1.
Social protection in France
–
This article is about the social protection system in France. For details about the institution dealing with the French public insurance system, Welfare in France includes all systems whose purpose is to protect people against the financial consequences of social risks. Social welfare refers to all the mechanisms of collective foresight, enabling individuals to cope with the consequences of social risks. These are situations that could jeopardize the security of the individual or his family. In France, the system make up for about 500 billion euros annually. The origin of social protection in France dates back to medieval times, in the second half of the nineteenth century, systems of social assistance developed gradually, often launched by employers marked by social Catholicism, then relayed by the first laws. In 1930, modern social insurance was created, offering protection against certain risks, accidents, sickness, disability, maternity, old age. During the Second World War, the National Council of Resistance designed the system of social security and it was created just after the Liberation, by an order of 4 October 1945, followed by other texts. Gradually, protection has covered the entire population, while the benefits extend, when creating Social Security, France imitated more the Bismarckian system than the Beveridge one. Over the years, the solidarity has gradually developed in the French system, however, the desire to establish a universal system has faced opposition. This explains why the French welfare system is plural, with a variety of actors. The most important is the scheme for employees of industry, commerce. The French social protection system is gradually becoming universal, covering all individuals, at its origins, social protection has been built as a system of social insurance. Insurance was tied to the exercise of an occupation and the benefits were provided in case of the risk of loss of income due to the forced inactivity and it only covered workers and their families. The right to social benefits depended on the payment of social security contributions, non-employees, or individuals who have not contributed during their occupation, were entitled to welfare, reserved for cases of extreme distress. Since its creation on October 4,1945, Social Security administrations has had the objective of gradually extending social protection to all residents of the territory. Each member of the community has now the right to benefit a minimum standard of living, whether exercising a profession. Indeed, the 22 August 1946 law extended the family allowances to the entire population, in addition, the social minima, benefits ensuring a minimum income to a person in an insecure situation, offer anyone a minimum of resources to fight against the risk of social exclusion
Social protection in France
–
A building of the Sécurité Sociale at
Rennes
2.
Rennes
–
Rennes is a city in the east of Brittany in northwestern France at the confluence of the Ille and the Vilaine. Rennes is the capital of the region of Brittany, as well as the Ille-et-Vilaine department, renness history goes back more than 2,000 years, at a time when it was a small Gallic village named Condate. Together with Vannes and Nantes, it was one of the cities of the historic province of Brittany. After the French Revolution, Rennes remained for most of its history a parliamentary, administrative, since the 1950s, Rennes has grown in importance through rural flight and its modern industrial development, partly automotive. The city developed extensive building plans to accommodate upwards of 200,000 inhabitants, during the 1980s, Rennes became one of the main centres in telecommunication and high technology industry. It is now a significant digital innovation centre in France, in 2015, the city is the tenth largest in France, with a metropolitan area of about 700,000 inhabitants. With more than 63,000 students in 2013, is also the eighth-largest university campus of France, the inhabitants of Rennes are called Rennais in French. In 2012, lExpress named Rennes as the most liveable city in France, Rennes is the administrative capital of the French department of Ille-et-Vilaine. It has a long history due to its location at the confluence of two rivers and its proximity to the regions from which arose various challenges to the borders of Brittany. Without inscriptions, as the Celtic practice was, the Redones coinage features a charioteer whose pony has a human head, large hoards of their coins were unearthed in the treasure of Amanlis found in June 1835 and that of Saint-Jacques-de-la-Lande, discovered in February 1941. The museum at Rennes contains a representative collection. In 57 BC the Redones joined the Gaulish coalition against Rome which was suppressed by Crassus, in 52 BC, the Redones responded to the call of Vercingetorix to furnish a large contingent of warriors. The oldest known Rennais is Titus Flavius Postuminus, known to us from his steles found in Rennes in 1969. As indicated by his name, he would have been born under the Flavian dynasty, under the reign of Titus, one of the steles tells us, in Latin, that he took charge over all the public affairs in the Civitas Riedonum. He was twice duumvir and flamen for life for Mars Mullo, during the Roman era, the strategic position of the town contributed to its importance. To the west the principal Roman route, via Osismii, stretched from Condate Riedonum to Vorgium, in 275, the threat of barbarians led to the erection of a robust brick wall around Rennes. The Holy See of Rennes had been established by 453, with a church having occupied the site of the current Rennes Cathedral since the start of the 6th century. One of the earliest bishops of Rennes, Melaine - who would become the patron saint - played an important role in the peace treaty between the Franks and the Armoricans in 497
Rennes
Rennes
Rennes
Rennes
3.
France
–
France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
France
–
One of the
Lascaux paintings: a horse –
Dordogne, approximately 18,000 BC
France
–
Flag
France
–
The
Maison Carrée was a temple of the
Gallo-Roman city of Nemausus (present-day
Nîmes) and is one of the best preserved vestiges of the
Roman Empire.
France
–
With
Clovis ' conversion to Catholicism in 498, the
Frankish monarchy,
elective and
secular until then, became
hereditary and of
divine right.
4.
Social security
–
In simple terms, the signatories agree that society in which a person lives should help them to develop and to make the most of all the advantages which are offered to them in the country. Services providing social security are often called social services, terminology in this area in the United States is somewhat different from in the rest of the English-speaking world. The general term for a program in support of the well being of the population in the United States is welfare program. In American society, the term welfare arguably has negative connotations, the term Social Security, in the United States, refers to a specific social insurance program for the retired and the disabled. Elsewhere the term is used in a broader sense, referring to the economic security society offers when people are faced with certain risks. People who cannot reach a guaranteed social minimum for other reasons may be eligible for social assistance, modern authors often consider the ILO approach too narrow. Social security may refer to, social insurance, where people receive benefits or services in recognition of contributions to an insurance program and these services typically include provision for retirement pensions, disability insurance, survivor benefits and unemployment insurance. Services provided by government or designated agencies responsible for social security provision, in different countries, that may include medical care, financial support during unemployment, sickness, or retirement, health and safety at work, aspects of social work and even industrial relations. Basic security irrespective of participation in specific insurance programs where eligibility may otherwise be an issue, for instance, assistance given to newly arrived refugees for basic necessities such as food, clothing, housing, education, money, and medical care. A report published by the ILO in 2014 estimated that only 27% of the population has access to comprehensive social security. While several of the provisions to which the concept refers have a long history, the earliest examples of use date from the 19th century. Trajans program brought acclaim from many, including Pliny the Younger, in Jewish tradition, charity is a matter of religious obligation rather than benevolence. Voluntary charity, along with prayer and repentance, is befriended to ameliorate the consequences of bad acts, the Song dynasty government supported multiple forms of social assistance programs, including the establishment of retirement homes, public clinics, and paupers graveyards. According to economist Robert Henry Nelson, The medieval Roman Catholic Church operated a far-reaching, the taxes collected in the treasury of an Islamic government were used to provide income for the needy, including the poor, elderly, orphans, widowed persons, and the disabled. According to the Islamic jurist Al-Ghazali, the government was expected to store up food supplies in every region in case a disaster or famine occurred. There is relatively little data on transfer payments before the High Middle Ages. In the medieval period and until the Industrial Revolution, the function of welfare payments in Europe was principally achieved through private giving or charity, in those early times, there was a much broader group considered to be in poverty as compared to the 21st century. Early welfare programs in Europe included the English Poor Law of 1601 and this system was substantially modified by the 19th-century Poor Law Amendment Act, which introduced the system of workhouses
Social security
–
Distributing
alms to the poor, abbey of Port-Royal des Champs c. 1710
Social security
–
The promotional U.S.
Social Security card distributed as an example card in wallets distributed by the
F.W. Woolworth Company
5.
Middle Ages
–
In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or Medieval Period lasted from the 5th to the 15th century. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and merged into the Renaissance, the Middle Ages is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history, classical antiquity, the medieval period, and the modern period. The medieval period is subdivided into the Early, High. Population decline, counterurbanisation, invasion, and movement of peoples, the large-scale movements of the Migration Period, including various Germanic peoples, formed new kingdoms in what remained of the Western Roman Empire. In the seventh century, North Africa and the Middle East—once part of the Byzantine Empire—came under the rule of the Umayyad Caliphate, although there were substantial changes in society and political structures, the break with classical antiquity was not complete. The still-sizeable Byzantine Empire survived in the east and remained a major power, the empires law code, the Corpus Juris Civilis or Code of Justinian, was rediscovered in Northern Italy in 1070 and became widely admired later in the Middle Ages. In the West, most kingdoms incorporated the few extant Roman institutions, monasteries were founded as campaigns to Christianise pagan Europe continued. The Franks, under the Carolingian dynasty, briefly established the Carolingian Empire during the later 8th, the Crusades, first preached in 1095, were military attempts by Western European Christians to regain control of the Holy Land from Muslims. Kings became the heads of centralised nation states, reducing crime and violence, intellectual life was marked by scholasticism, a philosophy that emphasised joining faith to reason, and by the founding of universities. Controversy, heresy, and the Western Schism within the Catholic Church paralleled the conflict, civil strife. Cultural and technological developments transformed European society, concluding the Late Middle Ages, the Middle Ages is one of the three major periods in the most enduring scheme for analysing European history, classical civilisation, or Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the Modern Period. Medieval writers divided history into periods such as the Six Ages or the Four Empires, when referring to their own times, they spoke of them as being modern. In the 1330s, the humanist and poet Petrarch referred to pre-Christian times as antiqua, leonardo Bruni was the first historian to use tripartite periodisation in his History of the Florentine People. Bruni and later argued that Italy had recovered since Petrarchs time. The Middle Ages first appears in Latin in 1469 as media tempestas or middle season, in early usage, there were many variants, including medium aevum, or middle age, first recorded in 1604, and media saecula, or middle ages, first recorded in 1625. The alternative term medieval derives from medium aevum, tripartite periodisation became standard after the German 17th-century historian Christoph Cellarius divided history into three periods, Ancient, Medieval, and Modern. The most commonly given starting point for the Middle Ages is 476, for Europe as a whole,1500 is often considered to be the end of the Middle Ages, but there is no universally agreed upon end date. English historians often use the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485 to mark the end of the period
Middle Ages
–
The
Cross of Mathilde, a
crux gemmata made for
Mathilde, Abbess of Essen (973–1011), who is shown kneeling before the Virgin and Child in the
enamel plaque. The body of Christ is slightly later. Probably made in
Cologne or
Essen, the cross demonstrates several medieval techniques:
cast figurative sculpture,
filigree, enamelling, gem polishing and setting, and the reuse of Classical
cameos and
engraved gems.
Middle Ages
–
A late Roman statue
depicting the four Tetrarchs, now in
Venice
Middle Ages
–
Coin of
Theodoric
Middle Ages
–
Mosaic showing
Justinian with
the bishop of
Ravenna, bodyguards, and courtiers
6.
Cooperatives
–
Cooperatives frequently have social goals which they aim to accomplish by investing a proportion of trading profits back into their communities. As an example of this, in 2013, retail co-operatives in the UK invested 6. 9% of their profits in the communities in which they trade as compared with 2. 4% for other rival supermarkets. The International Co-operative Alliance was the first international association formed by the cooperative movement and it includes the World Council of Credit Unions. A second organization was formed later in Germany, the International Raiffeisen Union, in the United States, the National Cooperative Business Association serves as the sectors oldest national membership association. It is dedicated to ensuring that cooperative businesses have the same opportunities as other businesses operating in the country, a U. S. National Cooperative Bank was formed in the 1970s. By 2004, a new association focused on worker co-ops was founded, since 2002 cooperatives and credit unions could be distinguished on the Internet by use of a. coop domain. Since 2014, following International Cooperative Alliances introduction of the Cooperative Marque, ICA cooperatives, cooperation dates back as far as human beings have been organizing for mutual benefit. Tribes were organized as cooperative structures, allocating jobs and resources among each other, in alpine environments, trade could only be maintained in organized cooperatives to achieve a useful condition of artificial roads such as Viamala in 1472. Pre-industrial Europe is home to the first cooperatives from an industrial context, in 1761, the Fenwick Weavers Society was formed in Fenwick, East Ayrshire, Scotland to sell discounted oatmeal to local workers. Its services expanded to include assistance with savings and loans, emigration and education, owen left New Lanark to pursue other forms of cooperative organization and develop coop ideas through writing and lecture. Cooperative communities were set up in Glasgow, Indiana and Hampshire, in 1828, William King set up a newspaper, The Cooperator, to promote Owens thinking, having already set up a cooperative store in Brighton. The Rochdale Society of Equitable Pioneers, founded in 1844, is considered the first successful cooperative enterprise, used as a model for modern coops. A group of 28 weavers and other artisans in Rochdale, England set up the society to open their own store selling food items they could not otherwise afford, within ten years there were over a thousand cooperative societies in the United Kingdom. Other events such as the founding of a society by the Tolpuddle Martyrs in 1832 were key occasions in the creation of organized labor. Cooperatives traditionally combine social benefit interests with capitalistic property-right interests, Cooperatives achieve a mix of social and capital purposes by democratically governing distribution questions by and between equal by not controlling members. Democratic oversight of decisions to equitably distribute assets and other benefits means capital ownership is arranged in a way for social benefit inside the organization, external societal benefit is also encouraged by incorporating the operating-principle of cooperation between co-operatives. In the final year of the 20th century, cooperatives banded together to establish a number of social enterprise agencies which have moved to adopt the cooperative model. In the years 1994–2009 the EU and its member nations gradually revised national accounting systems to make visible the increasing contribution of social economy organizations, the roots of the cooperative movement can be traced to multiple influences and extend worldwide
Cooperatives
–
The volunteer board of a retail
consumers' cooperative, such as the former
Oxford, Swindon & Gloucester Co-op, is held to account at an Annual General Meeting of members
Cooperatives
–
Robert Owen (1771–1858) was a social reformer and a pioneer of the cooperative movement.
Cooperatives
–
Co-op City in
The Bronx,
New York City is the largest cooperative housing development in the world, with 55,000 people.
7.
Pierre Laval
–
Pierre Laval was a French politician. During the time of the Third Republic, he served as Prime Minister of France from 27 January 1931 to 20 February 1932, Laval began his career as a socialist, but over time drifted far to the right. Following Frances surrender and armistice with Germany in 1940, he served in the Vichy Regime, after the liberation of France in 1944, Laval was arrested by the French government under General Charles de Gaulle. In what some consider a flawed trial, Laval was found guilty of high treason. His manifold political activities have left a complicated and controversial legacy, Laval was born 28 June 1883 at Châteldon, Puy-de-Dôme, in the northern part of Auvergne. His father worked in the village as a proprietor, butcher and postman, he also owned a vineyard. Laval was educated at the school in Châteldon. At age 15, he was sent to a Paris lycée to study for his baccalauréat, returning south to Lyon, he spent the next year reading for a degree in zoology. Laval joined the Socialists in 1903, when he was living in Saint-Étienne,62 km southwest of Lyon, I was never a very orthodox socialist, he said in 1945, by which I mean that I was never much of a Marxist. My socialism was much more a socialism of the heart than a doctrinal socialism, I was much more interested in men, their jobs, their misfortunes and their conflicts than in the digressions of the great German pontiff. Laval returned to Paris in 1907 at the age of 24 and he was called up for military service and, after serving in the ranks, was discharged for varicose veins. In April 1913 he said, Barrack-based armies are incapable of the slightest effort, because they are badly-trained and, above all and he favoured abolition of the army and replacement by a citizens militia. During this period, Laval became familiar with the doctrines of Georges Sorel. In 1909, he turned to the law, shortly after becoming a member of the Paris bar, he married the daughter of a Dr Joseph Claussat and set up a home in Paris with his new wife. Their only child, a daughter called Josée Laval, was born in 1911, Josée married René de Chambrun, whose uncle, Nicholas Longworth III, married Alice Roosevelt, daughter of United States President Theodore Roosevelt. Although Lavals wife came from a family, she never participated in politics. Laval was generally considered to be devoted to his family, the years before the First World War were characterised by labour unrest, and Laval defended strikers, trade unionists, and left-wing agitators against government attempts to prosecute them. At a trade conference, Laval said, I am a comrade among comrades
Pierre Laval
–
(1931)
Pierre Laval
–
Premier Laval is second from left, at a 1931 diplomatic function in Germany
8.
Vichy government
–
Vichy France is the common name of the French State headed by Marshal Philippe Pétain during World War II. In particular, it represents the southern, unoccupied Free Zone that governed the southern part of the country, from 1940 to 1942, while the Vichy regime was the nominal government of France as a whole, Germany militarily occupied northern France. Thus, while Paris remained the de jure capital of France, following the Allied landings in French North Africa in November 1942, southern France was also militarily occupied by Germany and Italy. The Vichy government remained in existence, but as a de facto client and it vanished in late 1944 when the Allies occupied all of France. After being appointed Premier by President Albert Lebrun, Marshal Pétain ordered the French Governments military representatives to sign an armistice with Germany on 22 June 1940, Pétain subsequently established an authoritarian regime when the National Assembly of the French Third Republic granted him full powers on 10 July 1940. At that point, the Third Republic was dissolved, calling for National Regeneration, the French Government at Vichy reversed many liberal policies and began tight supervision of the economy, with central planning a key feature. Labour unions came under government control. The independence of women was reversed, with a put on motherhood. Paris lost its status in European art and culture. The media were tightly controlled and stressed virulent anti-Semitism, and, after June 1941, the French State maintained nominal sovereignty over the whole of French territory, but had effective full sovereignty only in the unoccupied southern zone libre. It had limited and only civil authority in the zones under military occupation. The occupation was to be a state of affairs, pending the conclusion of the war. The French Government at Vichy never joined the Axis alliance, Germany kept two million French soldiers prisoner, carrying out forced labour. They were hostages to ensure that Vichy would reduce its forces and pay a heavy tribute in gold, food. French police were ordered to round up immigrant Jews and other such as communists. Public opinion in some quarters turned against the French government and the occupying German forces over time, when it became clear that Germany was losing the war, and resistance to them increased. Most of the legal French governments leaders at Vichy fled or were subject to show trials by the GPRF, thousands of collaborators were summarily executed by local communists and the Resistance in so-called savage purges. The last of the French State exiles were captured in the Sigmaringen enclave by de Gaulles French 1st Armoured Division in April 1945, in 1940, Marshal Pétain was known as a First World War hero, the victor of the battle of Verdun
Vichy government
–
French prisoners of war are marched off under German guard, 1940
Vichy government
–
Flag
Vichy government
–
Philippe Pétain meeting Hitler in October 1940.
Vichy government
–
French colonial prisoner in German captivity, 1940. Black troops were treated worse than their white compatriots, and some of them were used for German anthropological and medical experiments.
9.
Second World War
–
World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
Second World War
–
Clockwise from top left: Chinese forces in the
Battle of Wanjialing, Australian
25-pounder guns during the
First Battle of El Alamein, German
Stuka dive bombers on the
Eastern Front in December 1943, a U.S. naval force in the
Lingayen Gulf,
Wilhelm Keitel signing the
German Instrument of Surrender, Soviet troops in the
Battle of Stalingrad
Second World War
–
The
League of Nations assembly, held in
Geneva,
Switzerland, 1930
Second World War
–
Adolf Hitler at a German
National Socialist political rally in
Weimar, October 1930
Second World War
–
Italian soldiers recruited in 1935, on their way to fight the
Second Italo-Abyssinian War
10.
French Resistance
–
The Résistance also planned, coordinated, and executed acts of sabotage on the electrical power grid, transport facilities, and telecommunications networks. Estimated to have a strength of 100,000 in June 1944 and this burden amounted to approximately 20 million German reichsmarks per day, a sum that, in May 1940, was approximately equivalent to four hundred million French francs. Because of this overvaluation of German currency, the occupiers were able to make fair and honest requisitions and purchases while, in effect. Prices soared, leading to food shortages and malnutrition, particularly among children, the elderly. The labour shortage was worsened by the fact that a number of the French were also held as prisoners of war in Germany. Beyond these hardships and dislocations, the occupation became increasingly unbearable, onerous regulations, strict censorship, incessant propaganda and nightly curfews all played a role in establishing an atmosphere of fear and repression. The sight of French women consorting with German soldiers infuriated many French men, as reprisals for Résistance activities, the authorities established harsh forms of collective punishment. For example, the militancy of communist resistance in August 1941 led to the taking of thousands of hostages from the general population. A typical policy statement read, After each further incident, a number, reflecting the seriousness of the crime, during the occupation, an estimated 30,000 French civilian hostages were shot to intimidate others who were involved in acts of resistance. In early 1943, the Vichy authorities established a paramilitary group and they worked alongside German forces that, by the end of 1942, were stationed throughout France. The group collaborated closely with the Nazis, and was the Vichy equivalent of the Gestapo security forces in Germany and their actions were often brutal and included torture and execution of Résistance suspects. After the liberation of France in the summer of 1944, the French executed many of the estimated 25,000 to 35,000 miliciens for their collaboration. Many of those who escaped arrest fled to Germany, where they were incorporated into the Charlemagne Division of the Waffen SS, the experience of the Occupation was a deeply psychologically disorienting one for the French as what was once familiar and safe become strange and threatening. Many Parisians could not get over the shock experienced when they first saw the huge swastika flags hanging over the Hôtel de Ville, Many résistants often spoke of some climax when they saw some intolerable act of injustice, after which they could not longer remain passive. Barthelt recalled, I recognized him only by his hat, only by his hat, I tell you and because I was waiting on the roadside to see him pass. I saw his face all right, but there was no skin on it, both his poor eyes had been closed into two purple and yellow bruises. In the beginning, resistance was limited to such as severing phone lines, vandalizing posters. Another form of resistance was underground newspapers like Musée de lHomme which circulated clandestinely, the Musée de lHomme was founded by two professors, Paul Rivet and the Russian émigré Boris Vildé in July 1940
French Resistance
–
French resistance partisans fought alongside
Allied troops to retake their cities.
French Resistance
–
The cemetery and memorial in
Vassieux-en-Vercors where, in July 1944, German
Wehrmacht forces executed more than 200, including women and children, in reprisal for the
Maquis 's armed resistance. The town was later awarded the
Ordre de la Libération.
French Resistance
–
French Resistance fighter Lucien Pélissou's identity document.
French Resistance
–
The ruins of
Oradour-sur-Glane, in the
Limousin region of the
Massif central
11.
Beveridge Report
–
The Report came in the midst of war, and promised a reward for the sacrifices undertaken by everyone. The report was printed by Alabaster Passmore & Sons Limited which kept their factory in Maidstone busy when there was little other printing work available. In 1940, during the Second World War, the Labour Party had entered into a coalition with the Conservative Party, Social insurance is only one part of a comprehensive policy of social progress. The five giants on the road to reconstruction were Want, Disease, Ignorance, Squalor, policies of social security must be achieved by co-operation between the State and the individual, with the state securing the service and contributions. Beveridge was opposed to means-tested benefits and his proposal was for a flat rate contribution rate for everyone and a flat rate benefit for everyone. Means-testing was intended to play a tiny part because it created high marginal tax rates for the poor, inside the Cabinet, there was debate, instigated by Brendan Bracken, on 16 November 1942 over whether to publish the Report as a White Paper at that time. The Chancellor of the Exchequer, Sir Kingsley Wood, said that it involved a financial commitment. However, the Cabinet decided on 26 November to publish it on 2 December and they also found that there was overwhelming agreement that the plan should be put into effect. The Times said of the Report, a document which should and must exercise a profound. The Manchester Guardian called it a big and fine thing, the Daily Telegraph said it was a consummation of the revolution begun by David Lloyd George in 1911. The Archbishop of Canterbury, William Temple, said it was the first time anyone had set out to embody the spirit of the Christian ethic in an Act of Parliament. In the Commons debate the government announced they would not implement the Report immediately, the Tory Reform Committee, consisting of 45 Conservative MPs, demanded the founding of a Ministry of Social Security immediately. At the division at the end of the debate,97 Labour MPs,11 Independents,9 Liberals,3 Independent Labour Party MPs and 1 Communist voted against the government. An opinion poll by the British Institute of Public Opinion found that 29% were satisfied with the attitude to the Report, 47% were dissatisfied. Beveridges recommendation were implemented through a series of acts of parliament, Labour deviated somewhat from Beveridge in the role the state would play in the provision of key services. Labour leaders opposed Beveridges idea of a National Health Service run through local health centres and regional hospital administrations, Beveridge complained about the opposition of Labour leaders, including that of Ernest Bevin, For Ernest Bevin, with his trade-union background of unskilled workers. Social insurance was less important than bargaining about wages, Bevin derided the Beveridge Report as a Social Ambulance Scheme and followed the Coalition Governments view that it should not be implemented until the end of the war. The war years saw improvements in working conditions and welfare provisions
Beveridge Report
–
William Beveridge
12.
William Beveridge
–
William Henry Beveridge, 1st Baron Beveridge KCB was a British economist, noted progressive and social reformer. He is best known for his 1942 report Social Insurance and Allied Services which served as the basis for the post-World War II welfare state put in place by the Labour government elected in 1945. He was Director of the London School of Economics and Political Science from 1919 until 1937, when he was elected Master of University College, Oxford. Beveridge, the eldest son of Henry Beveridge, an Indian Civil Service officer and District Judge and his mother was a member of the Stourbridge Unitarian community who, along with another Unitarian, Elisabeth Malleson, had founded the Working Womens College in Londons Queen Square in 1864. She met and married Henry Beveridge in Calcutta where she had gone in 1873 to open a school for native Indian girls, after leaving university, Beveridge initially became a lawyer. He became interested in the services and wrote about the subject for the Morning Post newspaper. His interest in the causes of unemployment began in 1903 when he worked at Toynbee Hall, churchill invited Beveridge to join the Board of Trade, and he organised the implementation of the national system of labour exchanges and National Insurance to combat unemployment and poverty. During the First World War he was involved in mobilising and controlling manpower, after the war, he was knighted and made permanent secretary to the Ministry of Food. In 1919 he left the service to become director of the London School of Economics. Over the next few years he served on commissions and committees on social policy. He published academic economic works including his work on unemployment. The Fabians made him a director of the LSE in 1919, during his time as Director, he jousted with Edwin Cannan and Lionel Robbins, who were trying to steer the LSE away from its Fabian roots. In 1933 he helped set up the Academic Assistance Council and this helped prominent academics who had been dismissed from their posts on grounds of race, religion or political position to escape Nazi persecution. In 1937, Beveridge was appointed Master of University College, Oxford, three years later, Ernest Bevin, Minister of Labour in the wartime National government, invited Beveridge to take charge of the Welfare department of his Ministry. Beveridge refused, but declared an interest in organising British manpower in wartime, Bevin was reluctant to let Beveridge have his way but did commission him to work on a relatively unimportant manpower survey from June 1940 and so Beveridge became a temporary civil servant. Neither Bevin nor the Permanent Secretary of the Ministry Sir Thomas Phillips liked working with Beveridge as both found him conceited, Beveridge, at first uninterested and seeing the committee as a distraction from his work on manpower, accepted only reluctantly. The Report to the Parliament on Social Insurance and Allied Services was published in 1942 and it proposed that all people of working age should pay a weekly national insurance contribution. In return, benefits would be paid to people who were sick, Beveridge argued that this system would provide a minimum standard of living below which no one should be allowed to fall
William Beveridge
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Lord Beveridge
William Beveridge
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Beveridge at Balliol College in 1898
William Beveridge
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Beveridge in the 1910s.
William Beveridge
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Beveridge talking to an American fighter pilot hospitalised at
University College, Oxford during the
Second World War
13.
Constitution of France
–
The current Constitution of France was adopted on 4 October 1958. It is typically called the Constitution of the Fifth Republic, Charles de Gaulle was the main driving force in introducing the new constitution and inaugurating the Fifth Republic, while the text was drafted by Michel Debré. Since then the constitution has been amended twenty-four times, most recently in 2008 and it provides for the election of the President and the Parliament, the selection of the Government, and the powers of each and the relations between them. It ensures judicial authority and creates a High Court, a Constitutional Council, and it was designed to create a politically strong President. It enables the ratification of treaties and those associated with the European Union. It is unclear whether the wording is compatible with European Union law, the Constitution also sets out methods for its own amendment either by referendum or through a Parliamentary process with Presidential consent. However, president Charles de Gaulle bypassed the legislative procedure in 1962 and directly sent an amendment to a referendum. This was highly controversial at the time, however, the Constitutional Council ruled that since a referendum expressed the will of the sovereign people, on 21 July 2008, Parliament passed constitutional reforms championed by President Nicolas Sarkozy by a margin of two votes. Prior to 1971, though executive, administrative and judicial decisions had to comply with the principles of law. It was assumed that unelected judges and other appointees should not be able to overrule laws voted for by the directly elected French parliament, in practice, the political opposition sends all controversial laws before it. The Constitution defines in Article 89 the rules for amending itself, first, a constitutional bill must be approved by both houses of Parliament. Then, the bill must be approved by the Congress, a joint session of both houses, alternatively, the bill can be submitted to a referendum. This permitted the establishment of an elected presidency, that would otherwise have been vetoed by the Parliament. Article 11 was used for changes for the second and last time in 1969. France has had numerous past constitutions, the ancien régime was an absolute monarchy and lacked a formal constitution, the régime essentially relied on custom. Journal Officiel de la République Française, 9151–9173, lélaboration de la Constitution de la Ve République. Frédéric Monera, Lidée de République et la jurisprudence du Conseil constitutionnel – Paris, martin A. Rogoff, French Constitutional Law, Cases and Materials – Durham, North Carolina, Carolina Academic Press,2010. Texte intégral de la Constitution du 4 octobre 1958 en vigueur, Constitutional council of the French Republic
Constitution of France
–
Constitution of France (1958)
Constitution of France
–
France
14.
French Fourth Republic
–
The French Fourth Republic was the republican government of France between 1946 and 1958, governed by the fourth republican constitution. It was in ways a revival of the Third Republic, which was in place before World War II. France adopted the constitution of the Fourth Republic on 13 October 1946, the greatest accomplishments of the Fourth Republic were in social reform and economic development. In 1946, the government established a social security system that assured unemployment insurance, disability and old-age pensions. Moreover, the government proved unable to make decisions regarding decolonization of the numerous remaining French colonies. After a series of crises, most importantly the Algerian crisis of 1958, wartime leader Charles de Gaulle returned from retirement to preside over a transitional administration which was empowered to design a new French constitution. The Fourth Republic was dissolved by a referendum on 5 October 1958 which established the modern-day Fifth Republic with a strengthened presidency. After the liberation of France in 1944, the Vichy government was dissolved, Charles de Gaulle led the GPRF from 1944 to 1946. Meanwhile, negotiations took place over the new constitution, which was to be put to a referendum. De Gaulle advocated a system of government, and criticized the reinstatement of what he pejoratively called the parties system. He resigned in January 1946 and was replaced by Félix Gouin, the new constituent assembly included 166 MRP deputies,153 PCF deputies and 128 SFIO deputies, giving the tripartite alliance an absolute majority. Georges Bidault replaced Félix Gouin as the head of government, a new draft of the Constitution was written, which this time proposed the establishment of a bicameral form of government. Léon Blum headed the GPRF from 1946 to 1947, after a new legislative election in June 1946, the Christian democrat Georges Bidault assumed leadership of the Cabinet. This culminated in the establishment in the year of the Fourth Republic. The President of the Republic was given a symbolic role, although he remained chief of the French Army. The wartime damage was extensive and expectations of large reparations from defeated Germany largely failed, the United States helped revive the French economy with the Marshall Plan, 1948-1951, whereby it gave France $2.3 billion with no repayment. France was the second largest recipient after Britain, the total of all American grants and credits to France from 1946 to 1953, amounted to $4.9 billion. The terms of the Marshall Plan required a modernization of French industrial and managerial systems, free trade, after the expulsion of the Communists from the governing coalition, France joined the Cold War against Stalin, as expressed by becoming a founding member of NATO in April 1949
French Fourth Republic
–
Flag
15.
Universal health care
–
Universal health care is not one-size-fits-all and does not imply coverage for all people for everything. Universal health care can be determined by three dimensions, who is covered, what services are covered, and how much of the cost is covered. It is described by the World Health Organization as a situation where citizens can access health services without incurring financial hardship, U. N. member states have agreed to work toward universal health coverage by 2030. The first move towards a health insurance system was launched in Germany in 1883. Other countries soon began to follow suit, in the United Kingdom, the National Insurance Act 1911 provided coverage for primary care for wage earners, covering about one third of the population. The Russian Empire established a system in 1912, and other industrialized countries began following suit. By the 1930s, similar systems existed in all of Western. Japan introduced a health insurance law in 1927, expanding further upon it in 1935 and 1940. Following the Russian Revolution of 1917, the Soviet Union established a fully public, however, it was not a truly universal system at that point, as rural residents were not covered. In New Zealand, a health care system was created in a series of steps. In Australia, the state of Queensland introduced a public hospital system in the 1940s. Following World War II, universal health care began to be set up around the world. On July 5,1948, the United Kingdom launched its universal National Health Service, Universal health care was next introduced in the Nordic countries of Sweden, Iceland, Norway, Denmark, and Finland. Universal health insurance was introduced in Japan, and in Canada through stages, starting with the province of Saskatchewan in 1962. The Soviet Union extended universal health care to its residents in 1969. Italy introduced its Servizio Sanitario Nazionale in 1978, Universal health insurance was implemented in Australia beginning with the Medibank system in 1975, which led to universal coverage under the Medicare system, established in 1984. From the 1970s to the 2000s, Southern and Western European countries began introducing universal coverage, in addition, universal health coverage was introduced in some Asian countries, including South Korea, Taiwan, Israel, and Thailand. Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, Russia retained and reformed its universal health system, as did other former Soviet nations
Universal health care
–
58 countries with legislation mandating Universal Health Care, along with >90% health insurance coverage and >90% skilled birth attendance.
16.
Great Recession
–
The Great Recession was a period of general economic decline observed in world markets during the late 2000s and early 2010s. The scale and timing of the recession varied from country to country, in terms of overall impact, the International Monetary Fund concluded that it was the worst global recession since World War II. According to the US National Bureau of Economic Research the recession, as experienced in that country, began in December 2007 and ended in June 2009, the Great Recession was related to the financial crisis of 2007–08 and U. S. subprime mortgage crisis of 2007–09. The Great Recession has resulted in the scarcity of valuable assets in the market economy, under the academic definition, the recession ended in the United States in June or July 2009. In the broader, lay sense of the word however, many use the term to refer to ongoing hardship. The Great Recession met the IMF criteria for being a recession, requiring a decline in annual real world GDP per‑capita. According to the U. S. National Bureau of Economic Research the recession began in December 2007 and ended in June 2009, the years leading up to the crisis were characterized by an exorbitant rise in asset prices and associated boom in economic demand. Further, the U. S. shadow banking system had grown to rival the depository system yet was not subject to the regulatory oversight. US mortgage-backed securities, which had risks that were hard to assess, were marketed around the world, the emergence of sub-prime loan losses in 2007 began the crisis and exposed other risky loans and over-inflated asset prices. With loan losses mounting and the fall of Lehman Brothers on 15 September 2008, the global recession that followed resulted in a sharp drop in international trade, rising unemployment and slumping commodity prices. Several economists predicted that recovery might not appear until 2011 and that the recession would be the worst since the Great Depression of the 1930s, Economist Paul Krugman once commented on this as seemingly the beginning of a second Great Depression. Governments and central banks responded with fiscal and monetary policies to national economies. The recession has renewed interest in Keynesian economic ideas on how to combat recessionary conditions, economists advise that the stimulus should be withdrawn as soon as the economies recover enough to chart a path to sustainable growth. Income inequality in the United States has grown from 2005 to 2012 in more than 2 out of 3 metropolitan areas, median household wealth fell 35% in the US, from $106,591 to $68,839 between 2005 and 2011. The majority report of the U. S, Financial Crisis Inquiry Commission, composed of six Democratic and four Republican appointees, reported its findings in January 2011. There were two Republican dissenting FCIC reports, one of them, signed by three Republican appointees, concluded that there were multiple causes. He wrote, When the bubble began to deflate in mid-2007, There are several narratives attempting to place the causes of the recession into context, with overlapping elements. Four such narratives include, There was the equivalent of a run on the shadow banking system
Great Recession
–
Relationship between fiscal tightening (austerity) in
Eurozone countries with their GDP growth rate, 2008–2012
Great Recession
–
The great asset bubble: 1. Central banks' gold reserves: $0.845 trillion. 2. M0 (paper money): $3.9 trillion. 3. Traditional (fractional reserve) banking assets: $39 trillion. 4. Shadow banking assets: $62 trillion. 5. Other assets: $290 trillion. 6. Bail-out money (early 2009): $1.9 trillion.
17.
Marisol Touraine
–
Marisol Touraine is a French politician. She serves as Minister of Social Affairs and Health under Prime Minister Jean-Marc Ayrault, Prime Minister Manuel Valls, Marisol Touraine was born on 7 March 1959 in Paris. She graduated from the Institut dÉtudes Politiques de Paris and she studied at the École Normale Supérieure, where she specialised in economic and social issues. She also attended Harvard University but did not receive a degree and she served as a member of the National Assembly of France for Indre-et-Loire from 1997 to 2002 for the Socialiste, radical, citoyen et divers gauche political party. She was defeated in the round in 2002 by Jean-Jacques Descamps. She regained the district in June 2007 with a small majority and she has been counselor general for Indre-et-Loire since 2001. She served as Vice-President of the General Council of Indre-et-Loire from 2008 to 2011, and as its President from 2011 to 2012 and she has served as General councillor of Indre-et-Loire since 1998, having been re-elected in 2004 and in 2011. On 16 May 2012, Touraine was named by Prime Minister of France Jean-Marc Ayrault as Minister of Health, the designation was accepted by President of France François Hollande, in line with tradition. On October 2012, Touraine announced that trial centres could open in 2012 in France for drug addicts to safely inject their own drugs and this measure has been met with criticism coming from both the opposition and members of the majority. She entered into negotiations with doctors and health insurance professional organisations to limit the prices of medical assistance. In 2009, she belonged to the Future of Health Club, a group funded by GlaxoSmithKline. She is the daughter of French sociologist Alain Touraine and Chilean academic Adriana Arenas Pizarro and she has a brother, Philippe, who is professor of endocrinology. She is also first cousin of Alberto Arenas, Chiles Budget Director during Michelle Bachelets presidency and she is married to diplomat Michel Reveyrand de Menthon, who is currently French ambassador to Chad. She is a mother of three, in September 2013, Touraines elder son was sentenced to three years imprisonment for extortion and sequestration. Her biographical page on the web site of the National Assembly Marisol Touraines blog
Marisol Touraine
–
Marisol Touraine
18.
Banque de France
–
The Bank of France known in French as the Banque de France, headquartered in Paris, is the central bank of France, it is linked to the European Central Bank. Founded in 1800, it helped resolve the crisis of 1848. Its main charge is to implement the interest rate policy of the European System of Central Banks. In 1800, financial power in France was in the hands of ten to fifteen banking houses whose founders, in most cases. These bankers, mostly Protestant, were involved in the agitations leading up to the French Revolution. When the revolutionary violence got out of hand, they orchestrated the rise of Napoleon, as a reward for their support, Napoleon, in 1800, gave the bankers a monopoly over French finance by giving them control of the new Bank of France. For the first fifteen years it was the issuer of bank notes in Paris, and this privilege was extended to other financially important towns. On 1 June 1998, a new institution was created, the European Central Bank, the body formed by the ECB, and the national central banks of all the member states of the European Union, constitute the European System of Central Banks. The ESCB is a framework of a single monetary policy for the euro. According to the Bank of Frances website, the sharing of responsibilities between the ECB and the NCBs is based upon significant decentralization of the conduct of the ESCBs single monetary policy,22 April 1806, a new law replaced the Central Committee with a Governor and two Deputy Governors. All three were appointed by the Emperor, decree dated 16 January 1808 set out the Basic Statutes, which were to govern the Banks operations until 1936. Decree on 6 March 1808 authorized the Bank to purchase the mansion of the Count of Toulouse in the rue de la Vrillière in Paris for its headquarters. This reform cleared the path for the European monetary union, economy of France Euro French franc Governor of the Bank de France Bouvier, Jean. The Banque de France and the State from 1850 to the Present Day, in Fausto Vicarelli, et al. eds. Central banks independence in historical perspective pp 73–104, crises et Apprentissage, La Banque de France en 1848, Entreprises et Histoire Issue 69, pp 27–37 Plessis, Alain. The history of banks in France, in Pohl, Manfred, and Sabine Freitag, eds. Handbook on the history of European banks pp, 185-296, online Official site of Bank of France Beginnings of Banque de France The directors of Bank of France between 1800 and 1815
Banque de France
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ATM of the Banque de France in
Paris.
Banque de France
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Headquarters:
Hôtel de Toulouse in
Paris
19.
Paris Chamber of Commerce
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The Paris Chamber of Commerce is a chamber of commerce of the Paris region. It defends the interests of companies of the city of Paris, since 2013 it has been a division of the Paris Île-de-France Regional Chamber of Commerce and Industry. The CCIP was created on 25 February 1803 by Napoleon and is the successor to the Guilds of the Ancien Régime and it was initially located in the préfecture, before transferring to the building now occupied by the Paris Bourse, and then to the Hôtel Potocki. On 1 January 2013 the Paris Île-de-France Regional Chamber of Commerce and Industry was created, combining eight chambers of commerce of the area in, the merger brought together the six departmental CCI and the two territorial CCI. On 1 January 2013 the CCI départementale de Paris was created as a division of the CCI de région Paris Ile-de-France and it has its headquarters at 2 Place de la Bourse and provides operational services at the Bourse de commerce. As of 2015 there were 36 elected officials and a staff of 125 people, the CCI Paris acts as an advocate for business in Paris, and provides support to company creators, marketers and business leaders. The Paris Chamber of Commerce owns many of the citys leading Grandes écoles, the Chambers full list includes many of Frances most famous graduate business schools and engineering schools. Some of the known schools include, École Supérieure dIngénieurs en Électronique et Électrotechnique ESCP Europe HEC Paris ISTM Institut Supérieur de Technologie et de Management
Paris Chamber of Commerce
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Chamber of Commerce, Place de la Bourse
20.
Senate of France
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The Senate is the upper house of the Parliament of France, presided over by a president. Indirectly elected by elected officials, it represents territorial collectivities of the Republic, the Senate enjoys less prominence than the lower house, the directly elected National Assembly, debates in the Senate tend to be less tense and generally receive less media coverage. Frances first experience with a house was under the Directory from 1795 to 1799. With the Restoration in 1814, a new Chamber of Peers was created, at first it contained hereditary peers, but following the July Revolution of 1830, it became a body to which one was appointed for life. The Second Republic returned to a system after 1848, but soon after the establishment of the Second French Empire in 1852. In the Fourth Republic, the Senate was replaced by the Council of the Republic, with the new constitution of the Fifth Republic enforced on 4 October 1958, the older name of Senate was restored. In 2011, the Socialist Party won control of the French Senate for the first time since the foundation of the French Fifth Republic, in 2014, the centre-right Gaullists and its allies won back the control of the Senate. Until September 2004, the Senate had 321 senators, each elected to a nine-year term and that month, the term was reduced to six years, while the number of senators progressively increased to 348 in 2011, in order to reflect the countrys population growth. Senators were elected in every three years, this was also changed to one-half of their number every three years. Senators are elected indirectly by approximately 150,000 officials, including regional councilors, department councilors, mayors, city councilors in large towns, however, 90% of the electors are delegates appointed by councilors. This system introduces a bias in the composition of the Senate favoring rural areas, the Senate has also been accused of being a refuge for politicians that have lost their seats in the National Assembly. The senators elect a President from among their members, the current incumbent is Gérard Larcher. This happened twice for Alain Poher—once at the resignation of Charles de Gaulle, under the Constitution, the Senate has nearly the same powers as the National Assembly. Bills may be submitted by the administration or by either house of Parliament, because both houses may amend the bill, it may take several readings to reach an agreement between the National Assembly and the Senate. This does not happen frequently, usually the two eventually agree on the bill, or the administration decides to withdraw it. The power to pass a vote of censure, or vote of no confidence, is limited, as was the case in the Fourth Republics constitution, new cabinets do not have to receive a vote of confidence. Also, a vote of censure can occur only after 10 percent of the sign a petition, if rejected. If the petition gets the support, a vote of censure must gain an absolute majority of all members
Senate of France
Senate of France
–
Senate Sénat
Senate of France
–
The Palais du Luxembourg
21.
National Assembly of France
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The National Assembly is the lower house of the bicameral Parliament of France under the Fifth Republic. The upper house is the Senate, the National Assemblys members are known as députés. There are 577 députés, each elected by a constituency through a two-round voting system. Thus,289 seats are required for a majority, the assembly is presided over by a president, normally from the largest party represented, assisted by vice-presidents from across the represented political spectrum. The term of the National Assembly is five years, however and it is guarded by Republican Guards. The Constitution of the French Fifth Republic greatly increased the power of the executive at the expense of Parliament, the President of the Republic can decide to dissolve the National Assembly and call for new legislative elections. This is meant as a way to resolve stalemates where the Assembly cannot decide on a political direction. The National Assembly can overthrow the government by a vote of no confidence. For this reason, the minister and his cabinet are necessarily from the dominant party or coalition in the assembly. The Government used to set the priorities of the agenda for the Assemblys sessions and this, however, was amended on 23 July 2008. Under the amended constitution, the Government sets the priorities for two weeks in a month, another week is designated for the Assemblys control prerogatives. And the fourth one is set by the Assembly, also, one day per month is set by a minority or opposition group. Members of the assembly can ask written or oral questions to ministers, the Wednesday afternoon 3 p. m. session of questions to the Government is broadcast live on television. Like Prime Ministers Questions in Britain, it is largely a show for the viewers, with members of the majority asking flattering questions, while the opposition tries to embarrass the government. Since 1988, the 577 deputies are elected by universal suffrage with a two-round system by constituency, for a five-year mandate. The constituencies each have approximately 100,000 inhabitants, however, districts were not redrawn between 1982 and 2009. As a result of population movements over that period, there were inequalities between the less populous rural districts and the urban districts, the constituencies were redrawn in 2009, but this redistribution was controversial. Among other controversial measures, it created eleven constituencies and seats for French residents overseas, albeit without increasing the overall number of seats beyond 577
National Assembly of France
National Assembly of France
–
National Assembly Assemblée Nationale
National Assembly of France
–
Jacques Chaban-Delmas was three times President of the Assembly between 1958 and 1988.
National Assembly of France
–
The
Palais Bourbon, where the National Assembly meets
22.
Health care in France
–
The French health care system is one of universal health care largely financed by government national health insurance. In its 2000 assessment of health care systems, the World Health Organization found that France provided the close to best overall health care in the world. In 2011, France spent 11. 6% of GDP on health care, or US$4,086 per capita, approximately 77% of health expenditures are covered by government funded agencies. Most general physicians are in practice but draw their income from the public insurance funds. These funds, unlike their German counterparts, have never gained self-management responsibility, instead, the government has taken responsibility for the financial and operational management of health insurance. The French government generally refunds patients 70% of most health care costs, supplemental coverage may be bought from private insurers, most of them nonprofit, mutual insurers. Only about 3. 7% of hospital treatment costs are reimbursed through private insurance, there are public hospitals, non-profit independent hospitals, as well as private for-profit hospitals. France 1871–1914 followed well behind Bismarckian Germany, as well as Great Britain, in developing the state including public health. Tuberculosis was the most dreaded disease of the day, especially striking young people in their 20s, Germany set up vigorous measures of public hygiene and public sanatoria, but France let private physicians handle the problem, which left it with a much higher death rate. The French medical profession jealously guarded its prerogatives, and public health activists were not as organized or as influential as in Germany. However the reformers met opposition from bureaucrats, politicians, and physicians, because it was so threatening to so many interests, the proposal was debated and postponed for 20 years before becoming law in 1902. Success finally came when the government realized that contagious diseases had a national security impact in weakening military recruits, the current system has undergone several changes since its foundation in 1945, though the basis of the system remains state planned and operated. Jean de Kervasdoué, a health economist, believes that French medicine is of quality and is the only credible alternative to the Americanization of world medicine. According to Kervasdoué, Frances surgeons, clinicians, psychiatrists, however, despite this, Kervasdoué criticizes the fact that hospitals must comply with 43 bodies of regulation and the nit-picking bureaucracy that can be found in the system. Kervasdoué believes that the state too much in regulating the daily functions of French hospitals. Furthermore, Japan, Sweden, and the Netherlands have health care systems with performance to that of Frances. According to various experts, the state of the French social security systems finances is causing the growth of Frances health care expenses. The entire population must pay compulsory health insurance, the insurers are non-profit agencies that annually participate in negotiations with the state regarding the overall funding of health care in France
Health care in France
–
The reduction in
infant mortality between 1960 and 2008 for France in comparison with Ireland, Switzerland, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and the United States.
Health care in France
–
Total health spending per capita, in U.S. dollars
PPP-adjusted, of France compared amongst various other first world nations.
Health care in France
–
Private Ambulance in Pontarlier
Health care in France
–
Total health spending as a percentage of GDP for France compared amongst various other first world nations from 2005 to 2008
23.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
International Standard Book Number
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A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an
EAN-13 bar code
