1.
Pharaoh
–
The word pharaoh ultimately derive from the Egyptian compound pr-ˤ3 great house, written with the two biliteral hieroglyphs pr house and ˤ3 column, here meaning great or high. It was used only in larger phrases such as smr pr-ˤ3 Courtier of the High House, with specific reference to the buildings of the court or palace. From the twelfth dynasty onward, the word appears in a wish formula Great House, may it live, prosper, and be in health, but again only with reference to the royal palace and not the person. During the reign of Thutmose III in the New Kingdom, after the rule of the Hyksos during the Second Intermediate Period. During the eighteenth dynasty the title pharaoh was employed as a designation of the ruler. From the nineteenth dynasty onward pr-ˤ3 on its own was used as regularly as hm. f, the term, therefore, evolved from a word specifically referring to a building to a respectful designation for the ruler, particularly by the twenty-second dynasty and twenty-third dynasty. For instance, the first dated appearance of the pharaoh being attached to a rulers name occurs in Year 17 of Siamun on a fragment from the Karnak Priestly Annals. Here, an induction of an individual to the Amun priesthood is dated specifically to the reign of Pharaoh Siamun and this new practice was continued under his successor Psusennes II and the twenty-second dynasty kings. Shoshenq I was the successor of Siamun. Meanwhile, the old custom of referring to the sovereign simply as pr-ˤ3 continued in traditional Egyptian narratives, by this time, the Late Egyptian word is reconstructed to have been pronounced *par-ʕoʔ whence Herodotus derived the name of one of the Egyptian kings, Φερων. In the Bible, the title also occurs as פרעה, from that, Septuagint φαραώ pharaō and then Late Latin pharaō, both -n stem nouns. The Quran likewise spells it فرعون firawn with n, interestingly, the Arabic combines the original pharyngeal ayin sound from Egyptian, along with the -n ending from Greek. English at first spelt it Pharao, but the King James Bible revived Pharaoh with h from the Hebrew, meanwhile in Egypt itself, *par-ʕoʔ evolved into Sahidic Coptic ⲡⲣ̅ⲣⲟ prro and then rro. Scepters and staves were a sign of authority in ancient Egypt. One of the earliest royal scepters was discovered in the tomb of Khasekhemwy in Abydos, kings were also known to carry a staff, and Pharaoh Anedjib is shown on stone vessels carrying a so-called mks-staff. The scepter with the longest history seems to be the heqa-scepter, the earliest examples of this piece of regalia dates to pre-dynastic times. A scepter was found in a tomb at Abydos that dates to the late Naqada period, another scepter associated with the king is the was-scepter. This is a long staff mounted with an animal head, the earliest known depictions of the was-scepter date to the first dynasty
Pharaoh
–
Den
Pharaoh
–
Narmer Palette
Pharaoh
–
Nomen and prenomen of
Ramesses III
Pharaoh
–
Royal titulary
2.
Rahotep
–
Sekhemrewahkhau Rahotep was an Egyptian pharaoh who reigned during the Second Intermediate Period, when Egypt was ruled by multiple kings. The egyptologists Kim Ryholt and Darrell Baker believe that Rahotep was the first king of the 17th Dynasty, Rahotep is well known from a stele found at Coptos reporting the restoration of the temple of Min. Finally Rahotep is mentioned on a bow of a kings son dedicated to the service of Min in all his feasts. In the late New Kingdom tale Khonsuemheb and the ghost, the protagonist encounters a ghost who claims to have been in life Overseer of the treasuries of king Rahotep, however, the ghost also claims to have died in regnal Year 14 of a later king Mentuhotep. These statements seem to contradict each other none of Rahoteps successors named Mentuhotep is known to have reigned for so long. While Ryholt and Baker propose that Rahotep was the first king of the 17th Dynasty, Baker deems these arguments slim and rejected by most scholars. If he was indeed a ruler of the early 17th Dynasty, in the wake of the conflict the Hyksos would have looted and destroyed temples and palaces. Rahotep consequently boasts of restorations in temples at Abydos and Coptos, in Abydos he had the enclosure walls of the temple of Osiris renewed and in Coptos he restored the temple of Min of which gates and doors fallen into ruins. This chronology of events is debated and some scholars contest that Thebes was ever conquered by the Hyksos, rather, they believe the kings of Upper Egypt could have been vassals of the Hyksos
Rahotep
–
Rahotep (raising arms) while offering to Osiris. Stele BM EA 833, drawn by
Wallis Budge.
3.
Sobekemsaf II
–
Sobekemsaf II was an Egyptian king of the Seventeenth Dynasty of Egypt who reigned during the Second Intermediate Period, when Egypt was ruled by multiple kings. His throne name, Sekhemre Shedtawy, means Powerful is Re, Ryholt believed that Sekhemre Wadjkhaw Sobekemsaf intervened between the line of Intef kings and the accession of Senakhtenre—the first 17th Dynasty kings from the Ahmoside family line. This means that Sekhemre Wadjkhaw Sobekemsaf ruled on the throne before the Intef kings took power early in the 17th Dynasty—and that he would be Sobekemsaf I instead and the father of Sobekemsaf II. Sobekemsaf II would, therefore, be the son of Sobekemsaf I, the Abbott and Leopold-Amherst Papyruses, which are dated to Year 16 of Ramesses IX, state that this kings royal pyramid tomb was violated and destroyed by tomb robbers. The document ends with the conviction of the thieves—with a probable death sentence—and notes that a copy of the trial transcripts was dispatched to Ramesses IX in Lower Egypt. Amenpnufer himself would have been sentenced to death by impalement, a punishment which was reserved for the most heinous crimes in Ancient Egypt, kim Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period c. 1800–1550 B. C, Museum Tuscalanum Press,1997. ISBN 87-7289-421-0,393 File 17/2 Leonard Cottrell, The Lost Pharaohs, Pan Books London and Sydney, 8th printing,1977
Sobekemsaf II
–
Sobekemsaf's cartouches on the top of a stele for a scribe.
4.
Ancient Egyptian royal titulary
–
The royal titulary or royal protocol of an Egyptian pharaoh is the standard naming convention taken by the kings of Ancient Egypt. It symbolises worldly power and holy might and also acts as a sort of mission statement for the reign of a monarch. The full titulary, consisting of five names, did not come into standard usage until the Middle Kingdom, the Horus name is the oldest form of the pharaohs name, originating in the Predynastic Period. Many of the oldest-known Egyptian pharaohs were known only by this title, the Horus name was usually written in a serekh, a representation of a palace façade. The name of the pharaoh was written in hieroglyphs inside this representation of a palace, typically an image of the falcon God Horus was perched on top of or beside it. At least one Egyptian ruler, the 2nd dynasty Seth-Peribsen, used an image of the god Seth instead of Horus and he was succeeded by Khasekhemwy, who placed the symbols of both Seth and Horus above his name. Thereafter, the image of Horus always appeared alongside the name of the pharaoh, by the time of the New Kingdom the Horus name was often written without the enclosing serekh. The name is first definitively used by the First Dynasty pharaoh Semerkhet and this particular name was not typically framed by a cartouche or serekh, but always begins with the hieroglyphs of a vulture and cobra resting upon two baskets, the dual noun nebty. Also known as the Golden Horus Name, this form of the name typically featured the image of a Horus falcon perched above or beside the hieroglyph for gold. The meaning of this title has been disputed. One belief is that it represents the triumph of Horus over his uncle Seth, Gold also was strongly associated in the ancient Egyptian mind with eternity, so this may have been intended to convey the pharaohs eternal Horus name. Similar to the Nebty name, this particular name typically was not framed by a cartouche or serekh, the pharaohs throne name, the first of the two names written inside a cartouche, and usually accompanied the title nsw-bity. The term nsw-bity It has been suggested that the Berber term for strong man, the epithet neb tawy, Lord of the Two Lands, referring to valley and delta regions of Egypt, often occurs as well. This was the name given at birth and it was first introduced to the set of royal titles in the Fourth Dynasty and emphasizes the kings role as a representative of the solar god Ra. For women who became pharaoh, the title was interpreted as daughter also. Modern historians typically refer to the ancient kings of Egypt by this name, Middle Egyptian, An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs. The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt, Cairo, London, and New York, The American University in Cairo Press and Thames and Hudson. The Great Name, Ancient Egyptian Royal Titulary, Egyptian Grammar, Being an Introduction to the Study of Hieroglyphs
Ancient Egyptian royal titulary
–
Serekh containing the name of
Djet and an association with
Wadjet, on display at the
Louvre
Ancient Egyptian royal titulary
–
Praenomen of the
Cartouche of
Thutmose II preceded by Sedge and Bee symbols, Temple of
Hatshepsut,
Luxor
Ancient Egyptian royal titulary
–
In the
Middle Kingdom, the full titulary was sometimes written in a single cartouche, as in this example from
Senusret I, from
Beni Hasan.
Ancient Egyptian royal titulary
–
Royal titulary
5.
Sobek
–
Sobek, in Greek, Suchos and from Latin Suchus, was an ancient Egyptian deity with a complex and fluid nature. He is associated with the Nile crocodile and is represented in its form or as a human with a crocodile head. Sobek enjoyed a longstanding presence in the ancient Egyptian pantheon, from the Old Kingdom through the Roman period and he is first known from several different Pyramid Texts of the Old Kingdom, particularly from spell PT317. Unis has appeared as Sobek, Neiths son, Unis will eat with his mouth, Unis will urinate and Unis will copulate with his penis. Unis is lord of semen, who takes women from their husbands to the place Unis likes according to his hearts fancy. The origin of his name, Sbk in ancient Egyptian, is debated among scholars, though Sobek was worshipped in the Old Kingdom, he truly gained prominence in the Middle Kingdom, most notably under the Twelfth Dynasty king, Amenemhat III. Amenemhat III had taken a particular interest in the Faiyum region of Egypt, Amenemhat and many of his dynastic contemporaries engaged in building projects to promote Sobek – projects that were often executed in the Faiyum. In this period, Sobek also underwent an important change, he was fused with the falcon-headed god of divine kingship. This brought Sobek even closer with the kings of Egypt, thereby giving him a place of prominence in the Egyptian pantheon. The fusion added a level of complexity to the god’s nature, as he was adopted into the divine triad of Horus. Sobek-Horus persisted as a figure in the New Kingdom, but it was not until the last dynasties of Egypt that Sobek-Ra gained prominence and this understanding of the god was maintained after the fall of Egypts last native dynasty in Ptolemaic and Roman Egypt. The entire Faiyum region – the Land of the Lake in Egyptian – served as a center of Sobek. Most Faiyum towns developed their own localized versions of the god, such as Soknebtunis at Tebtunis, Sokonnokonni at Bacchias, at Karanis, two forms of the god were worshipped, Pnepheros and Petsuchos. There, mummified crocodiles were employed as cult images of Petsuchos, Sobek Shedety, the patron of the Faiyums centrally located capital, Crocodilopolis, was the most prominent form of the god. Extensive building programs honoring Sobek were realized in Shedet, as it was the capital of the entire Arsinoite nome and it is thought that the effort to expand Sobeks main temple was initially driven by Ptolemy II. Outside the Faiyum, Kom Ombo, in southern Egypt, was the biggest cultic center of Sobek, particularly during the Ptolemaic, located about 30 miles north of Aswan and was built during the Graeco-Roman period. The temple at this site was called the Per-Sobek, meaning the house of Sobek, Sobek is, above all else, an aggressive and animalistic deity who lives up to the vicious reputation of his patron animal, the large and violent Nile crocodile. Some of his common epithets betray this nature succinctly, the most notable of which being, he who loves robbery, he who eats while he also mates, however, he also displays grand benevolence in more than one celebrated myth
Sobek
–
This statue of Sobek was found at
Amenemhat III 's mortuary temple (which was connected to his
pyramid at
Hawara in the
Faiyum), serving as a testament to this king's devotion to Sobek.
Ashmolean Museum,
Oxford.
Sobek
–
This
Late Period (c. 400–250 BCE) statue shows Sobek bearing the falcon head of Re-Harakhti, illustrating the fusion of Sobek and
Re into Sobek-Re.
Walters Art Museum,
Baltimore.
Sobek
–
This relief from the
Temple of Kom Ombo shows Sobek with typical attributes of kingship, including a
was sceptre and royal kilt. The
ankh in his hand represents his role as an Osirian healer and his crown is a solar crown associated with one of the many forms of
Re.
Sobek
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This Roman period box shows a king making an offering to a solar form of Sobek. It is thought that this box could have been used in such offering rituals.
Walters Art Museum,
Baltimore.
6.
Ancient Egypt
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Ancient Egypt was a civilization of ancient Northeastern Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now the modern country of Egypt. It is one of six civilizations to arise independently, Egyptian civilization followed prehistoric Egypt and coalesced around 3150 BC with the political unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under the first pharaoh Narmer. In the aftermath of Alexander the Greats death, one of his generals, Ptolemy Soter and this Greek Ptolemaic Kingdom ruled Egypt until 30 BC, when, under Cleopatra, it fell to the Roman Empire and became a Roman province. The success of ancient Egyptian civilization came partly from its ability to adapt to the conditions of the Nile River valley for agriculture, the predictable flooding and controlled irrigation of the fertile valley produced surplus crops, which supported a more dense population, and social development and culture. Its art and architecture were widely copied, and its antiquities carried off to far corners of the world and its monumental ruins have inspired the imaginations of travelers and writers for centuries. The Nile has been the lifeline of its region for much of human history, nomadic modern human hunter-gatherers began living in the Nile valley through the end of the Middle Pleistocene some 120,000 years ago. By the late Paleolithic period, the climate of Northern Africa became increasingly hot and dry. In Predynastic and Early Dynastic times, the Egyptian climate was less arid than it is today. Large regions of Egypt were covered in treed savanna and traversed by herds of grazing ungulates, foliage and fauna were far more prolific in all environs and the Nile region supported large populations of waterfowl. Hunting would have been common for Egyptians, and this is also the period when many animals were first domesticated. The largest of these cultures in upper Egypt was the Badari, which probably originated in the Western Desert, it was known for its high quality ceramics, stone tools. The Badari was followed by the Amratian and Gerzeh cultures, which brought a number of technological improvements, as early as the Naqada I Period, predynastic Egyptians imported obsidian from Ethiopia, used to shape blades and other objects from flakes. In Naqada II times, early evidence exists of contact with the Near East, particularly Canaan, establishing a power center at Hierakonpolis, and later at Abydos, Naqada III leaders expanded their control of Egypt northwards along the Nile. They also traded with Nubia to the south, the oases of the desert to the west. Royal Nubian burials at Qustul produced artifacts bearing the oldest-known examples of Egyptian dynastic symbols, such as the crown of Egypt. They also developed a ceramic glaze known as faience, which was used well into the Roman Period to decorate cups, amulets, and figurines. During the last predynastic phase, the Naqada culture began using written symbols that eventually were developed into a system of hieroglyphs for writing the ancient Egyptian language. The Early Dynastic Period was approximately contemporary to the early Sumerian-Akkadian civilisation of Mesopotamia, the third-century BC Egyptian priest Manetho grouped the long line of pharaohs from Menes to his own time into 30 dynasties, a system still used today
Ancient Egypt
–
The
Great Sphinx and the
pyramids of Giza are among the most recognizable symbols of the civilization of ancient Egypt.
Ancient Egypt
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A typical Naqada II jar decorated with gazelles. (Predynastic Period)
Ancient Egypt
–
The
Narmer Palette depicts the unification of the Two Lands.
7.
Eastern Desert
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The Eastern Desert is the section of Sahara Desert east of the Nile River, between the river and the Red Sea. It extends from Egypt in the north to Eritrea in the south, other notable ecological areas are Wadi Gamal National Park and Gebel Elba. The Eastern Desert is a setting for safaris and other excursions. Libyan/Western Desert Geography of Egypt Anthony the Great National Parks of Egypt
Eastern Desert
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The
Nile River and the Eastern Desert.
Eastern Desert
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A close view of Eastern Desert mountain range along the
Safaga -
Qena Road.
Eastern Desert
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The Eastern Desert along the
Hurghada -
Safaga Road.
Eastern Desert
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Early morning at Eastern Desert with the Eastern Desert
mountain range on the horizon (
Egypt).
8.
Temple of Monthu (Medamud)
–
The Temple of Montu is an Egyptian temple dedicated to the worship of Monthu. The site is located 5 kilometres northeast of Karnak, which is located within Luxor, Medamud was excavated by French archaeologist Fernand Bisson de la Roque from 1925 to the post-war, and revealed many buildings including a temple dedicated to Montu. This temple replaced an ancient sanctuary and consists of a forum with a tower. It is thought that original sanctuary dates to the Old Kingdom, the ruins of the last structure date to the Ptolemy VIII period of the 2nd century BC, although decorations and additions continued to be added centuries later by the Romans. Because of Montus strong association with raging bulls, the temple was a centre of worship for bulls, containing many statues of bulls for worship. Most of these statues are now located in museums around the world. Montu was a falcon-headed, god of war and he was the patron god of Thebes. His consorts were Tjenenyet and Raettawy, his son was Harpora and he is also associated with a sacred bull named Buchis. In addition to the temple at Medamud, temples dedicated to Montu were built in Karnak, Armant, and Tod. From 1925-1932, the Medamud Temple of Montu was excavated by French archaeologist, Fernand Bisson de la Roque, of the Institut Français dArchéologie Orientale, Medamud was an outpost of Thebes, located 3 miles away. Little is known about the town of Medamud or its other structures, prior to construction of the Middle Kingdom temple, the site had been burned and earlier mounds were razed. The Middle Kingdom temple is situated on a circular mound, nearby are the Egyptian temple complexes at Luxor and Karnak. The Karnak Temple Complex contains three precincts, including the Precinct of Montu, which contains another Temple of Montu, the Old Kingdom temple site, dedicated to Montu, was walled and had a sacred grove. It had a system, mounds and chambers. The Middle Kingdom 12th dynasty building is an example of the foundation of religion in the Middle Kingdom of Egypt era. The sanctuary was remodeled in later periods, the temples features included a tribune platform, a canal, a dromos, main gate, portico, hall, and sanctuary. There was also a courtyard for the sacred bull. It consisted of a first chamber,200 by 180 meters, the main access was by the east and north
Temple of Monthu (Medamud)
–
Temple of Montu in
Medamud
Temple of Monthu (Medamud)
–
Relief of Montu in Medamud.
Temple of Monthu (Medamud)
–
The temple's excavator,
Fernand Bisson de la Roque.
Temple of Monthu (Medamud)
–
Montu depicted with a bull's head, from the Ptolemaic period (332 — 30 BC). On display in the Louvre, the statue was found in Medamud in the cell of the goddess Rattaui.
9.
Abydos, Egypt
–
Abydos /əˈbaɪdɒs/ is one of the oldest cities of ancient Egypt, and also of the eighth nome in Upper Egypt, of which it was the capital city. It is located about 11 kilometres west of the Nile at latitude 26°10 N, in the ancient Egyptian language, the city was called Abdju. The English name Abydos comes from the Greek Ἄβυδος, a name borrowed by Greek geographers from the city of Abydos on the Hellespont. These tombs began to be seen as extremely significant burials and in times it became desirable to be buried in the area. Today, Abydos is notable for the temple of Seti I. It is a chronological list showing cartouches of most dynastic pharaohs of Egypt from Menes until Seti Is father, the Great Temple and most of the ancient town are buried under the modern buildings to the north of the Seti temple. Many of the structures and the artifacts within them are considered irretrievable and lost. Abydos was occupied by the rulers of the Predynastic period, whose town, temple, the temple and town continued to be rebuilt at intervals down to the times of the thirtieth dynasty, and the cemetery was used continuously. The pharaohs of the first dynasty were buried in Abydos, including Narmer, who is regarded as founder of the first dynasty and it was in this time period that the Abydos boats were constructed. Some pharaohs of the dynasty were also buried in Abydos. The temple was renewed and enlarged by these pharaohs as well, funerary enclosures, misinterpreted in modern times as great forts, were built on the desert behind the town by three kings of the second dynasty, the most complete is that of Khasekhemwy. From the fifth dynasty, the deity Khentiamentiu, foremost of the Westerners, Pepi I constructed a funerary chapel which evolved over the years into the Great Temple of Osiris, the ruins of which still exist within the town enclosure. Abydos became the centre of the worship of the Isis and Osiris cult, during the First Intermediate Period, the principal deity of the area, Khentiamentiu, began to be seen as an aspect of Osiris, and the deities gradually merged and came to be regarded as one. Khentiamentius name became an epithet of Osiris, King Mentuhotep II was the first one building a royal chapel. In the twelfth dynasty a gigantic tomb was cut into the rock by Senusret III, associated with this tomb was a cenotaph, a cult temple and a small town known as Wah-Sut, that was used by the workers for these structures. Next to that cenotaph were buried kings of the Thirteenth Dynasty, the building during the eighteenth dynasty began with a large chapel of Ahmose I. The Pyramid of Ahmose I was also constructed at Abydos—the only pyramid in the area, thutmose III built a far larger temple, about 130 ft ×200 ft. He also made a way leading past the side of the temple to the cemetery beyond
Abydos, Egypt
–
Façade of the
Temple of Seti I in Abydos
Abydos, Egypt
–
Part of the Abydos King List
Abydos, Egypt
–
Tomb relief depicting the vizier Nespeqashuty and his wife, KetjKetj, making the journey of the dead to the holy city of Abydos – from
Deir el-Bahri,
Late Period,
twenty-sixth dynasty of Egypt, reign of
Psammetichus I
Abydos, Egypt
–
Panel from the
Osiris temple:
Horus presents royal regalia to a worshipping pharaoh.
10.
Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef
–
Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef is referred to as Intef VII in some literature, while others refer to him as Intef VIII. Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef ruled from Thebes, and was buried in a tomb in the 17th Dynasty royal necropolis at Dra Abu el-Naga and his only clear attestation is his coffin — Louvre E3020 — now in France. His sarcophagus contained the nomen of this king as well as his prenomen, Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat. Little more is known concerning the reign of this king except that he was a successor of Nubkheperre Intef. This would also explain the modesty of Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intefs coffin, which lacked a royal uraeus and is similar to the clearly non-royal coffin of Kamose. Intef, hence, would not have had the time to create a proper royal coffin in his abbreviated reign
Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef
–
Rishi coffin of Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef, on display at the
Louvre
11.
Senakhtenre Ahmose
–
Senakhtenre Ahmose was the seventh king of the Seventeenth dynasty of Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period. Senakhtenre reigned for a period over the Theban region in Upper Egypt at a time where the Hyksos 15th dynasty ruled Lower Egypt. Senakhtenre died c.1560 or 1558 BC at the latest and he may or may not have been the son of Nubkheperre Intef, the most prominent of the Intef kings. He was succeeded by his son, Seqenenre Tao, king Senakhtenre would also be the husband of Tetisheri who is called the great kings wife and the mother of my mother in a stela at Abydos by pharaoh Ahmose I. Senakhtenre was, therefore, the grandfather of Ahmose I, donald Redfords book mentions these 2 Theban tombs. The archaeological evidence prior to 2012 suggests that his reign was brief, however, in 2012, two important contemporary monuments of this king were uncovered at Karnak, a doorway found carved with his royal name as well as a fragmentary limestone lintel. From a reference in the Abbott Papyrus it was for a time believed that Senakhtenres nomen was Tao. Indeed, the papyrus mentions two kings with the name Tao, the second king Tao was identified with Senakhtenre because the first mention of a Tao refers to Seqenenre Tao for which the complete name is written. Consequently, the hypothesis that Senakhtenres nomen was Tao was dominant in egyptology until 2012 and was shared for example by Darrell Baker, for example, the egyptologist Claude Vandersleyen rejected this view as early as 1983. The doorjamb bears Senakhtenres full royal name and reveals his nomen to have been Ahmose and this is the same name as that of his grandson, Nebpehtyre Ahmose I, who founded the 18th dynasty by defeating the Hyksos and ousting them from Egypt. Inscriptions on the door indicate that it was following the orders of Senakhtenre himself. The door was subsequently re-used and discovered in the foundations of a building adjoining the temple of Ptah at Karnak. The inscription on the reused door proceeds to state that Senakhtenre made a monument for his father Amun-Re. from the white stone of Anu. Anu is the modern Tura, located near Cairo, which could mean that Senakhtenre imported the limestone from the then Hyksos controlled area of Tura in Lower Egypt. However, Biston-Moulin cautions that beautiful white stone of Anu was sometimes used as a term for stones which were actually taken from local quarries. Biston-Moulin writes in the summary of his article, Clayton, Peter, pharaonic King-Lists, Annals, and Day-Books, A Contribution to the Study of the Egyptian Sense of History. The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, copenhagen, Museum Tusculanum Press, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications
Senakhtenre Ahmose
–
Lintel bearing Senakhtenre's cartouches, from Karnak
12.
Djehuti
–
Sekhemre Sementawy Djehuti was possibly the second king of the Theban 16th Dynasty reigning over parts of Upper Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period. Alternatively, he may be a king of the late 13th Dynasty or the king of the 17th Dynasty. Djehuty is credited with a reign of 3 years in the first entry of the 11th column of the Turin canon, according to Egyptologists Kim Ryholt and Darrell Baker, he was succeeded by Sobekhotep VIII. Indeed, on point, the Turin Canon is open to interpretations. There are several recorded with the name Sekhemre and the damage to the original document does not preserve the complete name. As a result, Djehuti, named Sekhemre Sementawy, may in principle correspond to any Sekhemre preserved on the king list, i. e. may be a ruler of the 13th, 16th and even 17th Dynasty. The Egyptologists Darrell Baker and Kim Ryholt believe that he was part of the 16th Dynasty, alternatively, two studies by Claude Vandersleyen and Christina Geisen date Djehutis reign to the very end of the Memphite 13th Dynasty. Geisens datation relies on stylistic considerations of his queens coffin, which however and this theory is supported by the discovery of the tomb of Djehutis queen, Mentuhotep, which is located in Dra Abu el-Naga, a necropolis usually associated with the 17th Dynasty. Scholars such as Chris Bennett however, point out that this not necessarily mean that Djehuti was buried in Dra Abu el-Naga as well. Djehuti is attested on the Turin canon and the Karnak king list, all of Djehutis contemporary attestions come from a 145 kilometres long stretch of the Nile valley from Deir el-Ballas in the north to Edfu in the south. This roughly corresponds to the territory in the sphere of influence of the rulers of the 16th dynasty, Djehutis nomen and prenomen are known from a single block discovered by Flinders Petrie in Deir el-Ballas. Queen Mentuhoteps tomb was found intact in 1822 and her coffin was inscribed with one of the earliest cases of the texts from the Book of the Dead. Mentuhoteps cosmetic box bears Djehutis nomen, prenomen and cartouche together with funerary formulae and it has been suggested that the unattributed Southern South Saqqara pyramid may have been built for Djehuti. This hypothesis is based on an inscription found within the pyramid. A possible reference to Weserkhau i. e. Djehutis Golden Horus name
Djehuti
–
Djehuti on a block from
Edfu
Djehuti
–
Cosmetics box of
queen Mentuhotep, wife of Djehuti. The box may have been intended to be the king's canopic chest.
13.
Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef
–
Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef is sometimes referred to as Intef V, and sometimes as Intef VI. His nomen, Intef-aa, translates as His father brought him, the great or Intef and he ruled from Thebes, and was probably buried in a tomb in the necropolis. His rishi coffin, Louvre E3019, was discovered in the 19th century and found to preserve an inscription which reveals that this kings brother Nubkheperre Intef buried – and thus succeeded – him. While his own tomb has not been located, it was located in the area of Dra Abu el-Naga where the pyramid tomb of his brother Nubkheperre Intef was found in 2001. The pyramidion of the pyramid of Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intefs pyramid was found in Dra Abu el-Naga and it has a slope of 60 degrees and is inscribed with this kings names. The pyramidion is now in the British Museum
Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef
–
Sarcophagus of Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef,
Louvre Museum
Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef
–
Canopic chest of Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef,
Musée du Louvre.
14.
Nubkheperre Intef
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The German Egyptologist Daniel Polz, who discovered this kings tomb in 2001, also studied the same doorjamb and reached a similar conclusion in a 2007 German language book. Unfortunately, not enough of the inscription was uncovered to reveal the nature of the relationship with any certainty here—or which king Sobekemsaf was intended, King Intefs wife was Sobekemsaf, who perhaps came from a local family based at Edfu. On an Abydos stela mentioning a building of the king are the kings son. Nubkheperre Intef is one of the best attested kings of the 17th dynasty who restored numerous damaged temples in Upper Egypt as well as constructing a new temple at Gebel Antef, the best preserved building from his reign is the remains of a small chapel at Koptos. Four walls that have been reconstructed show the king in front of Min and show him crowned by Horus, the reliefs are executed in raised and sunken relief. At Koptos, the Coptos Decree was found on a stela which referred to the actions of Nubkheperre Intef against Teti, at Abydos, several stone fragments were found, including columns which attest to some kind of restoration work. On a stela found at Abydos, a mention is made of a House of Intef and this most likely refers to a building belonging to Nubkheperre Intef. Whereas in more contemporary literature, Detlef Franke rejects this view, contrary to Ryholt, I see no place for a king Sobekemsaf who ruled after Nubkheperra Antef. Nubkheperra Antef is the best attested and most important of the three Antefs, Polz, in his 2007 book, places Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef as a short-lived king between the reigns of Nubkheperre Intef and Senakhtenre—the first ruler of the Ahmoside family of kings. His tomb was found by early Egyptologists around 1881 but knowledge of its location was lost again until it was rediscovered in 2001 by German scholars. The coffin of Nubkheperre Intef was reportedly found in his tomb complete with a diadem or crown, some bows and arrows, Nubkheperre Intefs tomb was rediscovered by Daniel Polz, the deputy director of the German Archaeological Institute in 2001. The German Institute of Archaeology in Cairo, in announcing the find, said they are convinced the 3500-year-old tomb belonged to Nub-Kheper-Ra Intef, a monarch of the late 17th Dynasty. The area, referred to as Dra Abu el-Naga, has long felt to be the burial place of kings and private individuals of the 17th. According to archaeologists, the remnants of the tomb consist of the part of a small mud-brick pyramid surrounded by an enclosure wall. In front of the pyramid lies a burial shaft where the head of a life-size royal sandstone statue of the pharaoh was found. The pyramid-complex and the shaft is unequivocally that of Nub-Kheper-Ra Intef, according to Dr Daniel Polz. Other discoveries included a small chapel of a private individual adjacent to the pyramid. The inner walls of the chapel were decorated with depictions of its owner, as well as his name, according to these inscriptions the tomb owner, Teti, was a treasurer or chancellor of the king
Nubkheperre Intef
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Nebkheperre Intef's wooden
Rishi coffin
Nubkheperre Intef
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The stela depicting Nubkheperre and Nakht, from Abydos.
Nubkheperre Intef
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A royal crown believed to have originated from Nubkheperre Intef's Dra' Abu el-Naga' tomb now located in the
Rijksmuseum van Oudheden of the Netherlands.
15.
Seqenenre Tao
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Seqenenre Tao, called The Brave, ruled over the last of the local kingdoms of the Theban region of Egypt in the Seventeenth Dynasty during the Second Intermediate Period. He probably was the son and successor to Senakhtenre Ahmose and Queen Tetisheri, the dates of his reign are uncertain, but he may have risen to power in the decade ending in 1560 BC or in 1558 BC. Seqenenre Tao is credited with starting the opening moves in the war of liberation against the Hyksos, new Kingdom literary tradition states that Seqenenre Tao came into contact with his Hyksos contemporary in the north, Apepi or Apophis. Seqenenre Tao participated in active diplomatic posturing, which went beyond simply exchanging insults with the Asiatic ruler in the North. He seems to have led military skirmishes against the Hyksos and, judging from the head wound on his mummy in the Cairo Museum. On an adjacent hillside overlooking the river, the foundations of a building were found that almost certainly was a observation post. Interestingly, a large amount of pottery known as Kerma-ware was found at the site. It is thought that they were there as allies of the pharaoh in his wars against the Hyksos, seqenenres mummy was discovered in the Deir el-Bahri cache, revealed in 1881. He was interred along with those of later, eighteenth and nineteenth dynasty leaders, Ahmose I, Amenhotep I, Thutmose I, Thutmose II, Thutmose III, Ramesses I, Seti I, Ramesses II, the mummy was unwrapped by Gaston Maspero on June 9,1886. There are no wounds on his arms or hands, which suggests he was not able to defend himself, until 2009 the main hypotheses have been that he died either in a battle against the Hyksos or was killed while sleeping. His mummy appears to have been hastily embalmed, x-rays that were taken of the mummy in the late-1960s show that no attempt had been made to remove the brain or to add linen inside the cranium or eyes, both normal embalming practice for the time. In the opinion of James E and he is the earliest royal mummy on display in the recently revamped Royal Mummies Hall at the Egyptian Museum, Cairo. Egypt, From the Death of Ammenemes III to Sequenenre II, in Volume 2, Chapter 2 of the Cambridge Ancient History, Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament
Seqenenre Tao
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Fragment of the death
shroud of
Ahmose bearing Seqenenre Tao's titulary,
Museo Egizio
Seqenenre Tao
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Mummified head of Seqenenre depicting his battlewounds
16.
Kamose
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Kamose was the last king of the Theban Seventeenth Dynasty. He was possibly the son of Seqenenre Tao and Ahhotep I and his reign fell at the very end of the Second Intermediate Period. Kamose is usually ascribed a reign of three years, although scholars now favor giving him a longer reign of approximately five years. His reign is important for the decisive military initiatives he took against the Hyksos and his father had begun the initiatives and, quite possibly, lost his life in battle with the Hyksos. It is thought that his mother, as regent, continued the campaigns after the death of Kamose, Kamose was the final king in a succession of native Egyptian kings at Thebes. Originally, the Theban Seventeenth dynasty rulers were at peace with the Hyksos kingdom to their north prior to the reign of Seqenenre Tao and they controlled Upper Egypt up to Elephantine and ruled Middle Egypt as far north as Cusae. Kamose sought to extend his rule northward over all of Lower Egypt and this apparently was met with much opposition by his courtiers. Kamose sought to regain by force what he thought was his by right, Kamose states his reasons for an attack on the Hyksos was nationalistic pride. He was also likely merely continuing the military policies of his immediate predecessor. In Kamoses third year, he embarked on his campaign against the Hyksos by sailing north out of Thebes on the Nile. He first reached Nefrusy, which was just north of Cusae and was manned by an Egyptian garrison loyal to the Hyksos, a detachment of Medjay troops attacked the garrison and overran it. The Carnavon Tablet recounted this much of the campaign, but breaks off there, nonetheless, Kamoses military strategy probably can be inferred. This kind of tactic probably allowed him to travel very quickly up the Nile, a second stele also found in Thebes, continues Kamoses narrative again with an attack on Avaris. Because it does not mention Memphis or other cities to the north, it has long been suspected that Kamose never did attack Avaris. Kim Ryholt recently has argued that Kamose probably never advanced farther than the Anpu or Cynopolis Nome in Middle Egypt and did not enter either the Nile Delta, nor Lower Egypt proper. Kamose promptly ordered a detachment of his troops to occupy and destroy the Bahariya Oasis in the western desert, Kamose, called the Strong in this text, ordered this action to protect his rearguard. Atfih, hence, formed either the new border or a land between the now shrunken Hyksos kingdom and Kamoses expanding seventeenth dynasty state. This information confirms that Kamose confined his activities to this Egyptian nome and his Year 3 is the only attested date for Kamose and was once thought to signal the end of his reign
Kamose
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Sarcophagus of Kamose, Cairo
Egyptian Museum
Kamose
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Kamose's second stela which records his victory against the Hyksos (Luxor Museum).
17.
Qift
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Qift is a small town in the Qena Governorate of Egypt about 43 km north of Luxor, on the east bank of the Nile. In ancient Egypt, Qift, known then as Gebtu, was an important center for administration, religion, from Qift and Qus, trading expeditions heading for the Red Sea and many mining expeditions into the Eastern Desert left the Nile Valley. Gebtu was at the starting-point of the two great routes leading to the coast of the Red Sea, the one toward the port Tââou. Gebtu was the most important religious center in the area and its principal male deity was Min, a sky-god whose symbol was a thunderbolt. He became a fertility deity, and also was regarded as the male deity of the desert region to the east. His cult rose to prominence in the Middle Kingdom, at that time, he became associated with Horus as the deity, Min-Horus. Later, he was fused with Amen in the deity Min-Amen-ka-Mut-ef, Gebtu, once politically important, especially under the eleventh dynasty, was overshadowed by Thebes. It recuperated its prominence under the Antonines, it was the camp of Legio III Cyrenaica. It rebelled, but soon was captured in 292 by Diocletian after a siege and almost destroyed. In the 6th century, Qift was renamed Justinianopolis, like other cities. Under the Muslim caliphs and the sultans, Qift remained one of the cities of Upper Egypt. In the 13th century, there still were numerous monasteries around the city, Qift was ruined in the 16th century by the Ottomans. Qift was the focus of an American archaeological project from 1987 to 1992, the undecorated northern temple of Min and Isis dates to the Ptolemaic period. Earlier structures on the date back to the Middle Kingdom. The temple was rebuilt during the Ptolemaic Period, the later work has been attributed to an official named Sennuu-shepsi on behalf of Ptolemy II Philadelphus. This northern temple has some additions by Ptolemy IV Philopator ruling from 221-205 BC. He was the son of Ptolemy III and Berenice II of Egypt and was the pharaoh of the Ptolemaic Egypt. More additions were added by Julio-Claudian emperors of Rome, Caligula, the second pylon still carries the dedication text of Nero, and the cartouche of Caligula appears on the north end of this structure
Qift
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Min-Amen-ka-Mut-ef, Gebtu male fertility deity - Louvre
Qift
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Isis nursing her infant son - Louvre
18.
Hornakht (17th Dynasty)
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Hornakht was an Ancient Egyptian official living at the end of the Second Intermediate Period. His title was royal acquaintance access and he is known in Egyptology because his burial was found undisturbed. It was discovered on 21 December 1862 by Luigi Vassalli who worked for Auguste Mariette in Dra Abu el-Naga at Thebes, gaston Maspero published the tomb group in 1892. The burial contained the coffin of Hornakht and a set of objects. There was a stick with the name of king Seqenenre Djehuty-aa also inscribed with the name of the kings son Tjuiu. The object provides an idea of Hornakhts dating, a box bears the name of the mayor Minemhat and there was a cosmetic spoon inscribed with the name and title of the mayor of Hierakonpolis Sobeknakht. These people are all most likely contemporary with Hornakht, a vase bears the name of an Idi and dates most likely to the Old Kingdom. Other objects found in the tomb are scarabs, stone vessels, a pair of sandals, a headrest, originally, Vassalli assigned the tomb to Tjuiu, but later called the tomb owner Aqhor, as he was reading the name on the coffin. However, most recent scholar read the name on the coffin as Hornakht, aq is clearly a part of the title and translates as access, while the old reading of the name simply missed the name element nakht
Hornakht (17th Dynasty)
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Drawing of Hornakht's rishi coffin
19.
Second Intermediate Period
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The Second Intermediate Period marks a period when Ancient Egypt fell into disarray for a second time, between the end of the Middle Kingdom and the start of the New Kingdom. It is best known as the period when the Hyksos made their appearance in Egypt, the Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt came to an end at the end of the 19th century BC with the death of Queen Sobekneferu. Apparently she had no heirs, causing the twelfth dynasty to come to an end, and, with it. Retaining the seat of the dynasty, the thirteenth dynasty ruled from Itjtawy near Memphis and Lisht. The Thirteenth Dynasty is notable for the accession of the first formally recognised Semitic-speaking king, the Fifteenth Dynasty dates approximately from 1650 to 1550 BC. Known rulers of the Fifteenth Dynasty are as follows, Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Apophis, 1550–1540 BC The Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt was the first Hyksos dynasty, ruled from Avaris, without control of the entire land. The Hyksos preferred to stay in northern Egypt since they infiltrated from the north-east, the names and order of kings is uncertain. The Turin King list indicates that there were six Hyksos kings, the surviving traces on the X figure appears to give the figure 8 which suggests that the summation should be read as 6 kings ruling 108 years. Some scholars argue there were two Apophis kings named Apepi I and Apepi II, but this is due to the fact there are two known prenomens for this king, Awoserre and Aqenenre. However, the Danish Egyptologist Kim Ryholt maintains in his study of the Second Intermediate Period that these prenomens all refer to one man, Apepi and this is also supported by the fact that this king employed a third prenomen during his reign, Nebkhepeshre. Apepi likely employed several different prenomens throughout various periods of his reign and this scenario is not unprecedented, as later kings, including the famous Ramesses II and Seti II, are known to have used two different prenomens in their own reigns. The Sixteenth Dynasty ruled the Theban region in Upper Egypt for 70 years, of the two chief versions of Manethos Aegyptiaca, Dynasty XVI is described by the more reliable Africanus as shepherd kings, but by Eusebius as Theban. For this reason other scholars do not follow Ryholt and see only insufficient evidence for the interpretation of the Sixteenth Dynasty as Theban, the continuing war against Dynasty XV dominated the short-lived 16th dynasty. The armies of the 15th dynasty, winning town after town from their enemies, continually encroached on the 16th dynasty territory, eventually threatening. Famine, which had plagued Upper Egypt during the late 13th dynasty, from Ryholts reconstruction of the Turin canon,15 kings of the dynasty can now be named, five of whom appear in contemporary sources. While most likely based in Thebes itself, some may have been local rulers from other important Upper Egyptian towns, including Abydos, El Kab. By the reign of Nebiriau I, the controlled by the 16th dynasty extended at least as far north as Hu. Not listed in the Turin canon is Wepwawetemsaf, who left a stele at Abydos and was likely a local kinglet of the Abydos Dynasty, Ryholt gives the list of kings of the 16th dynasty as shown in the table below
Second Intermediate Period
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The political situation in the Second Intermediate Period of Egypt (circa 1650 B.C.E. — circa 1550 B.C.E.) Thebes was briefly conquered by the
Hyksos circa 1580 B.C.E.
Second Intermediate Period
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Thebes (
Luxor Temple pictured) was the capital of many of the Dynasty XVI pharaohs.
)
