Preserving fruit by turning it into jam, for example, involves boiling, sugaring and sealing within an airtight jar, some traditional methods of preserving food have been shown to have a lower energy input and carbon footprint, when compared to modern methods. Some methods of preservation are known to create carcinogens. Maintaining or creating nutritional value, texture and flavor is an important aspect of food preservation, new techniques of food preservation became available to the home chef from the dawn of agriculture until the Industrial Revolution. Drying is one of the oldest techniques used to hamper the decomposition of food products, as early as 12,000 BC, Middle Eastern and Oriental cultures were drying foods using the power of the sun. Vegetables and fruits are dried by the sun and wind. A fire would be built inside the building to provide the heat to dry the various fruits, vegetables, cooling preserves food by slowing down the growth and reproduction of microorganisms and the action of enzymes that causes the food to rot. Before the era of mechanical refrigeration, cooling for food storage occurred in the forms of root cellars, rural people often did their own ice cutting, whereas town and city dwellers often relied on the ice trade. For example, potato waffles are stored in the freezer, cold stores provide large-volume, long-term storage for strategic food stocks held in case of national emergency in many countries. Boiling liquid food items can kill any existing microbes, milk and water are often boiled to kill any harmful microbes that may be present in them. Heating to temperatures which are sufficient to kill microorganisms inside the food is a method used with perpetual stews, milk is also boiled before storing to kill many microorganisms. Salting or curing draws moisture from a substance by osmosis, substances are cured with salt, sugar or a combination of the two. Nitrates and nitrites are often used to cure meat and contribute the characteristic pink colour. It was a method of preservation in medieval times and around the 1700s. The earliest cultures have used sugar as a preservative, and it was commonplace to store fruit in honey, similar to pickled foods, sugar cane was brought to Europe through the trade routes. In northern climates without sufficient sun to dry foods, preserves are made by heating the fruit with sugar, sugar tends to draw water from the microbes. This process leaves the microbial cells dehydrated, thus killing them, in this way, the food will remain safe from microbial spoilage
5.
Lapsang souchong
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Lapsang souchong is a black tea originally from the Wuyi region of the Chinese province of Fujian. It is more commonly named 正山小种 in Simplified Chinese characters and 正山小種 in traditional Chinese characters and it is sometimes referred to as smoked tea. Lapsang is distinct from all types of tea because lapsang leaves are traditionally smoke-dried over pinewood fires. Xiǎozhǒng or Siu2 zung2 means sub-variety, Lapsang souchong is a member of the Bohea family of teas though not an oolong, as are most Bohea teas. Lapsang souchong from the source is increasingly expensive, as Wuyi is a small area. The story goes that the tea was created during the Qing era when the passage of armies delayed the annual drying of the tea leaves in the Wuyi Mountain. Eager to satisfy demand, the tea producers sped up the process by getting their workers to dry the leaves over fires made from local pines. According to some sources, Lapsang souchong is the first black tea in history, after the lapsang souchong tea was used for producing black tea called Min Hong, people started to move the tea bush to different places, such as Keemun, India and Ceylon. Souchong refers to the fourth and fifth leaves of the tea plant and these leaves are coarser than the leaves closer to the bud and have fewer aromatic compounds. Smoking provides a way to create a product from these less desirable leaves. The leaves are roasted in a bamboo called a honglong, which is heated over burning firewood. Pinewood is used as the firewood for lapsang souchong and contains the characteristic resin aroma, the aroma of lapsang souchong is derived from a variety of chemical compounds. The two most abundant constituents of the aroma are longifolene and α-terpineol, many of the compounds making up the aroma of lapsang souchong, including longifolene, originate only in the pine smoke and are not found in other kinds of tea. Lapsang souchongs flavours include dried longan, pine smoke and whiskey, tea merchants marketing to Westerners note that this variety of tea generally produces a strong reaction, with most online reviews extremely positive or strongly negative. Tea connoisseurs often note that Taiwanese lapsang souchong typically has a flavour and aroma. It is common for even rather strongly brewed Lapsang Souchong tea to lack the bitterness common with other tea varieties, Lapsang souchong has a high reputation outside China, it is viewed as tea for Westerners inside China. It was drunk by Winston Churchill, who referred to it in Mountains and Rivers Without End, but not as much as buttermilk
6.
Tea
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Tea is an aromatic beverage commonly prepared by pouring hot or boiling water over cured leaves of the Camellia sinensis, an evergreen shrub native to Asia. After water, it is the most widely consumed drink in the world, Tea originated in Southwest China, where it was used as a medicinal drink. It was popularized as a drink during the Chinese Tang dynasty. Portuguese priests and merchants introduced it to Europe during the 16th century, during the 17th century, drinking tea became fashionable among Britons, who started large-scale production and commercialization of the plant in India to bypass the Chinese monopoly. The term herbal tea usually refers to infusions of fruit or herbs made without the tea plant, such as steeps of rosehip, chamomile and these are sometimes called tisanes or herbal infusions to prevent confusion with tea made from the tea plant. The tea industry often uses the term fruit tea to refer to what are in fact fruit-flavored black teas. The Chinese character for tea is 茶, originally written with a stroke as 荼. The word is pronounced differently in the different varieties of Chinese, such as chá in Mandarin, zo and dzo in Wu Chinese, there were other ancient words for tea, though ming is the only other one still in common use. Most Chinese languages, such as Mandarin and Cantonese, pronounce it along the lines of cha and these two pronunciations have made their separate ways into other languages around the world. Starting in the seventeen century, the Dutch played a dominant role in the early European tea trade via the Dutch East India Company. The Dutch borrowed the word for tea from Min Chinese, either through trade directly from Fujian or Formosa where they had established a port, or from Malay traders in Bantam, Java. The Dutch then introduced to other European languages this Min pronunciation for tea, including English tea, French thé, Spanish té and this pronunciation is also the most common form worldwide. The Portuguese adopted the Cantonese pronunciation chá, and spread it to India, the Korean and Japanese pronunciations of cha were borrowed into Korean and Japanese during earlier periods of Chinese history. A third form, the increasingly widespread chai, came from Persian چای chay, both the châ and chây forms are found in Persian dictionaries. English has all three forms, cha or char, attested from the 16th century, tea, from the 17th, however, the form chai refers specifically to a black tea mixed with honey, spices and milk in contemporary English. Tea plants are native to East Asia, and probably originated around the points of the lands of north Burma. Tea drinking may have begun in the Yunnan region during the Shang Dynasty in China, Chinese legends attribute the invention of tea to Shennong in 2737 BC, although evidence suggests that tea drinking may have been introduced from the southwest of China. The earliest written records of tea come from China, in the Chronicles of Huayang, it was recorded that the Ba people in Sichuan presented tu to the Zhou king
7.
Europe
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Europe is a continent that comprises the westernmost part of Eurasia. Europe is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, yet the non-oceanic borders of Europe—a concept dating back to classical antiquity—are arbitrary. Europe covers about 10,180,000 square kilometres, or 2% of the Earths surface, politically, Europe is divided into about fifty sovereign states of which the Russian Federation is the largest and most populous, spanning 39% of the continent and comprising 15% of its population. Europe had a population of about 740 million as of 2015. Further from the sea, seasonal differences are more noticeable than close to the coast, Europe, in particular ancient Greece, was the birthplace of Western civilization. The fall of the Western Roman Empire, during the period, marked the end of ancient history. Renaissance humanism, exploration, art, and science led to the modern era, from the Age of Discovery onwards, Europe played a predominant role in global affairs. Between the 16th and 20th centuries, European powers controlled at times the Americas, most of Africa, Oceania. The Industrial Revolution, which began in Great Britain at the end of the 18th century, gave rise to economic, cultural, and social change in Western Europe. During the Cold War, Europe was divided along the Iron Curtain between NATO in the west and the Warsaw Pact in the east, until the revolutions of 1989 and fall of the Berlin Wall. In 1955, the Council of Europe was formed following a speech by Sir Winston Churchill and it includes all states except for Belarus, Kazakhstan and Vatican City. Further European integration by some states led to the formation of the European Union, the EU originated in Western Europe but has been expanding eastward since the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991. The European Anthem is Ode to Joy and states celebrate peace, in classical Greek mythology, Europa is the name of either a Phoenician princess or of a queen of Crete. The name contains the elements εὐρύς, wide, broad and ὤψ eye, broad has been an epithet of Earth herself in the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European religion and the poetry devoted to it. For the second part also the divine attributes of grey-eyed Athena or ox-eyed Hera. The same naming motive according to cartographic convention appears in Greek Ανατολή, Martin Litchfield West stated that phonologically, the match between Europas name and any form of the Semitic word is very poor. Next to these there is also a Proto-Indo-European root *h1regʷos, meaning darkness. Most major world languages use words derived from Eurṓpē or Europa to refer to the continent, in some Turkic languages the originally Persian name Frangistan is used casually in referring to much of Europe, besides official names such as Avrupa or Evropa
8.
Alder
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Alder is the common name of a genus of flowering plants belonging to the birch family Betulaceae. The common name alder evolved from Old English alor, which in turn is derived from Proto-Germanic root aliso, the generic name Alnus is the equivalent Latin name. With a few exceptions, alders are deciduous, and the leaves are alternate, simple and these trees differ from the birches in that the female catkins are woody and do not disintegrate at maturity, opening to release the seeds in a similar manner to many conifer cones. The largest species are red alder on the west coast of North America, by contrast, the widespread Alnus viridis is rarely more than a 5-m-tall shrub. Alders are commonly found near streams, rivers, and wetlands, Alder leaves and sometimes catkins are used as food by numerous butterflies and moths. A. glutinosa and A. viridis are classed as environmental weeds in New Zealand, Alder leaves and especially the roots are important to the ecosystem because they enrich the soil with nitrogen and other nutrients. Alder is particularly noted for its important symbiotic relationship with Frankia alni and this bacterium is found in root nodules, which may be as large as a human fist, with many small lobes, and light brown in colour. The bacterium absorbs nitrogen from the air and makes it available to the tree, Alder, in turn, provides the bacterium with sugars, which it produces through photosynthesis. Because of its abundance, red alder delivers large amounts of nitrogen to enrich forest soils, red alder stands have been found to supply between 120 and 290 pounds of nitrogen per acre annually to the soil. From Alaska to Oregon, Sitka alder characteristically pioneer fresh, gravelly sites at the foot of retreating glaciers, alders are common among the first species to colonize disturbed areas from floods, windstorms, fires, landslides, etc. Alder groves themselves often serve as natural firebreaks since these trees are much less flammable than conifers. Their foliage and leaf litter does not carry a fire well, in addition, the light weight of alder seeds allows for easy dispersal by the wind. Although it outgrows coastal Douglas-fir for the first 25 years, it is shade intolerant. Red alder is the Pacific Northwests largest alder and the most plentiful, alders largely help create conditions favorable for giant conifers that replace them. Alder root nodules Alder roots are parasitized by northern groundcone, the catkins of some alder species have a degree of edibility, and may be rich in protein. Reported to have a bitter and unpleasant taste, they are useful for survival purposes. The wood of certain species is often used to smoke various food items such as coffee, salmon. Most of the pilings that form the foundation of Venice were made from alder trees, Alder bark contains the anti-inflammatory salicin, which is metabolized into salicylic acid in the body
9.
Oak
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An oak is a tree or shrub in the genus Quercus of the beech family, Fagaceae. There are approximately 600 extant species of oaks, the common name oak also appears in the names of species in related genera, notably Lithocarpus, as well as in those of unrelated species such as Grevillea robusta and the Casuarinaceae. North America contains the largest number of oak species, with approximately 90 occurring in the United States, the second greatest center of oak diversity is China, which contains approximately 100 species. Oaks have spirally arranged leaves, with lobate margins in many species, also, the acorns contain tannic acid, as do the leaves, which helps to guard from fungi and insects. Many deciduous species are marcescent, not dropping dead leaves until spring, in spring, a single oak tree produces both male flowers and small female flowers. The fruit is a nut called an acorn, borne in a structure known as a cupule, each acorn contains one seed and takes 6–18 months to mature. The live oaks are distinguished for being evergreen, but are not actually a distinct group, the oak tree is a flowering plant. Oaks may be divided into two genera and a number of sections, The genus Quercus is divided into the following sections, Quercus, the white oaks of Europe, Asia and North America. Styles are short, acorns mature in 6 months and taste sweet or slightly bitter, the leaves mostly lack a bristle on their lobe tips, which are usually rounded. The type species is Quercus robur, Mesobalanus, Hungarian oak and its relatives of Europe and Asia. Styles long, acorns mature in about 6 months and taste bitter, the section Mesobalanus is closely related to section Quercus and sometimes included in it. Cerris, the Turkey oak and its relatives of Europe and Asia, styles long, acorn mature in 18 months and taste very bitter. The inside of the shell is hairless. Its leaves typically have sharp tips, with bristles at the lobe tip. Protobalanus, the live oak and its relatives, in southwest United States. Styles short, acorns mature in 18 months and taste very bitter, the inside of the acorn shell appears woolly. Leaves typically have sharp tips, with bristles at the lobe tip. Lobatae, the red oaks of North America, Central America, styles long, acorns mature in 18 months and taste very bitter
10.
Beech
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Beech is a genus of deciduous trees in the family Fagaceae, native to temperate Europe, Asia and North America. Recent classification systems of the genus recognize ten to thirteen species in two subgenera, Engleriana and Fagus. Further differentiating characteristics include the whitish bloom on the underside of the leaves, the visible tertiary leaf veins, Fagus japonica, Fagus engleriana, and the species F. okamotoi, proposed by the botanist Chung-Fu Shen in 1992, comprise this subgenus. The better known Fagus subgenus beeches are high-branching with tall, stout trunks and this group includes Fagus sylvatica, Fagus grandifolia, Fagus crenata, Fagus lucida, Fagus longipetiolata, and Fagus hayatae. The classification of the European beech, Fagus sylvatica is complex, research suggests that beeches in Eurasia differentiated fairly late in evolutionary history, during the Miocene. The populations in this area represent a range of often overlapping morphotypes, within its family, the Fagaceae, recent research has suggested that Fagus is the evolutionarily most basal group. The southern beeches previously thought closely related to beeches, are now treated as members of a separate family and they are found in Australia, New Zealand, New Guinea, New Caledonia, Argentina and Chile. The European beech is the most commonly cultivated, although there are few important differences between species aside from detail elements such as leaf shape, the leaves of beech trees are entire or sparsely toothed, from 5–15 cm long and 4–10 cm broad. Beeches are monoecious, bearing male and female flowers on the same plant. The small flowers are unisexual, the flowers borne in pairs. They are produced in spring shortly after the new leaves appear, the bark is smooth and light grey. The fruit is a small, sharply three–angled nut 10–15 mm long, borne singly or in pairs in soft-spined husks 1. 5–2.5 cm long, known as cupules. The husk can have a variety of spine- to scale-like appendages, the nuts are edible, though bitter with a high tannin content, and are called beechnuts or beechmast. The name of the tree is of Indo-European origin, and played an important role in debates on the geographical origins of the Indo-European people. Greek φηγός is from the root, but the word was transferred to the oak tree as a result of the absence of beech trees in Greece. Beech grows on a range of soil types, acidic or basic. The tree canopy casts dense shade, and carpets the ground thickly with leaf litter, in North America, they often form beech-maple climax forests by partnering with the sugar maple. The beech blight aphid is a common pest of American beech trees, Beeches are also used as food plants by some species of Lepidoptera
11.
North America
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North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be considered a subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean, and to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers, about 16. 5% of the land area. North America is the third largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe. In 2013, its population was estimated at nearly 565 million people in 23 independent states, or about 7. 5% of the worlds population, North America was reached by its first human populations during the last glacial period, via crossing the Bering land bridge. The so-called Paleo-Indian period is taken to have lasted until about 10,000 years ago, the Classic stage spans roughly the 6th to 13th centuries. The Pre-Columbian era ended with the migrations and the arrival of European settlers during the Age of Discovery. Present-day cultural and ethnic patterns reflect different kind of interactions between European colonists, indigenous peoples, African slaves and their descendants, European influences are strongest in the northern parts of the continent while indigenous and African influences are relatively stronger in the south. Because of the history of colonialism, most North Americans speak English, Spanish or French, the Americas are usually accepted as having been named after the Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci by the German cartographers Martin Waldseemüller and Matthias Ringmann. Vespucci, who explored South America between 1497 and 1502, was the first European to suggest that the Americas were not the East Indies, but a different landmass previously unknown by Europeans. In 1507, Waldseemüller produced a map, in which he placed the word America on the continent of South America. He explained the rationale for the name in the accompanying book Cosmographiae Introductio, for Waldseemüller, no one should object to the naming of the land after its discoverer. He used the Latinized version of Vespuccis name, but in its feminine form America, following the examples of Europa, Asia and Africa. Later, other mapmakers extended the name America to the continent, In 1538. Some argue that the convention is to use the surname for naming discoveries except in the case of royalty, a minutely explored belief that has been advanced is that America was named for a Spanish sailor bearing the ancient Visigothic name of Amairick. Another is that the name is rooted in a Native American language, the term North America maintains various definitions in accordance with location and context. In Canadian English, North America may be used to refer to the United States, alternatively, usage sometimes includes Greenland and Mexico, as well as offshore islands
12.
Hickory
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Hickory is a type of tree, comprising the genus Carya. The genus includes 17–19 species of trees with pinnately compound leaves. Five or six species are native to China, Indochina, and India, as many as 12 are native to the United States, four are found in Mexico, Hickory flowers are small, yellow-green catkins produced in spring. The fruit is a globose or oval nut, 2–5 cm long and 1. 5–3 cm diameter, enclosed in a four-valved husk, which splits open at maturity. The nut shell is thick and bony in most species, and thin in a few, notably the pecan, beaked hickory is a species formerly classified as Carya sinensis, but now adjudged in the monotypic genus Annamocarya. In the APG system, genus Carya has been moved to the Fagales order. Sinocarya – Asian hickories Carya dabieshanensis M. C, liu – Dabie Shan hickory Carya cathayensis Sarg. Carya – typical hickories Carya floridana Sarg, – Scrub hickory Carya glabra Sweet – Pignut hickory, pignut, sweet pignut, coast pignut hickory, smoothbark hickory, swamp hickory, broom hickory Carya myristiciformis Nutt. – Nutmeg hickory, swamp hickory, bitter water hickory Carya ovalis Sarg, – Sand hickory Carya texana Buckley – Black hickory Carya tomentosa Nutt. – Mockernut hickory †Carya washingtonensis - Manchester Extinct Miocene Carya sect, apocarya – pecans Carya aquatica Nutt. – Bitter pecan or water hickory Carya cordiformis K. Koch – Bitternut hickory Carya illinoinensis K. Koch – Pecan Carya palmeri W. E, manning – Mexican hickory Hickory is used as a food plant by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species. Phylloxeridae are related to aphids and have a complex life cycle. Eggs hatch in spring and the galls quickly form around the developing insects. Phylloxera galls may damage weakened or stressed hickories, but are generally harmless, the pecan gall curculio is a true weevil species also found feeding on galls of the hickory leaf stem gall phylloxera. The banded hickory borer is also found on hickories, some fruits are borderline and difficult to categorize. Hickory nuts and walnuts in the Juglandaceae family grow within an outer husk, tryma is a specialized term for such nut-like drupes. Hickory wood is hard, stiff, dense and shock resistant. Paddles are often made from hickory, Hickory is replacing ash as the wood of choice for Scottish shinty sticks
13.
Pecan
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The pecan is a species of hickory native to Mexico and the southcentral and southeastern regions of the United States. Pecan is from an Algonquian word variously referring to pecans, walnuts and hickory nuts, there are many variant pronunciations, some regional and others not. The most common American pronunciation is /piˈkɑːn/, the most common British one is /pɪˈkæn/, unusually, there is little agreement in the United States, even regionally, as to the correct pronunciation. The pecan tree is a deciduous tree, growing to 20–40 m in height. It typically has a spread of 12–23 m with a trunk up to 2 m diameter, a 10-year-old sapling will stand about 5 m tall. The leaves are alternate, 30–45 cm long, and pinnate with 9–17 leaflets, each leaflet 5–12 cm long and 2–6 cm broad. A pecan, like the fruit of all members of the hickory genus, is not truly a nut, but is technically a drupe. The husks are produced from the tissue of the flower, while the part known as the nut develops from the endocarp. The husk itself is aeneous, oval to oblong,2. 6–6 cm long and 1. 5–3 cm broad. The outer husk is 3–4 mm thick, starts out green and turns brown at maturity, the seeds of the pecan are edible, with a rich, buttery flavor. They can be fresh or used in cooking, particularly in sweet desserts. One of the most common desserts with the pecan as an ingredient is the pecan pie. Pecans are also an ingredient in praline candy. In addition to the seed, the wood is also used in making furniture. Pecans were one of the most recently domesticated major crops, although wild pecans were well known among the colonial Americans as a delicacy, the commercial growing of pecans in the United States did not begin until the 1880s. Today, the U. S. produces between 80% and 95% of the worlds pecans, with a crop of 150–200 thousand tons from more than 10 million trees. The nut harvest for growers is typically around mid-October, historically, the leading pecan-producing state in the U. S. Outside the United States, pecans are grown in Argentina, Australia, Brazil, China, Israel, Mexico, Peru and they can be grown from USDA hardiness zones approximately 5 to 9, provided summers are also hot and humid
14.
Maple
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Acer /ˈeɪsər/ is a genus of trees or shrubs commonly known as maple. There are approximately 128 species, most of which are native to Asia, with a number appearing in Europe, northern Africa. Only one species, Acer laurinum, extends to the Southern Hemisphere, the type species of the genus is the sycamore maple, Acer pseudoplatanus, the most common maple species in Europe. Most maples are trees growing to 10–45 m height, others are shrubs less than 10 meters tall with a number of small trunks originating at ground level. Most species are deciduous, and many are renowned for their autumn colour, but a few in southern Asia. Most are shade-tolerant when young and are often riparian, understory, many of the root systems are typically dense and fibrous, inhibiting the growth of other vegetation underneath them. A few species, notably Acer cappadocicum, frequently produce root sprouts, maples are distinguished by opposite leaf arrangement. The leaves in most species are palmate veined and lobed, with 3 to 9 veins each leading to a lobe, a small number of species differ in having palmate compound, pinnate compound, pinnate veined or unlobed leaves. Several species, including Acer griseum, Acer mandshuricum, Acer maximowiczianum, one species, Acer negundo, has pinnately compound leaves that may be simply trifoliate or may have five, seven, or rarely nine leaflets. A few, such as Acer laevigatum and Acer carpinifolium, have pinnately veined simple leaves, the flowers are regular, pentamerous, and borne in racemes, corymbs, or umbels. They have four or five sepals, four or five petals about 1 –6 mm long, four to ten stamens about 6 –10 mm long, and two pistils or a pistil with two styles. The ovary is superior and has two carpels, whose wings elongate the flowers, making it easy to tell which flowers are female. Maples flower in winter or early spring, in most species with or just after the appearance of the leaves. Maple flowers are green, yellow, orange or red, though individually small, the effect of an entire tree in flower can be striking in several species. Some maples are a spring source of pollen and nectar for bees. The distinctive fruits are called samaras, maple keys, helicopters and these seeds occur in distinctive pairs each containing one seed enclosed in a nutlet attached to a flattened wing of fibrous, papery tissue. They are shaped to spin as they fall and to carry the seeds a considerable distance on the wind, people often call them helicopters due to the way that they spin as they fall. During World War II, the US Army developed an air drop supply carrier that could carry up to 65 pounds of supplies and was based on the Maple seed
15.
Apple
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The apple tree is a deciduous tree in the rose family best known for its sweet, pomaceous fruit, the apple. It is cultivated worldwide as a tree, and is the most widely grown species in the genus Malus. The tree originated in Central Asia, where its wild ancestor, Apples have been grown for thousands of years in Asia and Europe, and were brought to North America by European colonists. Apples have religious and mythological significance in many cultures, including Norse, Greek, Apple trees are large if grown from seed. Generally apple cultivars are propagated by grafting onto rootstocks, which control the size of the resulting tree, There are more than 7,500 known cultivars of apples, resulting in a range of desired characteristics. Different cultivars are bred for various tastes and uses, including cooking, eating raw, trees and fruit are prone to a number of fungal, bacterial and pest problems, which can be controlled by a number of organic and non-organic means. In 2010, the genome was sequenced as part of research on disease control. Worldwide production of apples in 2014 was 84.6 million tonnes, the apple is a deciduous tree, generally standing 1.8 to 4.6 m tall in cultivation and up to 12 m in the wild. When cultivated, the size, shape and branch density are determined by rootstock selection, the leaves are alternately arranged dark green-colored simple ovals with serrated margins and slightly downy undersides. Blossoms are produced in spring simultaneously with the budding of the leaves, the 3 to 4 cm flowers are white with a pink tinge that gradually fades, five petaled, with an inflorescence consisting of a cyme with 4–6 flowers. The central flower of the inflorescence is called the king bloom, it opens first, the fruit matures in late summer or autumn, and cultivars exist with a wide range of sizes. Commercial growers aim to produce an apple that is 7.0 to 8.3 cm in diameter, due to market preference. Some consumers, especially those in Japan, prefer a larger apple, while apples below 5.7 cm are generally used for making juice and have little market value. The skin of ripe apples is generally red, yellow, green, pink, the skin may also be wholly or partly russeted i. e. rough and brown. The skin is covered in a layer of epicuticular wax. The exocarp is generally pale yellowish-white, though pink or yellow also occur. The original wild ancestor of Malus pumila was Malus sieversii, found growing wild in the mountains of Central Asia in southern Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, in strains without recent admixture the contribution of the latter predominates. It had about 57,000 genes, the highest number of any plant genome studied to date and this new understanding of the apple genome will help scientists in identifying genes and gene variants that contribute to resistance to disease and drought, and other desirable characteristics
16.
Cherry
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A cherry is the fruit of many plants of the genus Prunus, and is a fleshy drupe. The cherry fruits of commerce usually are obtained from a number of species such as cultivars of the sweet cherry. The name cherry also refers to the tree, and is sometimes applied to almonds and visually similar flowering trees in the genus Prunus, as in ornamental cherry, cherry blossom. Wild cherry may refer to any of the species growing outside of cultivation. The subgenus is native to the regions of the Northern Hemisphere. Other cherry fruits are members of subgenus Padus, most eating cherries are derived from either Prunus avium, the sweet cherry, or from Prunus cerasus, the sour cherry. The indigenous range of the sweet cherry extends through most of Europe, western Asia, and parts of northern Africa, and the fruit has been consumed throughout its range since prehistoric times. A cultivated cherry is recorded as having brought to Rome by Lucius Licinius Lucullus from northeastern Anatolia, also known as the Pontus region. Cherries were introduced into England at Teynham, near Sittingbourne in Kent, by order of Henry VIII, cherries arrived in North America early in the settlement of Brooklyn, New York when the region was under Dutch sovereignty. Trades people leased or purchased land to plant orchards and produce gardens, behind the house sold by Anthony Jansen from Salee to Barent Dirksen. Both species originate in Europe and western Asia, they do not cross-pollinate, some other species, although having edible fruit, are not grown extensively for consumption, except in northern regions where the two main species will not grow. Irrigation, spraying, labor, and their propensity to damage from rain, nonetheless, demand is high for the fruit. In commercial production, cherries are harvested by using a mechanized shaker, hand picking is also widely used to harvest the fruit to avoid damage to both fruit and trees. Common rootstocks include Mazzard, Mahaleb, Colt, and Gisela Series, sour cherries require no pollenizer, while few sweet varieties are self-fertile. Like most temperate-latitude trees, cherry seeds require exposure to cold to germinate, the pits are planted in the autumn and seedlings emerge in the spring. A cherry tree will take three to four years in the field to produce its first crop of fruit, and seven years to attain full maturity, because of the cold-weather requirement, none of the Prunus genus can grow in tropical climates. Cherries have a growing season and can grow in most temperate latitudes. Cherries blossom in April and the season for the cherry harvest is in the summer
17.
Plum
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A plum is a fruit of the subgenus Prunus of the genus Prunus. Mature plum fruit may have a waxy coating that gives them a glaucous appearance. This is a wax coating and is known as wax bloom. Dried plum fruits are called dried plums or prunes, although, in American English, prunes are a type of plum. Plums are a group of species. The commercially important plum trees are medium-sized, usually pruned to 5–6 metres height, the tree is of medium hardiness. Without pruning, the trees can reach 12 metres in height and they blossom in different months in different parts of the world, for example, in about January in Taiwan and early April in the United Kingdom. Fruits are usually of medium size, between 1 and 3 inches in diameter, globose to oval, the flesh is firm and juicy. The fruits peel is smooth, with a waxy surface that adheres to the flesh. The plum is a drupe, meaning its fleshy fruit surrounds a single hard seed, Plum has many species, and taxonomists differ on the count. Depending on the taxonomist, between 19 and 40 species of plum exist, from this diversity only two species, the hexaploid European plum and the diploid Japanese plum, are of worldwide commercial significance. The origin of commercially important species is uncertain but may have involved P. cerasifera. Other species of plum variously originated in Europe, Asia and America, the subgenus Prunus is divided into three sections, Sect. It is juicy and can be fresh or used in jam-making or other recipes. Plum juice can be fermented into plum wine, in central England, a cider-like alcoholic beverage known as plum jerkum is made from plums. Dried plums are also sweet and juicy and contain several antioxidants, plums and prunes are known for their laxative effect. This effect has been attributed to compounds present in the fruits, such as dietary fiber, sorbitol. Prunes and prune juice are used to help regulate the functioning of the digestive system
18.
Biomass
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Biomass is an industry term for getting energy by burning wood, and other organic matter. It has become popular among power stations, which switch from coal to biomass to comply with the law. Biomass most often refers to plants or plant-based materials that are not used for food or feed, as an energy source, biomass can either be used directly via combustion to produce heat, or indirectly after converting it to various forms of biofuel. Conversion of biomass to biofuel can be achieved by different methods which are classified into, thermal, chemical. Historically, humans have harnessed biomass-derived energy since the time people began burning wood to make fire. Even today, biomass is the source of fuel for domestic use in many developing countries. Biomass is all biologically-produced matter based in carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, the estimated biomass production in the world is 104.9 petagrams of carbon per year, about half in the ocean and half on land. Wood remains the largest biomass energy source today, examples include forest residues, yard clippings, wood chips, wood energy is derived by using lignocellulosic biomass as fuel. Harvested wood may be used directly as a fuel or collected from waste streams to be processed into pellet fuel or other forms of fuels. The largest source of energy from wood is pulping liquor or black liquor, in the second sense, biomass includes plant or animal matter that can be converted into fibers or other industrial chemicals, including biofuels. Based on the source of biomass, biofuels are classified broadly into two major categories, first-generation biofuels are derived from sources such as sugarcane and corn starch. Sugars present in this biomass are fermented to produce bioethanol, a fuel which can be used directly in a fuel cell to produce electricity or serve as an additive to gasoline. However, utilizing food-based resources for production only aggravates the food shortage problem. Second-generation biofuels, on the hand, utilize non-food-based biomass sources such as agriculture. These biofuels mostly consist of lignocellulosic biomass, which is not edible and is a waste for many industries. Despite being the alternative, economical production of second-generation biofuel is not yet achieved due to technological issues. These issues arise due to chemical inertness and structural rigidity of lignocellulosic biomass. Plant energy is produced by crops grown for use as fuel that offer high biomass output per hectare with low input energy
19.
Rice
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Rice is the seed of the grass species Oryza sativa or Oryza glaberrima. As a cereal grain, it is the most widely consumed staple food for a part of the worlds human population. It is the agricultural commodity with the third-highest worldwide production, after sugarcane and maize, wild rice, from which the crop was developed, may have its native range in Australia. Chinese legends attribute the domestication of rice to Shennong, the emperor of China. Genetic evidence has shown that rice originates from a single domestication 8, previously, archaeological evidence had suggested that rice was domesticated in the Yangtze River valley region in China. From East Asia, rice was spread to Southeast and South Asia, Rice was introduced to Europe through Western Asia, and to the Americas through European colonization. There are many varieties of rice and culinary preferences tend to vary regionally, in some areas such as the Far East or Spain, there is a preference for softer and stickier varieties. Rice, a monocot, is grown as an annual plant, although in tropical areas it can survive as a perennial. The rice plant can grow to 1–1.8 m tall, occasionally more depending on the variety and it has long, slender leaves 50–100 cm long and 2–2.5 cm broad. The small wind-pollinated flowers are produced in a branched arching to pendulous inflorescence 30–50 cm long, the edible seed is a grain 5–12 mm long and 2–3 mm thick. Rice cultivation is well-suited to countries and regions with low costs and high rainfall, as it is labor-intensive to cultivate. However, rice can be grown practically anywhere, even on a hill or mountain area with the use of water-controlling terrace systems. Although its parent species are native to Asia and certain parts of Africa, centuries of trade, the traditional method for cultivating rice is flooding the fields while, or after, setting the young seedlings. The name wild rice is used for species of the genera Zizania and Porteresia. The Greek word is the source of all European words, the origin of the Greek word is unclear. It is sometimes held to be from the Tamil word அரிசி, however, Krishnamurti disagrees with the notion that Old Tamil arici is the source of the Greek term, and proposes that it was borrowed from descendants of Proto-Dravidian *wariñci instead. The varieties of rice are typically classified as long-, medium-, the grains of long-grain rice tend to remain intact after cooking, medium-grain rice becomes more sticky. Medium-grain rice is used for dishes, for risotto in Italy
20.
Sugar
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Sugar is the generic name for sweet, soluble carbohydrates, many of which are used in food. There are various types of derived from different sources. Simple sugars are called monosaccharides and include glucose, fructose, the table sugar or granulated sugar most customarily used as food is sucrose, a disaccharide of glucose and fructose. Sugar is used in prepared foods and it is added to some foods, in the body, sucrose is hydrolysed into the simple sugars fructose and glucose. Other disaccharides include maltose from malted grain, and lactose from milk, longer chains of sugars are called oligosaccharides or polysaccharides. Some other chemical substances, such as glycerol may also have a sweet taste, low-calorie food substitutes for sugar, described as artificial sweeteners, include aspartame and sucralose, a chlorinated derivative of sucrose. Sugars are found in the tissues of most plants and are present in sufficient concentrations for efficient commercial extraction in sugarcane, the world production of sugar in 2011 was about 168 million tonnes. The average person consumes about 24 kilograms of sugar each year, equivalent to over 260 food calories per person, since the latter part of the twentieth century, it has been questioned whether a diet high in sugars, especially refined sugars, is good for human health. Sugar has been linked to obesity, and suspected of, or fully implicated as a cause in the occurrence of diabetes, cardiovascular disease, dementia, macular degeneration, the etymology reflects the spread of the commodity. The English word sugar ultimately originates from the Sanskrit शर्करा, via Arabic سكر as granular or candied sugar, the contemporary Italian word is zucchero, whereas the Spanish and Portuguese words, azúcar and açúcar, respectively, have kept a trace of the Arabic definite article. The Old French word is zuchre and the contemporary French, sucre, the earliest Greek word attested is σάκχαρις. The English word jaggery, a brown sugar made from date palm sap or sugarcane juice, has a similar etymological origin – Portuguese jagara from the Sanskrit शर्करा. Sugar has been produced in the Indian subcontinent since ancient times and it was not plentiful or cheap in early times and honey was more often used for sweetening in most parts of the world. Originally, people chewed raw sugarcane to extract its sweetness, sugarcane was a native of tropical South Asia and Southeast Asia. Different species seem to have originated from different locations with Saccharum barberi originating in India and S. edule, one of the earliest historical references to sugarcane is in Chinese manuscripts dating back to 8th century BC that state that the use of sugarcane originated in India. Sugar was found in Europe by the 1st century AD, but only as an imported medicine and it is a kind of honey found in cane, white as gum, and it crunches between the teeth. It comes in lumps the size of a hazelnut, sugar is used only for medical purposes. Sugar remained relatively unimportant until the Indians discovered methods of turning sugarcane juice into granulated crystals that were easier to store, crystallized sugar was discovered by the time of the Imperial Guptas, around the 5th century AD
21.
Wok
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A wok is a versatile round-bottomed cooking vessel, originating from China. The use of the wok is very prevalent in South China and it is one of the most common cooking utensils in China and also found in parts of East, South and Southeast Asia, as well as becoming a popular niche cookware in all the world. Wok cooking is done with long-handled utensils called chahn or hoak, the long handles of these utensils allow cooks to work with the food without burning their hands. In Japan the wok is called a chūkanabe, in Indonesia the wok is known as a penggorengan or wajan. In Malaysia it is called a kuali or kawah, similarly in the Philippines, the wok is known as kawali, while bigger woks used for festivals and gatherings are known as kawa. The woks most distinguishing feature is its shape, classic woks have a rounded bottom. Hand-hammered woks are sometimes flipped inside out after being shaped, giving the wok a gentle flare to the edge that makes it easier to push food up onto the sides of the wok. Woks sold in western countries are found with flat bottoms—this makes them more similar to a deep frying pan. The flat bottom allows the wok to be used on an electric stove, a round bottom wok enables the traditional round spatula or ladle to pick all the food up at the bottom of the wok and toss it around easily, this is difficult with a flat bottom. With a gas hob, or traditional pit stove, the bottom of a round wok can get hotter than a flat wok, most woks range from 300 to 360 mm or more in diameter. Woks of 360 mm are the most common, but home woks can be found as small as 200 mm, smaller woks are typically used for quick cooking techniques at high heat such as stir frying. Large woks over a meter wide are used by restaurants or community kitchens for cooking rice or soup. The most common used in making woks today are carbon steel. Although the latter was the most common used in the past. Their light weight makes them easier to lift and quicker to heat, carbon steel woks, however, tend to be more difficult to season than those made of cast-iron. Carbon steel woks vary widely in price, style, and quality, the lowest quality steel woks tend to be stamped by machine from a single ply or piece of stamped steel. Less expensive woks have a tendency to deform and misshape. Cooking with lower quality woks is also difficult and precarious since they often have a hot spot
22.
Ham
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Ham is pork that has been preserved through salting, smoking, or wet curing. It was traditionally made only from the leg of swine. Ham is made around the world, including a number of highly coveted regional specialties, such as Westphalian ham, technically a processed meat, ham may refer to a product which has been through mechanical re-forming. The precise nature of meat termed ham is controlled in a number of areas, often by statute, including the United States and European Union. In addition, numerous ham products have specific geographical naming protection, such as Prosciutto di Parma and Prosciutto Toscano PDO in Europe, and Smithfield ham in the US. The preserving of pork leg as ham has a long history, there are claims that the Chinese were the first people to mention the production of cured ham. Larousse Gastronomique claims an origin from Gaul and it was certainly well established by the Roman period, as evidenced by an import trade from Gaul mentioned by Marcus Terentius Varro in his writings. The modern word ham is derived from the Old English ham or hom meaning the hollow or bend of the knee and it began to refer to the cut of pork derived from the hind leg of a swine around the 15th century. Preservation methods include curing, smoking, and salting, in many countries the term is now protected by statute, with a specific definition. In addition to the categories, some processing choices can affect legal labeling. However, injecting smoke flavor is not legal grounds for claiming the ham was smoked, hams can only be labeled honey-cured if honey was at least 50% of the sweetener used, is at least 3% of the formula, and has a discernible effect on flavor. So-called lean and extra lean hams must adhere to maximum levels of fat, Ham re-formed from smaller pieces into a larger block also has to be labeled in many jurisdictions. Ham is produced by preserving and flavoring raw pork by salting, smoking, besides salt, several ingredients may be used to obtain flavoring and preservation, from black pepper to the precious saffron. Traditional dry cure hams may use only salt as the agent, such as with San Daniele or Parma hams. This process involves cleaning the raw meat, covering it in salt while it is gradually pressed – draining all the blood, in Tuscan Ham different spices and herbs are added to salt during this step. Specific ingredients may be used to flavour and taste during this step. The hams are then washed and hung in a dark, temperature-regulated place until dry and it is then hung to air for another period of time. Some dry cured hams, such as the Jinhua ham, take approximately 8 to 10 months to complete, most modern dry cure hams also use nitrites, which are added along with the salt, although following a similar methodology
23.
Bacon
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Bacon is a meat product usually prepared from pork and cured. It is first cured using large quantities of salt, either a brine or a dry packing, fresh bacon may then be dried for weeks or months in cold air, or it may be boiled or smoked. Fresh and dried bacon are typically cooked before eating, often by frying, boiled bacon is ready to eat, as is some smoked bacon, but they may be cooked further before eating. Bacon is prepared from different cuts of meat. It can be made from side and back cuts of pork, a side cut has less fat than the belly. In the United States, the term implies belly bacon, with leaner cuts known as Canadian bacon, in the United Kingdom, loin bacon with some belly attached is known as back bacon, or rashers, and belly bacon is called streaky bacon. Bacon may be prepared from one of two distinct back cuts, fatback, which is almost pure fat, or pork loin, Bacon may be eaten smoked, boiled, fried, baked, or grilled. It is eaten on its own, as a side dish, Bacon is also used for barding and larding roasts, especially game, including venison and pheasant. The word is derived from the Old High German bacho, meaning buttock, ham or side of bacon, in Italy, this product is called pancetta and is usually cooked in small cubes or thinly sliced as part of an antipasto. Meat from other animals, such as beef, lamb, chicken, goat, or turkey, may also be cut, cured, or otherwise prepared to resemble bacon, and may even be referred to as bacon. Such use is common in areas with significant Jewish and Muslim populations, the USDA defines bacon in the American way as the cured belly of a swine carcass, and other cuts and characteristics must be separately qualified. For safety, bacon may be treated to prevent trichinosis, caused by Trichinella, Bacon is distinguished from salt pork and ham by differences in the brine or dry packing. Bacon brine has added curing ingredients, most notably sodium nitrite, and occasionally potassium nitrate, flavourings such as brown sugar or maple syrup are used for some bacon products. Sodium polyphosphates, such as sodium triphosphate, may be added to make the easier to slice. Today, a specifically for ham includes a large amount of sugar. Historically, the ham and bacon referred to different cuts of meat that were brined or packed identically. Bacon is cured through either a process of injecting with or soaking in brine or using plain salt. In America, bacon is cured and smoked, and different flavours can be achieved by using various types of wood, or rarely corn cobs
24.
Peat
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Peat, also called turf, is an accumulation of partially decayed vegetation or organic matter that is unique to natural areas called peatlands, bogs, mires, moors, or muskegs. The peatland ecosystem is the most efficient carbon sink on the planet because peatland plants capture the CO2 which is released from the peat. Sphagnum moss is one of the most common components in peat, soils that contain mostly peat are known as histosols. Peat forms in wetland conditions, where flooding obstructs flows of oxygen from the atmosphere, Peatlands, particularly bogs, are the most important source of peat. That said, other less common types, including fens, pocosins. Landscapes covered in peat are home to specific kinds of plants including Sphagnum moss, ericaceous shrubs, because organic matter accumulates over thousands of years, peat deposits also provide records of past vegetation and climates stored in plant remains like pollen. This allows humans to reconstruct past environments and study changes in land use. Peat is harvested as an important source of fuel in certain parts of the world, by volume, there are about 4 trillion cubic metres of peat in the world, covering a total of around 2% of the global land area, containing about 8 billion terajoules of energy. Over time, the formation of peat is often the first step in the formation of other fossil fuels such as coal. This is also the commonly used in the peat industry. At 106 g CO2/MJ, the carbon dioxide emission intensity of peat is higher than that of coal and natural gas, lastly, peat fires have been responsible for large public health disasters including the 1997 Southeast Asian haze. Peat forms when plant material does not fully decay in acidic and anaerobic conditions and it is composed mainly of wetland vegetation, principally bog plants including mosses, sedges, and shrubs. As it accumulates, the peat holds water and this slowly creates wetter conditions that allow the area of wetland to expand. Peatland features can include ponds, ridges, and raised bogs, most modern peat bogs formed 12,000 years ago in high latitudes after the glaciers retreated at the end of the last ice age. Peat usually accumulates slowly at the rate of about a millimetre per year, using Carbon-dating, scientists found that Peat in peatlands started forming 360 million years ago based on it currently containing 550 Gt of carbon. Peat material is either fibric, hemic, or sapric, fibric peats are the least decomposed and consist of intact fiber. Hemic peats are partially decomposed and sapric are the most decomposed, Phragmites peat is one composed of reed grass, Phragmites australis, and other grasses. It is denser than other types of peat
25.
Barley
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Barley, a member of the grass family, is a major cereal grain grown in temperate climates globally. It was one of the first cultivated grains, particularly in Eurasia as early as 10,000 years ago, Barley has been used as animal fodder, as a source of fermentable material for beer and certain distilled beverages, and as a component of various health foods. It is used in soups and stews, and in barley bread of various cultures, Barley grains are commonly made into malt in a traditional and ancient method of preparation. In 2014, barley was ranked fourth among grains in quantity produced behind corn, rice, the Old English word for barley was bære, which traces back to Proto-Indo-European and is cognate to the Latin word farina flour. The direct ancestor of modern English barley in Old English was the derived adjective bærlic, the first citation of the form bærlic in the Oxford English Dictionary dates to around 966 CE, in the compound word bærlic-croft. The underived word bære survives in the north of Scotland as bere, the word barn, which originally meant barley-house, is also rooted in these words. Barley is a member of the grass family and it is a self-pollinating, diploid species with 14 chromosomes. The wild ancestor of domesticated barley, Hordeum vulgare subsp, spontaneum, is abundant in grasslands and woodlands throughout the Fertile Crescent area of Western Asia and northeast Africa, and is abundant in disturbed habitats, roadsides and orchards. Outside this region, the barley is less common and is usually found in disturbed habitats. However, in a study of genome-wide diversity markers, Tibet was found to be a center of domestication of cultivated barley. Wild barley has a spike, upon maturity, the spikelets separate. Domesticated barley has nonshattering spikes, making it easier to harvest the mature ears. The nonshattering condition is caused by a mutation in one of two linked genes known as Bt1 and Bt2, many cultivars possess both mutations. The nonshattering condition is recessive, so varieties of barley that exhibit this condition are homozygous for the mutant allele, spikelets are arranged in triplets which alternate along the rachis. In wild barley, only the central spikelet is fertile, while the two are reduced. This condition is retained in certain cultivars known as two-row barleys, a pair of mutations result in fertile lateral spikelets to produce six-row barleys. Recent genetic studies have revealed that a mutation in one gene, two-row barley has a lower protein content than six-row barley, thus a more fermentable sugar content. High-protein barley is best suited for animal feed, Malting barley is usually lower protein which shows more uniform germination, needs shorter steeping, and has less protein in the extract that can make beer cloudy
26.
Malt
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Malt is germinated cereal grains that have been dried in a process known as malting. The grains are made to germinate by soaking in water, and are then halted from germinating further by drying with hot air and it also develops other enzymes, such as proteases, which break down the proteins in the grain into forms that can be used by yeast. Depending on when the process is stopped one gets a preferred starch enzyme ratio. Malt also contains amounts of other sugars, such as sucrose and fructose. Further conversion to fermentable sugars is achieved during the mashing process, Malted grain that has been ground into a coarse meal is known as sweet meal. Various cereals are malted, though barley is the most common, a high-protein form of malted barley is often a label-listed ingredient in blended flours typically used in the manufacture of yeast breads and other baked goods. Malted grains have probably been used as an ingredient of beer since ancient times, for example in Egypt, Sumeria and China. In Persian countries a sweet paste made entirely from germinated wheat is called Samanū in Iran, Samanak, or Sümölök, a plate or bowl of Samanu is a traditional component of the Haft sin table symbolising affluence. Traditionally, women take a party for it during the night. In Tajikistan and Afghanistan they sing, Samanak dar Jūsh u mā Kafcha zanēm - Dīgarān dar Khwāb u mā Dafcha zanēm, in modern times, making samanu can be a family gathering. It originally comes from the Great Persian Empire, Mämmi, or Easter Porridge, is a traditional Finnish Lenten food. Cooked from rye malt and -flour, mämmi has a resemblance to Samanū. Today, this product is available in shops from February until Easter, a survey in 2013 showed that almost no one cooks mämmi at home in modern-day Finland. The cereal is spread out on the floor in a layer of 8 to 12 cm depth. The malting process starts with drying the grains to a content below 14%. When ready, the grain is immersed or steeped in water two or three times two or three days to allow the grain to absorb moisture and to start to sprout. When the grain has a content of around 46%, it is transferred to the malting or germination floor. The grain at this point is called green malt, the green malt is then dried and pre-toasted in an oven to the desired colour and specification
27.
Beer
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Beer is the worlds oldest and most widely consumed alcoholic drink, it is the third most popular drink overall, after water and tea. Most beer is flavoured with hops, which add bitterness and act as a natural preservative, the fermentation process causes a natural carbonation effect, although this is often removed during processing, and replaced with forced carbonation. Beer is sold in bottles and cans, it may also be available on draught, particularly in pubs, the brewing industry is a global business, consisting of several dominant multinational companies and many thousands of smaller producers ranging from brewpubs to regional breweries. The strength of beer is usually around 4% to 6% alcohol by volume, archaeologists speculate that beer was instrumental in the formation of civilisations. Approximately 5000 years ago, workers in the city of Uruk were paid by their employers in beer, the earliest known chemical evidence of barley beer dates to circa 3500–3100 BC from the site of Godin Tepe in the Zagros Mountains of western Iran. The Ebla tablets, discovered in 1974 in Ebla, Syria, a fermented beverage using rice and fruit was made in China around 7000 BC. Unlike sake, mould was not used to saccharify the rice, almost any substance containing sugar can naturally undergo alcoholic fermentation. It is likely that many cultures, on observing that a liquid could be obtained from a source of starch. Bread and beer increased prosperity to a level that allowed time for development of other technologies, Beer was spread through Europe by Germanic and Celtic tribes as far back as 3000 BC, and it was mainly brewed on a domestic scale. The product that the early Europeans drank might not be recognised as beer by most people today, alongside the basic starch source, the early European beers might contain fruits, honey, numerous types of plants, spices and other substances such as narcotic herbs. What they did not contain was hops, as that was an addition, first mentioned in Europe around 822 by a Carolingian Abbot. Beer produced before the Industrial Revolution continued to be made and sold on a scale, although by the 7th century AD, beer was also being produced. During the Industrial Revolution, the production of beer moved from artisanal manufacture to industrial manufacture, the development of hydrometers and thermometers changed brewing by allowing the brewer more control of the process and greater knowledge of the results. Today, the industry is a global business, consisting of several dominant multinational companies. As of 2006, more than 133 billion litres, the equivalent of a cube 510 metres on a side, of beer are sold per year, the process of making beer is known as brewing. A dedicated building for the making of beer is called a brewery, a company that makes beer is called either a brewery or a brewing company. Beer made on a scale for non-commercial reasons is classified as homebrewing regardless of where it is made. Brewing beer is subject to legislation and taxation in developed countries, however, the UK government relaxed legislation in 1963, followed by Australia in 1972 and the US in 1978, allowing homebrewing to become a popular hobby
28.
New Zealand
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New Zealand /njuːˈziːlənd/ is an island nation in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. The country geographically comprises two main landmasses—the North Island, or Te Ika-a-Māui, and the South Island, or Te Waipounamu—and around 600 smaller islands. New Zealand is situated some 1,500 kilometres east of Australia across the Tasman Sea and roughly 1,000 kilometres south of the Pacific island areas of New Caledonia, Fiji, because of its remoteness, it was one of the last lands to be settled by humans. During its long period of isolation, New Zealand developed a distinct biodiversity of animal, fungal, the countrys varied topography and its sharp mountain peaks, such as the Southern Alps, owe much to the tectonic uplift of land and volcanic eruptions. New Zealands capital city is Wellington, while its most populous city is Auckland, sometime between 1250 and 1300 CE, Polynesians settled in the islands that later were named New Zealand and developed a distinctive Māori culture. In 1642, Dutch explorer Abel Tasman became the first European to sight New Zealand, in 1840, representatives of Britain and Māori chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi, which declared British sovereignty over the islands. In 1841, New Zealand became a colony within the British Empire, today, the majority of New Zealands population of 4.7 million is of European descent, the indigenous Māori are the largest minority, followed by Asians and Pacific Islanders. Reflecting this, New Zealands culture is derived from Māori and early British settlers. The official languages are English, Māori and New Zealand Sign Language, New Zealand is a developed country and ranks highly in international comparisons of national performance, such as health, education, economic freedom and quality of life. Since the 1980s, New Zealand has transformed from an agrarian, Queen Elizabeth II is the countrys head of state and is represented by a governor-general. In addition, New Zealand is organised into 11 regional councils and 67 territorial authorities for local government purposes, the Realm of New Zealand also includes Tokelau, the Cook Islands and Niue, and the Ross Dependency, which is New Zealands territorial claim in Antarctica. New Zealand is a member of the United Nations, Commonwealth of Nations, ANZUS, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Pacific Islands Forum, and Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation. Dutch explorer Abel Tasman sighted New Zealand in 1642 and called it Staten Landt, in 1645, Dutch cartographers renamed the land Nova Zeelandia after the Dutch province of Zeeland. British explorer James Cook subsequently anglicised the name to New Zealand, Aotearoa is the current Māori name for New Zealand. It is unknown whether Māori had a name for the country before the arrival of Europeans. Māori had several names for the two main islands, including Te Ika-a-Māui for the North Island and Te Waipounamu or Te Waka o Aoraki for the South Island. Early European maps labelled the islands North, Middle and South, in 1830, maps began to use North and South to distinguish the two largest islands and by 1907, this was the accepted norm. The New Zealand Geographic Board discovered in 2009 that the names of the North Island and South Island had never been formalised and this set the names as North Island or Te Ika-a-Māui, and South Island or Te Waipounamu
29.
Leptospermum scoparium
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It is a prolific scrub-type tree and is often one of the first species to regenerate on cleared land. It is typically a shrub growing to 2–5 m tall, but can grow into a moderately sized tree and it is evergreen, with dense branching and small leaves 7–20 mm long and 2–6 mm broad, with a short spine tip. The flowers are white, occasionally pink, 8–15 mm in diameter, the wood is tough and hard. Evidence suggests that L. scoparium originated in Australia before the onset of the Miocene aridity and it has been postulated that on arrival in New Zealand, L. It is now found throughout New Zealand, but is common on the drier east coasts of the North and South Islands. The adult manuka beetle and its larvae feed on L. scoparium, tea tree is the common name. Jelly bush is used in Australia. Tea tree arose because Captain Cook used the leaves to make a tea drink and this is because in its homeland it is subject to attack by scale insects that secrete a honeydew on which grows a sooty mold that eventually debilitates the plant. Because of this, attempts have been made, with limited commercial success, the wood was often used for tool handles. Mānuka sawdust imparts a delicious flavour when used for smoking meats and it is cultivated in New Zealand for mānuka honey, produced when honeybees gather the nectar from its flowers, and for the pharmaceutical industry. It is also used for carving, an essential oil, for which many medicinal claims are made, is produced by steam distillation of its leaves. Manuka, as it is called by most New Zealanders, was used in pre-European times by the people of New Zealand, the Maori. A decoction of the leaves was drunk for urinary complaints and as a febrifuge, the steam from leaves boiled in water was inhaled for head colds. A decoction was prepared from the leaves and bark and the liquid was rubbed on stiff muscles. The emollient white gum, called pai Manuka, was given to nursing babies and also used to treat scalds, chewing the bark is said to have a relaxing effect and it enhances sleep. Kakariki parakeets use the leaves and bark of mānuka and kānuka to rid themselves of parasites, apart from ingesting the material, they also chew it, mix it with preen gland oil and apply it to their feathers. Manuka, Australian Capital Territory, which, although it is pronounced differently, was named after the New Zealand tree. Tea plants, as opposed to tea trees are grown commercially in New Zealand
30.
Smoked fish
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Smoked fish is fish that has been cured by smoking. Foods have been smoked by humans throughout history, originally this was done as a preservative. In more recent times fish is preserved by refrigeration and freezing. According to Jeffrey J. Rozum The process of smoking fish occurs through the use of fire, wood contains three major components that are broken down in the burning process to form smoke. The burning process is called pyrolysis, which is defined as the chemical decomposition by heat. The major wood components are cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin, the major steps in the preparation of smoked fish are salting, cold smoking, cooling, packaging, and storage. Smoking, one of the oldest preservation methods, combines the effects of salting, drying, heating and smoking, typical smoking of fish is either cold or hot. A smokehouse is a building where fish or meat is cured with smoke, in a traditional fishing village, a smokehouse was often attached to a fishermans cottage. The smoked products might be stored in the building, sometimes for a year or more, traditional smokehouses served both as smokers and to store the smoked fish. Fish could be preserved if it was cured with salt and cold smoked for two weeks or longer, smokehouses were often secured to prevent animals and thieves from accessing the food. Today there are two methods of smoking fish, The traditional method and the mechanical method. The traditional method involves the fish being suspended in smokehouses over slowly smouldering wood shavings, the fish are left overnight to be naturally infused with smoke. In the mechanical method smoke is generated through the use of smoke condensates, the flow of smoke in the mechanical kiln is computer controlled and the fish generally spend less time being smoked than in a traditional kiln. High-quality smoked fish is a high–end product sought after by restaurants, the most common types of smoked fish in the US are salmon, mackerel, whitefish and trout, although other smoked fish is also available regionally or from many ethnic stores. Salmon, mackerel and herring are universally available both hot-smoked and cold-smoked, while most other fish is preserved by only one of the smoking methods. A common name for cold-smoked salmon is lox, of many different types are available. Traditionally, lox designates brined rather than smoked salmon, but the boundary between the two types of products has become blurred. Gravad lax or gravlax remains the type that is unmistakably not smoked fish
31.
Iceland
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Iceland is a Nordic island country in the North Atlantic Ocean. It has a population of 332,529 and an area of 103,000 km2, the capital and largest city is Reykjavík. Reykjavík and the areas in the southwest of the country are home to over two-thirds of the population. Iceland is volcanically and geologically active, the interior consists of a plateau characterised by sand and lava fields, mountains and glaciers, while many glacial rivers flow to the sea through the lowlands. Iceland is warmed by the Gulf Stream and has a climate, despite a high latitude just outside the Arctic Circle. Its high latitude and marine influence still keeps summers chilly, with most of the archipelago having a tundra climate. According to the ancient manuscript Landnámabók, the settlement of Iceland began in the year 874 AD when the Norwegian chieftain Ingólfr Arnarson became the first permanent settler on the island. In the following centuries, Norwegians, and to a lesser extent other Scandinavians, emigrated to Iceland, the island was governed as an independent commonwealth under the Althing, one of the worlds oldest functioning legislative assemblies. Following a period of strife, Iceland acceded to Norwegian rule in the 13th century. The establishment of the Kalmar Union in 1397 united the kingdoms of Norway, Denmark, Iceland thus followed Norways integration to that Union and came under Danish rule after Swedens secession from that union in 1523. In the wake of the French revolution and the Napoleonic wars, Icelands struggle for independence took form and culminated in independence in 1918, until the 20th century, Iceland relied largely on subsistence fishing and agriculture, and was among the poorest in Europe. Industrialisation of the fisheries and Marshall Plan aid following World War II brought prosperity, in 1994, it became a part of the European Economic Area, which further diversified the economy into sectors such as finance, biotechnology, and manufacturing. Iceland has an economy with relatively low taxes compared to other OECD countries. It maintains a Nordic social welfare system that provides health care. Iceland ranks high in economic, political and social stability and equality, in 2013, it was ranked as the 13th most-developed country in the world by the United Nations Human Development Index. Iceland runs almost completely on renewable energy, some bankers were jailed, and the economy has made a significant recovery, in large part due to a surge in tourism. Icelandic culture is founded upon the nations Scandinavian heritage, most Icelanders are descendants of Germanic and Gaelic settlers. Icelandic, a North Germanic language, is descended from Old Norse and is related to Faroese
32.
Smokehouse
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A smokehouse or smokery is a building where meat or fish is cured with smoke. The finished product might be stored in the building, sometimes for a year or more, even when smoke is not used, such a building—typically a subsidiary building—is sometimes referred to as a smoke house. When smoke is not used, the term meat house is common, traditional smokehouses served both as meat smokers and to store the meats, often for groups and communities of people. Food preservation occurred by salt curing and extended cold smoking for two weeks or longer, smokehouses were always secured to prevent animals and thieves from accessing the food. Prior to the availability of mains electricity and freezers, meat was preserved by heavy salting. Hogs were slaughtered after the onset of cold weather, and hams and other products were salted. Whether the meat should be smoked as well as salted is personal preference, traditionally, a smokehouse is a small enclosed outbuilding often with a vent, a single entrance, no windows, and frequently has a gabled or pyramid-style roof. Communal and commercial smokehouses are larger than those that served a residence or estate. The use of slightly warmed, dry air from a very slow hardwood fire will ensure the proper drying of meats, the lower interior walls of both meat houses and smoke houses are characterized by the extremely furring of the wood, caused by the salt. The upper areas of smokehouses are blackened with smoke, a meat house has a solid wood floor, a smokehouse will have a brick pit in the center of the dirt floor, or sometimes a broken/cast-off cast iron pot, for the fire. Jeffersons smokehouse at Monticello is an part of the brick outbuildings. It has a brick fireplace built into an exterior wall - its flue discharges into the smokehouse
33.
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon
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Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are hydrocarbons—organic compounds containing only carbon and hydrogen—that are composed of multiple aromatic rings. Formally, the class is defined as lacking further branching substituents on these ring structures. Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons are a subset of PAHs that have fused aromatic rings, the simplest such chemicals are naphthalene, having two aromatic rings, and the three-ring compounds anthracene and phenanthrene. PAHs are neutral, nonpolar molecules found in coal and in tar deposits and they are produced as well by incomplete combustion of organic matter. The tricyclic species phenanthrene and anthracene represent the members of the PAHs. Smaller molecules, such as benzene, are not PAHs, PAHs with five or six-membered rings are most common. Those composed only of six-membered rings are called alternant PAHs, which include benzenoid PAHs, the following are examples of PAHs that vary in the number and arrangement of their rings, Examples of PAH compounds PAHs are nonpolar and lipophilic. Larger PAHs are generally insoluble in water, while some PAHs are soluble, the larger members are also poorly soluble in organic solvents as well as lipids. Although PAHs clearly are aromatic compounds, the degree of aromaticity can be different for each ring segment, according to Clars rule for PAHs the resonance structure with the largest number of disjoint aromatic п-sextets—i. e. Benzene-like moieties—is the most important for the characterization of the properties, in contrast, in anthracene the resonance structures have one sextet, which can be at any of the three rings, and the aromaticity spreads out more evenly across the whole molecule. Three Clar structures with two each are present in chrysene. Superposition of these reveals that the aromaticity in the outer rings is greater compared to the inner rings. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are found in natural sources such as creosote. They can result from the combustion of organic matter. PAHs can also be produced geologically when organic sediments are transformed into fossil fuels such as oil. Wild fires are another notable source, substantially higher outdoor air, soil, and water concentrations of PAHs have been measured in Asia, Africa, and Latin America than in Europe, Australia, and the U. S. /Canada. PAHs are typically found as complex mixtures, most PAHs are insoluble in water, which limits their mobility in the environment. Aqueous solubility of PAHs decreases approximately logarithmically as molecular mass increases, two-ring PAHs, and to a lesser extent three-ring PAHs, dissolve in water, making them more available for biological uptake and degradation
34.
Caveman
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A caveman is a stock character based upon widespread but anachronistic and conflated concepts of the way in which Neanderthals, early modern humans, or archaic humans may have looked and behaved. The term originates out of assumptions about the association between early humans and caves, most clearly demonstrated in cave painting, the term is not used in academic research. Cavemen are typically portrayed as wearing shaggy animal hides, and capable of painting like behaviourally modern humans of the last glacial period. Until the last glacial period, most hominins did not live in caves, being nomadic hunter-gatherer tribes living in a variety of structures, such as tents. Their societies were similar to those of modern day indigenous peoples. A few genuine cave dwellings did exist, however, such as at Mount Carmel in Israel, caveman-like heraldic wild men were found in European and African iconography for hundreds of years. During the Middle Ages, these creatures were generally depicted in art and literature as bearded and covered in hair, while wild men were always depicted as living outside of civilization, there was an ongoing debate as to whether they were human or animal. In Sir Arthur Conan Doyles The Lost World, ape-men are depicted in a fight with modern humans, edgar Rice Burroughs adapted this idea for The Land That Time Forgot. From the descriptions, Griffiths characters cant talk, and use sticks and stones for weapons and they often have grunt-like names, such as Ugg and Zog. Expressions such as living in a cave have become metaphors for a modern human who displays traits of great ignorance or uncivilized behavior. In popular culture, the comic strips B. C, alley Oop, the Spanish comic franchise Mortadelo y Filemón, and occasionally The Far Side and Gogs portray cavemen in that way. Stereotypical cavemen are also featured in advertising, including advertisements for Minute Maid. The GEICO advertisements spawned a short-lived TV series called Cavemen, there are various caveman characters in popular culture, Ice World Walking with Cavemen Walking with Beasts Prehistoric Park Joe & Mac Far Cry Primal Ark, Survival Evolved
35.
Central Science Laboratory
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The Central Science Laboratory was an executive agency of the UK government branch, the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs. It is now part of the Food and Environment Research Agency and it specialises in sciences which form the basis of agriculture for sustainable crop production, environmental management and conservation and in food safety and quality. It also houses FAPAS and the National Collection of Plant Pathogenic Bacteria, the Central Science laboratory was the UKs foremost public sector laboratory in the fields of agriculture, food and the environment. As an Executive Agency of the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, officially launched in 1992 CSL’s scientific expertise dates back to 1914, through the bringing together scientific expertise vested in a number of other scientific laboratories. The site is now the home of The Food and Environment Research Agency, in 1938 concern over the Governments strategic storage of grain and flour led to a survey of pests of stored commodities. Research initially focused on protecting the security of foodstuffs held under wartime conditions, at this time the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries set up the Infestation Control Laboratory at a site in Tolworth, Greater London, to carry out R&D into food losses to rodents. Following the transfer, the Pest Infestation Laboratory was amalgamated with the Infestation Control Laboratory at Tolworth, the newly merged laboratories were renamed The Pest Infestation Control Laboratory. In the mid 1970s the Pest Infestation Control Laboratory set up additional field stations in Gloucestershire and Hampshire, field based research and ecology studies continued at these outstations until transfer to The Food and Environment Research Agency. A re-organisation of the Institute in 1918 resulted in the formation of The Plant Pathology Laboratory, in 1920 the Plant Pathology Laboratory moved from Kew to a converted private house in Harpenden, Hertfordshire. In 1960 the work of the laboratory had expanded significantly and it relocated to a new complex in Harpenden. The new site – in total approximately 5 acres of land - included 2-3 acres of experimental plots, work was organised over three departments - Entomology, Plant Pathology and Chemistry - and included the Pesticide Registration Department. An outstation in Cambridge also carried out research on pesticide residues, in 1971 MAFFs professional, technical and scientific services were brought together within the newly set up Agricultural Development and Advisory Service. Along with the Pest Infestation Control Laboratory, the Plant Pathology Laboratory now operated as a laboratory within the Agricultural Science Service. In 1979 the Plant Pathology Laboratory was renamed Harpenden Laboratory,1965 saw responsibility for Torry transfer from DSIR to the Ministry of Technology. When the Ministry ceased to exist in 1970 Torry transferred to the Department of Trade, another transfer of responsibility occurred in 1972 when Torry moved from DTI to MAFF. Finally, in 1990, Torry Research Station was transferred to the Food Safety Directorate within MAFF working alongside Norwich Food Science Laboratory, in the early 20th Century, war forced the UK Government into strategic planning on avoiding food shortages. Throughout the UK emergency stockpiles of food were gathered in secret locations known as Buffer Depots, in 1977 the laboratory moved from Great Westminster House, across the road to Romney Street. In addition to the London site, the Ministry had an outstation in Norwich, the laboratories - although separate - all operated within the Ministrys Food Standards, Science and Safety Division
36.
Oncorhynchus
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Oncorhynchus is a genus of fish in the family Salmonidae, it contains the Pacific salmon and Pacific trout. The name of the genus is derived from the Greek onkos and rynchos, Salmon and trout with native ranges in waters draining to the Pacific Ocean are members of the genus. Their range extends from Beringia southwards, roughly to Taiwan in the west, in North America, some subspecies of O. Several species of Oncorhynchus have been introduced into waters around the globe establishing self-sustaining wild populations. The six Pacific salmons of Oncorhynchus are anadromous and semelparous, migration can be affected by parasites. Infected individuals can become weak and probably have shortened lifespans, infection with parasites creates an effect known as culling whereby fish that are infected are less likely to complete the migration. Anadromous forms of Oncorhynchus mykiss known as steelhead are iteroparus, the Coastal cutthroat trout form of Oncorhynchus clarki is considered semi-anadromous as it spends short periods of time in marine environments. Several late Miocene trout-like fossils in Idaho, in the Clarkia Lake beds, consequently, the split between Oncorhynchus and Salmo must have occurred well before the Pliocene. Suggested dates ions have gone back as far as the early Miocene, one fossil species assigned to this genus, O. rastrosus, the sabertooth salmon, is a 9-foot -long species known from Late Miocene to Pleistocene fossils. Speciation among Oncorhynchus has been examined for decades, and a tree is not yet completely developed for the Pacific salmonids. Mitochondrial DNA research has been completed on a variety of Pacific trout and salmonid species, Chum, pink and sockeye salmon lineages are generally agreed to have diverged in the sequence after other species. Montgomery discusses the pattern of the record as compared to tectonic shifts in the plates of the Pacific Northwest of America. The divergence in Onchorhyncus lineages appear to follow the uprising of the Pacific Rim, the climatic and habitat changes that would follow such a geologic event are discussed, in the context of potential stressors leading to adaptation and speciation. One interesting case involving speciation with salmon is that of the kokanee sockeye, kokanee sockeye evolve differently from anadromous sockeye—they reach the level of biological species. Biological species—as opposed to morphological species—are defined by the capacity to maintain themselves in sympatry as independent genetic entities and this definition can be vexing because it apparently applies only to sympatry, and this limitation makes the definition difficult to apply. Examples in Washington State, Canada, and elsewhere have two living in the same lake, but spawning in different substrates at different times. There is no pressure to compete or interbreed and these types of kokanee salmon show the principal attributes of a biological species, they are reproductively isolated and show strong resources partitioning. A general decline in overall Pacific salmon populations began in the mid 19th century, as the result of western expansion and development in the U. S. experts estimate salmon populations in the Columbia River basin had been reduced to less than 20% of their pre-1850 levels by 1933
37.
Curing (food preservation)
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Many curing processes also involve smoking, spicing, or cooking. Dehydration was the earliest form of food curing, because curing increases the solute concentration in the food and hence decreases its water potential, the food becomes inhospitable for the microbe growth that causes food spoilage. Curing can be traced back to antiquity, and was the way of preserving meat. Nitrates and nitrites, in conjunction with salt, are one of the most common agents in curing meat because they inhibit the growth of Clostridium botulinum. They also contribute to the pink color. For lesser-developed countries, curing remains a key process in ensuring the viability of meat production, transport, untreated meat decomposes rapidly if it is not preserved, at a speed that depends on several factors, including ambient humidity, temperature, and the presence of pathogens. Most meats cannot be kept at room temperature in excess of a few days without spoiling, if kept in excess of this time, meat begins to change colour and exude a foul odour, indicating the decomposition of the food. Ingestion of such spoiled meat can cause serious food poisonings, like botulism, in such circumstances the usefulness of preserving foods containing nutritional value for transport and storage is obvious. Curing is able to extend the life of meat before it spoils. A survival technique since prehistory, the conservation of meat has become, over the centuries, a topic of political, economic, Food curing dates back to ancient times, both in the form of smoked meat and salt-cured meat. Several sources describe the salting of meat in the ancient Mediterranean world, diodore of Sicily in his Bibliotheca historica wrote that the Cosséens in the mountains of Persia salted the flesh of carnivorous animals. Strabo indicates that people at Borsippa were catching bats and salting them to eat, the ancient Greeks prepared tarichos, which was meat and fish conserved by salt or other means. The Romans called this dish salsamentum – which term later included salted fat, also evidence of ancient sausage production exists. The Roman gourmet Apicius speaks of a technique involving œnogaros. A trade in salt meat occurred across ancient Europe, in Polybiuss time, the Gauls exported salt pork each year to Rome in large quantities, where it was sold in different cuts, rear cuts, middle cuts, hams, and sausages. This meat, after having been salted with the greatest care, was sometime smoked and these goods had to have been considerably important, since they fed part of the Roman people and the armies. The Belgians were celebrated above all for the care which they gave to the fattening of their pigs and their herds of sheep and pigs were so many, they could provide skins and salt meat not only for Rome, but also for most of Italy. The Ceretani of Spain drew a large income from their hams
38.
Chicken as food
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Chicken is the most common type of poultry in the world. In developed countries, chickens are usually subject to intensive farming methods, the modern chicken is a descendant of red junglefowl hybrids along with the grey junglefowl first raised thousands of years ago in the northern parts of the Indian subcontinent. Chicken as a meat has been depicted in Babylonian carvings from around 600 BC, Chicken was one of the most common meats available in the Middle Ages. It was eaten over most of the Eastern hemisphere and a number of different kinds of such as capons, pullets. It was one of the ingredients in the so-called white dish. In the United States in the 1800s, chicken was more expensive than other meats, Chicken consumption in the United States increased during World War II due to a shortage of beef and pork. In Europe, consumption of chicken overtook that of beef and veal in 1996, modern varieties of chicken such as the Cornish Cross, are bred specifically for meat production, with an emphasis placed on the ratio of feed to meat produced by the animal. The most common breeds of chicken consumed in the US are Cornish, chickens raised specifically for food are called broilers. In the United States, broilers are typically butchered at a young age, modern Cornish Cross hybrids, for example, are butchered as early as 8 weeks for fryers and 12 weeks for roasting birds. Capons produce more and fattier meat, for this reason, they are considered a delicacy and were particularly popular in the Middle Ages. Main Breast, These are white meat and are relatively dry, leg, Comprises two segments, The drumstick, this is dark meat and is the lower part of the leg, the thigh, also dark meat, this is the upper part of the leg. Wing, Often served as a meal or bar food. Buffalo wings are a typical example, Comprises three segments, the drumette, shaped like a small drumstick, the middle flat segment, containing two bones, and the tip, sometimes discarded. Other Chicken feet, These contain relatively little meat, and are mainly for the skin. Although considered exotic in Western cuisine, the feet are common fare in other cuisines, especially in the Caribbean, giblets, organs such as the heart, gizzards, and liver may be included inside a butchered chicken or sold separately. Head, Considered a delicacy in China, the head is split down the middle, kidneys, Normally left in when a broiler carcass is processed, they are found in deep pockets on each side of the vertebral column. Neck, This is served in various Asian dishes and it is stuffed to make helzel among Ashkenazi Jews. Oysters, Located on the back, near the thigh, these small, pygostyle and testicles, These are commonly eaten in East Asia and some parts of South East Asia
39.
Beef
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Beef is the culinary name for meat from cattle, particularly skeletal muscle. Humans have been eating beef since prehistoric times, Beef is a complete source of protein, and provides many of the essential fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals that humans need. Beef skeletal muscle meat can be cut into roasts, short ribs or steak, Some cuts are processed, and trimmings, usually mixed with meat from older, leaner cattle, are ground, minced or used in sausages. The blood is used in varieties of blood sausage. Some intestines are cooked and eaten as-is, but are often cleaned and used as natural sausage casings. The bones are used for making beef stock, Beef from steers and heifers is very similar. According to the most recent National Beef Quality Audit, heifer carcasses had slightly more marbling than steer carcasses, depending on economics, the number of heifers kept for breeding varies. The meat from older bulls is usually tougher, so it is used for mince. Beef is the third most widely consumed meat in the world, accounting for about 25% of meat production worldwide, after pork and poultry at 38% and 30% respectively. According to the data from OECD, the average Uruguayan ate over 42 kg of beef or veal in 2014, cattle are considered sacred in the culture of India and there is prohibition on selling and consumption of beef in much of India. Though India is the largest producer and exporter of meat in the world. In 2015, the worlds largest exporters of beef including the meat, were India, Brazil. Beef production is important to the economies of Uruguay, Canada, Paraguay, Mexico, Argentina, Belarus. The word beef is from the Latin bōs, in contrast to cow which is from Middle English cou, after the Norman Conquest, the French-speaking nobles who ruled England naturally used French words to refer to the meats they were served. Thus, various Anglo-Saxon words were used for the animal by the peasants, Beef is cognate with bovine through the Late Latin bovīnus. People have eaten the flesh of bovines from prehistoric times, some of the earliest known paintings, such as those of Lascaux. People domesticated cattle around 8000 BC to provide access to beef, milk. Most cattle originated in the Old World, with the exception of bison hybrids, examples include the Wagyū from Japan, Ankole-Watusi from Egypt, and longhorn Zebu from the Indian subcontinent
40.
Pork chop
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A pork chop, like other meat chops, is a cut taken perpendicularly to the spine of the pig and usually containing a rib or part of a vertebra, served as an individual portion. The center cut or pork loin chop includes a large T-shaped bone, rib chops come from the rib portion of the loin, and are similar to rib eye steaks. Blade or shoulder chops come from the spine, and tend to contain much connective tissue, the sirloin chop is taken from the leg end and also contains much connective tissue. The so-called Iowa Chop is a thick center cut, the term was coined in 1976 by the Iowa Pork Producers Association, a Bacon Chop is cut from the shoulder end and leaves the pork belly meat attached. Pork chops are sometimes sold marinated to add flavor, marinades such as a sauce or a barbecue sauce are common. As pork is often cooked more thoroughly than beef, thus running the risk of drying out the meat, one could also wrap their pork chops in bacon to add further moistness during the cooking process. Pork chops are suitable for roasting, grilling, or frying and they can be used boneless or bone-in. Pork chops are cut between 1/2 inch and 2 inches thick. Improved breeding techniques for hogs have made it possible to cook pork to a temperature, about 145 °F, helping the meat to remain juicy. List of pork dishes US FDA regulations – Title 9 – Chapter 3 – Part 318 – includes 318.10, Prescribed treatment of pork and products containing pork to destroy trichinae
41.
Salmon as food
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Classified as an oily fish, salmon is considered to be healthy due to the fishs high protein, high omega-3 fatty acids, and high vitamin D content. Salmon is also a source of cholesterol, with a range of 23–214 mg/100 g depending on the species, according to reports in the journal Science, however, farmed salmon may contain high levels of dioxins. PCB levels may be up to eight times higher in farmed salmon than in wild salmon, nonetheless, according to a 2006 study published in the Journal of the American Medical Association, the benefits of eating even farmed salmon far outweigh any risks imposed by contaminants. Salmon flesh is orange to red, although there are some examples of white-fleshed wild salmon. The natural colour of salmon results from carotenoid pigments, largely astaxanthin, wild salmon get these carotenoids from eating krill and other tiny shellfish. In most cases, the astaxanthin is made chemically, alternatively it is extracted from shrimp flour, another possibility is the use of dried red yeast or microalgae, which provide the same pigment. However, synthetic mixtures are the least expensive option, astaxanthin is a potent antioxidant that stimulates the development of healthy fish nervous systems and enhances the fishs fertility and growth rate. Canthaxanthin may have effects on the human eye, accumulating in the retina at high levels of consumption. This scale is specific for measuring the colour due to astaxanthin and is not for the orange hue obtained with canthaxanthin. In wild fish, carotenoid levels of up to 25 mg are present, the vast majority of Atlantic salmon available on the world market are farmed, whereas the majority of Pacific salmon are wild caught. Canned salmon in the U. S. is usually wild Pacific catch, smoked salmon is another popular preparation method, and can either be hot or cold smoked. Lox can refer either to cold smoked salmon or to salmon cured in a brine solution, traditional canned salmon includes some skin and bone. Skinless and boneless canned salmon is also available, raw salmon flesh may contain Anisakis nematodes, marine parasites that cause Anisakiasis. Before the availability of refrigeration, Japan did not consume raw salmon, salmon and salmon roe have only recently come into use in making sashimi and sushi, with the introduction of parasite-free Norwegian salmon in the late 1980s
42.
Scallop
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Scallop is a common name that is primarily applied to any one of numerous species of saltwater clams or marine bivalve mollusks in the taxonomic family Pectinidae, the scallops. However, the common name scallop is also applied to species in other closely related families within the superfamily Pectinoidea. Scallops are a family of bivalves which are found in all of the worlds oceans. They are one of few groups of bivalves to be primarily free-living, with many species capable of rapidly swimming short distances. Scallops have a nervous system, and unlike most other bivalves all scallops have a ring of numerous simple eyes situated around the edge of their mantles. Many species of scallop are highly prized as a food source, the word scallop is also applied to the meat of these bivalves when it is sold as seafood. Owing to their distribution, scallop shells are a common sight on beaches and are often brightly coloured. Scallops inhabit all the oceans of the world, with the largest number of living in the Indo-Pacific region. Most species live in shallow waters from the low tide line to 100 meters. Although some species live in very narrow environments, most are opportunistic. Scallops can be living within, upon, or under either rocks, coral, rubble, sea grass, kelp, sand. Most scallops begin their lives as byssally attached juveniles, an ability that some retain throughout their lives while others grow into freeliving adults. There is very little variation in the arrangement of organs and systems within the scallop family. The shell of a scallop consists of two sides or valves, a valve and a right one, divided by a plane of symmetry. Most species of scallop rest on their right valve, and consequently this valve is often deeper and these ears may be of similar size and shape, or the anterior ear may be somewhat larger. As is the case in almost all bivalves, a series of lines and/ or growth rings originate at the center of the hinge and these growth rings increase in size downwards until they reach the curved ventral edge of the shell. The shell of most scallops is streamlined to facilitate ease of movement during swimming at some point in the cycle, while also providing protection from predators. Scallops with ridged valves have the advantage of the architectural strength provided by these ridges called ribs, although the ribs are somewhat costly in terms of weight and mass
43.
Steak
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A steak is a meat generally sliced perpendicular to the muscle fibers, potentially including a bone. When the word steak is used without qualification, it refers to a beefsteak. In a larger sense, there are also fish steaks, ground meat steaks, pork steak, Steaks are usually grilled, but they can be pan-fried, or broiled. Steak is often grilled in an attempt to replicate the flavor of steak cooked over the coals of an open fire. Steak can also be cooked in sauce, such as in steak and kidney pie, or minced and formed into patties, for some meats, such as pork, lamb and mutton, chevon and veal, these cuts are often referred to as chops. Some cured meat, such as gammon, is served as steak. Grilled Portobello mushroom may be called mushroom steak, and similarly for other vegetarian dishes, the word steak originates from the mid-15th century Scandinavian word steik, or stickna in the Middle English dialect, along with the Old Norse word steikja. An early written usage of the word comes from a 15th-century cookbook. Livestock for meat to be used as steak cuts may be raised on a farm or ranch, the meat from various wild game may also be used for steak cuts. Countries with enough land for grazing animals, in particular cattle, have a history of production. Such countries include Argentina, Ireland, New Zealand, Australia, South Africa, the United States, in Asian countries, such as China and South Korea, steak is traditionally sliced and stir-fried and served in smaller amounts as part of a mixed dish. In Argentina, beef represents a portion of the countrys export market. A total of 11.8 million animals were slaughtered in 2010, the country has one of the largest consumptions of beef per capita worldwide, and much of it is barbecued steak. Beef steak consumption is described as part of the Argentine national identity, in 2010, there were 244,000 cattle producers in Argentina. In Argentina, a steakhouse is referred to as a parrilla, portion sizes of steak dishes in Argentine restaurants tend to be large, with steaks weighing over 454 grams being commonplace. Asado is a dish that often includes steak and is also the standard word for barbecue in Argentina. Asado is considered a dish of the country. The Irish agricultural beef market is a contributor to the economy of Ireland, a significant amount of Irish beef is exported to other countries, with over 50% of exported beef going to the United Kingdom
44.
HACCP
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In this manner, HACCP attempts to avoid hazards rather than attempting to inspect finished products for the effects of those hazards. The HACCP system can be used at all stages of a chain, from food production and preparation processes including packaging, distribution. Meat HACCP systems are regulated by the USDA, while seafood, HACCP itself was conceived in the 1960s when the US National Aeronautics and Space Administration asked Pillsbury to design and manufacture the first foods for space flights. Since then, HACCP has been recognized internationally as a tool for adapting traditional inspection methods to a modern, science-based. Based on risk-assessment, HACCP plans allow both industry and government to allocate their resources efficiently in establishing and auditing safe food production practices, hence, HACCP has been increasingly applied to industries other than food, such as cosmetics and pharmaceuticals. HACCP is focused only on the safety issues of a product and not the quality of the product. In the United States, HACCP compliance is regulated by 21 CFR part 120 and 123, similarly, FAO/WHO published a guideline for all governments to handle the issue in small and less developed food businesses. In the early 1960s, an effort between the Pillsbury Company, NASA, and the U. S. Army Laboratories began with the objective to provide safe food for space expeditions. In order to ensure that the food that would be sent to space was safe, Lachance imposed strict microbial requirements, including pathogen limits. Using the traditional end product testing method, it was realized that almost all of the food manufactured was being used for testing. Therefore, a new approach was needed, nASAs own requirements for Critical Control Points in engineering management would be used as a guide for food safety. CCP derived from Failure mode and effects analysis from NASA via the industry to test weapon. Using that information, NASA and Pillsbury required contractors to identify critical areas and eliminate them from the system. Baumann, a microbiologist by training, was so pleased with Pillsburys experience in the program that he advocated for his company to adopt what would become HACCP at Pillsbury. Soon thereafter, Pillsbury was confronted with a safety issue of its own when glass contamination was found in farina. Baumanns leadership promoted HACCP in Pillsbury for producing commercial foods, and this led to a panel discussion at the 1971 National Conference on Food Protection that included examining CCPs and Good Manufacturing Practices in producing safe foods. Several botulism cases were attributed to under-processed low-acid canned foods in 1970-71, the United States Food and Drug Administration asked Pillsbury to organize and conduct a training program on the inspection of canned foods for FDA inspectors. This 21-day program was first held in September 1972 with 11 days of classroom lecture and 10 days of canning plant evaluations, canned food regulations were first published in 1969
45.
Ham hock
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A ham hock or pork knuckle is the joint between the tibia/fibula and the metatarsals of the foot, where the foot was attached to the hogs leg. It is the portion of the leg that is part of the ham proper nor the foot or ankle. Since this piece consists of much skin, tendons and ligaments. The cut of meat can be cooked with greens and other vegetables or in flavorful sauces and it is often added to soups, such as pea and ham soup, with the meat being added to the soup prior to serving. The meat of particularly meaty hocks may be removed and served as is, ham hocks, like hog jowls, add a distinctive flavor to various dishes. This is particularly true for collard greens, mustard greens, cabbage, green beans, ham hocks are essential ingredients for the distinct flavor in soul food and other forms of American Southern country cooking. In the Mid-Atlantic States, in regions settled by the Pennsylvania Dutch. Eisbein is the name of the joint in north German, and at the time the name of a dish of roasted ham hock, called Schweinshaxe in Bavaria, Stelze in Austria. Golonka is a very popular Polish barbecued dish using this cut, ham hocks are also popular when boiled with escarole, more commonly called endives, in Italian-American cuisine. Fläsklägg med rotmos is a Swedish dish consisting of cured ham hocks, in Canada, and particularly Montreal, ham hocks are referred to as pigs knuckles and are served in bistros and taverns with baked beans. List of smoked foods Media related to Pork knuckle at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of ham hock at Wiktionary
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