1.
Hotel
–
A hotel is an establishment that provides paid lodging on a short-term basis. Small, lower-priced hotels may offer only the most basic guest services and facilities, Hotel rooms are usually numbered to allow guests to identify their room. Some boutique, high-end hotels have custom decorated rooms, some hotels offer meals as part of a room and board arrangement. In the United Kingdom, a hotel is required by law to serve food, in Japan, capsule hotels provide a tiny room suitable only for sleeping and shared bathroom facilities. The precursor to the hotel was the inn of medieval Europe. For a period of about 200 years from the mid-17th century, inns began to cater to richer clients in the mid-18th century. One of the first hotels in a sense was opened in Exeter in 1768. Hotels proliferated throughout Western Europe and North America in the early 19th century, Hotel operations vary in size, function, and cost. Most hotels and major hospitality companies have set standards to classify hotel types. Full service hotels often contain upscale full-service facilities with a number of full service accommodations, an on-site full service restaurant. Boutique hotels are independent, non-branded hotels that often contain upscale facilities. Small to medium-sized hotel establishments offer a limited amount of on-site amenities, economy hotels are small to medium-sized hotel establishments that offer basic accommodations with little to no services. Extended stay hotels are small to medium-sized hotels that offer full service accommodations compared to a traditional hotel. Timeshare and destination clubs are a form of property ownership involving ownership of a unit of accommodation for seasonal usage. A motel is a small-sized low-rise lodging with direct access to rooms from the car park. Boutique hotels are typically hotels with an environment or intimate setting. A number of hotels have entered the public consciousness through popular culture, some hotels are built specifically as a destination in itself, for example at casinos and holiday resorts. The organizational chart and volume of job positions and hierarchy varies by size, function and class
2.
Sodium stearate
–
Sodium stearate is the sodium salt of stearic acid. This white solid is the most common soap and it is found in many types of solid deodorants, rubbers, latex paints, and inks. It is also a component of food additives and food flavorings. It is also used in the industry as a surfactant to aid the solubility of hydrophobic compounds in the production of various mouth foams. Sodium stearate is produced as a component of soap upon saponification of oils. The percentage of the sodium stearate depends on the ingredient fats, tallow is especially high in stearic acid content, whereas most fats only contain a few percent
3.
Salt (chemistry)
–
In chemistry, a salt is an ionic compound that results from the neutralization reaction of an acid and a base. Salts are composed of related numbers of cations and anions so that the product is electrically neutral and these component ions can be inorganic, such as chloride, or organic, such as acetate, and can be monatomic, such as fluoride, or polyatomic, such as sulfate. There are several varieties of salts, salts that hydrolyze to produce hydroxide ions when dissolved in water are alkali salts, whilst those that hydrolyze to produce hydronium ions in water are acidic salts. Neutral salts are those salts that are neither acidic nor basic, zwitterions contain an anionic centre and a cationic centre in the same molecule, but are not considered to be salts. Examples of zwitterions include amino acids, many metabolites, peptides, usually, non-dissolved salts at standard conditions for temperature and pressure are solid, but there are exceptions. Molten salts and solutions containing dissolved salts are called electrolytes, as they are able to conduct electricity. As observed in the cytoplasm of cells, in blood, urine, plant saps and mineral waters, therefore, their salt content is given for the respective ions. Salts can appear to be clear and transparent, opaque, and even metallic, in many cases, the apparent opacity or transparency are only related to the difference in size of the individual monocrystals. Since light reflects from the boundaries, larger crystals tend to be transparent. The color of the salt is due to the electronic structure in the d-orbitals of transition elements or in the conjugated organic dye framework. Different salts can elicit all five basic tastes, e. g. salty, sweet, sour, bitter, and umami or savory. Salts of strong acids and strong bases are non-volatile and odorless and that slow, partial decomposition is usually accelerated by the presence of water, since hydrolysis is the other half of the reversible reaction equation of formation of weak salts. Many ionic compounds can be dissolved in water or other similar solvents, the exact combination of ions involved makes each compound have a unique solubility in any solvent. The solubility is dependent on how well each ion interacts with the solvent, for example, all salts of sodium, potassium and ammonium are soluble in water, as are all nitrates and many sulfates – barium sulfate, calcium sulfate and lead sulfate are examples of exceptions. However, ions that bind tightly to each other and form highly stable lattices are less soluble, for example, most carbonate salts are not soluble in water, such as lead carbonate and barium carbonate. Some soluble carbonate salts are, sodium carbonate, potassium carbonate, solid salts do not conduct electricity. Moreover, solutions of salts also conduct electricity, the name of a salt starts with the name of the cation followed by the name of the anion. Salts are often referred to only by the name of the cation or by the name of the anion. g
4.
Fatty acid
–
In chemistry, particularly in biochemistry, a fatty acid is a carboxylic acid with a long aliphatic chain, which is either saturated or unsaturated. Most naturally occurring fatty acids have a chain of an even number of carbon atoms. Fatty acids are derived from triglycerides or phospholipids. Fatty acids are important dietary sources of fuel for animals because, many cell types can use either glucose or fatty acids for this purpose. Fatty acids that have double bonds are known as unsaturated. Fatty acids without double bonds are known as saturated and they differ in length as well. Fatty acid chains differ by length, often categorized as short to very long, short-chain fatty acids are fatty acids with aliphatic tails of five or fewer carbons. Medium-chain fatty acids are fatty acids with aliphatic tails of 6–12 carbons, long-chain fatty acids are fatty acids with aliphatic tails of 13 to 21 carbons. Very long chain fatty acids are fatty acids with aliphatic tails of 22 or more carbons, unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double bonds between carbon atoms. The two carbon atoms in the chain that are next to either side of the double bond can occur in a cis or trans configuration. Cis A cis configuration means that the two atoms adjacent to the double bond stick out on the same side of the chain. The rigidity of the double bond freezes its conformation and, in the case of the cis isomer, causes the chain to bend, the more double bonds the chain has in the cis configuration, the less flexibility it has. When a chain has many cis bonds, it becomes quite curved in its most accessible conformations, for example, oleic acid, with one double bond, has a kink in it, whereas linoleic acid, with two double bonds, has a more pronounced bend. α-Linolenic acid, with three bonds, favors a hooked shape. Trans A trans configuration, by contrast, means that the adjacent two hydrogen atoms lie on opposite sides of the chain, as a result, they do not cause the chain to bend much, and their shape is similar to straight saturated fatty acids. In most naturally occurring unsaturated fatty acids, each bond has three n carbon atoms after it, for some n, and all are cis bonds. Most fatty acids in the configuration are not found in nature and are the result of human processing. Fatty acids that are required by the body but cannot be made in sufficient quantity from other substrates
5.
Washing
–
Washing is a method of cleaning, usually with water and often some kind of soap or detergent. Washing both body and clothing is an part of good hygiene and health. Often people use soaps and detergents to assist in the emulsification of oils, the soap can be applied directly, or with the aid of a washcloth. People wash themselves, or bathe periodically, infants, the sick, and people with disabilities are bathed by a caregiver, but those that can wash themselves often do so. Often a shower or a bathtub is used for washing, people bathe naked under most circumstances, and commonly do so in the privacy of their home. In Europe, some use a bidet to wash their external genitalia. More frequent is washing of just the hands, e. g. before and after preparing food and eating, after using the toilet, after handling something dirty, etc. Hand washing is important in reducing the spread of germs. also common is washing the face, brushing ones teeth is also essential for hygiene and is a part of washing. Washing can also refer to the washing of clothing or other items, like bed sheets. It can also refer to washing ones car, by lathering the exterior with car soap, then rinsing it off with a hose, excessive washing may damage the hair or cause rough skin or skin lesions. Bathing Car wash Cleaning agent Cleanliness Hygiene Dishwashing Hand washing Laundry symbols, washing machine Sanitation Wikibooks, Car Washing Techniques
6.
Bathing
–
Bathing is the washing of the body with a fluid, usually water or an aqueous solution, or the immersion of the body in water. It may be practiced for personal hygiene, religious ritual or therapeutic purposes, by analogy, especially as a recreational activity, the term is also applied to sun bathing and sea bathing. Bathing can take place in any situation where there is water and it can take place in a bathtub or shower, or it can be in a river, lake, water hole, pool or the sea, or any other water receptacle. The term for the act can vary, the city of Bath is famous for its public baths fed by hydrothermal springs. Throughout history, societies devised systems to water to be brought to population centres. Ancient Indians used elaborate practices for personal hygiene with three daily baths and washing and these are recorded in the works called grihya sutras which are in practice even today in some communities. Ancient Greece utilized small bathtubs, wash basins, and foot baths for personal cleanliness, the earliest findings of baths date from the mid-2nd millennium BC in the palace complex at Knossos, Crete, and the luxurious alabaster bathtubs excavated in Akrotiri, Santorini. The Greeks established public baths and showers within gymnasiums for relaxation, in fact, the word gymnasium comes from the Greek word gymnos, meaning naked. Ancient Rome developed a network of aqueducts to supply water to all towns and population centres and had indoor plumbing, with pipes that terminated in homes and at public wells. The Roman public baths were called thermae, with the fall of the Roman Empire the aqueduct network fell into disrepair and most of it ceased to be used. Before the 7th century, the Japanese probably mostly bathed in the springs in the open. In the 6th to 8th centuries the Japanese took the religion of Buddhism from China, for every Buddhist temple traditionally included a bathhouse for the monks. These baths were opened in time to the rest of the population, only the wealthy had private baths. The first public bathhouse was mentioned in 1266, in Edo, the first sentō was established in 1591. The early steam baths or steam baths were called iwaburo or kamaburo and it was natural or artificial caves or stone vaults. In iwaburo along the coast, the rocks were heated by burning wood, the entrance to these bath houses was very small, so that the steam escaped. There were no windows, so it was dark inside. The darkness could be used for sexual contact
7.
Housekeeping
–
Housekeeping refers to the management of duties and chores involved in the running of a household, such as cleaning, cooking, home maintenance, shopping, laundry and bill pay. These tasks may be performed by any of the household members, the term is also used to refer to the money allocated for such use. By extension, an office or organization, as well as the maintenance of computer storage systems, a housekeeper is a person employed to manage a household, and the domestic staff. It includes activities such as housecleaning, that is, disposing of rubbish, cleaning dirty surfaces and it may also involve some outdoor chores, such as removing leaves from rain gutters, washing windows and sweeping doormats. The term housecleaning is often used figuratively in politics and business, for the removal of unwanted personnel. Housecleaning is done to make the look and smell better. Tools used in housecleaning include vacuums, brooms, mops and sponges, together with cleaning products such as detergents, disinfectants, disposal of rubbish is an important aspect of house cleaning. Plastic bags are designed and manufactured specifically for the collection of litter, many are sized to fit common waste baskets and trash cans. Paper bags are made to carry aluminum cans, glass jars and other things although most people use plastic bins for glass since it could break, recycling is possible with some kinds of litter. Over time dust accumulates on household surfaces, as well as making the surfaces dirty, when dust is disturbed it can become suspended in the air, causing sneezing and breathing trouble. It can also transfer from furniture to clothing, making it unclean, vacuum cleaners often have a variety of tools to enable them to remove dirt not just from carpets and rugs, but from hard surfaces and upholstery. Examples of dirt or soil are detritus and common spills and stains that exists in the home, equipment used with a cleaner might be a bucket and sponge or a rag. A modern tool is the bottle, but the principle is the same. Various household cleaning products have been developed to facilitate the removal of dust and dirt, for surface maintenance, Products are available in powder, liquid or spray form. The basic ingredients determine the type of cleaning tasks for which they are suitable, some are packaged as general purpose cleaning materials while others are targeted at specific cleaning tasks such as drain clearing, oven cleaning, lime scale removal and polishing furniture. Household cleaning products provide aesthetic and hygiene benefits but are associated with health risks for the users. The US Department of Health and Human Services offers the public access to the Household Products Database and this database provides consumer information for over 4,000 products based on information provided by the manufacturer through the material safety data sheet. Surfactants lower the tension of water, making it able to flow into smaller tiny cracks
8.
Surfactant
–
Surfactants are compounds that lower the surface tension between two liquids or between a liquid and a solid. Surfactants may act as detergents, wetting agents, emulsifiers, foaming agents, the term surfactant is a blend of surface active agent. In the United States National Library of Medicines Medical Subject Headings vocabulary, for the more general meaning, surface active agent/s is the heading. Surfactants are usually organic compounds that are amphiphilic, meaning they contain both hydrophobic groups and hydrophilic groups, therefore, a surfactant contains both a water-insoluble component and a water-soluble component. Surfactants will diffuse in water and adsorb at interfaces between air and water or at the interface between oil and water, in the case where water is mixed with oil. The water-insoluble hydrophobic group may extend out of the water phase, into the air or into the oil phase. World production of surfactants is estimated at 15 Mton/y, of which half are soaps. Other surfactants produced on a large scale are linear alkylbenzenesulfonates, lignin sulfonates, fatty alcohol ethoxylates. Other types of aggregates can also be formed, such as spherical or cylindrical micelles or lipid bilayers, the shape of the aggregates depends on the chemical structure of the surfactants, namely the balance in size between hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail. A measure of this is the HLB, Hydrophilic-lipophilic balance, Surfactants reduce the surface tension of water by adsorbing at the liquid-air interface. The relation that links the surface tension and the excess is known as the Gibbs isotherm. The dynamics of adsorption depend on the coefficient of the surfactant. As the interface is created, the adsorption is limited by the diffusion of the surfactant to the interface, in some cases, there can exist an energetic barrier to adsorption or desorption of the surfactant. If such a barrier limits the rate, the dynamics are said to be ‘kinetically limited. Such energy barriers can be due to steric or electrostatic repulsions, the surface rheology of surfactant layers, including the elasticity and viscosity of the layer, play an important role in the stability of foams and emulsions. Interfacial and surface tension can be characterized by classical methods such as the -pendant or spinning drop method, surface rheology can be characterized by the oscillating drop method or shear surface rheometers such as double-cone, double-ring or magnetic rod shear surface rheometer. In solution, detergents help solubilize a variety of species by dissociating aggregates. Popular surfactants in the laboratory are SDS and CTAB
9.
Emulsion
–
An emulsion is a mixture of two or more liquids that are normally immiscible. Emulsions are part of a general class of two-phase systems of matter called colloids. Although the terms colloid and emulsion are sometimes used interchangeably, emulsion should be used when both phases, dispersed and continuous, are liquids, in an emulsion, one liquid is dispersed in the other. Examples of emulsions include vinaigrettes, homogenized milk, mayonnaise, the word emulsion comes from the Latin word for to milk, as milk is an emulsion of fat and water, along with other components. Two liquids can form different types of emulsions, as an example, oil and water can form, first, an oil-in-water emulsion, wherein the oil is the dispersed phase, and water is the dispersion medium. Second, they can form an emulsion, wherein water is the dispersed phase. Multiple emulsions are also possible, including a water-in-oil-in-water emulsion and an oil-in-water-in-oil emulsion, emulsions, being liquids, do not exhibit a static internal structure. The droplets dispersed in the matrix are usually assumed to be statistically distributed. The term emulsion is used to refer to the photo-sensitive side of photographic film. Such a photographic emulsion consist of silver halide colloidal particles dispersed in a gelatin matrix, nuclear emulsions are similar to photographic emulsions, except that they are used in particle physics to detect high-energy elementary particles. Emulsions contain both a dispersed and a phase, with the boundary between the phases called the interface. Emulsions tend to have an appearance because the many phase interfaces scatter light as it passes through the emulsion. Emulsions appear white when all light is scattered equally, if the emulsion is dilute enough, higher-frequency and low-wavelength light will be scattered more, and the emulsion will appear bluer – this is called the Tyndall effect. If the emulsion is concentrated enough, the color will be distorted toward comparatively longer wavelengths and this phenomenon is easily observable when comparing skimmed milk, which contains little fat, to cream, which contains a much higher concentration of milk fat. One example would be a mixture of water and oil, two special classes of emulsions – microemulsions and nanoemulsions, with droplet sizes below 100 nm – appear translucent. This property is due to the fact that lightwaves are scattered by the only if their sizes exceed about one-quarter of the wavelength of the incident light. Due to their similarity in appearance, translucent nanoemulsions and microemulsions are frequently confused, the required surfactant concentration in a microemulsion is, however, several times higher than that in a translucent nanoemulsion, and significantly exceeds the concentration of the dispersed phase. Because of many undesirable side-effects caused by surfactants, their presence is disadvantageous or prohibitive in many applications, in addition, the stability of a microemulsion is often easily compromised by dilution, by heating, or by changing pH levels
10.
Alkyl
–
In organic chemistry, an alkyl substituent is an alkane missing one hydrogen. The term alkyl is intentionally unspecific to include many possible substitutions, an acyclic alkyl has the general formula CnH2n+1. A cycloalkyl is derived from a cycloalkane by removal of an atom from a ring and has the general formula CnH2n-1. Typically an alkyl is a part of a larger molecule, in structural formula, the symbol R is used to designate a generic alkyl group. The smallest alkyl group is methyl, with the formula CH3−, the word root alkyl is encountered in several contexts. Alkylation is an important operation in refineries, for example in the production of high-octane gasoline, alkylating antineoplastic agents refer to a class of compounds that are used to treat cancer. In such case, the alkyl is used loosely. For example, nitrogen mustards are well-known alkylating agents, but they are more complex than a mere hydrocarbon, in chemistry, alkyl refers to a group, a substituent, that is attached to other molecular fragments. For example, alkyl lithium reagents have the empirical formula Li, a dialkyl ether is an ether with two alkyl groups, e. g. diethyl ether. In medicinal chemistry, the incorporation of alkyl chains into some chemical compounds increases their lipophilicity and this strategy has been used to increase the antimicrobial activity of flavanones and chalcones. Usually alkyl groups are attached to atoms or groups of atoms. Free alkyls occur as neutral compounds, as anions, or as cations, the neutral alkyl free radicals have no special name. Such species are encountered only as transient intermediates, but some are quite stable. Typically alkyl cations are generated using super acids, alkyl anions are observed in the presence of strong bases, alkyls are commonly observed in mass spectrometry of organic compounds. The simplest series have the general formula CnH2n+1, alkyls include methyl, CH3·, ethyl, propyl, butyl, pentyl, and so on. Alkyl groups that one ring have the formula CnH2n−1, e. g. cyclopropyl and cyclohexyl. First, five atoms comprise the longest straight chain of carbon centers, the parent five-carbon compound is named pentane. The methyl substituent or group is highlighted red, according to the usual rules of nomenclature, alkyl groups are included in the name of the molecule before the root, as in methylpentane
11.
Naphthenic acid
–
Naphthenic acid is the name for an unspecific mixture of several cyclopentyl and cyclohexyl carboxylic acids with molecular weight of 120 to well over 700 atomic mass units. The main fraction are carboxylic acids with a backbone of 9 to 20 carbons. McKee et al. claim that naphthenic acids are primarily cycloaliphatic carboxylic acids with 10 to 16 carbons, salts of naphthenic acids, which are naphthenates, are widely used as hydrophobic sources of metal ions in diverse applications. Aluminium salts of naphthenic acid and palmitic acid were combined during World War II to produce napalm, the word napalm is derived from the words naphthenic acid and palmitic acid. They are obtained by oxidation of the fraction of the crude oil refining. The composition varies with the oil composition and the conditions during refining. Naphthenic acids are present in crude oil, fractions that are rich in naphthenic acids can cause corrosion damage to oil refinery equipment, the phenomenon of naphthenic acid corrosion has therefore been well researched. Crude oils with a content of naphthenic acids are often referred to as high total acid number crude oils or high acid crude oil. Naphthenic acids are the major contaminant in water produced from the extraction of oil from Athabasca oil sands, naphthenic acids have both acute and chronic toxicity to fish and other organisms. Naphthenic acids are present in Athabasca oil sands tailings pond water at a concentration of 81 mg/l. However, damage induced by NAs while transient in acute or discontinuous exposure, naphthenates are the salts of naphthenic acids. Analogous to the acetate, which are better defined but less useful. They have the formula M2 or are basic oxides with the formula M3O6, the naphthenates are highly soluble in organic media, such as paints. Industrially useful naphthenates include those of aluminium, magnesium, calcium, barium, cobalt, copper, lead, manganese, nickel, vanadium, and zinc
12.
Lithium stearate
–
Lithium stearate is a chemical compound with the formula LiO2C16CH3. It is formally classified as a soap, lithium stearate is a white soft solid, prepared by the reaction of lithium hydroxide and stearic acid. Lithium stearate and lithium 12-hydroxystearate are lithium soaps, and are components of lithium grease
13.
Grease (lubricant)
–
Grease generally consists of a soap emulsified with mineral or vegetable oil. This change in viscosity is called shear thinning, for example, petroleum jellies such as Vaseline are not generally classified as greases. Greases are applied to mechanisms that can only be lubricated infrequently and they also act as sealants to prevent ingress of water and incompressible materials. Grease-lubricated bearings have greater frictional characteristics due to their high viscosity, a true grease consists of an oil and/or other fluid lubricant that is mixed with a thickener, typically a soap, to form a solid or semisolid. Greases are a type of shear-thinning or pseudo-plastic fluid, which means that the viscosity of the fluid is reduced under shear, after sufficient force to shear the grease has been applied, the viscosity drops and approaches that of the base lubricant, such as the mineral oil. This sudden drop in shear force means that grease is considered a fluid. It is often applied using a gun, which applies the grease to the part being lubricated under pressure. Soaps are the most common emulsifying agent used, and the selection of the type of soap is determined by the application, soaps include calcium stearate, sodium stearate, lithium stearate, as well as mixtures of these components. Fatty acids derivatives other than stearates are also used, especially lithium 12-hydroxystearate, the nature of the soaps influences the temperature resistance, water resistance, and chemical stability of the resulting grease. Powdered solids may also be used as thickeners, especially as clays, fatty oil-based greases have also been prepared with other thickeners, such as tar, graphite, or mica, which also increase the durability of the grease. Lithium-based greases are the most commonly used, sodium and lithium-based greases have higher melting point than calcium-based greases but are not resistant to the action of water, lithium-based grease has a dropping point at 190 to 220 °C. However the maximum temperature for lithium-based grease is 120 °C. The amount of grease in a sample can be determined in a laboratory by extraction with a solvent followed by e. g. gravimetric determination, gear greases consist of rosin oil, condensed with lime and stirred with mineral oil, with some percentage of water. Special-purpose greases contain glycerol and sorbitan esters and they are used, for example, in low-temperature conditions. Some greases are labeled EP, which indicates extreme pressure, under high pressure or shock loading, normal grease can be compressed to the extent that the greased parts come into physical contact, causing friction and wear. EP grease contains solid lubricants, usually graphite and/or molybdenum disulfide, the solid lubricants bond to the surface of the metal, and prevent metal-to-metal contact and the resulting friction and wear when the lubricant film gets too thin. These compounds are working as a release agent, all solid additives can not be used in bearings because due to tight tolerances only plain grease or oil are allowed. Solid additives will cause reinforced wear of bearings, grease from the early Egyptian or Roman eras is thought to have been prepared by combining lime with olive oil
14.
Calcium stearate
–
Calcium stearate is carboxylate of calcium, classified as a calcium soap. It is a component of some lubricants, surfactants, as well as many foodstuffs and it is a white waxy powder. Unlike soaps containing sodium and potassium, calcium stearate is insoluble in water, commercially it is sold as a 50% dispersion in water or as a spray dried powder. As a food additive it is known by the generic E number E470, calcium stearate is a waxy material with low solubility in water, unlike traditional sodium and potassium soaps. It is also easy and cheap to produce, and exhibits low toxicity and these attributes are the basis of many of its applications. Related applications exist for the magnesium stearate, calcium stearate is used as a flow agent and surface conditioner in some candies such as Smarties, jawbreakers and Sprees. It a waterproofing agent for fabrics, a lubricant in pencils and crayons. The concrete industry uses calcium stearate for efflorescence control of products used in the production of concrete masonry units i. e. paver and block. In paper production, calcium stearate is used as a lubricant to provide good gloss, preventing dusting and fold cracking in paper, in plastics, it can act as an acid scavenger or neutralizer at concentrations up to 1000ppm, a lubricant and a release agent. It may be used in plastic colorant concentrates to improve pigment wetting, in rigid PVC, it can accelerate fusion, improve flow, and reduce die swell. Applications in the care and pharmaceutical industry include tablet mold release, anti-tack agent. Calcium stearate is a component in some types of defoamers
15.
Lime (material)
–
Lime is a calcium-containing inorganic material in which carbonates, oxides, and hydroxides predominate. In the strict sense of the term, lime is calcium oxide or calcium hydroxide and it is also the name of the natural mineral CaO which occurs as a product of coal seam fires and in altered limestone xenoliths in volcanic ejecta. The word lime originates with its earliest use as building mortar and has the sense of sticking or adhering and these materials are still used in large quantities as building and engineering materials, as chemical feedstocks, and for sugar refining, among other uses. Lime industries and the use of many of the resulting products date from prehistoric times in both the Old World and the New World, Lime is used extensively for wastewater treatment with ferrous sulfate. The rocks and minerals from which these materials are derived, typically limestone or chalk, are composed primarily of calcium carbonate and they may be cut, crushed or pulverized and chemically altered. Lime kilns are the used for lime burning and slaking. When the term is encountered in a context, it usually refers to agricultural lime. Otherwise it most commonly means slaked lime, as the dangerous form is usually described more specifically as quicklime or burnt lime. In the lime industry, limestone is a term for rocks that contain 80% or more of calcium or magnesium carbonates, including marble, chalk, oolite. Further classification is by composition as high calcium, argillaceous, silicious, conglomerate, magnesian, dolomite, uncommon sources of lime include coral, sea shells, calcite, and ankerite. Limestone is extracted from quarries or mines, dry slaking is when quicklime is slaked with just enough water to hydrate the quicklime, but remain as a powder and is referred to as hydrated lime. In wet slaking, enough water, but not too much, is added to hydrate the quicklime to a referred to as lime putty. Because lime has a property with bricks and stones, it is often used as binding material in masonry works. It is also used in whitewashing as wall coat to adhere the whitewash onto the wall, the process by which limestone is converted to quicklime by heating, then to slaked lime by hydration, and naturally reverts to calcium carbonate by carbonation is called the lime cycle. The conditions and compounds present during each step of the cycle have a strong influence of the end product, thus the complex. An example is when slaked lime is mixed into a slurry with sand. When the masonry has been laid, the lime in the mortar slowly begins to react with carbon dioxide to form calcium carbonate according to the reaction. The carbon dioxide that takes part in reaction is principally available in the air or dissolved in rainwater so pure lime mortar will not recarbonate under water or inside a thick masonry wall
16.
Rheology
–
The term rheology was coined by Eugene C. Bingham, a professor at Lafayette College, in 1920, from a suggestion by a colleague, the term was inspired by the aphorism of Simplicius, panta rhei, everything flows, and was first used to describe the flow of liquids and the deformation of solids. Newtonian fluids can be characterized by a coefficient of viscosity for a specific temperature. Although this viscosity will change with temperature, it does not change with the strain rate, only a small group of fluids exhibit such constant viscosity. The large class of fluids whose viscosity changes with the rate are called non-Newtonian fluids. For example, ketchup can have its viscosity reduced by shaking, ketchup is a shear thinning material, like yogurt and emulsion paint, exhibiting thixotropy, where an increase in relative flow velocity will cause a reduction in viscosity, for example, by stirring. Some other non-Newtonian materials show the behavior, rheopecty, viscosity going up with relative deformation. Since Sir Isaac Newton originated the concept of viscosity, the study of liquids with strain rate dependent viscosity is also often called Non-Newtonian fluid mechanics, materials with the characteristics of a fluid will flow when subjected to a stress which is defined as the force per area. There are different sorts of stress and materials can respond differently for different stresses, much of theoretical rheology is concerned with associating external forces and torques with internal stresses and internal strain gradients and flow velocities. In this sense, a solid undergoing plastic deformation is a fluid, granular rheology refers to the continuum mechanical description of granular materials. These experimental techniques are known as rheometry and are concerned with the determination with well-defined rheological material functions, such relationships are then amenable to mathematical treatment by the established methods of continuum mechanics. The characterization of flow or deformation originating from a shear stress field is called shear rheometry. The study of extensional flows is called extensional rheology, shear flows are much easier to study and thus much more experimental data are available for shear flows than for extensional flows. A rheologist is an interdisciplinary scientist or engineer who studies the flow of liquids or the deformation of soft solids. It is not a degree subject, there is no qualification of rheologist as such. Most rheologists have a qualification in mathematics, the sciences, engineering, medicine, or certain technologies. Elasticity is essentially a time independent processes, as the strains appear the moment the stress is applied, if the material deformation rate increases linearly with increasing applied stress, then the material is viscous in the Newtonian sense. These materials are characterized due to the delay between the applied constant stress and the maximum strain
17.
Micelle
–
A micelle or micella is an aggregate of surfactant molecules dispersed in a liquid colloid. A typical micelle in aqueous solution forms an aggregate with the hydrophilic head regions in contact with surrounding solvent and this phase is caused by the packing behavior of single-tail lipids in a bilayer. This type of micelle is known as a normal-phase micelle, inverse micelles have the head groups at the centre with the tails extending out. Micelles are approximately spherical in shape, other phases, including shapes such as ellipsoids, cylinders, and bilayers, are also possible. The shape and size of a micelle are a function of the geometry of its surfactant molecules and solution conditions such as surfactant concentration, temperature, pH. The process of forming micelles is known as micellisation and forms part of the behaviour of many lipids according to their polymorphism. The ability of a solution to act as a detergent has been recognized for centuries. However, it is only at the beginning of the century that the constitution of such solutions was scientifically studied. Pioneering work in area was carried out by James William McBain at the University of Bristol. As early as 1913, he postulated the existence of “colloidal ions” to explain the good conductivity of sodium palmitate solutions. Individual surfactant molecules that are in the system but are not part of a micelle are called monomers, Micelles represent a molecular assembly, in which the individual components are thermodynamically in equilibrium with monomers of the same species in the surrounding medium. In water, the heads of surfactant molecules are always in contact with the solvent. However, the tails of surfactant molecules have less contact with water when they are part of a micelle—this being the basis for the energetic drive for micelle formation. In a micelle, the tails of several surfactant molecules assemble into an oil-like core. By contrast, surfactant monomers are surrounded by water molecules that create a cage or solvation shell connected by hydrogen bonds and this water cage is similar to a clathrate and has an ice-like crystal structure and can be characterized according to the hydrophobic effect. The extent of solubility is determined by the unfavorable entropy contribution due to the ordering of the water structure according to the hydrophobic effect. Micelles composed of ionic surfactants have an attraction to the ions that surround them in solution. Although the closest counterions partially mask a charged micelle, the effects of micelle charge affect the structure of the surrounding solvent at appreciable distances from the micelle, ionic micelles influence many properties of the mixture, including its electrical conductivity
18.
Hydrophile
–
A hydrophile is a molecule or other molecular entity that is attracted to water molecules and tends to be dissolved by water. In contrast, hydrophobes are not attracted to water and may seem to be repelled by it and they are typically charge-polarized and capable of hydrogen bonding. This makes these molecules soluble not only in water but also in polar solvents. Hydrophilic molecules can be contrasted with hydrophobic molecules, in some cases, both hydrophilic and hydrophobic properties occur in a single molecule. An example of these molecules is the lipids that comprise the cell membrane. Another example is soap, which has a head and a hydrophobic tail. Hydrophilic and hydrophobic molecules are known as polar molecules and nonpolar molecules. Some hydrophilic substances do not dissolve and this type of mixture is called a colloid. Hydrophilic substances can seem to attract water out of the air, sugar is also hydrophilic, and like salt is sometimes used to draw water out of foods. Sugar sprinkled on cut fruit will draw out the water through hydrophilia, making the fruit mushy and wet, liquid hydrophilic chemicals complexed with solid chemicals can be used to optimize solubility of hydrophobic chemicals. Hydroxyl groups, found in alcohols, are polar and therefore hydrophilic, the molecule increasingly becomes overall more nonpolar and therefore less soluble in the polar water as the carbon chain becomes longer. Methanol has the shortest carbon chain of all alcohols followed by ethanol, tert-Butyl alcohol, with four carbon atoms, is the only one among its isomers to be miscible with water. Cyclodextrins are used to make pharmaceutical solutions by capturing hydrophobic molecules as guest hosts, because inclusion compounds of cyclodextrins with hydrophobic molecules are able to penetrate body tissues, these can be used to release biologically active compounds under specific conditions. Hydrophilic membrane filtration is used in industries to filter various liquids. These hydrophilic filters are used in the medical, industrial, and biochemical fields to filter such elements as bacteria, viruses, proteins, particulates, drugs, common hydrophilic molecules include colloids, cotton, and cellulose. Unlike other membranes, hydrophilic membranes do not require pre-wetting, they can filter liquids in their dry state, although most are used in low-heat filtration processes, many new hydrophilic membrane fabrics are used to filter hot liquids and fluids. Hydrophilic-lipophilic balance Hydrophobicity scales Super hydrophilicity Ultrahydrophobicity Wetting
19.
Saponification
–
Saponification is a process that produces soap, usually from fats and lye. Vegetable oils and animal fats are the materials that are saponified. These greasy materials, triesters called triglycerides, are derived from diverse fatty acids. Triglycerides can be converted to soap in either a one- or a two-step process, in the traditional one-step process, the triglyceride is treated with a strong base, which accelerates cleavage of the ester bond and releases the fatty acid salt and glycerol. This process is the industrial method for producing glycerol. If necessary, soaps may be precipitated by salting it out with saturated sodium chloride, the saponification value is the amount of base required to saponify a fat sample. This process is common where the amount of fatty tissue is high. The mechanism by which esters are cleaved by base involves a series of equilibria, the hydroxide anion adds to the carbonyl group of the ester. Saponification to the salt of myristic acid takes place with NaOH in water. The acid itself can be obtained by adding hydrochloric acid. Triglycerides are also saponified in a process that begins with steam hydrolysis of the triglyceride. This process gives the acid, not its salt, as well as glycerol. Subsequently, the fatty acid is neutralized with alkali to give the soap, the advantage of the two-step process is that the fatty acids can be purified, which leads to soaps of improved quality. Steam hydrolysis proceeds via a similar to the base-catalyzed route. The process is slower, hence steam is required, depending on the nature of the alkali used in their production, soaps have distinct properties. Sodium hydroxide gives hard soap, hard soaps can also be used in water containing Mg, Cl, by contrast, when potassium hydroxide is used, a soft soap is formed. The fatty acid source also affects the melting point. As in the triglycerides they are formed from, the salts of these acids have weaker inter-molecular forces, lithium derivatives of 12-hydroxystearate and several other carboxylic acids are important constituents of lubricating greases
20.
Lye
–
A lye is a liquid metal hydroxide obtained by leaching ashes, or a strong alkali which is highly soluble in water producing caustic basic solutions. Lye is commonly an alternative name of sodium hydroxide or historically potassium hydroxide, today, lye is commercially manufactured using a membrane cell chloralkali process. It is one of the industrial chemicals with worldwide annual production of 45 million tons in 1998. It is supplied in various such as flakes, pellets, microbeads. In the United States, food-grade lye must meet the requirements outlined in the Food Chemicals Codex, as prescribed by the U. S. Food, lower grades of lye which are unsuitable for use in food preparation are commonly used as drain de-cloggers and oven cleaners. Lye in the form of sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide is used in making soap. Sodium hydroxide is used to make solid soap, while potassium hydroxide is used to make liquid soap. Potassium hydroxide soaps are softer and more easily dissolved in water than sodium hydroxide soaps, sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide are not interchangeable in either the proportions required or the properties produced in making soaps. The cold process method is used to make soap from lye. The lye is mixed with water, and then base oils, butters, the gradual chemical reaction between the lye and the fats eventually produces a solid soap. Hot process soap making also uses lye as the main ingredient, lye is added to water, cooled for a few minutes and then added to oils and butters. The lye is then cooked over a period of time, typically in a slow cooker and this method is much quicker than cold process, as it takes several weeks to complete. The ancient use of lye for soap-making and as a detergent is the origin of the English word, deriving from Proto-Germanic *laugo and ultimately from the Proto-Indo-European root *leue-, to wash. Relatives in other Germanic languages, besides their words for lye, include the Scandinavian languages words for Saturday, lyes are also valued for their cleaning effects. Sodium hydroxide is commonly the major constituent in commercial and industrial cleaners and clogged drain openers. Lyes decompose greases via alkaline ester hydrolysis, yielding water-soluble residues that are removed by rinsing. Sodium or potassium hydroxide can be used to digest tissues of animal carcasses or deceased humans, sodium hydroxide is frequently used in the process of decomposing roadkill dumped in landfills by animal disposal contractors. Due to its low cost and availability, it has used to dispose of corpses by criminals
21.
Hydrolysis
–
Hydrolysis usually means the cleavage of chemical bonds by the addition of water. When a carbohydrate is broken into its component sugar molecules by hydrolysis, generally, hydrolysis or saccharification is a step in the degradation of a substance. Hydrolysis can be the reverse of a reaction in which two molecules join together into a larger one and eject a water molecule. Thus hydrolysis adds water to break down, whereas condensation builds up by removing water, usually hydrolysis is a chemical process in which a molecule of water is added to a substance. Sometimes this addition causes both substance and water molecule to split into two parts, in such reactions, one fragment of the target molecule gains a hydrogen ion. A common kind of hydrolysis occurs when a salt of an acid or weak base is dissolved in water. Water spontaneously ionizes into hydroxide anions and hydronium cations, the salt also dissociates into its constituent anions and cations. For example, sodium acetate dissociates in water into sodium and acetate ions, sodium ions react very little with the hydroxide ions whereas the acetate ions combine with hydronium ions to produce acetic acid. In this case the net result is an excess of hydroxide ions. For example, dissolving sulfuric acid in water is accompanied by hydrolysis to give hydronium and bisulfate, for a more technical discussion of what occurs during such a hydrolysis, see Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory. Acid–base-catalysed hydrolyses are very common, one example is the hydrolysis of amides or esters and their hydrolysis occurs when the nucleophile attacks the carbon of the carbonyl group of the ester or amide. In an aqueous base, hydroxyl ions are better nucleophiles than polar molecules such as water, in acids, the carbonyl group becomes protonated, and this leads to a much easier nucleophilic attack. The products for both hydrolyses are compounds with carboxylic acid groups, perhaps the oldest commercially practiced example of ester hydrolysis is saponification. It is the hydrolysis of a triglyceride with a base such as sodium hydroxide. During the process, glycerol is formed, and the fatty acids react with the base and these salts are called soaps, commonly used in households. In addition, in living systems, most biochemical reactions take place during the catalysis of enzymes, the catalytic action of enzymes allows the hydrolysis of proteins, fats, oils, and carbohydrates. As an example, one may consider proteases and they catalyse the hydrolysis of interior peptide bonds in peptide chains, as opposed to exopeptidases. However, proteases do not catalyse the hydrolysis of all kinds of proteins and their action is stereo-selective, Only proteins with a certain tertiary structure are targeted as some kind of orienting force is needed to place the amide group in the proper position for catalysis
22.
Glycerol
–
Glycerol /ˈɡlɪsərɒl/ is a simple polyol compound. It is a colorless, odorless, viscous liquid that is sweet-tasting, the glycerol backbone is found in all lipids known as triglycerides. It is widely used in the industry as a sweetener and humectant. Glycerol has three groups that are responsible for its solubility in water and its hygroscopic nature. Although achiral, glycerol is prochiral with respect to reactions of one of the two primary alcohols, thus, in substituted derivatives, the stereospecific numbering labels each carbon as either sn-1, sn-2, or sn-3. Glycerol is generally obtained from plant and animal sources where it occurs as triglycerides, triglycerides are esters of glycerol with long-chain carboxylic acids. Approximately 950,000 tons per year are produced in the United States and it was projected in 2006 that by the year 2020, production would be six times more than demand. Glycerol from triglycerides is produced on a scale, but the crude product is of variable quality. It can be purified, but the process is expensive, some glycerol is burned for energy, but its heat value is low. High purity glycerol is obtained by distillation, vacuum is helpful due to the high boiling point of glycerol. Although usually not cost-effective, glycerol can be produced by various routes from propylene and this epichlorohydrin is then hydrolyzed to give glycerol. Chlorine-free processes from propylene include the synthesis of glycerol from acrolein, because of the large-scale production of biodiesel from fats, where glycerol is a waste product, the market for glycerol is depressed. Thus, synthetic processes are not economical, owing to oversupply, efforts are being made to convert glycerol to synthetic precursors, such as acrolein and epichlorohydrin. In food and beverages, glycerol serves as a humectant, solvent, and sweetener and it is also used as filler in commercially prepared low-fat foods, and as a thickening agent in liqueurs. Glycerol and water are used to preserve certain types of plant leaves, as a sugar substitute, it has approximately 27 kilocalories per teaspoon and is 60% as sweet as sucrose. It does not feed the bacteria that form plaques and cause dental cavities, as a food additive, glycerol is labeled as E number E422. It is added to icing to prevent it from setting too hard, as used in foods, glycerol is categorized by the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics as a carbohydrate. The U. S. Food and Drug Administration carbohydrate designation includes all caloric macronutrients excluding protein, glycerol is used in medical, pharmaceutical and personal care preparations, mainly as a means of improving smoothness, providing lubrication, and as a humectant
23.
Potassium hydroxide
–
Potassium hydroxide is an inorganic compound with the formula KOH, and is commonly called caustic potash. Along with sodium hydroxide, this solid is a prototypical strong base. It has many industrial and niche applications, most of which exploit its corrosive nature, an estimated 700,000 to 800,000 tonnes were produced in 2005. Approximately 100 times more NaOH than KOH is produced annually, KOH is noteworthy as the precursor to most soft and liquid soaps as well as numerous potassium-containing chemicals. Potassium hydroxide can be found in form by reacting sodium hydroxide with impure potassium. It is usually sold as translucent pellets, which will become tacky in air because KOH is hygroscopic, consequently, KOH typically contains varying amounts of water. Its dissolution in water is strongly exothermic, concentrated aqueous solutions are sometimes called potassium lyes. Even at high temperatures, solid KOH does not dehydrate readily, potassium hydroxide solutions with concentrations of approximately 0.5 to 2. 0% are irritating when coming into contact with the skin, while concentrations higher than 2% are corrosive. At higher temperatures, solid KOH crystallizes in the NaCl crystal structure, the OH group is either rapidly or randomly disordered so that the OH− group is effectively a spherical anion of radius 1.53 Å. At room temperature, the OH− groups are ordered and the environment about the K+ centers is distorted, with K+—OH− distances ranging from 2.69 to 3.15 Å, depending on the orientation of the OH group. KOH forms a series of crystalline hydrates, namely the monohydrate KOH·H 2O, the dihydrate KOH·2 H 2O, approximately 121 g of KOH will dissolve in 100 mL of water at room temperature compared with 100 g of NaOH in the same volume. Lower molecular weight alcohols such as methanol, ethanol, and propanols are also excellent solvents, because of its high affinity for water, KOH serves as a desiccant in the laboratory. It is often used to dry basic solvents, especially amines and pyridines, like NaOH, KOH exhibits high thermal stability. Because of its stability and relatively low melting point, it is often melt-cast as pellets or rods, forms that have low surface area. KOH is highly basic, forming strongly alkaline solutions in water and other polar solvents and these solutions are capable of deprotonating many acids, even weak ones. In analytical chemistry, titrations using solutions of KOH are used to assay acids, KOH, like NaOH, serves as a source of OH−, a highly nucleophilic anion that attacks polar bonds in both inorganic and organic materials. In perhaps its most well-known reaction, aqueous KOH saponifies esters, KOH + RCO2R → RCO2K + ROH When R is a long chain and this reaction is manifested by the greasy feel that KOH gives when touched — fats on the skin are rapidly converted to soap and glycerol. Molten KOH is used to displace halides and other leaving groups, the reaction is especially useful for aromatic reagents to give the corresponding phenols
24.
Bracken
–
Bracken is a genus of large, coarse ferns in the family Dennstaedtiaceae. Ferns are vascular plants that have alternating generations, large plants that produce spores, brackens are noted for their large, highly divided leaves. They are found on all continents except Antarctica and in all environments except deserts, the genus probably has the widest distribution of any fern in the world. In the past, the genus was treated as having only one species, Pteridium aquilinum. Like other ferns, brackens do not have seeds or fruits, the word bracken is of Old Norse origin, related to Swedish bräken and Danish bregne, both meaning fern. Evolutionarily, bracken may be considered one of the most successful ferns, Bracken, like heather, is typically found in moorland environments, and is commonly referred to by local populations in the north of England as Moorland Scrub. It is also one of the oldest ferns, with fossil records over 55 million years old having been found, the plant sends up large, triangular fronds from a wide-creeping underground rootstock, and may form dense thickets. This rootstock may travel a metre or more underground between fronds, the fronds may grow up to 2.5 m long or longer with support, but typically are in the range of 0. 6–2 m high. In cold environments, bracken is deciduous and, as it requires well-drained soil, is found growing on the sides of hills. The spores are contained in structures found on the underside of the leaf called sori, the linear pattern of these is different from other ferns which are circular and towards the centre. Pteridium aquilinum is the most common species with a distribution, occurring in temperate. It is a prolific and abundant plant in the moorlands of Great Britain and it does not like poorly drained marshes or fen. It has been observed growing in soils from pH2.8 to 8.6, exposure to cold or high pH inhibits its growth. It causes such a problem of invading pastureland that at one time the British government had an eradication programme, special filters have even been used on some British water supplies to filter out the bracken spores. It is toxic to cattle, dogs, sheep, pigs and it can harbour high levels of sheep ticks, which can pass on Lyme Disease. Grazing provided some control by stock trampling but this has almost ceased since foot, global climatic changes have also suited bracken well and contributed to its rapid increase in land coverage. Bracken is a pioneer plant which can colonise land quickly. This ability to expand rapidly is at the expense of other plants and wildlife and it colonises ground with an open vegetation structure but is slow to colonise healthy, well managed heather stands
25.
Triglyceride
–
A triglyceride is an ester derived from glycerol and three fatty acids. Triglycerides are the constituents of body fat in humans and other animals. They are also present in the blood to enable the bidirectional transference of adipose fat and blood glucose from the liver, there are many different types of triglyceride, with the main division between saturated and unsaturated types. Saturated fats are saturated with hydrogen – all available places where hydrogen atoms could be bonded to carbon atoms are occupied and these have a higher melting point and are more likely to be solid at room temperature. Unsaturated fats have double bonds between some of the atoms, reducing the number of places where hydrogen atoms can bond to carbon atoms. These have a melting point and are more likely to be liquid at room temperature. Triglycerides are chemically tri esters of fatty acids and glycerol. Triglycerides are formed by combining glycerol with three fatty acid molecules, organic acids have a carboxyl group. Alcohols and organic acids join to form esters, the glycerol molecule has three hydroxyl groups. Each fatty acid has a carboxyl group, the chain lengths of the fatty acids in naturally occurring triglycerides vary, but most contain 16,18, or 20 carbon atoms. Bacteria, however, possess the ability to synthesise odd- and branched-chain fatty acids, as a result, ruminant animal fat contains odd-numbered fatty acids, such as 15, due to the action of bacteria in the rumen. Many fatty acids are unsaturated, some are polyunsaturated, most natural fats contain a complex mixture of individual triglycerides. Because of this, they melt over a range of temperatures. Cocoa butter is unusual in that it is composed of only a few triglycerides, derived from palmitic, oleic, and stearic acids in the 1-, 2-, the simplest triglycerides are those where the three fatty acids are identical. Their names indicate the fatty acid, stearin derived from acid, palmitin derived from palmitic acid. These compounds can be obtained as three forms or polymorphs, α, β, and β′ and these forms differ in terms of their melting points. If the first and third chain R and R″ are different, then the carbon atom is a chiral centre. The pancreatic lipase acts at the bond, hydrolysing the bond. In triglyceride form, lipids cannot be absorbed by the duodenum, fatty acids, monoglycerides, and some diglycerides are absorbed by the duodenum, once the triglycerides have been broken down
26.
Ester
–
In chemistry, esters are chemical compounds derived from an acid in which at least one –OH group is replaced by an –O–alkyl group. Usually, esters are derived from an acid and an alcohol. Glycerides, which are fatty acid esters of glycerol, are important esters in biology, being one of the classes of lipids. Esters with low weight are commonly used as fragrances and found in essential oils. Phosphoesters form the backbone of DNA molecules, nitrate esters, such as nitroglycerin, are known for their explosive properties, while polyesters are important plastics, with monomers linked by ester moieties. The word ester was coined in 1848 by German chemist Leopold Gmelin, probably as a contraction of the German Essigäther, ester names are derived from the parent alcohol and the parent acid, where the latter may be organic or inorganic. Esters derived from more complex carboxylic acids are, on the hand, more frequently named using the systematic IUPAC name. For example, the ester hexyl octanoate, also known under the trivial name hexyl caprylate, has the formula CH36CO25CH3, the chemical formulas of organic esters usually take the form RCO2R′, where R and R′ are the hydrocarbon parts of the carboxylic acid and the alcohol, respectively. For example, butyl acetate, derived from butanol and acetic acid would be written CH3CO2C4H9, alternative presentations are common including BuOAc and CH3COOC4H9. Cyclic esters are called lactones, regardless of whether they are derived from an organic or an inorganic acid, one example of a lactone is γ-valerolactone. An uncommon class of organic esters are the orthoesters, which have the formula RC3, triethylorthoformate is derived, in terms of its name from orthoformic acid and ethanol. Esters can also be derived from an acid and an alcohol. For example, triphenyl phosphate is the derived from phosphoric acid. Organic carbonates are derived from acid, for example, ethylene carbonate is derived from carbonic acid. So far an alcohol and inorganic acid are linked via oxygen atoms, in corollary, boron features borinic esters, boronic esters, and borates. As oxygen is a group 16 chemical element, sulfur atoms can replace some oxygen atoms in carbon–oxygen–central inorganic atom covalent bonds of an ester, esters contain a carbonyl center, which gives rise to 120 ° C–C–O and O–C–O angles. Unlike amides, esters are structurally flexible functional groups because rotation about the C–O–C bonds has a low barrier and their flexibility and low polarity is manifested in their physical properties, they tend to be less rigid and more volatile than the corresponding amides. The pKa of the alpha-hydrogens on esters is around 25, the preference for the Z conformation is influenced by the nature of the substituents and solvent, if present
27.
Tallow
–
Tallow is a rendered form of beef or mutton fat, processed from suet. It is solid at room temperature, unlike suet, tallow can be stored for extended periods without the need for refrigeration to prevent decomposition, provided it is kept in an airtight container to prevent oxidation. In industry, tallow is not strictly defined as beef or mutton fat, in this context, tallow is animal fat that conforms to certain technical criteria, including its melting point. It is common for commercial tallow to contain fat derived from animals, such as lard from pigs. The diagram to the shows the chemical structure of a typical triglyceride molecule. Tallow is used mainly in producing soap and animal feed, tallow can be used for the production of biodiesel in much the same way as oils from plants are currently used. Because tallow is derived from animal by-products which have little to no value to food industries. The United States Air Force has experimented successfully with the use of tallow in aviation biofuels. During five days of flight testing from August 23 to 27,2010, at Edwards Air Force Base, California, a significant use of tallow is for the production of shortening. It is one of the ingredients of Native American food called pemmican. Tallow is sometimes used in deep frying in place of other oils, before switching to pure vegetable oil in 1990, the McDonalds corporation cooked its French fries in a mixture of 93% beef tallow and 7% cottonseed oil. Many items of goods are produced from tallow, which was widely available domestically. Tallow can also be used as flux for soldering and it is also the primary ingredient in some leather conditioners. Tallow used to be used commonly in high-end shaving soaps, in particular those of elite British firms such as Geo, F Trumper, Truefitt & Hill, and Taylor of Old Bond Street. Tallow-based shaving soaps have enjoyed a resurgence in recent years due to gaining popularity of traditional wet-shaving, tallow also has a use in printmaking where it is combined with bitumen and applied to metal print plates to provide a resist to acid etching. The use of trace amounts of tallow as an additive to the used in polymer banknotes came to light in November 2016. Notes issued in 24 countries including Canada, Australia, and the United Kingdom were found to be affected, leading to objections from vegans, in Leviticus 3, 14-17 the Israelites are forbidden to eat the suet surrounding certain internal organs of animals sacrificed at the Temple. This suet is Halakhically called chelev, tallow once was widely used to make moulded candles before more convenient wax varieties became available—and for some time after, as they continued to be a cheaper alternative
28.
Olive oil
–
Olive oil is a liquid fat obtained from olives, a traditional tree crop of the Mediterranean Basin. The oil is produced by pressing whole olives and it is commonly used in cooking, whether for frying or as a salad dressing. It is also used in cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, and soaps, and as a fuel for oil lamps. It is associated with the Mediterranean diet for its health benefits. The olive is one of three core food plants in Mediterranean cuisine, the two are wheat and grapes. Olive trees have grown around the Mediterranean since the 8th millennium BC. Spain is the largest producer of oil, followed by Italy. However, per capita consumption is highest in Greece, followed by Spain, Italy, consumption in North America and northern Europe is far less, but rising steadily. The composition of oil varies with the cultivar, altitude, time of harvest. It consists mainly of acid, with smaller amounts of other fatty acids including linoleic acid. The olive tree is native to the Mediterranean basin, wild olives were collected by Neolithic peoples as early as the 8th millennium BC, the wild olive tree originated in Asia Minor or in ancient Greece. It is not clear when and where trees were first domesticated, in Asia Minor, in the Levant. Archeological evidence shows that olives were turned into oil by 6000 BC and 4500 BC in present-day Palestine. Until 1500 BC, eastern areas of the Mediterranean were most heavily cultivated. Evidence also suggests that olives were being grown in Crete as long ago as 2,500 BC, the cultivation of olive trees in Crete became particularly intense in the post-palatial period and played an important role in the islands economy, as it did across the Mediterranean. Recent genetic studies suggest that species used by modern cultivators descend from multiple wild populations, Olive trees and oil production in the Eastern Mediterranean can be traced to archives of the ancient city-state Ebla, which were located on the outskirts of the Syrian city Aleppo. Here some dozen documents dated 2400 BC describe lands of the king and these belonged to a library of clay tablets perfectly preserved by having been baked in the fire that destroyed the palace. A later source is the frequent mentions of oil in the Tanakh, dynastic Egyptians before 2000 BC imported olive oil from Crete, Syria and Canaan and oil was an important item of commerce and wealth
29.
Castile soap
–
Castile soap is a name used in English-speaking countries for olive oil based soap made in a style similar to that originating in the Castile region of Spain. Traditionally made with oil, in many parts of the world it still is. It can be either bar soap made with sodium hydroxide or liquid soap made with potassium hydroxide, the origins of Castile soap go back to the Levant, where Aleppo soap-makers have made hard soaps based on olive and laurel oil for millennia. Following the Crusades, production of this extended to the whole Mediterranean area. Its ties to Catholicism caused a public-relations campaign to be established, the sale of a monopoly in Protestant England to a Catholic company caused great uproar, ending with the Castile soap company eventually being stripped of the monopoly. Early soap-makers in Europe did not have access to laurel oil and therefore dropped it from their formulations. Importations of Castile soap through Antwerp appear in the London port books of 1567–1568, in his article A short history of soap, John Hunt maintains that barilla was boiled with locally available olive oil, instead of with tallow. Adding brine to the liquor made the soap float to the surface. While Aleppo soap tends to be green, this produced what was probably the first white hard soap, apothecaries knew the product by the Latin names of sapo hispaniensis or of sapo castilliensis. Aleppo soap Emanuel Bronner, noted for manufacturing liquid Castile soap with eccentric packaging Marseille soap Nabulsi soap Vegan soap Garzena, Patrizia & Tadiello, soap Naturally, ingredients, methods and recipes for natural handmade soap, 1st ed. Programmer Publishing
30.
Marseille soap
–
Marseille soap or Savon de Marseille is a traditional hard soap made from vegetable oils that has been produced around Marseille, France, for about 600 years. The first documented soapmaker was recorded there in about 1370, by 1688, Louis XIV introduced regulations in the Edict of Colbert limiting the use of the name savon de Marseille to olive oil based soaps. The law has since been amended to allow other vegetable oils to be used, by 1913 production had reached 180,000 tons, and in 1924 there were 132 soapmaking companies in the Marseille and Salon-de-Provence areas combined, but by 2000 only five remained. Traditionally, the soap is made by mixing sea water from the Mediterranean Sea, olive oil, and this mixture is then heated for several days, stirring constantly. The mixture is allowed to sit until ready, then poured into a mold, while still soft it is cut into bars, stamped, and left to completely harden. The whole process can take up to a month, today there are two main varieties of Marseille soap, a greenish hued made with olive oil and a white made of palm oil or a palm and copra oil mixture. Originally sold only in 5 kg and 20 kg blocks, today they come in sizes between 300 g and 1 kg, though larger sizes are available, some up to 40 kg. Aleppo soap Castile soap Hot process Nabulsi soap Vegan soap 1
31.
Coconut oil
–
Coconut oil, or copra oil, is an edible oil extracted from the kernel or meat of mature coconuts harvested from the coconut palm. Because of its high saturated fat content, it is slow to oxidize and, thus, resistant to rancidification, Coconut oil can be extracted through dry or wet processing. Dry processing requires that the meat be extracted from the shell and dried using fire, sunlight, the copra is pressed or dissolved with solvents, producing the coconut oil and a high-protein, high-fiber mash. The mash is of quality for human consumption and is instead fed to ruminants. The all-wet process uses raw coconut rather than dried copra, the more problematic step is breaking up the emulsion to recover the oil. This used to be done by prolonged boiling, but this produces an oil and is not economical. Modern techniques use centrifuges and pre-treatments including cold, heat, acids, salts, enzymes, electrolysis, shock waves, steam distillation, wet processes also require investment of equipment and energy, incurring high capital and operating costs. Proper harvesting of the coconut makes a significant difference in the efficacy of the oil-making process, copra made from immature nuts is more difficult to work with and produces an inferior product with lower yields. Conventional coconut oil processors use hexane as a solvent to extract up to 10% more oil than produced with just rotary mills and they then refine the oil to remove certain free fatty acids to reduce susceptibility to rancidification. Virgin coconut oil can be produced from coconut milk, meat. Producing it from the fresh meat involves either wet-milling or drying the residue, VCO can also be extracted from fresh meat by grating and drying it to a moisture content of 10–12%, then using a manual press to extract the oil. Producing it from coconut milk involves grating the coconut and mixing it with water, the milk can also be fermented for 36–48 hours, the oil removed, and the cream heated to remove any remaining oil. A third option involves using a centrifuge to separate the oil from the other liquids, Coconut oil can also be extracted from the dry residue left over from the production of coconut milk. A thousand mature coconuts weighing approximately 1,440 kilograms yield around 170 kilograms of copra from which around 70 litres of oil can be extracted. Refined, bleached, and deodorized oil is made from copra, dried coconut kernel. This yields practically all the oil present, amounting to more than 60% of the dry weight of the coconut and this crude coconut oil is not suitable for consumption because it contains contaminants and must be refined with further heating and filtering. Another method for extraction of coconut oil involves the action of alpha-amylase, polygalacturonases. Unlike virgin coconut oil, refined coconut oil has no taste or aroma
32.
Palm kernel oil
–
Palm kernel oil is an edible plant oil derived from the kernel of the oil palm Elaeis guineensis. It should not be confused with the two edible oils derived from palm fruits, palm oil, extracted from the pulp of the oil palm fruit. Palm kernel oil, palm oil, and coconut oil are three of the few highly saturated vegetable fats, these give the name to the 16-carbon saturated fatty acid palmitic acid that they contain. Palm kernel oil, which is semi-solid at room temperature, is more saturated than palm oil and it is commonly used in commercial cooking because of its relatively low cost, and because it remains stable at high cooking temperatures and can be stored longer than other vegetable oils. Oil from the African oil palm Elaeis guineensis has long recognized in West African countries. European merchants trading with West Africa occasionally purchased palm oil for use in Europe, sekhar was appointed founder and chairman. Porims scientists work in oil palm tree breeding, palm oil nutrition, porim was renamed Malaysian Palm Oil Board in 2000. Palm kernel oil, similarly to coconut oil, is high in saturated fats and is more saturated than palm oil, Palm kernel oil is high in lauric acid which has been shown to raise blood cholesterol levels, both as LDL-C and HDL-C. Palm kernel oil does not contain cholesterol or trans fatty acids, Palm kernel oil is commonly used in commercial cooking because it is lower in cost than other oils and remains stable at high cooking temperatures. The oil can also be stored longer than other vegetable oils, the split-off fatty acids are a mixture ranging from C4 to C18, depending on the type of oil/fat. Resembling coconut oil, palm oil is packed with myristic and lauric fatty acids and therefore suitable for the manufacture of soaps, washing powders. Lauric acid is important in making, a good soap must contain at least 15 per cent laurate for quick lathering. Derivatives of palmitic acid were used in combination with naphtha during World War II to produce napalm
33.
Laurus nobilis
–
Laurus nobilis is an aromatic evergreen tree or large shrub with green, glabrous leaves, in the flowering plant family Lauraceae. It is native to the Mediterranean region and is used as bay leaf for seasoning in cooking and its common names include bay laurel, sweet bay, bay, true laurel, Grecian laurel, laurel tree or simply laurel. Laurus nobilis figures prominently in classical Greek, Roman, and Biblical culture, the laurel is an evergreen shrub or small tree, variable in size and sometimes reaching 7–18 metres tall. The genus Laurus includes four accepted species, whose diagnostic key characters often overlap, the bay laurel is dioecious, with male and female flowers on separate plants. Each flower is pale yellow-green, about 1 cm diameter, the leaves are glabrous, 6–12 cm long and 2–4 cm broad, with an entire margin. On some leaves the margin undulates, the fruit is a small, shiny black berry-like drupe about 1 cm long that contains one seed. A recent study found considerable genetic diversity within L. nobilis, Laurus nobilis is a widespread relic of the laurel forests that originally covered much of the Mediterranean Basin when the climate of the region was more humid. With the drying of the Mediterranean during the Pliocene era, the forests gradually retreated. The most abundant component found in essential oil is 1, 8-cineole. Both essential and fatty oils are present in the fruit, the fruit is pressed and water-extracted to obtain these products. The fruit contains up to 30% fatty oils and about 1% essential oils, the plant is the source of several popular herbs and one spice used in a wide variety of recipes, particularly among Mediterranean cuisines. Most commonly, the leaves are added whole to Italian pasta sauces. They are typically removed from dishes before serving, unless used as a simple garnish, whole bay leaves have a long shelf life of about one year, under normal temperature and humidity. Whole bay leaves are used almost exclusively as flavor agents during the preparation stage. Ground bay leaves, however, can be ingested safely and are used in soups and stocks. Dried laurel berries and pressed leaf oil can both be used as robust spices, and the wood can be burnt for strong smoke flavoring, aqueous extracts of bay laurel can also be used as astringents and even as a reasonable salve for open wounds. In massage therapy, the oil of bay laurel is reputed to alleviate arthritis and rheumatism, while in aromatherapy, it is used to treat earaches. A traditional folk remedy for rashes caused by poison ivy, poison oak, the chemical compound lauroside B isolated from Laurus nobilis is an inhibitor of human melanoma cell proliferation at high concentrations in-vitro
34.
Canola
–
B. campestris L. or Brassica juncea. To be called canola, the oil must contain less than 2% erucic acid, health concerns center around the fact that standard production may leave trace amounts of chemical solvent and that non-organic canola may be made from plants that have been genetically modified. It is also used as a source of biodiesel, in the 1970s, the Rapeseed Association of Canada chose the name canola to represent Can for Canada, and ola for oil. One dictionary purports that it stands for Can + o + l + a, Canola was developed through conventional plant breeding from rapeseed, an oilseed plant already used in ancient civilization as a fuel. The word rape in rapeseed comes from the Latin word rapum meaning turnip, turnip, rutabaga, cabbage, Brussels sprouts, mustard, and many other vegetables are related to the two natural canola varieties commonly grown, which are cultivars of B. napus and B. rapa. The change in name serves to distinguish it from natural rapeseed oil, Brassica oilseed varieties are some of the oldest plants cultivated by humanity, with documentation of its use in India 4,000 years ago, and use in China and Japan 2,000 years ago. Its use in Northern Europe for oil lamps is documented to the 13th century and its use was limited until the development of steam power, when machinists found rapeseed oil clung to water- and steam-washed metal surfaces better than other lubricants. World War II caused high demand for the oil as a lubricant for the increasing number of steam engines in naval. When the war blocked European and Asian sources of rapeseed oil, a shortage developed. After the war, demand declined sharply, and farmers began to look for other uses for the plant, Rapeseed oil extracts were first put on the market in 1956–1957 as food products, but these suffered from several unacceptable characteristics. Rapeseed oil had a taste and a disagreeable greenish color. It also contained a concentration of erucic acid. Feed meal from the plant also was not particularly appealing to livestock. A variety developed in 1998 is considered to be the most disease- and this and other recent varieties have been produced using genetic engineering. In 2011, 26% of the acres sown were genetically modified canola, Canola was originally a trademark, but is now a generic term for edible varieties of rapeseed oil in North America and Australia. In Canada, a definition of canola is codified in Canadian law. As of the 2013/2014 season, production in the ten leading territories was, Rapeseed is traded on the Euronext exchange. Canola oil is made at a facility by slightly heating
35.
Museo del Objeto del Objeto
–
The Museo del Objeto del Objeto, or MODO, is a museum in Mexico City and the first museum in Mexico dedicated to design and communications. The museum offers workshops, seminars, conferences and other activities intended to promote design, the Museo del Objeto del Objeto is part of a long tradition in Mexico City of collectors who donate their collections in order to found or expand museums. Art collectors and other kinds of collectors have been behind such as Soumaya, Franz Mayer, Museo del Juguete. Collectors have also been important to the development of museums in the country as well. The museum is an entity under a foundation of the same name, which was founded by Bruno Newman. The museum is one of several efforts in the country to promote and consolidate information about the history, Newman’s collection forms the basis of the museum foundation’s mission, which is to encourage the research and promotion of communication and design in Mexico. MODO is considered to be the first of its kind, with many of its objects not normally displayed in museums in the country and it focuses on the analysis of its collection and similar objects using the principles of design and communications as well as the use of new technologies. The museum is dedicated to the support of collectors of every day objects, promoting formal arrangement. One reason the museum promotes collecting is that very often items related to design and communication are simply thrown away as junk, such as 1980s sneakers, work to establish the museum started in 2004, with the inventorying, cataloging and photographing of each of the pieces. The last was not only for conservation purposes, but also to allow access to the pieces electronically. The building, a mansion in Colonia Roma, was restored for the museum. The museum was inaugurated in October 2010, the opening of the museum drew a number of international diplomats, including those from Russia, Guatemala, Haiti and Slovenia. Diplomats were invited to the event because the collection contains objects from various countries outside of Mexico, La Gunilla Editores is the publishing branch of the MODO organization. It is dedicated to the research and publication of related to design. Much of its work complements that of the museum producing books and its first eight books include Mexténcil, Calcomanías, Black Book México and Arte Urbe, which relates to graffiti in Mexico as a communication mode. Recorrido con Recordaciones y Encuentros con Conocidos are guidebooks to parts of Mexico and its capital, mODO’s gift shop promotes young, mostly Mexican designers to distribute their work. Another line of products are based on the museum’s permanent collection. The museum offers workshops, seminars, conferences and other activities designed to promote design, the museum’s permanent collection is based on the private collection of Bruno Newman, amassed over forty years
36.
Babylon
–
Babylon was a major city of ancient Mesopotamia in the fertile plain between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. The city was built upon the Euphrates and divided in parts along its left and right banks. Babylon was originally a small Semitic Akkadian city dating from the period of the Akkadian Empire c.2300 BC, the town attained independence as part of a small city-state with the rise of the First Amorite Babylonian Dynasty in 1894 BC. Babylon grew and South Mesopotamia came to be known as Babylonia, the empire quickly dissolved after Hammurabis death and Babylon spent long periods under Assyrian, Kassite and Elamite domination. After being destroyed and then rebuilt by the Assyrians, Babylon became the capital of the Neo-Babylonian Empire from 609 to 539 BC, the Hanging Gardens of Babylon was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. After the fall of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, the city came under the rule of the Achaemenid, Seleucid, Parthian, Roman, and Sassanid empires. It has been estimated that Babylon was the largest city in the world from c.1770 to 1670 BC and it was perhaps the first city to reach a population above 200,000. Estimates for the extent of its area range from 890 to 900 hectares. The remains of the city are in present-day Hillah, Babil Governorate, Iraq, about 85 kilometres south of Baghdad, comprising a large tell of broken mud-brick buildings, the English Babylon comes from Greek Babylṓn, a transliteration of the Akkadian Babili. The Babylonian name in the early 2nd millennium BC had been Babilli or Babilla, by the 1st millennium BC, it had changed to Babili under the influence of the folk etymology which traced it to bāb-ili. The Gate of God or Gate of El being from the Aramaic Hebrew Bab for Gate and El for God and this being similar to the Hebrew word for confusion Balal. In the Bible, the name appears as Babel, interpreted in the Hebrew Scriptures Book of Genesis to mean confusion, the modern English verb, to babble, or to speak meaningless words, is popularly thought to derive from this name, but there is no direct connection. The remains of the city are in present-day Hillah, Babil Governorate, Iraq, about 85 kilometers south of Baghdad, comprising a large tell of broken mud-brick buildings and debris. The site at Babylon consists of a number of mounds covering an area of about 2 by 1 kilometer, oriented north to south, along the Euphrates to the west. Originally, the river roughly bisected the city, but the course of the river has since shifted so that most of the remains of the western part of the city are now inundated. Some portions of the city wall to the west of the river also remain, remains of the city include, Kasr—also called Palace or Castle, it is the location of the Neo-Babylonian ziggurat Etemenanki and lies in the center of the site. Amran Ibn Ali—the highest of the mounds at 25 meters, to the south and it is the site of Esagila, a temple of Marduk which also contained shrines to Ea and Nabu. Homera—a reddish colored mound on the west side, most of the Hellenistic remains are here
37.
Cinnamomum cassia
–
Cinnamomum cassia, called Chinese cassia or Chinese cinnamon, is an evergreen tree originating in southern China, and widely cultivated there and elsewhere in southern and eastern Asia. It is one of several species of Cinnamomum used primarily for their aromatic bark, in the United States, Chinese cassia is the most common type of cinnamon used. The buds are used as a spice, especially in India. The tree grows to 10–15 m tall, with bark and hard. Chinese cassia is a relative to Ceylon cinnamon, Saigon cinnamon, also known as Vietnamese cinnamon, Indonesian cinnamon, also called korintje. In all five species, the bark is used as a spice. Chinese cassias flavour is less delicate than that of Ceylon cinnamon and its bark is thicker, more difficult to crush, and has a rougher texture than that of Ceylon cinnamon. Most of the spice sold as cinnamon in the United States, United Kingdom, Indonesian cinnamon is sold in much smaller amounts. Chinese cassia is produced in both China and Vietnam, until the 1960s, Vietnam was the worlds most important producer of Saigon cinnamon, which has a higher oil content, and consequently has a stronger flavor. Because of the caused by the Vietnam War, however. Indonesian cassia has the lowest oil content of the three types of cassia, so commands the lowest price, Chinese cassia has a sweeter flavor than Indonesian cassia, similar to Saigon cinnamon, but with lower oil content. Cassia bark is used as a agent for confectionery, desserts, pastries, and meat, it is specified in many curry recipes. Cassia is sometimes added to Ceylon cinnamon, but is a thicker, coarser product. Cassia is sold as pieces of bark or as neat quills or sticks, cassia buds, although rare, are also occasionally used as a spice. They resemble cloves in appearance and have a mild, flowery cinnamon flavor, cassia buds are primarily used in old-fashioned pickling recipes, marinades, and teas. Chinese cassia is produced primarily in the provinces of Guangxi, Guangdong. It is considered one of the 50 fundamental herbs in traditional Chinese medicine, due to a blood-thinning component called coumarin, which could damage the liver if taken in huge amounts, European health agencies have warned against consuming high amounts of cassia. Other bioactive compounds found in the bark, powder and essential oils of C. cassia are cinnamaldehyde, in high doses these substances can also be toxic for humans
38.
Ebers Papyrus
–
The Ebers Papyrus, also known as Papyrus Ebers, is an Egyptian medical papyrus of herbal knowledge dating to c.1550 BC. Among the oldest and most important medical papyri of ancient Egypt and it is currently kept at the library of the University of Leipzig, in Germany. The papyrus was written in about 1500 BC, but it is believed to have copied from earlier texts. The Ebers Papyrus is a 110-page scroll, which is about 20 meters long, the Brugsch Papyrus provides parallel passages to the Ebers Papyrus, helping to clarify certain passages of the latter. The Ebers Papyrus is written in hieratic Egyptian writing and contains the most voluminous record of ancient Egyptian medicine known, the scroll contains some 700 magical formulas and remedies. It contains many incantations meant to turn away disease-causing demons and there is evidence of a long tradition of empiricism. The papyrus contains a treatise on the heart and it notes that the heart is the center of the blood supply, with vessels attached for every member of the body. The Egyptians seem to have known little about the kidneys and made the heart the meeting point of a number of vessels which carried all the fluids of the body—blood, tears, urine, mental disorders are detailed in a chapter of the papyrus called the Book of Hearts. Disorders such as depression and dementia are covered, the descriptions of these disorders suggest that Egyptians conceived of mental and physical diseases in much the same way. Examples of remedies in the Ebers Papyrus include, Cancer Recounting a tumor against the god Xenus, birth control To prevent conception, smear a paste of dates, acacia, and honey to wool and apply as a pessary. Diabetes mellitus Drink a mixture including elderberry, asit plant fibers, milk, beer-swill, cucumber flowers, dracunculiasis Wrap the emerging end of the worm around a stick and slowly pull it out. One of the more common remedies described in the papyrus is ochre and it is prescribed for intestinal and eye complaints. Yellow ochre is also described as a remedy for urological complaints, like the Edwin Smith Papyrus, the Ebers Papyrus came into the possession of Edwin Smith in 1862. The source of the papyrus is unknown, but it was said to have found between the legs of a mummy in the El-Assasif district of the Theban necropolis. The Papyrus was purchased in 1872 by the German Egyptologist and novelist Georg Ebers, in 1875, Ebers published a facsimile with an English-Latin vocabulary and introduction, but it was not translated until 1890, by H. Joachim. Ebers retired from his chair of Egyptology at Leipzig on a pension, an English translation of the papyrus was published by Paul Ghalioungui. The papyrus was published and translated by different researchers, history of medicine Medical literature Pommerening, Tanja. Studien zur Altägyptischen Kultur Beiheft 10, relevant pharmaceutical and medical knowledge, an abstract, Phillips-Universitat, Marburg, 8-11-2004
39.
Ancient Egypt
–
Ancient Egypt was a civilization of ancient Northeastern Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now the modern country of Egypt. It is one of six civilizations to arise independently, Egyptian civilization followed prehistoric Egypt and coalesced around 3150 BC with the political unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under the first pharaoh Narmer. In the aftermath of Alexander the Greats death, one of his generals, Ptolemy Soter and this Greek Ptolemaic Kingdom ruled Egypt until 30 BC, when, under Cleopatra, it fell to the Roman Empire and became a Roman province. The success of ancient Egyptian civilization came partly from its ability to adapt to the conditions of the Nile River valley for agriculture, the predictable flooding and controlled irrigation of the fertile valley produced surplus crops, which supported a more dense population, and social development and culture. Its art and architecture were widely copied, and its antiquities carried off to far corners of the world and its monumental ruins have inspired the imaginations of travelers and writers for centuries. The Nile has been the lifeline of its region for much of human history, nomadic modern human hunter-gatherers began living in the Nile valley through the end of the Middle Pleistocene some 120,000 years ago. By the late Paleolithic period, the climate of Northern Africa became increasingly hot and dry. In Predynastic and Early Dynastic times, the Egyptian climate was less arid than it is today. Large regions of Egypt were covered in treed savanna and traversed by herds of grazing ungulates, foliage and fauna were far more prolific in all environs and the Nile region supported large populations of waterfowl. Hunting would have been common for Egyptians, and this is also the period when many animals were first domesticated. The largest of these cultures in upper Egypt was the Badari, which probably originated in the Western Desert, it was known for its high quality ceramics, stone tools. The Badari was followed by the Amratian and Gerzeh cultures, which brought a number of technological improvements, as early as the Naqada I Period, predynastic Egyptians imported obsidian from Ethiopia, used to shape blades and other objects from flakes. In Naqada II times, early evidence exists of contact with the Near East, particularly Canaan, establishing a power center at Hierakonpolis, and later at Abydos, Naqada III leaders expanded their control of Egypt northwards along the Nile. They also traded with Nubia to the south, the oases of the desert to the west. Royal Nubian burials at Qustul produced artifacts bearing the oldest-known examples of Egyptian dynastic symbols, such as the crown of Egypt. They also developed a ceramic glaze known as faience, which was used well into the Roman Period to decorate cups, amulets, and figurines. During the last predynastic phase, the Naqada culture began using written symbols that eventually were developed into a system of hieroglyphs for writing the ancient Egyptian language. The Early Dynastic Period was approximately contemporary to the early Sumerian-Akkadian civilisation of Mesopotamia, the third-century BC Egyptian priest Manetho grouped the long line of pharaohs from Menes to his own time into 30 dynasties, a system still used today
40.
Wool
–
Wool is the textile fiber obtained from sheep and other animals, including cashmere and mohair from goats, qiviut from muskoxen, angora from rabbits, and other types of wool from camelids. Wool has several qualities that distinguish it from hair or fur, it is crimped, Wool is produced by follicles which are small cells located in the skin. These follicles are located in the layer of the skin called the epidermis. Follicles can be classed as primary or secondary follicles. Primary follicles produce three types of fiber, Kemp, medullated fibers and true wool fibers, secondary follicles only produce true wool fibers. Medullated fibers share nearly identical characteristics to hair and are long but lack crimp, Kemp fibers are very coarse and shed out. Wools scaling and crimp make it easier to spin the fleece by helping the individual fibers attach to each other, because of the crimp, wool fabrics have greater bulk than other textiles, and they hold air, which causes the fabric to retain heat. Wool has a specific heat coefficient, so it impedes heat transfer in general. This effect has benefited desert peoples, as Bedouins and Tuaregs use wool clothes for insulation, felting of wool occurs upon hammering or other mechanical agitation as the microscopic barbs on the surface of wool fibers hook together. The amount of crimp corresponds to the fineness of the wool fibers, a fine wool like Merino may have up to 100 crimps per inch, while coarser wool like karakul may have as few as one or two. In contrast, hair has little if any scale and no crimp, on sheep, the hair part of the fleece is called kemp. Wool fibers readily absorb moisture, but are not hollow, Wool can absorb almost one-third of its own weight in water. Wool absorbs sound like many other fabrics and it is generally a creamy white color, although some breeds of sheep produce natural colors, such as black, brown, silver, and random mixes. Wool ignites at a higher temperature than cotton and some synthetic fibers, Wool carpets are specified for high safety environments, such as trains and aircraft. Wool is usually specified for garments for firefighters, soldiers, Wool is considered by the medical profession to be allergenic. Sheep shearing is the process by which the fleece of a sheep is cut off. After shearing, the wool is separated into four categories, fleece, broken, bellies. In Australia before being auctioned, all Merino fleece wool is objectively measured for micron, yield, staple length, staple strength, the sheep is given a dip in antiseptic solution after shearing, so as to cure the wounds caused during shearing
41.
Nabonidus
–
Nabonidus was the last king of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, reigning from 556–539 BC. Modern perceptions of Nabonidus reign have been colored by accounts written well after his reign as king of Babylon, most notably by the Persians. As a result, Nabonidus has often described in very negative terms in both modern and contemporaneous scholarship. However, an accumulation of evidence and a reassessment of existing material has caused opinions on Nabonidus and he said in his inscriptions that he was of unimportant origins. Similarly, his mother Addagoppe, who lived to an old age and may have connected to the temple of the moon-god Sîn in Harran. He certainly did not belong to the ruling dynasty, the Chaldeans. He came to the throne in 556 BC by overthrowing the young king Labashi-Marduk, Nabonidus took an interest in Babylons past, excavating ancient buildings and displaying his archeological discoveries in a museum. In most ancient accounts, he is depicted as a royal anomaly and he left the capital for the desert oasis of Tayma in Arabia early in his reign, from which he only returned after many years. In the meantime, his son Belshazzar ruled from Babylon, Nabonidus is most revered and is known as the first archaeologist. He was also the first to date an archaeological artifact in his attempt to date Naram-Sins temple during his search for it. Even though his estimate was inaccurate by about 1500 years, it was still a good one considering the lack of accurate dating technology at the time. ). Although Nabonidus personal preference for Sîn is clear, the strength of this preference divides scholars, in any case, there is no sign of the civil unrest during his reign that would have been indicative of trouble. Part of the propaganda issued by both the Marduk priesthood and Cyrus is the story of Nabonidus taking the most important cultic statues from southern Mesopotamia hostage in Babylon, till the end of the month Ulûlu all the gods of Akkad -those from above and those from below- entered Babylon. The gods of Borsippa, Cutha, and Sippar did not enter, however, modern scholarship has provided an explanation for this action. In Mesopotamia, gods were supposed to be housed inside their statues, but this only happened if they received the right kind of attention. So Nabonidus took special care of these statues and made sure that their personnel had to come along with him. Assyrian and Babylonian sources of the first millennium frequently allude to the removal of statues from the temples as the result of a city being conquered. Spoliated statues were carried off to the land of the victorious power where they remained in captivity until a turn of events would allow them to be restored to their shrines
42.
Pliny the Elder
–
In the latter number will be my uncle, by virtue of his own and of your compositions. Pliny is referring to the fact that Tacitus relied on his uncles now missing work on the History of the German Wars. The wind caused by the sixth and largest pyroclastic surge of the eruption would not allow his ship to leave the shore, and Pliny probably died during this event. Plinys dates are pinned to the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD79 and a statement of his nephew that he died in his 56th year, Pliny was the son of an equestrian, Gaius Plinius Celer, and his wife, Marcella. Neither the younger nor the elder Pliny mention the names and their ultimate source is a fragmentary inscription found in a field in Verona and recorded by the 16th century Augustinian monk Onofrio Panvinio at Verona. The reading of the inscription depends on the reconstruction, but in all cases the names come through, whether he was an augur and whether she was named Grania Marcella are less certain. Jean Hardouin presents a statement from a source that he claims was ancient, that Pliny was from Verona. Hardouin also cites the conterraneity of Catullus, additional efforts to connect Celer and Marcella with other gentes are highly speculative. Hardouin is the scholar to use his unknown source. He kept statues of his ancestors there, a statue of Pliny on the facade of the Duomo of Como celebrates him as a native son. He had a sister, Plinia, who married into the Caecilii and was the mother of his nephew, Pliny the Younger, whose letters describe his work and study regimen in detail. In one of his letters to Tacitus, Pliny the Younger details how his uncles breakfasts would be light and simple following the customs of our forefathers. This shows that Pliny the Younger wanted it to be conveyed that Pliny the Elder was a good Roman and this statement would have pleased Tacitus. Two inscriptions identifying the hometown of Pliny the Younger as Como take precedence over the Verona theory, one commemorates the youngers career as imperial magistrate and details his considerable charitable and municipal expenses on behalf of the people of Como. Another identifies his father Lucius village as Fecchio near Como and it is likely therefore that Plinia was a local girl and Pliny the Elder, her brother, was from Como. Gaius was a member of the Plinii gens and he did not take his fathers cognomen, Celer, but assumed his own, Secundus. As his adopted son took the same cognomen, Pliny founded a branch, no earlier instances of the Plinii are known. In 59 BC, only about 82 years before Plinys birth, Julius Caesar founded Novum Comum as a colonia to secure the region against the Alpine tribes, whom he had been unable to defeat
Media from Wikimedia Commons
Quotations from Wikiquote
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Soap". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "