1.
Federal government of the United States
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The Federal Government of the United States is the national government of the United States, a republic in North America, composed of 50 states, one district, Washington, D. C. and several territories. The federal government is composed of three branches, legislative, executive, and judicial, whose powers are vested by the U. S. Constitution in the Congress, the President, and the courts, including the Supreme Court. The powers and duties of these branches are defined by acts of Congress. The full name of the republic is United States of America, no other name appears in the Constitution, and this is the name that appears on money, in treaties, and in legal cases to which it is a party. The terms Government of the United States of America or United States Government are often used in documents to represent the federal government as distinct from the states collectively. In casual conversation or writing, the term Federal Government is often used, the terms Federal and National in government agency or program names generally indicate affiliation with the federal government. Because the seat of government is in Washington, D. C, Washington is commonly used as a metonym for the federal government. The outline of the government of the United States is laid out in the Constitution, the government was formed in 1789, making the United States one of the worlds first, if not the first, modern national constitutional republics. The United States government is based on the principles of federalism and republicanism, some make the case for expansive federal powers while others argue for a more limited role for the central government in relation to individuals, the states or other recognized entities. For example, while the legislative has the power to create law, the President nominates judges to the nations highest judiciary authority, but those nominees must be approved by Congress. The Supreme Court, in its turn, has the power to invalidate as unconstitutional any law passed by the Congress and these and other examples are examined in more detail in the text below. The United States Congress is the branch of the federal government. It is bicameral, comprising the House of Representatives and the Senate, the House currently consists of 435 voting members, each of whom represents a congressional district. The number of each state has in the House is based on each states population as determined in the most recent United States Census. All 435 representatives serve a two-year term, each state receives a minimum of one representative in the House. There is no limit on the number of terms a representative may serve, in addition to the 435 voting members, there are six non-voting members, consisting of five delegates and one resident commissioner. In contrast, the Senate is made up of two senators from each state, regardless of population, there are currently 100 senators, who each serve six-year terms
2.
Social Security (United States)
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In the United States, Social Security is the commonly used term for the federal Old-Age, Survivors, and Disability Insurance program. Social Security is funded primarily through taxes called Federal Insurance Contributions Act tax or Self Employed Contributions Act Tax. With a few exceptions, all salaried income, up to an amount specifically determined by law, is subject to the Social Security payroll tax, all income over said amount is not taxed. In 2017, the amount of taxable earnings was $127,200. With few exceptions, all legal residents working in the United States now have an individual Social Security number. Indeed, nearly all working residents since Social Securitys 1935 inception have had a Social Security number because it is required to do a range of things, e. g. paying the IRS. In 2015, Social Security expenditures totaled $750.5 billion for OASDI, Social Security Timeline 1935 The 37-page Social Security Act signed August 14 by President Franklin D. Roosevelt. Landmark U. S. Supreme Court ruling that gave Congress the power to amend, the Court also ruled that recipients have no contractual right to receive payments. 1961 Early retirement age lowered to age 62 at reduced benefits 1965 Medicare health care benefits added to Social security—20 million joined in three years 1966 Medicare tax of 0, the Earnings limit doubled exemption amount for retired Social Security beneficiaries. The Act was an attempt to limit unforeseen and unprepared for dangers in the life, including old age, disability, poverty, unemployment. Opponents, however, decried the proposal as socialism, in a Senate Finance Committee hearing, Senator Thomas Gore asked Secretary of Labor Frances Perkins, Isnt this socialism. She said that it was not, but he continued, Isnt this a bit of socialism. By 1950, debates moved away from which occupational groups should be included to get enough taxpayers to fund Social Security to how to provide more benefits, changes in Social Security have reflected a balance between promoting equality and efforts to provide adequate and affordable protection for low wage workers. These retirement benefits are a form of insurance that is heavily biased toward lower paid workers to make sure they do not have to retire in relative poverty. The OASI accounts plus trust funds are the only Social Security funding source that brings in more than it sends out, Social Security revenues exceeded expenditures, between 1983 and 2009. The disability insurance taxes of 1. 4% are included in the OASDI rate of 6. 2% for workers and employers or 12. 4% for the self-employed, the additional retirees expected under the baby boom bulge will hasten this trust fund depletion. Medicare expenses, tied to medical costs growth rates, have traditionally increased much faster than GDP growth rates, for workers the Social Security tax rate is 6. 2% on income under $127,200 through the end of 2017. The worker Medicare tax rate is 1. 45% of all income—employers pay another 1. 45%, employers pay 6. 2% up to the wage ceiling and the Medicare tax of 1.45 percent on all income
3.
Retirement
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Retirement is the point where a person stops employment completely. A person may also semi-retire by reducing work hours, an increasing number of individuals are choosing to put off this point of total retirement, by selecting to exist in the emerging state of Pre-tirement. In most countries, the idea of retirement is of recent origin, being introduced during the late 19th, previously, low life expectancy and the absence of pension arrangements meant that most workers continued to work until death. Germany was the first country to introduce retirement, in 1889, nowadays, most developed countries have systems to provide pensions on retirement in old age, which may be sponsored by employers and/or the state. In many poorer countries, support for the old is still provided through the family. Today, retirement with a pension is considered a right of the worker in many societies, in many western countries this right is mentioned in national constitutions. Retirement, or the practice of leaving ones job or ceasing to work after reaching an age, has been around since around the 18th century. Prior to the 18th century, the life expectancy of people was between 26 and 40 years. Due to this, only a percentage of the population were reaching an age where physical impairments began to be obstacles to working. Retirement as a government policy began to be adopted by countries during the late 19th century, a person may retire at whatever age they please. However, a countrys tax laws and/or state old-age pension rules usually mean that in a country a certain age is thought of as the standard retirement age. The standard retirement age varies from country to country but it is generally between 50 and 70, in some countries this age is different for males and females, although this has recently been challenged in some countries, and in some countries the ages are being brought into line. The table below shows the variation in eligibility ages for public benefits in the United States and many European countries. Notes, Parentheses indicate eligibility age for women when different, 1–2, OECD Pensions at a Glance, Cols. 3–6, Tabulations from HRS, ELSA and SHARE, square brackets indicate early retirement for some public employees. * In France, the retirement age has been extended to 62 and 67 respectively, for those turning 65 in 2008, full benefits will be payable beginning at age 66. Public servants are not covered by Social Security but have their own pension programs. Military members of the US Armed Forces may elect to retire after 20 years of active duty and their retirement pay is calculated on total number of years on active duty, their final pay grade and the retirement system in place when they entered service
4.
Federal Insurance Contributions Act tax
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The tax also provides funds to the health care system for institutions that provide healthcare for workers that do not have health insurance and cannot afford healthcare treatment. Social Security benefits include old-age, survivors, and disability insurance, the amount that one pays in payroll taxes throughout ones working career is associated indirectly with the social security benefits annuity that one receives as a retiree. This has caused some to claim that the tax is not a tax because its collection is tied to a benefit. The United States Supreme Court decided in Flemming v. Nestor that no one has a property right to benefits from Social Security. The Federal Insurance Contributions Act is currently codified at Title 26, Subtitle C, in the United States, the term payroll tax usually refers to the FICA tax, income tax refers to other federal and state employment taxes. The Center on Budget and Policy Priorities states that three-quarters of taxpayers pay more in taxes than they do in income taxes. The FICA tax is considered a tax on income with no standard deduction or personal exemption deduction. The Social Security portion of the tax is imposed on only the first $113,700 of gross wages in 2013, $117,000 in 2014, the FICA tax is not imposed on investment income such as rental income, interest, or dividends. Since 2013, the share of the Social Security portion of the FICA tax has been 6. 2% of gross compensation up to a limit that adjusts with inflation. The taxation limit in 2014 was $117,000 of gross compensation and this limit, known as the Social Security Wage Base, goes up each year based on average national wages and, in general, at a faster rate than the Consumer Price Index. For the calendar years of 2011 and 2012, the share was temporarily reduced to 4. 2% of gross compensation with a limit of $106,800 for 2011. The employees share of the Medicare portion of the tax is 1. 45% of wages, with no limit on the amount of wages subject to the Medicare portion of the tax. The employer is liable for 6. 2% Social Security and 1. 45% Medicare taxes, making the total Social Security tax 12. 4% of wages. There are some limited cases, such as a successor-predecessor employer transfer, if the taxpayer is due a refund, then the FICA tax overpayment is refunded. A tax similar to the FICA tax is imposed on the earnings of self-employed individuals and it does this by adjusting for the fact that employees 7. 65% share of their SE tax is multiplied against a number that does not include the putative employers half of the self-employment tax. Similarly, self-employed people also deduct half of their self-employment tax from their gross income on the way to arriving at their adjusted gross income, a special case in FICA regulations includes exemptions for student workers. Medical residents working full-time are not considered students and are not exempt from FICA payroll taxes, in order to be exempt from FICA payroll taxes, a students work must be incident to pursuit of a course of study, which is rarely the case with full-time employment. However full-time college students working off-campus are not exempt from FICA taxes and they provide alternative retirement and pension plans to their employees
5.
Baltimore
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Baltimore is the largest city in the U. S. state of Maryland, and the 29th-most populous city in the country. It was established by the Constitution of Maryland and is not part of any county, thus, it is the largest independent city in the United States, with a population of 621,849 as of 2015. As of 2010, the population of the Baltimore Metropolitan Area was 2.7 million, founded in 1729, Baltimore is the second largest seaport in the Mid-Atlantic. Baltimores Inner Harbor was once the leading port of entry for immigrants to the United States. With hundreds of identified districts, Baltimore has been dubbed a city of neighborhoods, in the War of 1812, Francis Scott Key wrote The Star-Spangled Banner, later the American national anthem, in Baltimore. More than 65,000 properties, or roughly one in three buildings in the city, are listed on the National Register, more than any city in the nation. The city has 289 properties listed on the National Register of Historic Places, the historical records of the government of Baltimore are located at the Baltimore City Archives. The city is named after Cecil Calvert, second Lord Baltimore, of the Irish House of Lords, Baltimore Manor was the name of the estate in County Longford on which the Calvert family lived in Ireland. Baltimore is an anglicization of the Irish name Baile an Tí Mhóir, in 1608, Captain John Smith traveled 210 miles from Jamestown to the uppermost Chesapeake Bay, leading the first European expedition to the Patapsco River. The name Patapsco is derived from pota-psk-ut, which translates to backwater or tide covered with froth in Algonquian dialect, a quarter century after John Smiths voyage, English colonists began to settle in Maryland. The area constituting the modern City of Baltimore and its area was first settled by David Jones in 1661. He claimed the area today as Harbor East on the east bank of the Jones Falls stream. In the early 1600s, the immediate Baltimore vicinity was populated, if at all. The Baltimore area had been inhabited by Native Americans since at least the 10th millennium BC, one Paleo-Indian site and several Archaic period and Woodland period archaeological sites have been identified in Baltimore, including four from the Late Woodland period. During the Late Woodland period, the culture that is called the Potomac Creek complex resided in the area from Baltimore to the Rappahannock River in Virginia. It was located on the Bush River on land that in 1773 became part of Harford County, in 1674, the General Assembly passed An Act for erecting a Court-house and Prison in each County within this Province. The site of the house and jail for Baltimore County was evidently Old Baltimore near the Bush River. In 1683, the General Assembly passed An Act for Advancement of Trade to establish towns, ports, one of the towns established by the act in Baltimore County was on Bush River, on Town Land, near the Court-House
6.
American Federation of Government Employees
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AFGE is the largest union for civilian, non-postal federal employees and the largest union for District of Columbia employees who report directly to the mayor. It is affiliated with the AFL-CIO, AFGE was founded on October 17,1932, by local unions loyal to the American Federation of Labor and left the National Federation of Federal Employees when that union became independent of the AFL. In 2010, the Obama Administration issued an Executive Order for the Federal Government to focus on insourcing Federal jobs rather than outsourcing them overseas or to contractors, aFGEs motto was established as To Do For All That Which No One Can Do For Oneself. AFGE is working for a change in law which will give them the collective bargaining rights as other federal employees. In August 2015, AFGE at its national convention decided its official colors are blue, All future insignia will meet as such. Previous National Presidents going back to the 1960s include Bobby L. Harnage, Sr. John N. Sturdivant, Kenneth Blaylock, Dennis Garrison, Clyde Weber, John Griner, James Campbell, david Glass was the first AFGE National President. Early National Presidents include John A. Shaw, E. Claude Babcock, stengle, Cecil E. Custer and James B. National Secretary-Treasurer Berniece Heffner served as Acting National President three times during transition periods due to retirement or death during her twenty years in office, for AFGE, collective bargaining responsibilities are delegated to numbered Councils of Locals at major agencies, including the following, Veterans Administration Council. National Council of VA Locals The VA Council is the largest, alma L. Lee is the current president of the VA council. The Food Safety Inspection Service Council, National Council of HUD Locals the Social Security Administration Council. Major components of the Department of Defense, such as, the Air Force Materiel Command a. k. a. a. k. a, AFGE Council 118 CIS Council Coast Guard Council. AFGE has been growing in membership in recent years and now has more than 300,000 dues paying members in about 1200 AFGE Locals at more than 100 federal agencies, united Public Workers of America National Federation of Federal Employees American Federation of Government Employees AFGE National VA Council
7.
Franklin D. Roosevelt
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Franklin Delano Roosevelt, commonly known as FDR, was an American statesman and political leader who served as the 32nd President of the United States from 1933 until his death in 1945. A Democrat, he won a record four presidential elections and emerged as a figure in world events during the mid-20th century. He directed the United States government during most of the Great Depression and he is often rated by scholars as one of the three greatest U. S. Presidents, along with George Washington and Abraham Lincoln. Roosevelt was born in 1882 to an old, prominent Dutch family from Dutchess County and he attended the elite educational institutions of Groton School, Harvard College, and Columbia Law School. At age 23 in 1905, he married Eleanor Roosevelt, and he entered politics in 1910, serving in the New York State Senate, and then as Assistant Secretary of the Navy under President Woodrow Wilson. In 1920, Roosevelt was presidential candidate James M. Coxs running mate and he was in office from 1929 to 1933 and served as a reform governor, promoting the enactment of programs to combat the depression besetting the United States at the time. In the 1932 presidential election, Roosevelt defeated incumbent Republican president Herbert Hoover in a landslide to win the presidency, Roosevelt took office while in the United States was in the midst of the worst economic crisis in its history. Energized by his victory over polio, FDR relied on his persistent optimism and activism to renew the national spirit. He created numerous programs to support the unemployed and farmers, and to labor union growth while more closely regulating business. His support for the repeal of Prohibition in 1933 added to his popularity, the economy improved rapidly from 1933–37, but then relapsed into a deep recession in 1937–38. The bipartisan Conservative Coalition that formed in 1937 prevented his packing the Supreme Court, when the war began and unemployment ended, conservatives in Congress repealed the two major relief programs, the WPA and CCC. However, they kept most of the regulations on business, along with several smaller programs, major surviving programs include the Securities and Exchange Commission, the Wagner Act, the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation and Social Security. His goal was to make America the Arsenal of Democracy, which would supply munitions to the Allies, in March 1941, Roosevelt, with Congressional approval, provided Lend-Lease aid to Britain and China. He supervised the mobilization of the U. S. economy to support the war effort, as an active military leader, Roosevelt implemented a war strategy on two fronts that ended in the defeat of the Axis Powers and initiate the development of the worlds first atomic bomb. His work also influenced the creation of the United Nations. Roosevelts physical health declined during the war years, and he died 11 weeks into his fourth term. One of the oldest Dutch families in New York State, the Roosevelts distinguished themselves in other than politics. One ancestor, Isaac Roosevelt, had served with the New York militia during the American Revolution, Roosevelt attended events of the New York society Sons of the American Revolution, and joined the organization while he was president
8.
New Deal
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The New Deal was a series of programs, including, most notably, Social Security, that were enacted in the United States between 1933 and 1938, and a few that came later. They included both laws passed by Congress as well as executive orders during the first term of the Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt. The Republicans were split, with opposing the entire New Deal as an enemy of business and growth. By 1936 the term liberal typically was used for supporters of the New Deal, from 1934 to 1938, Roosevelt was assisted in his endeavours by a pro-spender majority in Congress. In the 1938 midterm elections, however, Roosevelt and his supporters lost control of Congress to the bipartisan conservative coalition. Many historians distinguish between a First New Deal and a Second New Deal, with the one more liberal. The First New Deal dealt with the banking crises through the Emergency Banking Act. The Securities Act of 1933 was enacted to prevent a repeated stock market crash, the controversial work of the National Recovery Administration was also part of the First New Deal. The economic downturn of 1937–38, and the split between the AFL and CIO labor unions led to major Republican gains in Congress in 1938. Conservative Republicans and Democrats in Congress joined in the informal Conservative Coalition, by 1942–43 they shut down relief programs such as the WPA and Civilian Conservation Corps and blocked major liberal proposals. Roosevelt himself turned his attention to the war effort, and won reelection in 1940 and 1944, the Supreme Court declared the National Recovery Administration and the first version of the Agricultural Adjustment Act unconstitutional, however the AAA was rewritten and then upheld. As the first Republican president elected after Franklin D. Roosevelt, Dwight D. Eisenhower left the New Deal largely intact, Johnsons Great Society used the New Deal as inspiration for a dramatic expansion of liberal programs, which Republican Richard M. Nixon generally retained. After 1974, however, the call for deregulation of the economy gained bipartisan support, the New Deal regulation of banking was suspended in the 1990s. The largest programs still in existence today are the Social Security System, the phrase New Deal was coined by an adviser to Roosevelt, Stuart Chase. Although the term was used by Mark Twain in A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthurs Court. From 1929 to 1933 manufacturing output decreased by one third, prices fell by 20%, causing deflation that made repaying debts much harder. Unemployment in the U. S. increased from 4% to 25%, additionally, one-third of all employed persons were downgraded to working part-time on much smaller paychecks. In the aggregate, almost 50% of the nations human work-power was going unused, before the New Deal, there was no insurance on deposits at banks
9.
Federal Emergency Relief Administration
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The Federal Emergency Relief Administration was the new name given by the Roosevelt Administration to the Emergency Relief Administration which President Franklin Delano Roosevelt had created in 1933. FERA was established as a result of the Federal Emergency Relief Act and was replaced in 1935 by the Works Progress Administration, under Hoover, the agency gave loans to the states to operate relief programs. One of these, the New York state program TERA, was set up in 1931 and headed by Harry Hopkins, Roosevelt asked Congress to set up FERA—which gave grants to the states for the same purpose—in May 1933, and appointed Hopkins to head it. Along with the Civilian Conservation Corps it was the first relief operation under the New Deal, basically, it gave grants and loans to states. FERAs main goal was to alleviate household unemployment by creating new unskilled jobs in local, jobs were more expensive than direct cash payments, but were psychologically more beneficial to the unemployed, who wanted any sort of job, for self-esteem, to play the role of male breadwinner. From May 1933 until it closed in December,1935, FERA gave states and localities $3.1 billion, FERA provided work for over 20 million people and developed facilities on public lands across the country. FERA operated a variety of work relief projects, including construction, projects for professionals. Workers education, a form of education, emphasized the study of economic. When the FERA created its adult education program in 1933, workers education classes were included, between 1933 and 1943 thirty-six experiment programs in workers education were launched,17 of them lasting over ten years. With as many as two thousand teachers employed at one time, officials estimated that the program reached at least one million workers nationwide until it was ended in World War II. Three distinct phases of a workers education program existed, FERA, Works Progress Administration. FERA and WPA workers education stimulated educational activities within the labor movement, for example, in Indiana this program was particularly popular among the new, more radical CIO unions. Federal workers education activities also encouraged union-university cooperation and laid the foundation for education at Indiana University. New Dealers designed the WPA Workers Service Program as the model for a Federal Labor Extension Service, similar to the existing federal agricultural extension program, ellen Sullivan Woodward was director of womens work for FERA and CWA. Most were unemployed white collar clerical workers, in July 1934, the FERA established a separate division for professional and nonconstruction projects. Project designers in the division for professional projects faced a challenge in creating effective. In 1935 she became assistant administrator of the WPA, where she directed the income-earning projects of some 500,000 women, poor people lacked enough food in the Depression, and farmers had too much. Although he criticized the welfare bureaucracy, Murray championed the states farmers and took credit for the food, seed
10.
Harry Hopkins
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Harry Lloyd Hopkins was one of Franklin Delano Roosevelts closest advisors. He was one of the architects of the New Deal, especially the relief programs of the Works Progress Administration, political problems with allies, strategy—in short, with anything that might concern the president. Hopkins was born at 512 Tenth Street in Sioux City, Iowa and his father, born in Bangor, Maine, ran a harness shop, but his real passion was bowling, and he eventually returned to it as a business. Anna Hopkins, born in Hamilton, Ontario, had moved at an age to Vermillion, South Dakota. She was deeply religious and active in the affairs of the Methodist church, shortly after Harry was born, the family moved successively to Council Bluffs, Iowa, and Kearney and Hastings, Nebraska. They spent two years in Chicago and finally settled in Grinnell, Iowa, Hopkins attended Grinnell College and soon after his graduation in 1912 took a job with Christodora House, a social settlement house in New York Citys Lower East Side ghetto. In 1915, New York City Mayor John Purroy Mitchel appointed Hopkins executive secretary of the Bureau of Child Welfare which administered pensions to mothers with dependent children. Hopkins at first opposed Americas entrance into World War I, but and he was rejected for the draft because of a bad eye. Hopkins moved to New Orleans where he worked for the American Red Cross as director of Civilian Relief, eventually, the Gulf Division of the Red Cross merged with the Southwestern Division and Hopkins, headquartered now in Atlanta, was appointed general manager in 1921. Hopkins helped draft a charter for the American Association of Social Workers and was elected its president in 1923. In 1922, Hopkins returned to New York City where the AICP was involved with the Milbank Memorial Fund, Hopkins became manager of the Bellevue-Yorkville health project and assistant director of the AICP. In mid-1924 he became director of the New York Tuberculosis Association. During his tenure, the agency grew enormously and absorbed the New York Heart Association, in 1931, New York Governor Franklin D. Roosevelt named R. H. Macys department store president Jesse Straus as president of the Temporary Emergency Relief Administration. Straus named Hopkins, then unknown to Roosevelt, as TERAs executive director and his efficient administration of the initial $20 million outlay to the agency gained Roosevelts attention, and in 1932, he promoted Hopkins to the presidency of the agency. Hopkins and Eleanor Roosevelt began a friendship, which strengthened his role in relief programs. In March 1933, Roosevelt summoned Hopkins to Washington as federal relief administrator and he supervised the Federal Emergency Relief Administration, the Civil Works Administration, and the Works Progress Administration. Over 90% of the people employed by the Hopkins programs were unemployed or on relief and he feuded with Harold Ickes, who ran a rival program—the Public Works Administration—which also created jobs but did not require applicants to be unemployed or on relief. FERA, the largest program from 1933 to 1935, involved giving money to localities to operate work relief projects to employ those on direct relief, CWA was similar, but did not require workers to be on relief in order to receive a government sponsored job
11.
Felix Frankfurter
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Felix Frankfurter was a jurist, who served as an Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court. Frankfurter was born in Vienna and immigrated to New York at the age of 12 and he graduated from Harvard Law School and was active politically, helping to found the American Civil Liberties Union. He was a friend and adviser of President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Frankfurter served on the Supreme Court for 23 years, and was a noted advocate of judicial restraint in the judgments of the Court. Frankfurter was born into a Jewish family on November 15,1882, in Vienna, Austria and he was the third of six children of Leopold Frankfurter, a merchant, and Emma Frankfurter. His uncle, Solomon Frankfurter, was head librarian at the Vienna University Library, Frankfurters forebears had been rabbis for generations. In 1894, when he was twelve, his family immigrated to New York City, settling on the Lower East Side,25, where he excelled at his studies and enjoyed playing chess and shooting craps on the street. He spent many hours reading at The Cooper Union for the Advancement of Science and Art and attending political lectures, usually on subjects such as trade unionism, socialism and communism. After graduating in 1902 from City College of New York, where he was inducted into Phi Beta Kappa and he applied successfully to Harvard Law School, where he excelled academically and socially. He became lifelong friends with Walter Lippmann and Horace Kallen, became an editor of the Harvard Law Review, Frankfurters legal career began when he joined the New York law firm of Hornblower, Byrne, Miller & Potter in 1906. In the same year, he was hired as the assistant to Henry Stimson, during this period, Frankfurter read Herbert Crolys book The Promise of American Life, and became a supporter of the New Nationalism and of Theodore Roosevelt. In 1911, President William Howard Taft appointed Stimson as his Secretary of War, Frankfurter worked directly for Stimson as his assistant and confidant. His government position restricted his ability to voice his Progressive views. In 1912 Frankfurter supported the Bull Moose campaign to return Roosevelt to the presidency and he became increasingly disillusioned with the established parties, and described himself as politically homeless. Frankfurters work in Washington had impressed the faculty at Harvard Law School and he taught mainly administrative law and occasionally criminal law. With fellow professor James M. Landis, he advocated judicial restraint in dealing with government misdeeds and he also served as counsel for the National Consumers League, arguing for Progressive causes such as minimum wage and restricted work hours. He was involved in the years of The New Republic magazine after its founding by Herbert Croly. When the United States entered World War I in 1917, Frankfurter took a leave from Harvard to serve as special assistant to the Secretary of War Newton D. Baker. He was appointed Judge Advocate General, supervising military courts-martial for the War Department and he was commissioned a major in the Officers Reserve Corps but was not called to active duty
12.
Austin, Texas
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Austin is the capital of the U. S. state of Texas and the seat of Travis County. It is the 11th-most populous city in the U. S. and it is the fastest growing large city in the United States and the second most populous capital city after Phoenix, Arizona. As of the U. S. Census Bureaus July 1,2015 estimate and it is the cultural and economic center of the Austin–Round Rock metropolitan area, which had an estimated population of 2,056,405 as of July 1,2016. In the 1830s, pioneers began to settle the area in central Austin along the Colorado River, in 1839, the site was officially chosen to replace Houston as the new capital of the Republic of Texas and was incorporated under the name Waterloo. Shortly thereafter, the name was changed to Austin in honor of Stephen F. Austin, the Father of Texas and the republics first secretary of state. The city subsequently grew throughout the 19th century and became a center for government and education with the construction of the Texas State Capitol and the University of Texas at Austin. After a lull in growth from the Great Depression, Austin resumed its development into a city and, by the 1980s, it emerged as a center for technology. A number of Fortune 500 companies have headquarters or regional offices in Austin, including Amazon. com, cisco, eBay, Google, IBM, Intel, Oracle Corporation, Texas Instruments, 3M, and Whole Foods Market. Dells worldwide headquarters is located in nearby Round Rock, a suburb of Austin, residents of Austin are known as Austinites. They include a mix of government employees, college students, musicians, high-tech workers, blue-collar workers. The city also adopted Silicon Hills as a nickname in the 1990s due to an influx of technology. In the late 1800s, Austin was known as the City of the Violet Crown because of the glow of light across the hills just after sunset. Even today, many Austin businesses use the term Violet Crown in their name, Austin is known as a clean-air city for its stringent no-smoking ordinances that apply to all public places and buildings, including restaurants and bars. The FBI ranked Austin as the second-safest major city in the U. S. for the year 2012, U. S. News & World Report named Austin the best place to live in the U. S. in 2017. Austin, Travis County and Williamson County have been the site of habitation since at least 9200 BC. When settlers arrived from Europe, the Tonkawa tribe inhabited the area, the Comanches and Lipan Apaches were also known to travel through the area. Spanish colonists, including the Espinosa-Olivares-Aguirre expedition, traveled through the area for centuries, in 1730, three missions from East Texas were combined and reestablished as one mission on the south side of the Colorado River, in what is now Zilker Park, in Austin. The mission was in area for only about seven months
13.
Ida May Fuller
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Ida May Fuller was the first beneficiary of recurring monthly Social Security payments. Miss Fuller was born on September 6,1874 on a farm outside of Ludlow and she attended school in Rutland, Vermont where one of her classmates was Calvin Coolidge. In 1905, after working as a teacher, she became a legal secretary. One of the partners in the firm, John G. Sargent, Ida May never married and had no children. She lived alone most of her life, but spent eight years near the end of her living with her niece, Hazel Perkins. Miss Fuller filed her retirement claim on November 4,1939, while running an errand she dropped by the Rutland Social Security office to ask about possible benefits. She would later observe, It wasnt that I expected anything, mind you and her claim was taken by Claims Clerk, Elizabeth Corcoran Burke, and transmitted to the Claims Division in Washington, D. C. for adjudication. The case was adjudicated and reviewed and sent to the Treasury Department for payment in January 1940, the claims were grouped in batches of 1,000 and a Certification List for each batch was sent to Treasury. Ida May Fuller Details of Ida May Fullers Payroll Tax Contributions
14.
Brattleboro, Vermont
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Brattleboro, originally Brattleborough, is a town in Windham County, Vermont, United States. The town is located in the southeast corner of the state along the line with New Hampshire. The population is 11,765 according to the U. S. Census Bureaus 2014 estimates and it is the most populous municipality along Vermonts eastern border and is situated on the west bank of the Connecticut River at the point where Vermonts West River flows into it. Marlboro College Center for Graduate and Professional Studies and SIT Graduate Institute are located in the town, there are satellite campuses of three colleges as well, Community College of Vermont, Union Institute and University, and Vermont Technical College. The town is home to the New England Center for Circus Arts, the Brattleboro Retreat, a not-for-profit mental health and addictions psychiatric hospital, is also located in the town. The Abenaki would transit this area annually between Missisquoi in northwestern Vermont, and Squakheag near what is now Northfield, Massachusetts, the specific Abenaki band who lived here and traversed this place were called Sokoki, meaning people who go their own way or people of the lonely way. Lieutenant-governor William Dummer signed the measure, and construction of Fort Dummer began on February 3,1724, on October 11 of that year, the French attacked the fort and killed some soldiers. By 1728, and in subsequent peaceful periods, the served as a trading post for commerce among the colonial settlers. But violence flared up from time to time throughout the first half of the 18th century, in 1744, what became known as King Georges War broke out, lasting until 1748. During this period a body of British colonial troops were posted at the fort. Although the area was part of the Equivalent Lands, the township became one of the New Hampshire grants. It was named Brattleborough, after Colonel William Brattle, Jr. of Boston, hostilities having ceased, Brattleboro developed quickly in peacetime, and soon was second to none in the state for business and wealth. In 1771, Stephen Greenleaf opened Vermonts first store in the east village, and in 1784, a bridge was built across the Connecticut River to Hinsdale, New Hampshire in 1804. In 1834, the Brattleboro Retreat, then called the Vermont Asylum for the Insane, was established through a generous bequest by Hinsdale, until the Water Cure closed in 1871, the town was widely known as a curative health resort. Whetstone Falls, very close to where Brattleboros Whetstone Brook flows into the Connecticut River, was a source of water power for watermills, initially a sawmill. In 1888, the spelling of the name was shortened to Brattleboro. The Estey Organ company, the largest organ manufacturer in the United States, the companys main factory was located southwest of downtown Brattleboro, on the south side of Whetstone Brook between Birge and Organ Streets. At its height, the complex had more than 20 buildings, many of which were interconnected by raised walkways, one of the buildings now houses the Estey Organ Museum
15.
Cabinet (government)
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A cabinet is a body of high-ranking state officials, typically consisting of the top leaders of the executive branch. They are usually called ministers, but in some jurisdictions are sometimes called secretaries, in some countries, the cabinet is called Council of Ministers or Government Council or lesser known names such as Federal Council, Inner Council or High Council. These countries may differ in the way that the cabinet is used or established, in some countries, particularly those that use a parliamentary system, the Cabinet collectively decides the governments direction, especially in regard to legislation passed by the parliament. In this way, the President gets opinions and advice in upcoming decisions, instead, it is usually the Head of Government who holds all means of power in his hands and the Cabinet reports to him. In most governments, members of the Cabinet are given the title of minister, in a few governments, as in the case of Mexico, the Philippines, the United Kingdom, and United States, the title of secretary is also used for some Cabinet members. In many countries, a Secretary is a member with an inferior rank to a minister. In some countries attorneys general also sit in the cabinet, while in others this is strictly prohibited as the attorneys general are considered to be part of the judicial branch of government. The size of cabinets varies, although most contain around ten to twenty ministers, researchers have found an inverse correlation between a countrys level of development and cabinet size, on average, the more developed a country is, the smaller is its cabinet. In the United Kingdom and its colonies, cabinets began as smaller sub-groups of the English Privy Council, the term comes from the name for a relatively small and private room used as a study or retreat. The process has repeated itself in recent times, as leaders have felt the need to have a Kitchen Cabinet or sofa government, under the Westminster system, members of the cabinet are Ministers of the Crown who are collectively responsible for all government policy. All ministers, whether senior and in the cabinet or junior ministers, must publicly support the policy of the government, the cabinet may also provide ideas on/if new laws were established, and what they include. Cabinet deliberations are secret and documents dealt with in cabinet are confidential, in theory the prime minister or premier is first among equals. In some countries, the ministers are referred to as spokespersons. A prime ministerial government is a government where the minister is dominant in terms of the executive. As the prime minister is, by definition, a member of a cabinet – this form of government is often a development from cabinet government, in true cabinet government the prime minister is primus inter pares, where prime ministerial government necessitates the crossing of this boundary. An often cited example of ministerial government is the United Kingdom. Thatcher began using bilateral meetings with ministers to determine policy areas using cabinet to simply announce these decisions. Due to the extent of her success, and her control over cabinet positions, despite John Major moving back towards cabinet government, Tony Blair carried on Thatchers approach
16.
Federal Security Agency
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The Federal Security Agency was an independent agency of the United States government established in 1939 pursuant to the Reorganization Act of 1939. For a time, the agency oversaw food and drug safety as well as funding and the administration of public health programs. The Reorganization Act of 1939 authorized the President of the United States to devise a plan to reorganize the executive branch of government, pursuant to the Act, President Franklin D. Roosevelt issued Reorganization Plan No.1 of 1939 on April 25,1939. The reorganization plan was designed to reduce the number of reporting directly to the president. The reorganization plan created the Federal Security Agency, included in the FSA were the Social Security Board, the U. S. Public Health Service, the Food and Drug Administration, the Civilian Conservation Corps, the Office of Education, the National Youth Administration and its first director was Paul V. McNutt. Secretly, the FSA was also an agency from 1942 to 1944 for the War Research Service. President Harry S. Truman attempted to make the FSA a department of the federal government, in 1949, the United States Congress enacted the Reorganization Act of 1949. Subsequently, President Dwight D. Eisenhower promulgated Reorganization Plan No.1 of 1953, the Federal Security Agency was abolished and most of its functions were transferred to the newly formed United States Department of Health, Education and Welfare. Paul V. McNutt, Portrait of a Hoosier Statesman, compilation of the Social Security Laws. Vol. I, Including the Social Security Act, as Amended, oral History Interview with Oscar R. Ewing. Reorganization Plan No.1 of 1939, Reorganization Plan No.1 of 1953. Title 5 - Government Organization and Employees, transmitted to the U. S. Senate and U. S. House of Representatives, March 12,1953. Social Security Administration U. S. Dept. of Education U. S. Dept. of Health and Human Services U. S. Food and Drug Administration
17.
United States Public Health Service
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The Office of the Surgeon General was created in 1871. The PHS comprises all Agency Divisions of Health and Human Services, the Assistant Secretary for Health oversees the PHS and the United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps. Members of the Commissioned Corps often serve on the frontlines in the fight against disease, as one of the United States seven uniformed services, the PHS Commissioned Corps fills public health leadership and service roles within federal government agencies and programs. Public Health Service Commissioned Corps is to protect, promote, and advance the health and safety of the United States. The origins of the Public Health Service can be traced to the passage, by the 5th Congress of the United States, of An Act for the Relief of Sick and this act created Marine Hospitals to care for sick seamen. At the time this act was passed the east coast was the shore with harbors. As the boundaries of the United States expanded, and harbors were built on other coasts, in the 1830s and 1840s they were built along inland waterways, the Great Lakes, and the Gulf of Mexico. After the acquisition of the Oregon Territory and California hospitals were built in 1850s at Pacific Coast harbors, funding for the hospitals was provided by a mandatory tax of about 1% of the wages of all maritime sailors. A reorganization in 1870 converted the loose network of locally controlled hospitals into a centrally controlled Marine Hospital Service, with its headquarters in Washington. The position of Supervising Surgeon was created to administer the Service and he moved quickly to reform the system and adopted a military model for his medical staff, putting his physicians in uniforms, and instituting examinations for applicants. Woodworth created a cadre of mobile, career service physicians, who could be assigned as needed to the various Marine Hospitals, the commissioned officer corps was established by legislation in 1889, and signed by 22nd/24th President Grover Cleveland. It is now known as the Commissioned Corps of the U. S, starting in the mid-14th century, ships entering harbors were quarantined when any of the crew was sick. This practice was normal procedure at United States harbors, with originally a function of the individual states. The National Quarantine Act of 1878 vested quarantine authority to the Marine Hospital Service, and the National Board of Health. The National Board was not reauthorized by Congress in 1883 and its powers reverted to the Marine Hospital Service, over the next half a century, the Marine Hospital Service increasingly took over quarantine functions from individual state authorities. As immigration increased dramatically in the late 19th Century, the Federal Government also took over the processing of immigrants from the individual states, the Marine Hospital Service was assigned the responsibility for the medical inspection of arriving immigrants at sites such as Ellis Island in New York Harbor. Commissioned officers played a role in fulfilling the Services commitment to prevent disease from entering the country. Because of the broadening responsibilities of the Service, its name was changed in 1902 to the Public Health, the Service continued to expand its public health activities as the Nation entered the 20th Century, with the PHSs Commissioned Corps leading the way
18.
Civilian Conservation Corps
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The Civilian Conservation Corps was a public work relief program that operated from 1933 to 1942 in the United States for unemployed, unmarried men from relief families as part of the New Deal. Originally for young men ages 18–25, it was expanded to young men ages 17–28. Robert Fechner was the head of the agency, the CCC was designed to provide jobs for young men, and to relieve families who had difficulty finding jobs during the Great Depression in the United States. At the same time, it implemented a general natural resource conservation program in every state, maximum enrollment at any one time was 300,000. Over the course of its nine years in operation,3 million young men participated in the CCC, which provided them shelter, clothing. The American public made the CCC the most popular of all the New Deal programs, principal benefits of an individuals enrollment in the CCC included improved physical condition, heightened morale, and increased employability. The CCC operated separate programs for veterans and Native Americans, approximately 15,000 Native Americans participated in the program, helping them weather the Great Depression. Despite its popular support, the CCC was never a permanent agency and it depended on emergency and temporary Congressional legislation and funding to operate. By 1942, with World War II and the draft in operation, the need for work relief declined, as governor of New York, Roosevelt had run a similar program on a much smaller scale. He promised this law would provide 250,000 young men with meals, housing, uniforms, the Emergency Conservation Work Act was introduced to Congress the same day and enacted by voice vote on March 31. Roosevelt issued Executive Order 6101 on April 5,1933 which established the CCC organization and appointed a director, Robert Fechner, the organization and administration of the CCC was a new experiment in operations for a federal government agency. A CCC Advisory Council was composed of a representative each of the supervising departments. In addition, the Office of Education and Veterans Administration participated in the program, to end the opposition from labor unions Roosevelt chose Robert Fechner, vice president of the American Machinists Union, as director of the corps. William Green, head of the American Federation of Labor, was taken to the first camp to demonstrate that there would be no job training involved beyond simple manual labor. Reserve officers from the U. S. Army were in charge of the camps, General Douglas MacArthur was placed in charge of the program but said that the number of Army officers and soldiers assigned to the camps was affecting the readiness of the Regular Army. But the Army also found benefits in the program. When the draft began in 1940, the policy was to make CCC alumni corporals, CCC also provided command experience to Organized Reserve Corps officers. Through the CCC, the Regular Army could assess the performance of both Regular and Reserve Officers
19.
Harry S. Truman
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Harry S. Truman was an American politician who served as the 33rd President of the United States, assuming the office upon the death of Franklin D. Roosevelt during the waning months of World War II. In domestic affairs, he was a moderate Democrat whose liberal proposals were a continuation of Franklin Roosevelts New Deal, but the conservative-dominated Congress blocked most of them. He also used weapons to end World War II, desegregated the U. S. armed forces, supported a newly independent Israel. Truman was born in Lamar, Missouri, and spent most of his youth on his familys 600-acre farm near Independence, in the last months of World War I, he served in combat in France as an artillery officer with his National Guard unit. After the war, he owned a haberdashery in Kansas City, Missouri, and joined the Democratic Party. Truman was first elected to office as a county official in 1922. After serving as a United States Senator from Missouri and briefly as Vice President, he succeeded to the presidency on April 12,1945, upon the death of Franklin D. Roosevelt. Germany surrendered on Trumans 61st birthday, just a few weeks after he assumed the presidency, but the war with Imperial Japan raged on and was expected to last at least another year. Although this decision and the issues that arose as a result of it remain the subject of debate to this day. Truman presided over a surge in economic prosperity as America sought readjustment after long years of depression. His presidency was a point in foreign affairs, as the United States engaged in an internationalist foreign policy. Truman helped found the United Nations in 1945, issued the Truman Doctrine in 1947 to contain Communism and his political coalition was based on the white South, labor unions, farmers, ethnic groups, and traditional Democrats across the North. Truman was able to rally groups of supporters during the 1948 presidential election. The Soviet Union became an enemy in the Cold War, Truman oversaw the Berlin Airlift of 1948 and the creation of NATO in 1949, but was unable to stop Communists from taking over China. When communist North Korea invaded South Korea in 1950, he sent U. S. troops, after initial successes in Korea, however, the UN forces were thrown back by Chinese intervention, and the conflict was stalemated throughout the final years of Trumans presidency. Scholars, starting in 1962, ranked Trumans presidency as near great, Harry S. Truman was born on May 8,1884, in Lamar, Missouri, the oldest child of John Anderson Truman and Martha Ellen Young Truman. His parents chose the name Harry after his mothers brother, Harrison Harry Young, while the S did not stand for any one name, it was chosen as his middle initial to honor both of his grandfathers, Anderson Shipp Truman and Solomon Young. The initial has been written and printed followed by a period
20.
Bill Clinton
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William Jefferson Clinton is an American politician who served as the 42nd President of the United States from 1993 to 2001. Prior to the Presidency he was the 40th Governor of Arkansas from 1979 to 1981, before that, he served as Arkansas Attorney General from 1977 to 1979. A member of the Democratic Party, Clinton was ideogically a New Democrat, Clinton is married to Hillary Clinton, who served as United States Secretary of State from 2009 to 2013 and U. S. Senator from New York from 2001 to 2009, and served the Democratic nominee for President in 2016, Bill Clinton and Hillary Rodham both earned degrees from Yale Law School, where they met and began dating. As Governor of Arkansas, Clinton overhauled the states education system, Clinton was elected President of the United States in 1992, defeating incumbent George H. W. Bush. At age 46, he was the third-youngest president and the first from the Baby Boomer generation, Clinton presided over the longest period of peacetime economic expansion in American history and signed into law the North American Free Trade Agreement. After failing to pass health care reform, the Democratic House was ousted when the Republican Party won control of the Congress in 1994. Two years later, in 1996, Clinton became the first Democrat since Franklin D. Roosevelt to be elected to a second term, Clinton passed welfare reform and the State Childrens Health Insurance Program, providing health coverage for millions of children. Clinton was acquitted by the U. S. Senate in 1999, the Congressional Budget Office reported a budget surplus between the years 1998 and 2000, the last three years of Clintons presidency. In foreign policy, Clinton ordered U. S. Clinton left office with the highest end-of-office approval rating of any U. S. President since World War II, since then, Clinton has been involved in public speaking and humanitarian work. He created the William J. Clinton Foundation to address international causes, such as the prevention of AIDS, in 2004, Clinton published his autobiography, My Life. In 2009, Clinton was named the United Nations Special Envoy to Haiti, since leaving office, Clinton has been rated highly in public opinion polls of U. S. Presidents. Clinton was born on August 19,1946, at Julia Chester Hospital in Hope, Arkansas and he was the son of William Jefferson Blythe Jr. a traveling salesman who had died in an automobile accident three months before his birth, and Virginia Dell Cassidy. His parents had married on September 4,1943, but this later proved to be bigamous. Soon after their son was born, his mother traveled to New Orleans to study nursing, leaving her son in Hope with her parents Eldridge and Edith Cassidy, who owned and ran a small grocery store. At a time when the Southern United States was segregated racially, in 1950, Bills mother returned from nursing school and married Roger Clinton Sr. who owned an automobile dealership in Hot Springs, Arkansas, with his brother and Earl T. Ricks. The family moved to Hot Springs in 1950, although he immediately assumed use of his stepfathers surname, it was not until Clinton turned fifteen that he formally adopted the surname Clinton as a gesture toward his stepfather. In Hot Springs, Clinton attended St. Johns Catholic Elementary School, Ramble Elementary School, and Hot Springs High School—where he was a student leader, avid reader
21.
Cost of living
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Cost of living is the cost of maintaining a certain standard of living. Changes in the cost of living over time are often operationalized in a cost of living index, cost of living calculations are also used to compare the cost of maintaining a certain standard of living in different geographic areas. Differences in cost of living between locations can also be measured in terms of purchasing power parity rates, employment contracts, pension benefits, and government entitlements such as Social Security can be tied to a cost-of-living index, typically to the consumer price index. A COLA adjusts salaries based on changes in a cost-of-living index and they may also be tied to a cost-of-living index that varies by geographic location if the employee moves. Annual escalation clauses in employment contracts can specify retroactive or future percentage increases in worker pay which are not tied to any index, cost-of-living allowance is equal to the nominal interest minus the real interest rate. When cost-of-living adjustments, negotiated wage settlements and budgetary increases exceed CPI, however, CPI is based on the retail pricing of a basket of goods and services. Most purchases of that same basket require the use of after-tax dollars—dollars that were subject to the highest marginal tax rate. Consequently, the COLA will necessarily have to exceed the CPI inflation rate to maintain purchasing power and they include food, drink, clothing, household supplies and personal care items, home rents, transport, utility bills, private schools, domestic help and recreational costs. The survey itself is a tool designed to calculate cost-of-living allowances and build compensation packages for expatriates. The survey incorporates easy-to-understand comparative cost of living indices between cities, the survey allows city-to-city comparisons, but for the purpose of this report all cities are compared to a base city of New York City, which has an index set at 100. The survey has been carried out for more than 30 years, the most recent survey was published in March 2017. Singapore, remains the most expensive city in the world for the year running. Sydney and Melbourne have both cemented their positions as top-ten staples, with Sydney becoming the fifth most expensive, asia is home to more than five most expensive cities in the top twenty but also home to eight cheapest cities of the cheapest ten. Stipends or extra pay provided to employees who are being temporarily relocated may also be called cost-of-living adjustments or cost-of-living allowances, such adjustments are intended to offset changes in welfare due to geographic differences in the cost of living. Such adjustments might more accurately be described as a per diem allowance or tied to a specific item, employees who are being permanently relocated are less likely to receive such allowances, but may receive a base salary adjustment to reflect local market conditions. For example, service members stationed in Japan receive a cost of living allowance of between $300 and $700 per month, in addition to their base pay
22.
Inflation
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In economics, inflation is a sustained increase in the general price level of goods and services in an economy over a period of time resulting in a loss of value of currency. When the price rises, each unit of currency buys fewer goods. Consequently, inflation reflects a reduction in the power per unit of money – a loss of real value in the medium of exchange. A chief measure of inflation is the inflation rate, the annualized percentage change in a general price index, usually the consumer price index. The opposite of inflation is deflation, Inflation affects economies in various positive and negative ways. Economists generally believe that high rates of inflation and hyperinflation are caused by a growth of the money supply. However, money supply growth does not necessarily cause inflation, some economists maintain that under the conditions of a liquidity trap, large monetary injections are like pushing on a string. Views on which factors determine low to moderate rates of inflation are more varied, low or moderate inflation may be attributed to fluctuations in real demand for goods and services, or changes in available supplies such as during scarcities. However, the view is that a long sustained period of inflation is caused by money supply growing faster than the rate of economic growth. Today, most economists favor a low and steady rate of inflation, the task of keeping the rate of inflation low and stable is usually given to monetary authorities. Rapid increases in quantity of the money or in the money supply have occurred in many different societies throughout history. By diluting the gold with other metals, the government could issue more coins without also needing to increase the amount of used to make them. When the cost of each coin is lowered in this way and this practice would increase the money supply but at the same time the relative value of each coin would be lowered. As the relative value of the coins becomes lower, consumers would need to give more coins in exchange for the same goods and these goods and services would experience a price increase as the value of each coin is reduced. Song Dynasty China introduced the practice of printing paper money in order to create fiat currency, during the Mongol Yuan Dynasty, the government spent a great deal of money fighting costly wars, and reacted by printing more money, leading to inflation. Fearing the inflation that plagued the Yuan dynasty, the Ming Dynasty initially rejected the use of paper money, historically, large infusions of gold or silver into an economy also led to inflation. This was largely caused by the influx of gold and silver from the New World into Habsburg Spain. The silver spread throughout a previously cash-starved Europe and caused widespread inflation, demographic factors also contributed to upward pressure on prices, with European population growth after depopulation caused by the Black Death pandemic
23.
Fixed income
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Fixed income refers to any type of investment under which the borrower or issuer is obliged to make payments of a fixed amount on a fixed schedule. For example, the borrower may have to pay interest at a rate once a year. Fixed-income securities can be contrasted with equity securities - often referred to as stocks and shares - that create no obligation to pay dividends or any other form of income. In order for a company to grow its business, it often must raise money - for example, to finance an acquisition, to buy equipment or land, the terms on which investors will finance the company will depend on the risk profile of the company. The company can give up equity by issuing stock, or can promise to pay regular interest, fixed-income securities also trade differently than equities. Whereas equities, such as stock, trade on exchanges or other established trading venues. The term fixed in fixed income refers to both the schedule of payments and the amount. Fixed income securities can be distinguished from inflation-indexed bonds, variable-interest rate notes, in contrast, if a company misses a quarterly dividend to stock shareholders, there is no violation of any payment covenant, and no default. The term fixed income is also applied to an income that does not vary materially over time. This can include income derived from investments such as bonds. Governments issue government bonds in their own currency and sovereign bonds in foreign currencies, local governments issue municipal bonds to finance themselves. Debt issued by government-backed agencies is called an agency bond, companies can issue a corporate bond or obtain money from a bank through a corporate loan. Preferred stocks share some of the characteristics of fixed interest bonds, securitized bank lending can be structured into other types of fixed income products such as ABS – asset-backed securities which can be traded on exchanges just like corporate and government bonds. Some of the used in connection with these investments is, The issuer is the entity who borrows the money by issuing the bond. The principal of a bond – also known as maturity value, face value, the coupon is the annual interest that the issuer must pay, expressed as a percentage of the principal. The maturity is the end of the bond, the date that the issuer must return the principal, the issue is another term for the bond itself. The indenture, in cases, is the contract that states all of the terms of the bond. Investors in fixed-income securities are typically looking for a constant and secure return on their investment, for example, a retired person might like to receive a regular dependable payment to live on like gratuity, but not consume principal
24.
John Gilbert Winant
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John Gilbert Winant OM was an American politician with the Republican party after a brief career as a teacher in Concord, New Hampshire. John Winant held positions in New Hampshire, national, and international politics and he was the first man to serve more than a single two-year term as Governor of New Hampshire, winning election three times. Winant also served as US Ambassador to the United Kingdom during most of World War II, depressed by career disappointments, a failed marriage, and heavy debts, he committed suicide in 1947. Winant was born on East Side, New York City, the son of Frederick and his father was a partner in a prosperous real estate company. Winant attended St. Pauls School in Concord and progressed to Princeton University, but he was a poor student, and left without graduating. He was appointed an instructor in history at St. Pauls in 1913, remaining there until 1917, in 1917 he joined the United States Army Air Service, trained as a pilot, and commanded the 8th Aero Squadron in France, with the rank of captain. Winant returned to his position at St. Pauls in 1919 after his military service and he lost money in oil stocks in 1929, which he had profited from through the 1920s. He twice served as Governor of New Hampshire, from 1925 to 1927 and he served his later terms during the Great Depression and responded in several ways. He oversaw an emergency credit act which allowed the state to guarantee debts of municipalities so that governments could continue. He pushed through a minimum wage act for women and children, during the depression, Winant fought to keep improving the states highways while reorganizing the state banking commission and pursuing more accurate accounting of state agencies funds. Working closely with the government, Winant was the first governor whose state filled its enrollment quota in the Civilian Conservation Corps. Subsequently President Franklin D. Roosevelt appointed Winant to be the first head of the Social Security Board in 1935, at the time, it was rumored that Roosevelt appointed Winant to prevent him from running for President in 1936, but Winant never admitted to Presidential aspirations. The next year, he was elected to head the International Labor Office in Geneva, Switzerland, in 1941, Roosevelt appointed Winant ambassador to Britain, and Winant remained in that post until he resigned in March 1946. There is no place Id rather be at this time than in England, the remark, for a country that had come through the Battle of Britain and was in the midst of The Blitz, was dramatically on the front page of most British newspapers the next day. Winant, according to the book, had an affair with Churchills second daughter Sarah Churchill during this time, Winant was with Winston Churchill when he learned that Pearl Harbor had been attacked. President Harry S. Truman appointed Winant U. S. representative to UNESCO in 1946, however, he found himself unable to adjust to a quieter pace of life. Everywhere Winant turned he saw the drama in which he had participated so significantly drawing to a close, estranged from his socially ambitious wife and deeply in debt, he became profoundly depressed. In 1947, Winant shot himself in the head at his Concord home on the day his book Letter from Grosvenor Square was published
25.
Arthur J. Altmeyer
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Arthur J. Altmeyer was the United States Commissioner for Social Security from 1946 to 1953, and chairman of the Social Security Board from 1937 to 1946. He was a key figure in the design and implementation of the U. S, Altmeyer was born in DePere, Wisconsin on May 8,1891, and developed an early interest in social security while working as an office boy in his uncles law office. For a while he was a school teacher and school principal and also attended the University of Wisconsin-Madison. They and others at Wisconsin were proponents of the progressive, liberal policy of a positive. In 1918, Altmeyer became Commons graduate research assistant, together they co-authored a report on The Health Insurance Movement in the United States for the Illinois Health Insurance Commission and the Ohio Health and Old Age Insurance Commission. Altmeyer became Chief Statistician of the Wisconsin Industrial Commission in 1920 working under Edwin E. Witte, Altmeyer founded a monthly publication, the Wisconsin Labor Market, which was second such publications in the U. S. In 1922, after Witte had moved on, Altmeyer was appointed to his position as Secretary of the Wisconsin Industrial Commission, a position he held, with one interim, until 1932. In this position Altmeyer oversaw Wisconsins workers compensation program and developed and implemented the states unemployment insurance system which was the first of its kind in the U. S. In 1927, he went on leave to assume a federal position in the Great Lakes Region with responsibility for implementing the Longshoremens. In Spring,1933, he was invited to Washington by Labor Secretary Frances Perkins to consult on relations with state labor departments and he advised the Federal Emergency Relief Administration and the Civil Works Administration. In November 1933, he was appointed Director of the Labor Compliance Division of the National Recovery Administration and he returned briefly to Madison in May 1934 but was almost immediately appointed Second Assistant Secretary of Labor. Perkins chaired the committee, and Altmeyer served as technical director, other figures on the board included Hopkins, Secretary of the Treasury Henry Morgenthau Jr. Attorney General Homer Cummings, and Secretary of Agriculture Henry A. Wallace. The Committee selected as its Executive Director Edwin E. Witte of the Economics Department at the University of Wisconsin, in 1935, he became a member of the executive committee of the National Youth Administration. Following passage of the Social Security Act, Altmeyer was appointed to the Social Security Board created by the act, Altmeyer, because of his background, education, and ability soon became the unacknowledged leader of the board. This was confirmed in 1937, when Roosevelt appointed Altmeyer as chairman of the board, Altmeyer hired Wilbur J. Cohen as an aide, and Frank Bane as first executive director of the Social Security Board. Altmeyer was the advocate for changes to the Social Security Act in 1939. Even while emphasizing the efficient and non-partisan administration of the Social Security Administration, following revisions to the act in 1946 creating the Social Security Administration, Altmeyer was appointed Commissioner for Social Security. Altmeyer was criticized for his policy that the Social Security Administration would help people get benefits they were entitled to and his critics found a law from 1835 saying that no officer of the Federal Government shall encourage a claim against the federal government
26.
Robert M. Ball
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Robert Myers Bob Ball was an American Social Security official, who served under three presidents, from 1962 to 1973, as Commissioner of Social Security. He is the head of the Social Security Administration to date. He also founded the National Academy for Social Insurance and he graduated from Wesleyan University in 1935, and in 1936 received a masters degree in economics from the same institution. He held various jobs, including manager of a New Jersey district office. Mr. Ball returned to BOASI in 1949 as assistant director in charge of the Division of Program Analysis, three years later he was appointed Deputy Director of BOASI, and between 1953 and 1954 he served as BOASIs Acting Director. In 1962 he was appointed Commissioner of Social Security, a position he held until his retirement in 1973, in 1947, Ball wrote the key statement defining why social insurance, not welfare, should be Americas primary income maintenance program. Rashi Fein This article incorporates public domain material from the United States Government document SSA Commissioners - Robert M. Ball, Social Security Website Berkowitz, Edward D. Robert Ball and the politics of Social Security
27.
Washington, D.C.
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Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing
28.
Inner Harbor
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The Inner Harbor is a historic seaport, tourist attraction, and landmark of the city of Baltimore, Maryland, USA. It was described by the Urban Land Institute in 2009 as “the model for post-industrial waterfront redevelopment around the world. ”The Inner Harbor is located at the mouth of Jones Falls, creating the wide and short northwest branch of the Patapsco River. The district includes any water west of a line drawn between the foot of President Street and the American Visionary Art Museum, the harbor is within walking distance of Camden Yards and M&T Bank Stadium. A water taxi connects passengers to Fells Point, Canton, while Baltimore has been a major U. S. seaport since the 18th century, the historically shallow water of the Inner Harbor was not conducive to large ships or heavy industry. These were concentrated in Locust Point, Fells Point, and Canton, in the mid-20th century, Baltimore suffered from the economic decline of restructuring common to many industrial cities in the United States. Old harbors were abandoned with the arrival of ships after World War II. Later, the old harbors were adapted as focal points to reconnect cities with their waterfronts, and develop public spaces, tourism, business, during the 1940s, John H. Threadgill, the head of the Steamship Trade Association, initiated a study for a cross-harbor bridge. A bridge across the Inner Harbor of Baltimore was one idea that was discussed frequently, Threadgill was named head of Baltimores Port Commission during the 1950s. In the 1950s, economic changes ended both the freight and passenger use of the Inner Harbor, such as the Old Bay Lines steamers, rotting warehouses and piers were eventually torn down and replaced by open, grass-covered parkland that was used for recreational purposes and occasional large events. The renewal of Baltimores Inner Harbor area began with the adoption of the 33-acre Charles Center project by the City Council, between 1958 and 1965, Baltimore renewed the center of its business district by rebuilding Charles Center with office buildings, hotels, and retail shops. At the beginning of mayor Theodore R. McKeldins second term in 1963, corporate headquarters and hotels were built around the shoreline of the Inner Harbor. A public park and promenade were added for leisure activity and community gatherings. On July 4,1976, following the rendezvous of Tall Ships in New York for the U. S. Bicentennial, eight ships from other nations visited Baltimore, where they attracted a huge number of tourists. The nearby Baltimore Convention Center and Hyatt Regency Baltimore Hotel added to the services and resulted in population density, with the success of the Inner Harbor in the 1970s and 1980s, Baltimore became a worldwide tourist destination and model of urban planning and development. S. In recent years, the area along the waterfront to the east of the Inner Harbor has been developed with condominiums, retail space, restaurants, and hotels – an ongoing project known as Harbor East. While little development land remains around the Inner Harbor, the land has been subject to many plans. In September 2003, the Inner Harbor area was flooded by Hurricane Isabel, in March 2004, a water taxi capsized during a storm on the Northwest Branch of the Patapsco River near Fort McHenry. While occurring over a mile downstream of the Inner Harbor, the accident was associated with the Inner Harbor by news reports, five passengers died in the accident, which the National Transportation Safety Board determined was caused when the small pontoon-style vessel encountered unpredictable strong winds and waves
29.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
30.
United States Department of War
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The Secretary of War, a civilian with such responsibilities as finance and purchases and a minor role in directing military affairs, headed the War Department throughout its existence. Retired senior General Henry Knox, then in civilian life, served as the first United States Secretary of War, forming and organizing the department and the army fell to Secretary Knox. On November 8,1800 the War Department building with its records, foundation of the new military academy at West Point along the Hudson River upstream from New York City in 1802 was important to the future growth of the American army. The multiple failures and fiascos of the War of 1812 convinced Washington that thorough reform of the War Department was necessary, winfield Scott became the senior general until the start of the American Civil War in 1861. The bureau chiefs acted as advisers to the Secretary of War while commanding their own troops, the bureaus frequently conflicted among themselves, but in disputes with the commanding general, the Secretary of War generally supported the bureaus. Congress regulated the affairs of the bureaus in detail, and their chiefs looked to that body for support, during the American Civil War, the War Department responsibilities expanded. It handled the recruiting, training, supply, medical care, transportation, a separate command structure took charge of military operations. In the late stages of the war, the Department took charge of refugees and freedmen in the American South through the Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, during Reconstruction, this bureau played a major role in supporting the new Republican governments in the southern states. When military Reconstruction ended in 1877, the U. S. Army removed the last troops from military occupation of the American South, and the last Republican state governments in the region ended. The Army comprised hundreds of small detachments in forts around the West, dealing with Indians, the United States Army, with 39,000 men in 1890 was the smallest and least powerful army of any major power in the late 19th century. By contrast, France had an army of 542,000, temporary volunteers and state militia units mostly fought the Spanish–American War of 1898. This conflict demonstrated the need for effective control over the department. Elihu Root enlarged the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York and established the United States Army War College and he changed the procedures for promotions and organized schools for the special branches of the service. He also devised the principle of rotating officers from staff to line, indeed, Secretary Taft exercised little power, President Theodore Roosevelt made the major decisions. In 1911, Secretary Henry L. Stimson and Major General Leonard Wood, his chief of staff, the general staff assisted them in their efforts to rationalize the organization of the army along modern lines and in supervising the bureaus. Assisted by industrial advisers, they reorganized the system of the army. General March reorganized the general staff along similar lines and gave it authority over departmental operations. After the war, the Congress again granted the bureaus their former independence, in the 1920s, General John J. Pershing realigned the general staff on the pattern of his American Expeditionary Force field headquarters, which he commanded
31.
Maryland Route 122
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Maryland Route 122 is a state highway in the U. S. state of Maryland. Known as Security Boulevard and Cooks Lane, the highway runs 2.96 miles from Rolling Road east to the Baltimore city limit within the western Baltimore County suburb of Woodlawn. MD122 serves the headquarters of the Social Security Administration and connects the agency with Interstate 70, I-695, Security Boulevard was constructed in 1960 concurrent with the completion of the Social Security Administrations new headquarters. The six-lane divided highway and the Baltimore County portion of Cooks Lane were transferred from county to state maintenance around 1991, MD122 begins at an intersection with Rolling Road. The roadway continues west as the portion of Security Boulevard. MD122 heads east as a divided highway through a commercial area. The state highway intersects Belmont Avenue just north of Security Square Mall before its cloverleaf interchange with I-695 just north of the Beltways stack interchange with I-70. There is no access between MD122 and I-70 via I-695, east of the Beltway, the state highway intersects Woodlawn Drive and Gwynn Oak Avenue and passes along the northern edge of the Social Security Administration headquarters complex. The state highway continues through a cloverleaf interchange with I-70 just west of the Interstates eastern terminus at a park. Cooks Lane continues as a residential street southeast through the West Hills neighborhood of Baltimore to US40. Security Boulevard was constructed by Baltimore County specifically as a road to the new Social Security Administration headquarters complex constructed in Woodlawn that opened in 1960. The new divided highway was built from the intersection of Forest Park Avenue and Cooks Lane north, the boulevard was extended west to Belmont Avenue in 1963 contemporaneous with the completion of I-695 through Woodlawn. Security Boulevard was extended beyond Rolling Road to its present western terminus in 1972, the boulevard east of Rolling Road and the short adjacent portion of Cooks Lane in Baltimore County were transferred from county to state maintenance and designated MD122 around 1991. The entire route is in Woodlawn, Baltimore County, Maryland Roads portal MDRoads, MD122
32.
Interstate 695 (Maryland)
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Interstate 695 is a 51. 46-mile-long full beltway Interstate Highway extending around Baltimore, Maryland, United States. I-695 is officially designated the McKeldin Beltway, but is referred to as either the Baltimore Beltway or 695. The route is a route of I-95, intersecting that route southwest of Baltimore near Arbutus. This section of the route includes the Francis Scott Key Bridge that crosses over the Patapsco River, the bridge and its approaches are maintained by the Maryland Transportation Authority while the remainder of the Baltimore Beltway is maintained by the Maryland State Highway Administration. The Baltimore Beltway was first planned in 1949 by Baltimore County, the length of the route from MD2 south of Baltimore clockwise to U. S. Route 40 northeast of the city opened in stages from 1955 to 1962, providing an Interstate bypass of Baltimore. It was the first beltway in the United States to be built as part of the Interstate Highway System, there are future plans for I-695 that include high-occupancy toll lanes to ease traffic. In addition, the interchange with I-95 has been reconstructed to accommodate express toll lanes that were added to I-95. Starting at the zero milepost in Baltimore, I-695, which at point is officially called MD695 and is maintained by the Maryland Transportation Authority, is four lanes wide. The route passes over Curtis Creek on a pair of drawbridges here, the interchange includes access to the next interchange, with MD2, a major north–south route between Baltimore and the southern suburbs, in Glen Burnie. This interchange has access to northbound MD2 in both directions and from northbound MD2 to the westbound direction. Beyond MD2, I-695 encounters I-895 Spur, a connector to I-895. Immediately past this interchange, I-695 comes to an interchange with the terminus of I-97. At this point, the route officially becomes I-695, the route continues west as a six-lane freeway, heading west into residential areas of Linthicum. It interchanges with MD648, where 132,330 vehicles travel I-695 every day, before turning northwest, the route encounters the Baltimore–Washington Parkway at a cloverleaf interchange where the route’s signage changes from east–west to north–south at this interchange. It turns more to the north here and heads into commercial areas, interchanging with MD168. A short distance later, I-695 comes to an interchange with I-95. I-695 widens to nine lanes past interchange with I-95, with five lanes in the southbound direction, running northwest, it crosses over Amtrak’s Northeast Corridor and comes to a partial interchange with US1, with a southbound exit and northbound entrance. From here, it continues northwest through areas of Catonsville to an interchange with MD372
33.
Shopping center
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A shopping arcade is a specific form serving the same purpose. Many early shopping arcades such as the Burlington Arcade in London, the Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II in Milan, however, many smaller arcades have been demolished, replaced with large centers or malls, often accessible by vehicle. Technical innovations such as lighting and escalators were introduced from the late 19th century. From the late 20th century, entertainment venues such as movie theaters, as a single built structure, early shopping centers were often architecturally significant constructions, enabling wealthier patrons to buy goods in spaces protected from the weather. In places around the world, the shopping centre is used, especially in Europe, Australia. Mall is a term used predominantly in North America, outside of North America, shopping precinct and shopping arcade are also used. In the United Kingdom and Ireland, malls are commonly referred to as shopping centres, the majority of British shopping centres are located in city centres, usually found in old and historic shopping districts and surrounded by subsidiary open air shopping streets. Large examples include West Quay in Southampton, Manchester Arndale, Bullring Birmingham, Liverpool One, Trinity Leeds, Buchanan Galleries in Glasgow and these centres were built in the 1980s and 1990s, but planning regulations prohibit the construction of any more. Out-of-town shopping developments in the UK are now focused on retail parks, planning policy prioritizes the development of existing town centres, although with patchy success. Bullring, Birmingham is the busiest shopping centre in the UK welcoming over 36.5 million shoppers in its opening year, there are a reported 222 malls in Europe. In 2014, these malls had combined sales of $12.47 billion and this represented a 10% bump in revenues from the prior year. One of the earliest examples of public shopping areas comes from ancient Rome, One of the earliest public shopping centers is Trajans Market in Rome located in Trajans Forum. Trajans Market was probably built around 100-110 CE by Apollodorus of Damascus, the Grand Bazaar of Istanbul was built in the 15th century and is still one of the largest covered shopping centers in the world, with more than 58 streets and 4,000 shops. Numerous other covered shopping arcades, such as the 19th-century Al-Hamidiyah Souq in Damascus, Syria, isfahans Grand Bazaar, which is largely covered, dates from the 10th century. The 10-kilometer-long, covered Tehrans Grand Bazaar also has a lengthy history, the oldest continuously occupied shopping mall in the world is likely to be the Chester Rows. Dating back at least to the 13th century, these covered walkways housed shops, with storage, different rows specialized in different goods, such as Bakers Row or Fleshmongers Row. The Marché des Enfants Rouges in Paris opened in 1628 and still runs today, the Oxford Covered Market in Oxford, England opened in 1774 and still runs today. The Passage du Caire was opened in Paris in 1798, the Burlington Arcade in London was opened in 1819
34.
Interstate 70
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Interstate 70 is a major Interstate Highway in the United States that runs from I-15 near Cove Fort, Utah to I-695 near Baltimore, Maryland. I-70 approximately traces the path of U. S. Route 40 east of the Rocky Mountains, West of the Rockies, the route of I-70 was derived from multiple sources. The Interstate runs through or near major cities, including Denver, Kansas City, St. Louis, Indianapolis, Columbus, Pittsburgh. The sections of the interstate in Missouri and Kansas have laid claim to be the first interstate in the United States. The construction of I-70 in Colorado and Utah is considered an engineering marvel as the passes through the Eisenhower Tunnel, Glenwood Canyon. The Eisenhower Tunnel is the highest point along the Interstate Highway system with an elevation of 11,158 ft. Interstate 70 begins at an interchange with Interstate 15 near Cove Fort. Upon leaving the valley near Salina, I-70 crosses 7,923 ft Salina Summit, prior to the construction of I-70, the swell was inaccessible via paved roads and relatively undiscovered. It also became the longest piece of highway to be opened at one time. Although opened in 1970, this section was not formally complete until 1990, since I-70s construction, the swell has been noted for its desolate beauty. The swell has since been nominated for National Park and/or National Monument status on multiple occasions, if the swell is granted this status it arguably would be the first time a National Park owes its existence to an interstate highway. Most of the exits in this span are rest areas, brake check areas, I-70 exits the swell near Green River. From Green River to the Colorado state line, I-70 follows the edge of the Book Cliffs. Entering from Utah, I-70 descends into the Grand Valley where it meets the Colorado River, here I-70 serves the Grand Junction metro area before traversing more mountainous terrain. The last section of I-70 to be completed was the 15-mile Glenwood Canyon, construction was delayed for many years due to environmental concerns. Much of the highway is elevated above the Colorado River, the speed limit in this section is 50 mph due to the limited sight distance and sharp corners. The Eisenhower–Johnson Memorial Tunnel, the highest vehicular tunnel in North America, because of the rugged and narrow terrain of the Rocky Mountains, I-70 is one of few roads connecting Colorados ski resorts with Denver. Descending through the foothills of the Rocky Mountains, the Denver skyline can be seen on a clear day. This can fool truckers and other unsuspecting drivers because there is still over 10 miles of steep grade road before reaching the city, a series of signs warns truckers of the steep grade
35.
Utah
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Utah is a state in the western United States. It became the 45th state admitted to the U. S. on January 4,1896, Utah is the 13th-largest by area, 31st-most-populous, and 10th-least-densely populated of the 50 United States. Utah has a population of more than 3 million, approximately 80% of whom live along the Wasatch Front, Utah is bordered by Colorado to the east, Wyoming to the northeast, Idaho to the north, Arizona to the south, and Nevada to the west. It also touches a corner of New Mexico in the southeast, approximately 62% of Utahns are reported to be members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints or LDS, which greatly influences Utahn culture and daily life. The LDS Churchs world headquarters is located in Salt Lake City, Utah is the only state with a majority population belonging to a single church. The state is a center of transportation, education, information technology and research, government services, mining, in 2013, the U. S. Census Bureau estimated that Utah had the second fastest-growing population of any state. St. George was the metropolitan area in the United States from 2000 to 2005. Utah also has the 14th highest median income and the least income inequality of any U. S. state. A2012 Gallup national survey found Utah overall to be the best state to live in based on 13 forward-looking measurements including various economic, lifestyle, the name Utah is derived from the name of the Ute tribe. It means people of the mountains in the Ute language, according to other sources Utah is derived from the Apache name Yudah which means Tall. These Native American tribes are subgroups of the Ute-Aztec Native American ethnicity and were sedentary, the Ancestral Pueblo people built their homes through excavations in mountains, and the Fremont people built houses of straw before disappearing from the region around the 15th century. Another group of Native Americans, the Navajo, settled in the region around the 18th century, in the mid-18th century, other Uto-Aztecan tribes, including the Goshute, the Paiute, the Shoshone, and the Ute people, also settled in the region. These five groups were present when the first European explorers arrived, the southern Utah region was explored by the Spanish in 1540, led by Francisco Vásquez de Coronado, while looking for the legendary Cíbola. A group led by two Catholic priests—sometimes called the Dominguez-Escalante Expedition—left Santa Fe in 1776, hoping to find a route to the coast of California, the expedition traveled as far north as Utah Lake and encountered the native residents. The Spanish made further explorations in the region, but were not interested in colonizing the area because of its desert nature, in 1821, the year Mexico achieved its independence from Spain, the region became known as part of its territory of Alta California. European trappers and fur traders explored some areas of Utah in the early 19th century from Canada, the city of Provo, Utah was named for one, Étienne Provost, who visited the area in 1825. The city of Ogden, Utah was named after Peter Skene Ogden, in late 1824, Jim Bridger became the first known English-speaking person to sight the Great Salt Lake. Due to the salinity of its waters, Bridger thought he had found the Pacific Ocean
36.
Maryland
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The states largest city is Baltimore, and its capital is Annapolis. Among its occasional nicknames are Old Line State, the Free State, the state is named after Henrietta Maria of France, the wife of Charles I of England. George Calvert was the first Lord of Baltimore and the first English proprietor of the colonial grant. Maryland was the state to ratify the United States Constitution. Maryland is one of the smallest U. S. states in terms of area, as well as one of the most densely populated, Maryland has an area of 12,406.68 square miles and is comparable in overall area with Belgium. It is the 42nd largest and 9th smallest state and is closest in size to the state of Hawaii, the next largest state, its neighbor West Virginia, is almost twice the size of Maryland. Maryland possesses a variety of topography within its borders, contributing to its nickname America in Miniature. The mid-portion of this border is interrupted by Washington, D. C. which sits on land that was part of Montgomery and Prince Georges counties and including the town of Georgetown. This land was ceded to the United States Federal Government in 1790 to form the District of Columbia, the Chesapeake Bay nearly bisects the state and the counties east of the bay are known collectively as the Eastern Shore. Close to the town of Hancock, in western Maryland, about two-thirds of the way across the state. This geographical curiosity makes Maryland the narrowest state, bordered by the Mason–Dixon line to the north, portions of Maryland are included in various official and unofficial geographic regions. Much of the Baltimore–Washington corridor lies just south of the Piedmont in the Coastal Plain, earthquakes in Maryland are infrequent and small due to the states distance from seismic/earthquake zones. The M5.8 Virginia earthquake in 2011 was felt moderately throughout Maryland, buildings in the state are not well-designed for earthquakes and can suffer damage easily. The lack of any glacial history accounts for the scarcity of Marylands natural lakes, laurel Oxbow Lake is an over one-hundred-year-old 55-acre natural lake two miles north of Maryland City and adjacent to Russett. Chews Lake is a natural lake two miles south-southeast of Upper Marlboro. There are numerous lakes, the largest of them being the Deep Creek Lake. Maryland has shale formations containing natural gas, where fracking is theoretically possible, as is typical of states on the East Coast, Marylands plant life is abundant and healthy. Middle Atlantic coastal forests, typical of the southeastern Atlantic coastal plain, grow around Chesapeake Bay, moving west, a mixture of Northeastern coastal forests and Southeastern mixed forests cover the central part of the state
37.
Park and ride
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The vehicle is left in the car park during the day and retrieved when the owner returns. Park and rides are located in the suburbs of metropolitan areas or on the outer edges of large cities. A park and ride that only offers parking for meeting a carpool and not connections to public transport may be called a park, Park and ride is abbreviated as P+R on road signs in the UK, and is often styled as Park & Ride in marketing. In Sweden, a tax has been introduced on the benefit of free or cheap parking paid by an employer, the tax has reduced the number of workers driving into the inner city, and increased the usage of park and ride areas, especially in Stockholm. The introduction of a tax in Stockholm has further increased the usage of park. In Prague, park and ride car parks are established near some metro and these car parks offer low prices and all-day and return tickets including the public transport fare. Park and ride facilities allow commuters to avoid a stressful drive along congested roads and they may well reduce congestion by assisting the use of public transport in congested urban areas. There is not much research on the pros and cons of park and it has been suggested that there is a lack of clear-cut evidence for park and rides widely assumed impact in reducing congestion. Park and ride facilities help commuters who live beyond practical walking distance from the station or bus stop. They may also suit commuters with alternative fuel vehicles, which often have reduced range and they also are useful as a fixed meeting place for those carsharing or carpooling or using kiss and ride. Also, some transit operators use park and ride facilities to more efficient driving practices by reserving parking spaces for low emission designs, high-occupancy vehicles. Many park and rides have passenger waiting areas and/or toilets, travel information, such as leaflets and posters, may be provided. At larger facilities, extra services such as an office, food shop, car wash. These are often encouraged by municipal operators to use of park. Park and ride facilities, with dedicated car parks and bus services, Oxford operated the first such scheme, initially with an experimental service operating part-time from a motel on the A34 in the 1960s and then on a full-time basis from 1973. Better Choice Parking first offered an airport park and ride service at London Gatwick Airport in 1978, Oxford now operates park and ride from 5 dedicated car parks around the city. As of 2015, Oxford has the biggest urban park & ride network in the UK with a capacity of 5,031 car parking spaces. One of the largest park and rides in Saudi Arabia is located at Kudai in Mecca and it helps people go the Masjid al-Haram, There is a Shuttle Service operated by SAPTCO that takes people during Ramadan from the Kudai Parking to the Masjid al-Haram
38.
Falls Church, Virginia
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Falls Church is an independent city in the U. S. state of Virginia. As of the 2010 census, the population was 12,332, the estimated population in 2015 was 13,892. Falls Church is included in the Washington metropolitan area, Falls Church has the lowest level of poverty of any independent city or county in the United States. Taking its name from The Falls Church, an 18th-century Anglican parish, in 1948, it was incorporated as the City of Falls Church, an independent city with county-level governance status. It is also referred to as Falls Church City, for statistical purposes, the U. S. Department of Commerces Bureau of Economic Analysis combines the City of Falls Church with Fairfax City and Fairfax County. It was part of the Anacostan chiefdom, centered on the lower Anacostia River near present-day Washington, the Anacostans were organized under the Piscataway paramount chiefdom that was not part of the Powhatan alliance, which by the 1630s claimed to have had thirteen successive rulers. Either the Tauxenent or Doegs had shifted politically from Powhatans alliance to Iroquois alliances, the earliest known settlement within the current city limits of Falls Church was on the south side of present-day N. Washington Street at its intersection with Columbia Street. Just east of Falls Church, on Wilson Boulevard, is Powhatan Springs, todays Broad Street and Great Falls Street follow long-established trade and communication routes. In the late 17th century, especially after Bacons Rebellion in 1676, According to local tradition 1699 was inscribed on one of the chimneys of the Big Chimneys house and tavern. That 1699 inscription is often taken to be the first European settlement in the immediate vicinity, the house site is now Big Chimneys Park on West Annandale Road north of South Maple. By 1757, the building was referred to as The Falls Church, George Mason became a vestryman in 1748, as did his neighbor George Washington in 1763. Before designing the Fairfax County Courthouse James Wren designed a church in the city in 1769 to replace the wooden one. Also in 1769 the new Falls Church became the seat of the newly formed Fairfax Parish with the portion of the former parish nearer Masons and Washingtons residences becoming Pohick Church. However, following the Revolution, the Commonwealth of Virginia disestablished the Anglican Church as a government monopoly with tax support, many ministers left due to British loyalties. Remaining ministers formed the Episcopal Church, in 1789, The Falls Church was abandoned, and the Wren-designed building was re-occupied by an Episcopal congregation in 1836 which continues to this day. Nearly a decade later in 1843, Episcopalians founded Truro Church in Fairfax City, methodism came to the area in 1776 with religious services held at Church Hill, a home about a mile east of the Falls Church near Seven Corners. A chapel known as Adams Chapel or Fairfax Chapel had been built on later became Oakwood Cemetery by 1779. The Methodist chapel was replaced by a structure in 1819
39.
Contiguous United States
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The contiguous United States consists of the 48 adjoining U. S. states plus Washington, D. C. on the continent of North America. S. The greatest distance entirely within the 48 contiguous states is 2,802 miles, the greatest north-south line is 1,650 miles. Together, the 48 contiguous states and Washington, D. C. occupy an area of 3,119,884.69 square miles. Of this area,2,959,064.44 square miles is land, composing 83. 65% of U. S. land area, officially,160,820.25 square miles is water area, composing 62. 66% of the nations total water area. The contiguous United States would be placed 5th in the list of states and dependencies by area. The 2010 census population of area was 306,675,006, comprising 99. 33% of the nations population. While conterminous U. S. has the meaning of contiguous U. S. other terms commonly used to describe the 48 contiguous states have a greater degree of ambiguity. The term was in use prior to the admission of Alaska and Hawaii as states of the United States, the District of Columbia is not always specifically mentioned as being part of CONUS. OCONUS is derived from CONUS with O for outside added, thus referring to Outside of Continental United States, the term Lower 48 is also used to refer to the conterminous United States. The National Geographic style guide recommends the use of contiguous or conterminous United States instead of lower 48 when the 48 states are meant, both Alaskans and Hawaiians have unique labels for the contiguous United States because of their own locations relative to them. Alaska became the 49th state of the United States on January 3,1959, Alaska is on the northwest end of the North American continent, but separated from the rest of the United States Pacific coast by the Canadian province of British Columbia. In Alaska, given the ambiguity surrounding the usage of continental, several other terms have been used over the years. Hawaii became the 50th state of the United States on August 21,1959 and it is the southernmost and so far, the latest state to join the Union. Not part of any continent, Hawaii is located in the Pacific Ocean, about 2,200 miles from North America, in Hawaii and overseas American territories, for instance, the terms the Mainland or U. S. Mainland are often used to refer to the continental United States, apart from off-shore US islands, a few continental portions of the contiguous US are accessible by road only by traveling through Canada. Point Roberts, Washington, Elm Point, Minnesota, and the Northwest Angle in Minnesota are three such places, alburgh, Vermont, is not directly connected by land, but is accessible by road via bridges from within Vermont and from from New York. The 48 contiguous United States are, Washington, D. C. is distinct from the state of Washington, extreme points of the United States Mainland Definition of continental Definition of contiguous Definition of coterminous and conterminous
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Alaska
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Alaska is a U. S. state located in the northwest extremity of North America. To the north are the Chukchi and Beaufort seas–the southern parts of the Arctic Ocean, the Pacific Ocean lies to the south and southwest. Alaska is the largest state in the United States by area, the 3rd least populous, approximately half of Alaskas residents live within the Anchorage metropolitan area. Alaskas economy is dominated by the fishing, natural gas, military bases and tourism are also a significant part of the economy. The United States purchased Alaska from the Russian Empire on March 30,1867, the area went through several administrative changes before becoming organized as a territory on May 11,1912. It was admitted as the 49th state of the U. S. on January 3,1959, the name Alaska was introduced in the Russian colonial period when it was used to refer to the peninsula. It was derived from an Aleut, or Unangam idiom, which refers to the mainland of Alaska. Literally, it means object to which the action of the sea is directed, Alaska is the northernmost and westernmost state in the United States and has the most easterly longitude in the United States because the Aleutian Islands extend into the Eastern Hemisphere. Alaska is the only non-contiguous U. S. state on continental North America and it is technically part of the continental U. S. but is sometimes not included in colloquial use, Alaska is not part of the contiguous U. S. often called the Lower 48. The capital city, Juneau, is situated on the mainland of the North American continent but is not connected by road to the rest of the North American highway system. Alaskas territorial waters touch Russias territorial waters in the Bering Strait, as the Russian Big Diomede Island, Alaska has a longer coastline than all the other U. S. states combined. Alaska is the largest state in the United States by total area at 663,268 square miles, over twice the size of Texas, Alaska is larger than all but 18 sovereign countries. Counting territorial waters, Alaska is larger than the area of the next three largest states, Texas, California, and Montana. It is also larger than the area of the 22 smallest U. S. states. Also referred to as the Panhandle or Inside Passage, this is the region of Alaska closest to the rest of the United States, as such, this was where most of the initial non-indigenous settlement occurred in the years following the Alaska Purchase. The region is dominated by the Alexander Archipelago as well as the Tongass National Forest and it contains the state capital Juneau, the former capital Sitka, and Ketchikan, at one time Alaskas largest city. The Alaska Marine Highway provides a vital transportation link throughout the area. The Interior is the largest region of Alaska, much of it is uninhabited wilderness, Fairbanks is the only large city in the region
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Hawaii
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Hawaii is the 50th and most recent state to have joined the United States of America, having received statehood on August 21,1959. Hawaii is the only U. S. state located in Oceania and it is the northernmost island group in Polynesia, occupying most of an archipelago in the central Pacific Ocean. Hawaii is the only U. S. state not located in the Americas, the state encompasses nearly the entire volcanic Hawaiian archipelago, which comprises hundreds of islands spread over 1,500 miles. At the southeastern end of the archipelago, the eight main islands are—in order from northwest to southeast, Niʻihau, Kauaʻi, Oʻahu, Molokaʻi, Lānaʻi, Kahoʻolawe, Maui, and the Island of Hawaiʻi. The last is the largest island in the group, it is called the Big Island or Hawaiʻi Island to avoid confusion with the state or archipelago. The archipelago is physiographically and ethnologically part of the Polynesian subregion of Oceania, Hawaii has over a million permanent residents, along with many visitors and U. S. military personnel. Its capital is Honolulu on the island of Oʻahu, Hawaii is the 8th-smallest and the 11th-least populous, but the 13th-most densely populated of the fifty U. S. states. It is the state with an Asian plurality. The states coastline is about 750 miles long, the fourth longest in the U. S. after the coastlines of Alaska, Florida, the state of Hawaii derives its name from the name of its largest island, Hawaiʻi. A common Hawaiian explanation of the name of Hawaiʻi is that was named for Hawaiʻiloa and he is said to have discovered the islands when they were first settled. The Hawaiian language word Hawaiʻi is very similar to Proto-Polynesian *Sawaiki, cognates of Hawaiʻi are found in other Polynesian languages, including Māori, Rarotongan and Samoan. According to linguists Pukui and Elbert, lsewhere in Polynesia, Hawaiʻi or a cognate is the name of the underworld or of the home, but in Hawaii. A somewhat divisive political issue arose in 1978 when the Constitution of the State of Hawaii added Hawaiian as an official state language. The title of the constitution is The Constitution of the State of Hawaii. Article XV, Section 1 of the Constitution uses The State of Hawaii, diacritics were not used because the document, drafted in 1949, predates the use of the okina and the kahakō in modern Hawaiian orthography. The exact spelling of the name in the Hawaiian language is Hawaiʻi. In the Hawaii Admission Act that granted Hawaiian statehood, the government recognized Hawaii as the official state name. Official government publications, department and office titles, and the Seal of Hawaii use the spelling with no symbols for glottal stops or vowel length
